Professional Documents
Culture Documents
SECOND EDITION
by
All rights reserved. This book or any part thereof may not be
reproduced in any form without the written permission of the
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute.
ISBN 0--937040--57--6
Printed in U.S.A.
INTRODUCTION
Purpose of Manual
The application and design of precast, prestressed hollow core slabs is similar to that of other pre-
stressed members. However, there are situations which are unique to hollow core slabs either be-
cause of the way the slabs are produced or because of the application of the slabs.
For special situations, hollow core producers have developed design criteria and conducted in-
house testing to verify that their approaches are valid. In fact, there is consistency between the many
types of hollow core slabs available. The purpose of this manual is to bring together those things that
are common, that are verified by test and that can be universally applied to hollow core slabs. Be-
cause there are differences, some topics covered will also point to the differences where closer coor-
dination with the local producer is required.
This manual was prepared by Computerized Structural Design, S.C., Milwaukee, Wisconsin with
input and direction from the PCI Hollow Core Slab Producers Committee. Additionally, the fire and
acoustical sections were prepared by Armand Gustaferro of The Consulting Engineers Group, Inc.,
Mt. Prospect, Illinois and Allen H. Shiner of Shiner and Associates, Inc., Skokie, Illinois, respective-
ly. All reasonable care has been used to verify the accuracy of material contained in this manual.
However, the manual should be used only by those experienced in structural design and should not
replace good structural engineering judgment.
Scope of Manual
This document is intended to cover the primary design requirements for hollow core floor and
roof systems. In instances where the design is no different than for other prestressed members, the
PCI Design Handbook and the ACI Building Code should be consulted for more in-depth discussion.
For the architect or consulting engineer, this manual is intended as a guideline for working with
hollow core slabs, a guide for the use and application of hollow core slabs and an indication of some
of the limitations of hollow core slabs. For the plant engineer, the manual will hopefully present
some backup and reference material for dealing with everyday design problems.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction
Notation
Chapter 8 -- Guide Specification for Precast, Prestressed Hollow Core Slabs . . . . . . . . . . 8--1
References
Index
NOTATION
1.1 Methods of Manufacturing long. Slabs are then sawcut to the appropriate
A hollow core slab is a precast, prestressed con- length for the intended project.
crete member with continuous voids provided to The economy of the generalized hollow core
reduce weight and, therefore, cost and, as a side system is in the quantity of slabs that can be pro-
benefit, to use for concealed electrical or mechan- duced at a given time with a minimum of labor re-
ical runs. Primarily used as floor or roof deck sys- quired. Each slab on a given casting line will have
tems, hollow core slabs also have applications as the same number of prestressing strands. There-
wall panels, spandrel members and bridge deck fore, the greatest production efficiency is obtained
units. by mixing slabs with the same reinforcing re-
An understanding of the methods used to quirements from several projects on a single pro-
manufacture hollow core slabs will aid in the spe- duction line. This implies that best efficiency for a
cial considerations sometimes required in the use single project is obtained if slab requirements are
of hollow core slabs. Hollow core slabs are cast repetitive.
using various methods in the seven major systems 1.2 Materials
available today. Because each production system As stated previously, hollow core slabs are pro-
is patented, producers are usually set up on a fran- duced with two basic concrete mixes; low slump
chise or license basis using the background, and normal slump concrete. For the low slump
knowledge and expertise provided with the ma- concretes, water content is limited to slightly
chine development. Each producer then has the more than that required for cement hydration.
technical support of a large network of associated Water-cement ratios are typically about 0.3. Mix-
producers. ing is critical because the limited water available
Two basic manufacturing methods are current- must be well dispersed in the mix. Water reducing
ly in use for the production of hollow core slabs. admixtures can be used to optimize a mix by re-
One is a dry cast or extrusion system where a very ducing cement and water requirements while still
low slump concrete is forced through the ma- retaining adequate workability for proper com-
chine. The cores are formed with augers or tubes paction of the concrete by the machine. Air en-
with the concrete being compacted around the trainment admixtures are not effective in the dry
cores. The second system uses a higher slump mix concrete. With the low water-cement ratios
concrete. Sides are formed either with stationary, and compaction placing method, air is difficult to
fixed forms or with forms attached to the machine disperse well and maintain.
with the sides being slip formed. The cores in the
Table 1.1 Hollow Core Systems
normal slump, or wet cast, systems are formed
with either lightweight aggregate fed through Manufac- Machine Concrete Core Form
tubes attached to the casting machine, pneumatic turer Type Type/Slump
tubes anchored in a fixed form or long tubes at- Dy-Core Extruder Dry/Low Tubes
tached to the casting machine which slip form the Dynaspan Slip Form Wet/Normal Tubes
cores. Elematic Extruder Dry/Low Auger/Tube
Table 1.1 lists the seven major hollow core sys- Flexicore Fixed Form Wet/Normal Pneumatic
tems available today along with the basic in- Tubes
formation on the casting technique. Various Spancrete Slip Form Dry/Low Tubes
names may be used by local licensees to describe SpanDeck Slip Form Wet/Normal Filler
the same products. In most cases, the slabs are aggregate
cast on long line beds, normally 300 ft to 600 ft Ultra-Span Extruder Dry/Low Augers
1--1
The wet cast products (those cast with normal
slump concrete), have water-cement ratios in the
range of 0.4 to 0.45. Depending on the slip form-
ing system used, slumps of 2 to 5 inches (50 - 130
mm) are used. The mix design and use of admix-
tures is dependent on achieving a mix that will
hold its shape consistent with the forming tech-
nique used.
Aggregates vary in the various manufacturing
processes depending on what type is locally avail-
able. Maximum aggregate size larger than pea
gravel is rarely used because of the confined areas
Latex feathering ready for direct carpet application
into which concrete must be placed. Light weight
aggregates are occasionally used to reduce the
weight of the sections and to achieve a significant
reduction in required equivalent thickness in a fire
rated application. Concrete unit weights ranging
from 110 to 150 pcf (1760 - 2400 kg/m3) are used
in the industry.
Strand use in hollow core slabs includes about
every size and type of strand produced depending
on what is available to a particular producer. The
trend is toward primary use of the larger 1/2 in (13
mm) diameter, low relaxation strand. The philos-
ophy of strand use varies from using many strand
sizes to optimize cost for a given project to using
only one or two strand sizes for simplicity of in-
ventory and production.
Except for special situations, keyway grout is
normally a sand and Portland cement mixture in
proportions of about 3:1. The amount of water
used is a function of the method used to place the
grout but will generally result in a wet mix so key-
Acoustical spray on exposed slab ceiling
ways may be easily filled. Shrinkage cracks may
occur in the keyways, but configuration of the key
is such that vertical load transfer can still occur
with the presence of a shrinkage crack. Rarely is
grout strength required in excess of 2000 psi (13.8
MPa) for vertical load transfer.
Although it is discouraged, non-shrink, non-
staining grout is occasionally specified for use in
keyways. In evaluating the potential benefits of
non-shrink grout, the volume of grout must be
compared to the overall volume of concrete in the
slabs and support materials. Because the size of
the keyway is small in relation to a floor or roof as-
sembly of slabs, total shrinkage will be affected
Electrical and HVAC application only to a minor degree. Shrinkage cracks can still
1--2
occur in the keyways and there is little benefit to acteristics associated with concrete. The Sound
be gained in comparison with the additional cost. Transmission Class rating ranges from about 47 to
57 without topping and the Impact Insulation
1.3 Advantages of Hollow Core Slabs Class rating starts at about 23 for a plain slab and
Hollow core slabs are most widely known for may be increased to over 70 with the addition of
providing economical, efficient floor and roof carpeting and padding. Detailed information on
systems. The top surface can be prepared for the the acoustical properties of hollow core slabs is
installation of a floor covering by feathering the presented in Chapter 7.
joints with a latex cement, installing non-structur-
al fill concretes ranging from 1/2 in to 2 in (13 - 51 1.4 Framing Concepts
mm) thick depending on the material used, or by The primary consideration in developing a
casting a composite structural concrete topping. framing scheme using hollow core slabs is the
The underside can be used as a finished ceiling as span length. For a given loading and fire endur-
installed, by painting, or by applying an acoustical ance rating, span length and slab thickness may be
spray. optimized by consulting a producer’s published
When properly coordinated for alignment, the load tables. Section 1.7 presents sample load
voids in a hollow core slab may be used for electri- tables and instructions for the use of the tables.
cal or mechanical runs. For example, routing of a The PCI Design Handbook1 recommends limits
lighting circuit through the cores can allow fix- on span-depth ratios for the hollow core slabs. For
tures in an exposed slab ceiling without unsightly roof slabs, a span-depth ratio limit of 50 is sug-
surface mounted conduit. Slabs used as the heated gested and for floor slabs, a limit of 40 is sug-
mass in a passive solar application can be detailed gested. In practice, a span-depth ratio of 45 is
to distribute the heated air through the cores. common for floors and roofs when fire endurance,
Structurally, a hollow core slab provides the ef- openings, or heavy or sustained live loads do not
ficiency of a prestressed member for load capac- control a design.
