Math 320, Real Analysis I

Solutions to Homework 1 Problems

Exercise 1.3.4. Assume that A and B are nonempty, bounded above, and satisfy B A. Show that sup B sup A. Proof. Let A and B be nonempty subsets of R that are bounded above and satisfy B A. By the Axiom of Completeness, we know that both = sup A and = sup B exist. We now claim that . We claim that is an upper bound for the set B . Let b B be arbitary. Since B A, it follows that for all x B , we also have x A. Thus, for our element b B , we have b A as well. Yet = sup A is, by Part (i) of the denition of least upper bound, an upper bound for the set A. That is, for all a A, we have a . Hence, for this element b A, we have b . Therefore, since b B is arbitrary, it follows that b for all b B . Thus is an upper bound for the set B . Thus, by Part (ii) of the denition of least upper bound, = sup B must be less than or equal to , so sup B = = sup A, which is what we wanted to show.

Exercise 1.3.7. Prove that if a is an upper bound for A, and if a is also an element of A, then it must be that a = sup A. Proof. Suppose that a R is an upper bound for the set A and that a is an element of A. Therefore, as a A, the set A is a nonempty subset of R that is bounded above, so sup A exists by the Axiom of Completeness. By denition, sup A is the unique real number s satisfying the following two conditions: (i) s is an upper bound for A; (ii) If b is any upper bound for A, we have s b. By hypothesis, the number a is an upper bound for A, so a satises Part (i) of the denition of least upper bound. It remains to show that a also satises Part (ii). Hence, suppose b is an upper bound for the set A. Thus, for all x A, we have x b by denition of upper bound. In particular, as a is an element of A, it follows that a b since b is an upper bound of A. Thus, a is an upper bound for the set A such that, for all upper bounds b of A, a b, so a = sup A.

Exercise 1.3.8. If sup A < sup B , then show that there exists an element b B that is an upper bound for A. Proof. Suppose A and B are nonempty subsets of R that are bounded above, and assume that sup A < sup B . Set = sup A and = sup B . As < , we have = > 0. Hence, by Lemma 1.3.7., there is an element b B such that b > = ( ) = . We claim that this element b B is an upper bound for the set A. Let a A be arbitrary. As is an upper bound for A, we know a . Therefore, since b > , we have a < b, so a < b for all a A since a was arbitrary. Thus b B is an upper bound for the set A. Exercise 1.4.6. (a) Finish the proof of Theorem 1.4.5 by showing that the assumption 2 > 2 leads to a contradiction of the fact that = sup T .

Math 320, Real Analysis I

Solutions to Homework 1 Problems

Proof. Lets begin by recalling the notation and denitions that have been made up to this point in the proof of Theorem 1.4.5. First, we dene the set T = {x R : x2 < 2}, which is nonempty and bounded above. Then, by the Axiom of Completeness, put = sup T . We have already seen that 2 < 2 contradicts that is an upper bound for the set T . We claim that the assumption 2 > 2 will contradict that is the least upper bound of T . So let us suppose, for the sake of contradiction, that 2 > 2. Thus 2 2 > 0, so the real 2 2 number is strictly positive, for we know that 1 T . By the Archimedean 2 Property, we may select a natural number n1 N such that 1 2 2 < . n1 2 With this n1 N, we claim that the real number = than , satises 2 > 2 as well. To see this, consider =
2

1 , which is strictly smaller n1 2 2 2

1 n1

= 2

2 1 + > 2 2 n1 n2 1

1 n1

> 2 2

= 2 2 2 = 2,

as we claimed. However, taking = satisfying t > =

1 = , so n1

1 > 0, by Lemma 1.3.7., there is an element t T n1

2 > t2 > 2 > 2, which is clearly impossible. Hence, our assumption that 2 > 2 leads to a contradiction, so it must be false. Therefore, neither 2 < 2 nor 2 > 2 can be true, so we conclude that 2 = 2. (b) Modify this argument to prove the existence of Proof. Let b 0 be arbitrary. Dene the set Tb = {x R : x2 b}, which is a nonempty subset of R since 0 Tb . Moreover, Tb is bounded above by, for instance, the number y = b + 1 1, for if x > y , then x2 > y 2 = (b + 1)2 = b2 + 2b + 1 = b + (b2 + b + 1) > b, so x Tb . Therefore, by the Axiom of Completeness, Tb has a least upper bound, so let = sup Tb . We claim that 2 = b, which we will prove by contradiction. b 2 is strictly positive. First, suppose 2 < b. Then b 2 > 0, so the real number 2 + 1 Therefore, by the Archimedean Property, select a natural number n0 N such that 1 b 2 1 < and consider the number z = + > . In particular, compute n0 2 + 1 n0 z2 = + 1 n0
2

b for any real number b 0.

= 2+

2 1 2 1 2 + 1 + 2 2+ + = 2+ < 2 +[2 +1] n0 n0 n0 n0 n0

b 2 2 + 1

= b.