ity, span range, and deflection control. In addi- Consideration must be given to factors which
tion, a basic diaphragm is provided for resisting affect slab thickness selection for a given span.
lateral loads by the grouted slab assembly pro- Heavy superimposed loads, as required by the
vided proper connections and details exist. A de- function of a system, would require a lower span-
tailed discussion of diaphragm capabilities is depth ratio. Similarly, heavy partitions or a large
presented in Chapter 4. number of openings will result in higher load ca-
Excellent fire resistance is another attribute of pacity requirements. The fire resistance rating re-
the hollow core slab. Depending on thickness and quired for the application will also affect the load
strand cover, ratings up to a 4 hour endurance can capacity of a slab. As the code required fire rating
be achieved. A fire rating is dependent on equiva- increases, prestressing strands can be raised for
lent thickness for heat transmission, concrete cov- more protection from the heat. The smaller effec-
er over the prestressing strands for strength in a tive strand depth will result in a lower load capac-
high temperature condition, and end restraint. ity. Alternatively, a rational design procedure can
Underwriters Laboratories publishes fire ratings be used to consider the elevated strand tempera-
for various assemblies. However, many building tures during a fire. This fire design condition may
codes allow a rational design procedure for control a slab design and, again, result in a lower
strength in a fire. This procedure, described in de- load capacity.
tail in Chapter 6, considers strand temperature in Once slab thicknesses and spans are selected,
calculating strength. Required fire ratings should the economics of layout become important.
be clearly specified in the contract documents. While ends cut at an angle can be designed and
Also, the fire rating should be considered in deter- supplied, it is most efficient to have the bearing
mining the slab thickness to be used in prelimi- perpendicular to the span so square cut ends can
nary design. be used.
Used as floor-ceiling assemblies, hollow core It is also desirable to have the plan dimensions
slabs have the excellent sound transmission char- fit the slab module. This is dependent upon the
1--3
slab systems available in the project area. ture of the slabs. At the other extreme, if a “flat”
Non-module plan dimensions can be accommo- floor is required in a structure consisting of multi-
dated using partial width slabs. Some producers ple bays of varying length and change in slab
intentionally cast narrow widths as filler pieces direction, the highest point will determine the top
while others use a section split from a full slab. elevation of the topping. A greater amount of top-
Such a split section might be created by a longitu- ping will then be required in “low” areas. These
dinal sawcut or a break if the edge will not be ex- considerations must be dealt with in the planning
posed to view. stages to both control costs and minimize ques-
Construction tolerances must be accounted for tions and potential for “extras” during construc-
in developing a plan layout. Tolerance on slab tion.
length may be taken up by allowing a gap at the Camber, camber growth, and deflections must
slab ends in the bearing detail. On the non-bearing be considered when slabs run parallel to a stiff ver-
sides, clearance may be provided by using a detail tical element such as a wall (e.g. slabs running
where the slabs lap over a wall or beam. If the slab parallel to the front wall of an elevator). The door
edge butts a wall or beam, a gap should be pro- rough opening should allow for camber to pro-
vided. Refer to local producers’ information for duce proper door installation. Alternatively, the
recommendations of proper tolerances. slab span might be rearranged so the front wall is a
When a hollow core slab deck is exposed to bearing wall. Then door problems would be alle-
weather for a long period of time during construc- viated.
tion, water can accumulate in the cores. The pri- Camber, camber growth, and deflections must
mary source of water infiltration is at the butt be taken into account in roofing details. Where
joints. In cold weather, this water can freeze and changes in relative slab position can occur, coun-
expand causing localized damage. One remedy terflashings are suggested to accommodate such
for this situation is to drill weep holes at the slab changes.
ends under each core. The need for such weep
holes is generally known only after a construction 1.5 Wall Panel Applications
schedule is established. The specifier and the slab Some hollow core slab systems can also pro-
supplier are not usually in a position to know of vide slabs to be used as walls. Long line manufac-
such a need in advance. turing can result in economical cladding or load
Hollow core members will be cambered as with bearing panels used in manufacturing or commer-
any other prestressed flexural member. In the cial applications. The hollow core wall panels are
planning stages, consideration should be given to prestressed with two layers of strands for accom-
the causes of differential camber. For two slabs of modating handling, structural loadings and bow-
identical length and prestressing, the camber may ing considerations. Some manufacturers can add
be different because of concrete and curing varia- 2 in to 4 in (51 - 102 mm) of insulation to the hol-
tions. This factor is independent of a framing low core section with a 1 1/2 in thick to 3 in (38 - 76
scheme. However, joints between slabs of un- mm) thick concrete facing to create an insulated
equal spans or joints at which a change in the span sandwich panel.
direction occurs, will cause a potential differential A variety of architectural finishes are available
camber problem. This must be recognized and with hollow core wall panels. While the finishes
dealt with in the design layout. Wall locations can be very good, the variety of finishes available
may hide such a joint, but the door swing might be is different from those typically available with
directed to the least variable side. true architectural precast concrete panels. In
Camber must also be accommodated when a judging the quality of finish on hollow core wall
topping is to be provided. The quantity of topping panels, consideration must be given to the
required must consider the amount of camber and manufacturing process.
the function of the floor. In occupancies where
flat floors are not a requirement, a constant top-
ping thickness may be used to follow the curva-
1--4
1.6 Design Responsibilities Producer load tables define the allowable live
It is customary in the hollow core industry for load that a given slab can safely support in addi-
the producer to perform the final engineering for tion to the slab self weight. The load capacity will
the product to be supplied to the job. This would be a function of the slab thickness, the amount of
include design for vertical loads and lateral loads prestressing provided, and the location of the pre-
specified by the Engineer of Record, embedded stressing strands. Fire rated slabs may require
items for specified connection forces, and han- additional concrete cover below the strands which
dling and shipping. However, the Engineer of Re- will affect the load capacity.
cord plays a very important role in the design pro- The design criteria used to develop these load
cess. Prior to selection of the hollow core produc- tables is defined by the ACI Building Code2 as
er, enough preliminary planning should be done to outlined in Chapter 2. Depending on the design
insure that the specified floor and roof system is criteria controlling a slab’s load capacity, some
achievable. That is, the project should be one that advantage may be gained by understanding that in
can be engineered without requiring changes from most applications, superimposed loads will con-
the contract documents. sist of both dead and live loads. Where ultimate
The contract documents must clearly indicate strength controls, an equivalent live load can be
design criteria to which hollow core slabs will used to enter a load table. It is calculated as:
have to conform. This is especially important
when the hollow core slabs must interface with w equivalent = 1.4 superimposed Dead load
1.7
other construction materials. When connections + Live load
are required, the forces to be transmitted through However, if bottom fiber tensile stresses con-
the connections must be specified in the contract trol, no adjustment in superimposed loads may be
documents. The producer is best able to deter- used.
mine the most efficient connection element to be Similarly, many loading conditions consist of
embedded in the slab. However, the balance of a loads other than uniform loads. For preliminary
connection which interfaces with another materi- design only, an equivalent uniform load may be
al should be detailed in the contract documents. calculated from the maximum moment caused by
The Engineer of Record also has a responsibil- the actual loads.
ity in the review and approval of erection draw-
8 M superimposed
ings prepared by the precast producer. Review of w equivalent =
these drawings is the last opportunity to assure ℓ 2
that the producer’s understanding of the project Shear will not be properly addressed in this sit-
coincides with the intent of design. Erection uation. Thus, the final design must consider the
drawings should be checked for proper design actual load pattern.
loads, proper details and bearing conditions, con- Because of the uniqueness of each hollow core
formance with specified fire ratings, and the loca- slab system and the many possibilities of strand
tion of openings. patterns available from various producers, a ge-
neric hollow core slab has been developed to dem-
onstrate design procedures. Figure 1.7.1 depicts
the slab section and properties and illustrates a
1.7 Cross-Sections and Load Tables typical form for a producer’s load tables.
Each of the major hollow core slab systems has Throughout this manual, this section will be used
a standard set of cross-sections that can be pro- to demonstrate various calculation procedures
duced by their equipment. Available in thick- where any one of the proprietary cross-sections
nesses ranging from 4 in to 15 in (102 - 380 mm), could be substituted. It must be emphasized that
core configurations make each system unique. this cross-section is not available for use and
Each individual producer has additional produc- should not be specified.
tion practices which may affect the capabilities of Figures 1.7.2 through 1.7.8 present the propri-
their product. Therefore, most producers prepare etary slab cross-sections currently available. The
and distribute load tables in their market area. section properties are as provided by the manufac-
1--5
turers, but weights are based on 150 pcf (2400 For final design use the methods of Chapter 2
kg/m3) concrete. The actual weights may vary particularly to check shear.
slightly from those given. The availability of any
particular section in a given area must be verified 1.8 Tolerances3
with the local producers. Figures 1.7.9 present Figure 1.8.1 shows the dimensional tolerances
charts of the general range of load capacities for precast hollow core slabs. These tolerances
available in a given slab thickness. As with any are guidelines only and each project must be con-
chart of this nature, the chart should be carefully sidered individually to ensure that the tolerances
approached and verified with local producer load shown are applicable.
tables, especially for the longest and shortest and Figure 1.8.2 shows erection tolerances for hol-
lightest and heaviest conditions. Special care is low core slabs. When establishing tolerances, the
also required when fire rated slabs must be used function of the slabs should be considered. For
on a project. (See Chapter 6) example, slabs covered by finish materials may
The following examples demonstrate the ways not need the close tolerances required for exposed
in which load tables may be used. slabs.
Example 1.7.1 Equivalent Uniform Load
From the load table in Figure 1.7.1 select a
strand pattern to carry a uniform superimposed
dead load of 20 psf and a uniform live load of 60
psf on a 24 foot span.
wtotal = 20 + 60 = 80 psf
4-7/16 in dia. strands required: capacity = 118 psf
flexural strength controls
1--6
Fig. 1.7.1 Generic hollow core slab
8"
Sb = 314.8 in3
St = 297.9 in3
1"
1 1/2" 1 1/2" wt = 53.5 psf
4 1/4"
Spans, ft
Strands, 270LR φMn, ft-k 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
4-3/8″ 45.1 317 270 232 200 174 152 133 116 102 90
6-3/8″ 65.4 356 311 272 240 212 188 168 150
4-7/16″ 59.4 320 278 243 214 189 167 148 132
6-7/16″ 85.0 3431 3111 2831 258 231 208
4-1/2″ 76.7 327 289 257 229 204 183
6-1/2″ 105.3 3171 2901 2671 2471
Strands, 270LR φMn, ft-k 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
4-3/8″ 45.1 79 79 69 61 53 46
6-3/8″ 65.4 134 120 108 97 87 78 70
4-7/16″ 59.4 118 105 94 84 75 67 59
6-7/16″ 85.0 187 169 153 139 126 114 104
4-1/2″ 76.7 165 148 134 121 109 99 90
6-1/2″ 105.3 2271 2101 1952 1782 1632 1492 1372
1 - Values are governed by shear strength.
2 - Values are governed by allowable tension
3 - Table based on 5000 psi concrete with 6 f′ c allowable tension. Unless noted, values are
governed by strength design.
Note: This slab is for illustration purposes only. Do not specify this slab for a project.
1--7
Fig. 1.7.2
Note: All sections not available from all producers. Check availability with local manufacturers.
Fig. 1.7.3
Note: All sections not available from all producers. Check availability with local manufacturers.
1--8
Fig. 1.7.4
Note: Elematic is also availble in 96″ width. All sections not available from all producers. Check availability with local manufacturers.
Fig. 1.7.5
Note: All sections not available from all producers. Check availability with local manufacturers.
1--9
Fig. 1.7.6
Note: Spancrete is also available in 40″ and 96″ widths. All sections are not available from all producers. Check availability with
local manufacturer.
Fig. 1.7.7
Note: All sections not available from all producers. Check availability with local manufacturers.
1--10
Fig. 1.7.8
Note: All sections are not available from all producers. Check availability with local manufacturers.
300
6" Hollow Core Slab
3/4" Concrete Cover
250
~ = 45
h
Superimposed Live Load, psf
200
6" + 2" Topping
150
6"
100
50
10 20 30 40
Span, ft
1--11
Fig. 1.7.9 (b) Slab load ranges
300
8" Hollow Core Slab
3/4" Concrete Cover
250
~ = 45
Superimposed Live Load, psf
h
200
8"
100
50
10 20 30 40
Span, ft
300
10" Hollow Core Slab
3/4" Concrete Cover
250
200
~ = 45
h
150
10"
100
50
10 20 30 40
Span, ft
1--12
Fig. 1.7.9 (d) Slab load ranges
300
12" Hollow Core Slab
3/4" Concrete Cover
250
12" + 2" Topping
Superimposed Live Load, psf
200
~ = 45
h
12"
150
100
50
10 20 30 40
Span, ft
200
15" Hollow Core Slab
3/4" Concrete Cover
175
15" + 2 1/2" Topping
Superimposed Live Load, psf
15"
150
~ = 45
h
125
100
75
50
10 20 30 40 50 60
Span, ft
1--13
Fig. 1.8.1 Product tolerances -- hollow core slabs
a = Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ±1/2 in j = Center of gravity of strand group
b = Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ±1/4 in The CG of the strand group relative to the top of the plank
c = Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ±1/4 in shall be within ±1/4 in of the nominal strand group CG. The
dt = Top flange thickness position of any individual strand shall be within ±1/2 in of
Top flange area defined by the actual measured values of nominal vertical position and ±3/4 in of nominal horizontal
average dt x b shall not be less than 85% of the nominal area position and shall have a minimum cover of 3/4 in.
calculated by dt nominal x b nominal. k = Position of plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ±2 in
db = Bottom flange thickness l = Tipping and flushness of plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ±1/4 in
Bottom flange area defined by the actual measured values m = Local smoothness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ±1/4 in in 10 ft
of average db x b shall not be less than 85% of the nominal
(does not apply to top deck surface left rough to receive a
area calculated by db nominal x b nominal.
topping or to visually concealed surfaces)
e = Web thickness
The total cumulative web thickness defined by the actual Plank weight
measured value Σe shall not be less than 85% of the nominal Excess concrete material in the plank internal features is
cumulative width calculated by Σe nominal. within tolerance as long as the measured weight of the
f = Blockout location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ±2 in individual plank does not exceed 110% of the nominal
g = Flange angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/8 in per 12 in, 1/2 in max. published unit weight used in the load capacity calculation.
h = Variation from specified end squareness n = Applications requiring close control of differential camber
or skew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ±1/2 in between adjacent members of the same design should be
i = Sweep (variation from straight line parallel to centerline of discussed in detail with the producer to determine applicable
member) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ±3/8 in tolerances.
b
dt
e
c
CGS
db
l
CROSS SECTION
n
h
g
10 ft k ELEVATION
m
f
i
PLAN
1--14
Fig. 1.8.2 Erection tolerances - hollow core floor and roof members
a = Plan location from building grid datum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ± 1 in
a1 = Plan location from centerline of steel* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ± 1 in
b = Top elevation from nominal top elevation at member ends
Covered with topping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ± 3/4 in
Untopped floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ± 1/4 in
Untopped roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ± 3/4 in
c = Maximum jog in alignment of matching edges
(both topped and untopped construction) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 in
d = Joint width
0 to 40 ft member length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ± 1/2 in
41 to 60 ft member length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ± 3/4 in
61 ft plus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ± 1 in
e = Differential top elevation as erected
Covered with topping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3/4 in
Untopped floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/4 in
Untopped roof** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3/4 in
f = Bearing length*** (span direction) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ± 3/4 in
g = Differential bottom elevation of exposed hollow-core slabs**** . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1/4 in
* For precast concrete erected on a steel frame building, this tolerance takes precedence over tolerance on dimension “a”.
** It may be necessary to feather the edges to ± 1/4 in to properly apply some roof membranes.
*** This is a setting tolerance and should not be confused with structural performance requirements set by the architect/engineer.
**** Untopped installation will require a larger tolerance here.
d
d
c
hollow core
c floor or roof member hollow core
centerline of floor or roof member
PLAN steel structure
PLAN
a1
clearance
centerline of e
steel structure
e
f
g
f hollow core g b
b floor or roof member
precast or cast in place
concrete support member
bldg. elevation datum bldg. elevation datum
ELEVATION
1--15
CHAPTER 2
2--1
or moment 25 in from slab end
fps = f pu 1 −
γ p f pu
ρ Md = 30.5
2
2.08 − 2.08 0.05353′
2
2
β 1 p f′ c
= 4.74 ft-k
Mn > 1.2 Mcr 4.7412
Md
=
2.2.2 Stresses at Transfer
S
279.9
314.8
When the prestressing strands are cut to apply
the prestressing force to the concrete, only the slab = +0.191 ksi top fiber
self weight is present to counteract the effects of = --0.181 ksi bottom fiber
eccentric prestress. A check of stresses is required
Net concrete stress at transfer point
at this point to determine the concrete strength re-
quired to preclude cracking on the tension side or = --0.162 ksi top fiber
crushing on the compression side. The concrete = +1.542 ksi bottom fiber
strength at the time of transfer may be only 50% to Self weight at midspan
60% of the 28 day design strength.