Math 320, Real Analysis I

Solutions to Homework 1 Problems

1 > and is an upper bound for Tb , so z Tb . n0 This is a contradiction, so it follows that 2 cannot be strictly less than b. 2 b Now assume that 2 > b and consider the positive real number > 0. Once more, 2 2 b 1 < by the Archimedean Property, take a natural number n1 N such that and n1 2 1 < . In particular, consider the real number w = n1 Thus z 2 < b, so z Tb . Yet z = + w2 = 1 n1
2

= 2

2 1 2 2 + n1 n2 1

1 n1

> 2 2

2 b 2

= 2 2 b = b,

so w2 > b. Yet, for =

1 = w by Lemma 1.3.7. Therefore, b t2 > w2 > b, which is impossible (for b > b n1 is absurd), so our assumption that 2 > b is likewise ridiculous. Thus, as neither 2 < b nor 2 > b can be true, the only remaining option, which is 2 = b, must be valid. Therefore, the number R is a real number whose square is b, so b exists in R for every real number b 0.

1 > 0, there is an element t Tb such that t > = n1

Exercise 1.4.12. A real number x R is called algebraic if there exists integers a0 , a1 , a2 , . . . , an Z, not all zero, such that an xn + an1 xn1 + + a1 x + a0 = 0. Said another way, a real number is algebraic if it is the root of a polynomial with integer coecients. Real numbers that are not algebraic are called transcendental numbers. (a) Show that 2, 3 2 and 3 + 2 are algebraic. Solution: The number 2 is algebraic for it is obviously a root of the polynomial x2 2, which has integer coecients that are not all zero. Similarly, 3 2 is algebraic, as it is clearly a root of the polynomial x3 2, which has integer coecients that are not all zero. Finally, 3 + 2 is a root of the polynomial x4 10x2 + 1, for if x = 3 + 2 then x2 = 3 + 2 6 + 2, so x2 5 = 2 6, which implies that x4 10x2 + 25 = 24 or x4 10x2 + 1 = 0. (b) Fix n N, and let An be the algebraic numbers obtained as roots of polynomials with integer coecients that have degree n. Using the fact that every polynomial has a nite number of roots, show that An is countable. Proof. Let n N be xed and dene An to be the set of all algebraic numbers that are obtained as roots of polynomials with integer coecients that have degree n. Now dene, for each natural number m N, the subsets An,m consisting of all algebraic numbers in An that are roots of polynomials an xn + an1 xn1 + + a1 x + a0 with the coecients an , an1 , . . . , a1 , a0 Z satisfying the inequality |an | + |an1 | + + |a1 | + |a0 | m. We rst observe that each |aj | 0, for j = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n, so m n i=0 |ai | |aj | for each j = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n. This implies that the only possible values for the coecient aj are the

Math 320, Real Analysis I

Solutions to Homework 1 Problems

integers m, m + 1, m + 2, . . . , 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . . , m, so there are at most 2m + 1 choices for the value of aj and there are n + 1 coecients a0 , a1 , . . . , an that must be chosen in order to specify a polynomial. Thus, there are no more than (n + 1)(2m + 1) polynomials with integer coecients that satisfy the inequality |an | + |an1 | + + |a1 | + |a0 | m. For each such polynomial, which has degree n, there are at most n distinct roots. Therefore, the set An,m of all roots of polynomials with integer coecients an , an1 , . . . , a1 , a0 Z satisfying n i=0 |ai | m has cardinality less than or equal to n[(n + 1)(2m + 1)]. In particular, the set An,m is nite. Yet, the set An of all algebraic numbers obtained as roots of polynomials with integer coecients that have degree n is the union of the sets An,m as we allow m N to vary. That is,

An =
m=1

An,m ,

so An is the countable union of nite sets, which implies that An is itself countable. (c) Argue that the set of algebraic numbers is countable. Proof. We claim that the set A of all algebraic real numbers is the union of the sets An above, i.e.,

A=
n=1

An .

For, if A is an algebraic number, then there is a polynomial p with integer coecients of which is a root. If d is the degree of the polynomial p, then it follows that Ad by denition of the set Ad . Therefore An , so A n=1 An since was arbitrary. Now suppose An . Then there is some k N for which Ak , which means there is a polynomial with integer coecients of degree k such that is a root of this polynomial. Therefore is the root of some polynomial with integer coecients, so is an algebraic number. Hence A, so n=1 An A since the number was arbitrary in An . Therefore, we have shown that A = n=1 An as we claimed. Now, each set An is countable by Part (b), so A = n=1 An is the countable union of countable sets, which is again countable by Theorem 1.4.13.(ii). That is, the set of algebraic numbers is countable. Question: What may we conclude about the set of transcendental numbers? Solution: If the set of transcendental numbers is countable, then the union of the set of algebraic numbers with the set of transcendental numbers would be the nite union of countable sets, which is again countable by Theorem 1.4.13.(i). However, the union of the set of algebraic numbers with the set of transcendental numbers is the set of all real numbers, and we know that R is an uncountable set. Therefore, we must conclude that either the set of algebraic numbers is uncountable or the set of transcendental numbers is uncountable. By Part (b), we have shown that A is countable, so we may conclude that the set of transcendental numbers is uncountable. Note: This implies that transcendental numbers exist, even though it doesnt tell us how to nd them or provide any examples of them. However, we do already know two examples of transcendental numbers: e and are both transcendental.