2
Md = 30.5 (0.0535)(3′) = 18.66 ft-k
8
Example 2.2.2.1 - Transfer Stresses
Md 18.6612
Using the generic hollow core cross-section =
defined in Section 1.7, check stresses at transfer of
prestress using the following criteria:
S
279.9
314.8
Prestressing steel: 4 - 1/2″ dia. 270 ksi, low relax- = +0.752 ksi top fiber
ation strands. = --0.711 ksi bottom fiber
Aps = 4(0.153) = 0.612 in2 Net concrete stress at midspan
assume 5% initial loss = +0.399 ksi top fiber
dp = 7″ = +1.012 ksi bottom fiber
ℓ = 30′-6″ Allowable stresses:
initial stress = 70% fpu tension at end = 6 f′ ci
Solution: 2
Stresses will be checked at the transfer point f′ci = − 162 = 729 psi
6
and at midspan
tension at midspan = 3 f′ ci
At release prestress force
does not control
Po = (0.70)(0.95)(0.612)(270) = 109.9k
Prestress effect compression = 0.6 f′ci
P
= o Po e f′ci = 1542 = 2570 psi
A S 0.6
Concrete strength required at release
109.92.89
= 109.9 = 2570 psi
154
297.9
314.8 Note that if tension or compression in the end
region exceeds allowables based on a reasonable
= --0.353 ksi top fiber concrete release strength, strands may be de-
= +1.723 ksi bottom fiber bonded in some manufacturing systems or, for
tension, top mild reinforcement may be used in
Self weight at transfer point
some manufacturing systems to resist the total
ℓt = 50db = 50(1/2) = 25 in tension force.
2--2
If tension in the midspan region controls, either 1) Elastic Shortening
a high release strength must be used or mild rein- Es
forcement must be added to resist the total tension ES = Kes f
E ci cir
force. Mild reinforcement should only be used in
the wet cast manufacturing system. Kes = 1.0 for pretensioned members
80
70
70
80
70
70
60 75 75
70
50
40
80 30
70
70
60 40 40
50 60
70
75
2--3
Table 2.2.3.1 Table 2.2.3.2 Values of C
Type of tendon Kre psi J Stress- Stress-relieved
270 Grade stress-re- relieved bar or
lieved strand or wire 20,000 0.15 fsi/fpu strand or low-relaxation
250 Grade stress-re- wire strand or wire
lieved strand or wire 18,500 0.14 0.80 1.28
0.79 1.22
240 or 235 Grade stress-
17,600 0.13 0.78 1.16
relieved wire
0.77 1.11
270 Grade low-relax- 0.76 1.05
ation strand 5000 0.040
0.75 1.45 1.00
250 Grade low-relax- 0.74 1.36 0.95
ation wire 4630 0.037 0.73 1.27 0.90
240 or 235 Grade low-re- 0.72 1.18 0.85
laxation wire 4400 0.035 0.71 1.09 0.80
145 or 160 Grade stress- 0.70 1.00 0.75
relieved bar 6000 0.05 0.69 0.94 0.70
0.68 0.89 0.66
Ksh = 1.0 for pretensioned members 0.67 0.83 0.61
0.66 0.78 0.57
RH = Ambient relative humidity from Fig- 0.65 0.73 0.53
ure 2.2.3.1 0.64 0.68 0.49
4) Steel Relaxation 0.63 0.63 0.45
0.62 0.58 0.41
RE = [Kre -- J (SH + CR + ES)]C 0.61 0.53 0.37
0.60 0.49 0.33
Kre, J, C = factors from Tables 2.2.3.1
and 2.2.3.2 Solution:
5) Total Loss = ES + CR + SH + RE 1) Elastic Shortening
Pi = 0.7(4)(41.3k) = 115.6k
Observations and experience in a plant may
2
provide modifications to loss calculations to bet- Mg = 30.5 (0.0535)(3′)
8
ter predict slab performance.
= 18.66 ft-k
= 224 in-k
Example 2.2.3.1 Loss of Prestress
Using the generic hollow core cross-section
defined in Section 1.7, calculate the loss of pre-
stress based on the following information:
fcir = 0.9 115.6 +
154
115.6(2.89)
1224.5
2
Prestressing steel: 4-1/2″ dia. 270 ksi, low re- 2242.89
laxation strands --
1224.5
Apsfpu = 0.153(270) = 41.3k/strand = 0.857 ksi
dp = 7″ using Es = 28,500 ksi and Eci = 3250 ksi
initial stress = 70% fpu Es
ES = Kes f
E ci cir
ℓ = 30′-6″
Superimposed dead load = 20 psf = (1.0) 28500 (0.857)
3250
2--4
= 7.52 ksi % = 25.6 (100) = 13.5%
0.7270
2) Concrete Creep
M e
fcds = sd 2.2.4 Service Load Stresses
I
Service load concrete stresses are calculated as
30.5
8
0.023122.89
2
a measure of performance or serviceability. For
= the in-service state when deflections must be cal-
1224.5 culated, a stress check must first be made to deter-
= 0.198 ksi mine whether gross section properties or cracked-
using Ec = 4300 ksi and normal weight concrete transformed section properties are to be used.
In-service stresses are checked assuming that
E
CR = Kcr s (fcir -- fcds) all prestress losses have occurred. The calculated
Ec
stresses are compared to the permissible stresses
= (2.0) 28500 (0.857 -- 0.198) noted in Section 2.2.1. Hollow core slabs are nor-
4300 mally designed to be uncracked under full service
= 8.74 ksi loads. Tensile stress limits of between 6 f′ c and
3) Shrinkage of Concrete 7.5 f′ c are commonly used. In special circum-
V = Area = 154 = 1.75 stances where deflections will not be a problem
S Perimeter 236 + 8 and where cracking will not be of concern, the up-
use RH = 70% per limit of 12 f′ c can be used.
SH = 8.2 x 10-6KshEs 1 − 0.06 V
S
Example 2.2.4.1 Service Load Stresses
Using the generic hollow core cross-section
x (100 -- RH) defined in Section 1.7, calculate the service load
stresses given the following criteria:
= 8.2 x 10-6(1.0)28500
Prestressing steel:
x (1 -- 0.06 x 1.75)(100 -- 70)
4-1/2″ dia. 270 ksi, low relaxation strands
= 6.27 ksi
Apsfpu = 0.153(270) = 41.3k/strand
4) Steel Relaxation
dp = 7″
From Table 2.2.3.1
Initial stress = 70% fpu
Kre = 5000, J = 0.04
f′c = 5000 psi
From Table 2.2.3.2
ℓ = 30′-6″
C = 0.75 for fsi/fpu = 0.7
Clear Span = 30′-0″
RE = [Kre -- J(SH + CR + ES)]C Superimposed Dead Load = 20 psf
Live Load = 50 psf
= [ 5000
1000
− 0.04x
Solution:
2
Msustained = 30 (0.0535 + 0.020)
]
(6.27 + 8.74 + 7.52) 0.75 8
= 8.27 ft-k/ft = 99.2 in-k/ft
= 3.07 ksi
2
5) Total Loss at Midspan Mservice = 30 (0.0535 + 0.020 + 0.050)
8
= 7.52 + 8.74 + 6.27 + 3.07 = 13.89 ft-k/ft = 167 in-k/ft
= 25.6 ksi With losses = 13.5% from Example 2.2.3.1
2--5
Apsfse = (0.7)(4)(41.3)(1 -- 0.135)
= 100.0k
Mcr
= yI P + Pe + 7.5 f′ c
b A Sb
Top fiber compression with sustained loads This ensures that when the concrete develops
flexural cracks, the prestressing steel will not have
100.02.89) 99.23 reached its full design stress. Violation of this cri-
ftop = 100.0 − + teria might result in strand fractures at the point of
154 297.9 297.9
= 0.649 -- 0.970 + 0.999 flexural cracking with a resulting brittle failure.
However, ACI (318-95) Section 18.8.3 allows
= + 0.679 ksi violation of this requirement for flexural members
Permissible compression with shear and flexural strength at least twice that
required.
= 0.45f′c The upper limit of reinforcing requires that,
= 0.45(5000) ωp or,
= 2.25 ksi > 0.679 ksi OK
Top fiber compression with total load
ω + dd ω − ω′ or
p
p
ftop = 100.0 −
100.02.89) 1673
+
ω + dd ω − ω′
pw
p
w w
154 297.9 297.9
be not greater than 0.36β1
= 0.649 -- 0.970 + 1.679
The need for an upper limit on reinforcing is re-
= 1.358 ksi lated to the assumptions of ultimate concrete com-
Permissible compression pressive strain. Using a uniform compression
stress block forces more concrete to reach ulti-
= 0.60f′c mate strain as reinforcing ratios increase. There-
= 0.60(5000) fore when the upper reinforcing limit is exceeded,
the moment capacity must be based on the com-
= 3.00 ksi > 1.358 ksi OK
pression block. For this condition,
Bottom fiber tension
φMn = φ f′ cbd 2p0.36β 1 − 0.08β 21
fbottom = 0.649 + (0.970 -- 1.679) 297.9
314.8 for rectangular sections or for flanged sections
= --0.022 ksi (tension) with the neutral axis within the flange.
The stress in the prestressing steel at ultimate
Permissible tension may be calculated in several ways. The ACI equa-
= 7.5 f′ c tion (18-3) may be used as an approximation,
charts and tables from the PCI Design Handbook
= 7.5 5000 may be used, or a strain compatibility analysis
may be made.
= 0.530 ksi > 0.022 ksi OK
Example 2.2.5.1 Design Flexural Strength
2.2.5 Design Flexural Strength
Using the generic hollow core slab defined in
The moment capacity of a prestressed member Section 1.7, check the design flexural strength
is a function of the ultimate stress developed in the given the following criteria:
prestressing strands. As with non-prestressed
Prestressing steel: 4-1/2″ dia., 270 ksi, low re-
concrete, upper and lower limits are placed on the laxation strands
amount of reinforcing to ensure that the stress in
dp = 7″
the strands is compatible with concrete stresses
for ductile behavior. initial stress = 70% fpu
The lower limit of reinforcing requires that: f′c = 5000 psi
φMn ≥ 1.2 Mcr ℓ = 30′-6″
2--6
Clear span = 30′-0″ φMn ≥ 1.2 Mcr
Superimposed Dead Load = 20 psf From Example 2.2.3.1
Live Load = 50 psf Loss = 13.5%
Solution: Apsfse = 0.7(4)(41.3)(1 -- 0.135)
METHOD 1: ACI Equation (18-3)
= 100.0 k
φMn = φApsfps(dp -- a/2) Bottom compression
fps = f pu 1−
γp
β1
ρp
f pu
f′ c
= 100.0 +
154
100.02.89
314.8
= 1.567 ksi
Use γp = 0.28 for low relaxation strands
β1 = 0.85 -- 5000 − 4000 0.05 3.89
Mcr = 1224.5 1.567 +
7.5 5000
1000
1000
= 660 in-k/slab
= 0.80
ÔM n
= 920 = 1.39 > 1.2 OK
A ps 40.153 M cr 660
ρp = = = 0.0024
bd p 367
METHOD 2: PCI Design Handbook
fps = 270 1 − 0.28 0.0024 270
0.80 5
Using Figure 4.12.2 from the 5th Edition Hand-
book.
A ps f pu
= 257.7 ksi ωpu =
bd p f′ c
ρpf ps 0.0024257.7 441.3
ωp = = =
3675
f′ c 5
= 0.124 < 0.36 β1 = 0.288 OK = 0.131
K′u = 538
A psf ps 40.153257.7
a = = bd 2p
0.85f′ cb 0.85536
φMn = K′u
12000
= 1.03 in 2
36(7)
Note: If “a” exceeds the top flange thickness, the = 538
12000
compression block will encroach on the core area.
For this situation, multiple compression forces are = 79.0 ft-k/slab
used for the internal couple as is done with other
flanged members. METHOD 3: Strain Compatibility
φMn = 0.9(4)(0.153)(257.7) 7 − 1.03
2
The stress-strain diagram from Figure 11.2.5 of
the PCI Design Handbook, shown in Fig. 2.2.5.1,
= 920 in-k/slab = 76.7 ft-k/slab will be used for this example. However, the actual
stress-strain curves received with strand mill re-
wu = 1.4(0.0535 + 0.02) + 1.7(0.05) ports should be used when available.
= 0.188 ksf The concrete ultimate strain is assumed to be
2 0.003 in/in. The method involves a trial and error
Mu = 30 (0.188) procedure to obtain equilibrium within the section
8
where the force in the compression block equals
= 21.14 ft-k/ft
the tensile force in the steel. The equations are de-
= 63.4 ft-k/slab < 76.7 OK veloped from the strain diagram shown.
Check minimum reinforcement a = β1c
2--7
Fig. 2.2.5.1 Stress-strain curves, prestressing strand
270
270 ksi strand
MINIMUM YIELD STRENGTH AT
Es = 28,500 ksi 1% ELONGATION FOR 270 ksi
250 (ASTM A416)
230
MINIMUM YIELD STRENGTH AT
1% ELONGATION FOR 250 ksi
Stress - fps (ksi)
(ASTM A416)
210
190
170
150
0 0.005 0.010 0.015 0.020 0.025 0.030
Strain- ps (in./in.)
εps > 0.0076: fps = 250− 0.04 (ksi) εps > 0.0086: fps = 270 − 0.04 (ksi)
Á ps − 0.0064 Á ps − 0.007
2--8
εps = εse + εs = 0.0107 in/in
= 0.0057 + 0.018 = 0.0237 εps = 0.0057 + 0.0107
= 0.0164 in/in
From stress-strain curve
fps = 266 ksi
fps = 268 ksi
for bars
T = 4(0.153)(268) = 163.8
εs = 5.5 (0.003) − 0.003
C = 0.85(5)(0.8)(36) 1.53
= 0.0078 in/in
= 122.4k < 163.8k
yield strain = 60 = 0.002 in/in
Try c = 1.3″ then a = 0.80(1.3) = 1.04″ 29000
7 (0.003) -- 0.003 T = 4(0.153)(266) + 2(0.2)(60)
εs =
1.30 = 162.8 + 24
= 0.0131 = 186.8k
εps = 0.0131 + 0.0057 = 0.0188 C = 0.85(5)(1.22)(36)
= 186.7k ≅ 186.8k ok
From stress-strain curve
fps = 267 ksi 2
φMn = 0.9 162.8 7 − 1.22 + 24 5.5 − 1.22
2
T = 4(0.153)(267) = 163 = 1042 in-k
C = 0.85(5)(1.04)(36) = 86.8 ft-k
2--9
For the purpose of this discussion, Vs, the con- Using the generic hollow core cross-section
tribution of shear reinforcement, will be taken as defined in Section 1.7, check the slab for shear
zero. The nominal concrete shear strength may be given the following information:
found using equation (11-9), Prestressing steel: 4-1/2″ dia., 270 ksi, low
Vc = 0.6 f′ c + 700
V ud
Mu w
b d (11-9)
relaxation strands.
Initial stress = 70% fpu loss = 15%
when the effective prestress force is not less than f′c = 5000 psi
40 percent of the tensile strength of the flexural re- ℓ = 25′-6″
inforcement. The term Vud/Mu shall not exceed Clear span = 25′-0″
1.0. The minimum value for Vc may be used as
Superimposed Dead Load = 20 psf
2 f′ c bwd and the maximum value is the lesser of Live Load = 50 psf
5 f′ c bwd or the value obtained from Equation Masonry dead load = 800 plf at 3′
(11-12) considering reduced effective prestress in from one support
the transfer zone. Solution:
Alternatively more refined shear calculations
Uniform load: wu = 1.4(0.0535 + 0.020)
can be made according to the lesser of Equations
+ 1.7(0.05)
(11-10) or (11-12).
= 0.188 ksf = 0.564 klf
V M cr
Vci = 0.6 f′ c b wd + V d + i (11-10) Line Load: Pu = 1.4(0.800) = 1.12k/ft
M max
= (3′)(1.12) = 3.36k
Vcw = (3.5 f′ c + 0.3fpc) bwd (11-12)
Load, shear and moment diagrams for 3′ slab
Equation (11-10) predicts shear strength for an width:
inclined shear failure mode. For Equation
(11-10), the following relationships are used: 1.12 x 3’= 3.36 k
Mcr = yI (6 f′c + fpe -- fd) (11-11) 3’ 0.188 x 3’= 0.564 k
ft
25’
Vd = Unfactored self weight shear for k
non-composite sections 10 k
8.31
Vi = Vu -- Vd 4.95
k
Vu
Mmax = Mu -- Md
Md = Unfactored self weight moment for
non-composite sections k
7.45
The minimum value for Vci need not be less
than 1.7 f′ c bwd or 2 f′ c bwd when the effective
Mu
prestress force is not less than 40% of the tensile 27.48 ft-k
strength of the flexural reinforcement. For equa-
49.25 ft-k
tions (11-10), (11-11) and (11-12), the reduction
in prestressing force at the member end due to Using the more refined approach according to
transfer must be considered. The ACI Code al- ACI Equations (11-10) or (11-12), φVc is:
lows an assumption that prestressing force in- φVcw = 0.85 3.5 5000 + 0.3f pc
creases linearly from zero at the member end to 1000
full effective prestress in a length equal to 50 x (10.5)(7) (11-12)
strand diameters. = 15.46 + 0.0187fpc
fpc is calculated as a function of the transfer of pre-
Example 2.3.1.1 Shear Design stress into the section along the span.
2--10
transfer length = 50 db = 50(1/2) = 25″ = 11.130 + 26.233fpe -- 2.01x + 0.8x2
with bearing length = 3″ Mmax = Moment due to factored
full prestress transfer is achieved 22″ from loads minus Md
the face of support
Apsfse = 4(41,300)(0.70)(1 - 0.150) Based on these definitions, φVcw, φVci, and Vu are
x x + 3 to x = 22″
25
calculated at intervals across the span. A summa-
ry is presented in Table 2.3.1.1. Figure 2.3.1.1
presents the results graphically.
fpc =
A psf se 98294 x + 3
A
=
154 25
Table 2.3.1.1 Allowable Shear
φVcw φVci
15.46 + 0.0187 98294 x + 3
x Vu
φVcw = h/2 = 0.333′ 9.82k 18.81k 59.40k
154 25
0.5′ 9.72 19.76 45.74
= 15.46 + 11.96 x + 3 to x = 22″ 1.0′ 9.44 22.64 31.92
25
1.5′ 9.16 25.51 27.15
φVci = 0.6
5000
1000
VM
10.57 + V d + i cr
M max
2.0′
2.5′
8.88
8.59
27.42
27.42
23.34
18.93
x 0.85 (11-10) 3.0′ 8.31 27.42 15.98
3.0′ 4.95 27.42 10.02
Vd = Shear due to unfactored self weight
3.5′ 4.67 27.42 9.11
(for non-composite section)
4.0′ 4.39 27.42 8.34
= 3(0.0535) 25 − x = 2.01 -- 0.16x
2
Alternatively, the simplified equation (11-9)
Vi = Shear due to factored loads minus Vd might be used.
Mcr = yI 6 f′ c + f pe − f d
b
φVc = 0.85 0.6 5000 + 700 MV 7
u
u
A
ey
fpe = Apsfse 1 + b
I
x
10.57
1000
fpe = 98.294 x Vu
1541 + 3.89 − 13.89
1224.5
x +25 3 = 2.65 + 306.1
Mu u
(M in in-k).
The results of this equation are also shown on Fig-
ure 2.3.1.1.
= 1.541 x + 3 ≤ 1.541 ksi
25
At all points, Vu < φVc so shear strength is ade-
quate and stirrups are not required.
fd = flexural stress due to load used for Vd
Md 2.4 Camber and Deflection
= Camber is the upward deflection of a pre-
S
stressed member and results from the prestressing
30.0535x force being eccentric from the center of gravity of
25 − x
= 2 the cross-section. Since both prestressing force
314.8 and eccentricity are established by the required
design load and span length, camber is a result of
= 2.01x − 0.08x
2
314.8 the design rather than a design parameter. There-
fore, camber requirements should not be speci-
Mcr = 314.8 x
12 fied.
0.424 + f pe −
2.01x − 0.08x 2
314.8
12 Deflections are also affected by the amount of
prestressing only because prestressing establishes
the load at which a member will crack. If tensile
2--11
Fig. 2.3.1.1 Shear for Example 2.3.1.1
25
5 f’c bw d
20
Eq. (11-10)
Eq. (11-12)
15 Eq. (11-9)
10 2 f’c bw d
Shear, kips
Vu
5
0
0 1 2 3 4
stresses are kept below cracking, deflections will tions are not predictable with any degree of accu-
be independent of the prestress level. racy and any calculation of long term movements
Cambers and deflections will change with time must be considered to be only estimates.
due to concrete creep, prestress loss and other fac- This section presents calculation procedures
tors. The sustained compression due to the pre- for determining long term deflections. From the
stressing will cause camber growth. Balancing producer’s standpoint, history and experience
this is the effect of creep on deflections due to self must be used to modify the procedures to fit the lo-
weight and other sustained loads. It is this time cal product. From the specifier’s standpoint, these
dependent movement which, in addition to instan- procedures will allow only approximate estimates
taneous deflections, must be considered in the de- of long term effects and should be complemented
velopment of framing schemes and detailing. with discussions with local producers.
Instantaneous cambers and deflections are pre-
dictable as long as the material properties are
known. The time dependent cambers and deflec- 2.4.1 Camber
2--12
Table 2.4.1 Long term multipliers6
Without With
Condition Composite Composite
Topping Topping
At Erection:
1. Deflection (downward) component - apply to the elastic
deflection due to the member weight at release of prestress 1.85 1.85
2. Camber (upward) component - apply to the elastic camber
due to the prestress at the time of release of prestress 1.80 1.80
Final:
3. Deflection (downward) component - apply to the elastic
deflection due to the member weight at release of prestress 2.70 2.40
4. Camber (upward) component - apply to the elastic camber
due to prestress at the time of release of prestress 2.45 2.20
5. Deflection (downward) - apply to elastic deflection due to
superimposed dead load only 3.00 3.00
6. Deflection (downward) - apply to elastic deflection caused
by the composite topping ------ 2.30
2--13
For the slab of Example 2.4.1, determine the
net camber at erection and the final camber.
Table 2.4.2 Maximum Permissible Computed Deflections1
Type of member Deflection to be considered Deflection limitation
Flat roofs not supporting or attached to non- Immediate deflection due to live load L
structural elements likely to be damaged by ℓ*
large deflections 180
Floors not supporting or attached to non- Immediate deflection due to live load L
structural elements likely to be damaged by ℓ
large deflections 360
Roof or floor construction supporting or That part of the total deflection occurring after
attached to nonstructural elements likely to attachment of nonstructural elements (sum of ℓ ***
be damaged by large deflections the long-term deflection due to all sustained 480
loads and the immediate deflection due to any
Roof or floor construction supporting or at- additional live load)**
tached to nonstructural elements not likely to ℓ ****
be damaged by large deflections 240
* Limit not intended to safeguard against ponding. Ponding should be checked by suitable calculations of deflection, including added deflections due to ponded
water, and considering long-term effects of all sustained loads, camber, construction tolerances, and reliability of provisions for drainage.
** Long-term deflection shall be determined in accordance with 9.5.2.5 or 9.5.4.2, but may be reduced by amount of deflection calculated to occur before attach-
ment of nonstructural elements. This amount shall be determined on basis of accepted engineering data relating to time-deflection characteristics of members
similar to those being considered.
*** Limit may be exceeded if adequate measures are taken to prevent damage to supported or attached elements.
**** But not greater than tolerance provided for nonstructural elements. Limit may be exceeded if camber is provided so that total deflection minus camber does
not exceed limit.
2--14
4 4
50.023(30) 1728 50.023(30) 1728
= = 0.208″ =
38443001224.5 38443002307
= 0.11″
Final deflection = 0.208 (3.0) = 0.62″ (Note: 2307 in.4 = composite moment of inertia
Instantaneous live load deflection: using a 3000 psi topping on a 5000 psi slab.)
4 Long term dead load deflection
50.053(30) 1728
= = 0.52″ = 0.11(3.0) = 0.33″
38443001224.5
Instantaneous live load deflection:
Final position
= 50 (0.11) = 0.28″
final camber = + 1.15″ 20
sustained dead load = -- 0.62 Final Position = +1.05 -- 0.60 -- 0.33 -- 0.26 =
net camber + 0.53″ --0.14″ including instantaneous live load.
live load increment = -- 0.52 Calculate increment due to differential shrinkage
+ 0.01″ assuming shrinkage strain of 500 × 10--6 in/in in
both the topping and slab:
For comparison to the provisions of Chapter 9
If total shrinkage = 500 × 10-6
of the ACI Code, when non-structural elements
and erection shrinkage = 250 × 10-6
are attached to the slabs, the portion of deflection
differential shrinkage = 250 × 10-6
after erection may be used for comparison.
The differential shrinkage can be thought of as
Change in camber = 1.15″ -- 0.95″ = + 0.20″ a prestress force from the topping where
Sustained dead load = -- 0.62″
Instantaneous live loads = -- 0.52″ P = Atopping (strain)(modulus)
-- 0.94″ = 36″(2″)(0.00025)(3320)
When a composite topping is used, it will be = 59.8k
cast after a portion of the slab shrinkage has oc-
The effect is lessened by concrete creep and,
curred. There will then be differential shrinkage using a factor of 2.30 from Table 2.4.1, reduces to:
between the topping and slab. This differential
can cause additional deflection and bottom tensile P = 59.8/2.30 = 26k
stress. These effects will generally be negligible. The eccentricity of this force is:
e = 9″ -- 3.89″
Example 2.4.4 Composite Slab
= 5.11″
Given the slab of Example 2.4.3, add a 2″ com-
posite topping and recalculate deflections includ- M = Pe = 26 x 5.11 = 133 in-k
ing the affects of differential shrinkage.
downward deflection = Mℓ
2
Solution: 8EI
Final camber = 1.34 x 2.20 -- 0.79 x 2.40 2
133(30x12)
=
= 1.05″ 843002307
Instantaneous topping weight deflection: = 0.22″ ≅ 1/4″
)4
50.0253(30 1728 Considering the span used in this example and
= the accuracy of the other camber and deflection
38443001224.5
calculations, it can be easily seen that differential
= 0.26″ shrinkage will generally not be significant.
Long term deflection due to topping weight
2.5 Composite Design
= 0.26″ (2.30) = 0.60″ A composite, structural concrete topping is
Superimposed dead load deflection: commonly used in floor construction with hollow
2--15
core slabs. The composite action is desirable to Since the composite topping and hollow core
add stiffness and strength for gravity loads and slabs interact to create the final structural element,
may also be required for load transfer within a dia- it is imperative that the topping bond well with the
phragm. When a composite topping is used, con- slabs. While the building designer may only be in-
sideration must be given to its strength, detailing terested in the final product, the process of achiev-
and quality assurance. ing a well bonded, composite topping is very im-
The required compressive strength of the top- portant. The hollow core producer is dependent
ping may be determined from the hollow core slab on a properly bonded topping, yet is not involved
design requirements. Load tables provided by lo- in specifying, designing or installing the topping.
cal producers will normally indicate that either a The hollow core producer is responsible for sup-
3000 psi (20.7 MPa) or 4000 psi (27.6 MPa) con- plying a slab that is capable of bonding with a top-
crete is required. Diaphragm requirements may ping. The installer of the topping is responsible
necessitate a higher strength topping concrete. for surface preparation, topping concrete mix de-
From a detailing standpoint, the primary con- sign and curing to assure proper bond.
sideration is that hollow core slabs will have cam- At a minimum, the slab surface must be clean
ber. If the topping is finished as a level surface, the and damp at the time of topping installation. It is
camber will reduce the topping thickness in the recommended that the surface be thoroughly satu-
midspan region which will affect the load capacity rated prior to topping placement, but all standing
of the slabs. With significant topping thickness water must be removed. ACI 301-967 specifies
reduction, the integrity of the topping concrete that a sand and cement grout be scrubbed into the
may also be compromised. A preliminary slab de- slab surface ahead of topping placement. If this
sign can provide an estimate of camber and the procedure is used, it is imperative that initial set
minimum topping thickness necessary to support not be allowed prior to topping placement. If ini-
the design loads. The first option is to provide the tial set occurs, the grout can become a bond break-
minimum thickness topping at midspan and allow er. Similarly, bonding agents, which are rarely
the thickness to increase at the slab ends to main- specified, will also act as a bond breaker if any ini-
tain a flat floor. Finish and bearing elevations can tial set occurs prior to topping placement.
then be set to this criteria. The topping concrete mix and curing tech-
A second option to minimize topping concrete niques will also affect bond of a composite top-
volume is to allow the minimum topping thick- ping. Curling at topping edges or joints will cause
ness to follow the curvature of the slabs. This will local delamination. Curling is a result of differen-
result in a finished floor with camber which may tial shrinkage between the top and bottom sur-
be acceptable in some occupancies. In this option, faces of the topping. Generally, water is lost more
it is important that all trades be made aware of the quickly from the top surface causing additional
final camber as it may affect their work. Parti- drying shrinkage. This can be minimized by prop-
tions, doorways and stairs will be particularly af- er curing techniques and low shrinkage concrete.
fected in this option. Design of hollow core slabs for composite ac-
When control joints are used in a structural top- tion is usually limited to a horizontal shear
ping, they should be located over the joints in the strength of 80 psi (0.5 MPa) according to section
precast units below where cracks would most nat- 17.5.2.1 of ACI 318-95. Through limited pub-
urally occur in the topping. At the ends of slabs, lished8 and unpublished testing, the machine fin-
where movement will occur due to camber ished surface has been found to meet the require-
changes, deflections, creep, shrinkage or elastic ments of that section. The horizontal shear check
shortening, control joints are desirable. should be based on the shear diagram rather than
Reinforcing of a topping may be required for using an average horizontal shear over the dis-
structural design. If not, consideration should be tance from zero moment to maximum moment
given to using minimum shrinkage reinforcement when checking compliance with the 80 psi limit.
for crack control. Composite ties are not normally provided giv-
en the difficulty and expense of installing the ties
2--16
in a machine casting operation. When the horizon- I = 1224.5 + 154(5.24 -- 3.89)2
tal shear exceeds 80 psi (0.5 MPa) and composite 3
ties are not used, the topping is considered to be + 2 (27.7) + 2(27.7)(9 -- 5.24)2
12
superimposed dead load on a non-composite slab. = 2307 in4
In a wet cast system, horizontal shear ties with 1/4
in amplitude roughening may be used to take ad- Calculate prestress losses:
vantage of the higher stresses allowed by ACI. From Example 2.2.3.1
Design of a composite section is similar to that ES = 7.52 ksi
presented in Sections 2.2 and 2.3. The following
example demonstrates the additional consider- Concrete creep
ations with a composite section. 2
Msd = 30 (0.025 + 0.020)(3)
8
Example 2.5.1 Composite Design = 15.19 ft-k
Using the generic hollow core cross-section de-
fined in Section 1.7, add a 2 in structural topping 15.19(12)(2.89)
fcds =
and check for the following conditions: 1224.5
Prestressing steel: 4-1/2″ dia., 270 ksi low relax- = 0.430 ksi
ation strands CR = (2.0) 28500 (0.857 -- 0.430)
4300
Initial stress: 70% fpu
= 5.66 ksi
dp: 7 in
SH = 6.27 ksi
Slab: f′c = 5000 psi
Eci = 3250 ksi
RE = 5000 − 0.04(6.27 + 5.66 + 7.52) 0.75
1000
Ec = 4300 ksi = 3.17 ksi
Topping: f′c = 3000 psi Loss = 7.52 + 5.66 + 6.27 + 3.17
Ec = 3320 ksi = 22.62 ksi = 12%
Slab length: 30′-6″ Calculate service load stresses:
Slab span: 30′-0″ Apsfse = 0.7(4)(41.3)(1 -- 0.12)
Loads: topping = 25 psf = 101.8k
dead load = 20 psf 2
Mnon--comp = 30 (0.0535 + 0.025)
live load = 50 psf 8
Calculate section properties: = 8.83 ft-k/ft = 106 in-k/ft
2
Base section A = 154 in2 Mcomp = 30 (0.020 + 0.050)
I = 1224.5 in4 8
yb = 3.89 in = 7.88 ft-k/ft = 94.5 in-k/ft
Topping At top of topping
n = 3320/4300 = 0.77 94.5(3)(10 − 5.24)
ftop = (0.77)
2307
use width = 0.77(36)
= 0.450 ksi
= 27.7 in
At top of slab
Composite
101.8(2.89)(4.11)
A = 154 + 2(27.7) = 209.4 in2 ftop = 101.8 −
154 1224.5
154(3.89) + 2(27.7)(9) 106(3)(4.11) 94.5(3)(8 − 5.24)
yb = + +
209.4 1224.5 2307
= 5.24 in. = 1.080 ksi
2--17
At bottom of slab
101.8(2.89)(3.89)
Vu = 302 − 2(12)
10 (0.223)(3)
fbottom = 101.8 +
154 1224.5 = 9.8 k < 22 k ok
106(3)(3.89) 94.5(3)(5.24) Section is composite
− −
1224.5 2307
Check web shear at h/2:
= --0.058 ksi
transfer length = 50(0.5) = 25 in
Calculate flexural strength
at h/2 plus 3 in bearing
wu = 1.4(0.0535 + 0.025 + 0.020)
+ 1.7(0.050) Apsfse = 101.8 258 = 32.6 k
= 0.223 ksf
for composite section, fpc is calculated at centroid
2
Mu = 30 (0.223)(3) of composite section
8
32.6(2.89)(5.24 − 3.89)
= 75.26 ft-k fpc = 32.6 −
154 1224.5
Using ACI Eq. (18-3)
= 0.108 ksi
4(0.153)
ρp =
36(9)
= 0.0019
φVcw = 0.85 3.5 5000
1000
+ 0.3(0.108) (10.5)(9)
fps 0.85
= 270 1 − 0.28 0.0019 270
3
= 22.5k > 9.8 k ok
= 254.8 ksi Check inclined shear at 4 ft
a =
4(0.153)(254.8)
0.85(3)(36)
2
Vu = 30 − 4 (0.223)(3)
= 1.7 in = 7.36k
φMn
= 0.9(4)(0.153)(254.8) 9 − 1.7
2
Vd = 30 − 4 (0.0535 + 0.025 + 0.020)(3)
2
= 1144 in-k = 95.3 ft-k = 3.25k
Check 1.2 Mcr Vi = 7.36 -- 3.25 = 4.11k
fbottom = 101.8 +
154
101.8(2.89)(3.89)
1224.5
Mu = 0.223(3)(4) 30 − 4 = 34.8 ft-k
2 2
= 1.596 ksi
Md = (0.0535 + 0.025 + 0.020)(3)(4) 30 − 4
Mcr
= 2307 1.596 +
5.24
7.5 5000
1000
= 12.25 + 3.12 = 15.37 ft-k
2 2
2--18
φVci = 0.85
0.6 5000
1000
(10.5)(9)
+ 0.85 3.25 +
4.11(53.9)
19.43
= 15.86k > 7.36k ok
2--19
Fig. 2.6.1.1 Fig. 2.6.1.2
fps
Steel Stress
fse
t f fps
d fps req’d.
Length into span greater than
fps available
Strand Development
d
2--20
failure strain will not be achieved. A strain com- Hollow core slab systems are often required to
patibility analysis can be performed to determine carry concentrated or wall loads which may affect
the concrete strain that would be consistent with the rate of moment increase near the member end.
f′ps and nominal strength can then be calculated While not required by ACI, it is suggested that the
using that strain. transfer length and flexural bond length regions
When debonded strands are mixed with fully be investigated for reduced capacity when the mo-
bonded strands, a similar strain compatibility ment gradient is high.
analysis may be required in the flexural bond The development length equations in the ACI
length for the debonded strands. In this case, Code are based on testing conducted with mem-
nominal strength can be calculated in two ways: bers cast with concrete having normal water-ce-
1. Analyze section with all strands at the f′ps for ment ratios. As noted in the Commentary to the
the debonded strands. ACI Code, no slump concrete requires extra pre-
cautions. Hollow core slabs produced with the ex-
2. Analyze section with only fully bonded strands trusion process fall into this category. As original-
at their fps and ignore the debonded strands. ly presented by Anderson and Anderson10 and
The greater of the two results would predict the reinforced by Brooks, Gerstle and Logan18, a
nominal strength of the section. measure of satisfactory bond is the free end slip of
For hollow core slabs, the strain compatibility a member after it is cut to length. A limit on free
analysis for partially developed strand will yield end slip expressed as:
variable results as compared to a traditional ap- f sef si
proach where f′ps is used with a full concrete strain δall = d
6E s b
of 0.003 in/in. If f′ps is close to fse, the strain com-
has been suggested as a maximum free end strand
patibility analysis will predict moment capacity of
slip for using the ACI Code development lengths.
about 85% of the traditional analysis. When f′ps is
This expression approximates the strand shorten-
10% greater than fse, the difference reduces to 5%
ing that would have to occur over the transfer
or less. The additional complexity of the strain
length. For a 1/2″ (12.7 mm) dia. strand stressed
compatibility analysis would only seem war-
initially to 189 ksi (1300 MPa), the free end slip
ranted when flexural cracking is expected near the
should not exceed about 3/32″ (2.4 mm) if the ACI
transfer point or when debonded strands are used.
Code transfer and development lengths are to be
There are several aspects of a bond length dis-
used.
cussion that are significant to hollow core slab de-
When free end slip exceeds δall, the transfer
sign. In many framing schemes, there will be a re-
length and the flexural bond length will increase.
quirement to use very short slabs to fill in an area.
Shear strength in the transfer length and moment
With fully developed strands, these slabs will nor-
capacity in the flexural bond length will be de-
mally have very large load capacities. However,
creased and the length into the span where full
capacity may be reduced because the strands
moment capacity is provided will be increased.
might only be partially developed. For example,
If the free end strand slip is known from quality
for a slab prestressed with 1/2″ (12.7 mm) φ, 270
control measurements, the member capacity can
ksi (1860 MPa) strands with fse = 150 ksi (1034
be evaluated with consideration of extended
MPa) and fps = 260 ksi (1790 MPa):
transfer and flexural bond lengths. As a function
ℓ d = f ps − 2 f sed b of measured end slip, the transfer length and flex-
3 ural bond length can be calculated for each strand
= 260 − 2 150 0.5
3
as follows:
ℓ t = 2δsEs/fsi
= 80″ = 6′-8″ (2030 mm)
This slab would have to be two development ℓ f = 6δsEs(fps -- fse)/(fsifse)
lengths, or 13′-4″ (4.1 m) long in order to develop Shear strength can be evaluated by substituting
its full design strength. A shorter slab would have the extended transfer length for 50 db in evaluat-
reduced capacity. ing the rate of increase of prestress. Flexural
2--21
Fig. 2.6.1.3 Effect of End Slip
80.00
Moment (ft-k)
60.00
Moment Capacity
with 5/32" End Slip
40.00
Moment Capacity
20.00 Uniform Load
with Normal End Slip
Moment Diagram
0.00
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0
80.00
Moment (ft-k)
60.00
Moment Capacity
with 5/32" End Slip
40.00
Moment Capacity
20.00 Uniform Load
with Normal End Slip
Moment Diagram
0.00
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0
strength calculations are affected only by the ex- The following example demonstrates the use of
tension of the strand development length and po- the Martin and Korkosz strain compatibility anal-
tential reduction of f′ps. The strain compatibility ysis for partially developed strand and the use of
analysis suggested by Martin and Korkosz for free end slip for evaluating strength. The proce-
sections with partially developed strand becomes dure illustrated is also valid with normal end slip
more complex as there can be variation in devel- by using the appropriate transfer and bond
opment lengths within a given member. lengths.
Figure 2.6.1.3 illustrates the change in moment
Example 2.6.1.1 Initial Strand Slip
capacity for the generic slab of Section 1.7 from
Given the generic hollow core slab defined in
normal slip to 5/32 in (4 mm) slip on all strands. In
Section 1.7, calculate the design flexural strength
(a), the span length is 30 ft (9.1 m) and there would
given the following:
be no change in slab capacity for uniform load. In
(b), the span is reduced to 25 ft (7.6 m) and it is Prestressing steel: 4-1/2″ dia., 270 ksi low
clear that the extended development length would relaxation strands.
result in reduced capacity even with uniform load. Es = 28500 ksi
End slip in excess of normal slip has a more signif- dp = 7″
icant effect in shorter slabs. f′c = 5000 psi
2--22
fsi = 185 ksi T = C
fse = 163.4 ksi Find
fps = 267 ksi c = 2.18″
δs = 3/16 in. all strands
εc = 0.000929 in/in
Solution:
Concrete stress at top
ℓ t = 2(3/16)(28500)/185
= 4300(0.000929)
= 57.8″
= 3.995 ksi
ℓ f = 6(3/16)(28500)(267 -- 163.4)/185/163.4
= 109.9″ Concrete stress at top of core
2.18 − 1.25
ℓ d = 57.8 + 109.9 = (3.995) = 1.704 ksi
2.18
= 167.7″
3.984 + 1.704
The minimum slab length required to achieve C1 = (1.25)(36)
full flexural capacity is 2(167.7)/12 or 28 ft. Cal- 2
culate flexural capacity at 10 ft. = 128k
10x12 − 57.8 C2 = 1.704 (10.5)(2.18 -- 1.25)
f′ps = 163.4 + (267 -- 163.4) 2
109.9
= 222 ksi = 8.3k
Apsf′ps = 4(0.153)(222) Mn = (135.9(7 -- 0.54) -- 8.3(1.56 -- 0.54))/12
= 135.9k = 72.45 ft-k
Traditional analysis
a = 135.9 = 0.89 in.
.85536
Mn = 135.9(7 -- 0.89/2)/12
= 74.24 ft-k
Strain compatibility analysis
Ec c
c C1
C2
dp
T = Apsf’ps
s
εps = εse + εs
εse = 163.4/28500
= 0.00573 in/in
εps = 222/28500
= 0.00779 in/in
εs = 0.00779 -- 0.00573
= 0.00206 in/in
Using trial and error for
2--23
CHAPTER 3
3--1
Fig. 3.2.1
V1 V1 V2 V2 V3
V1 > V2 > V3
stresses must then be resisted by plain concrete. The two basic design parameters considered
The magnitude of load concentration causing the for hollow core slabs are flexure and shear. De-
transverse tension must be limited to preclude a sign for flexure is straightforward with the effec-
splitting failure. See Section 3.2.2. tive load resisting width being a function of the
Several factors affect the ability of a slab sys- span length. Conversely, shear design is compli-
tem to distribute loads to adjacent slabs. As the cated by torsions developed in the system. If tor-
width of an assembly of slabs gets narrower than sion is not to be used as a design parameter, direct
the span length, a reduction in the number of slabs shear must then be modified to reflect the increase
contributing to the support of a concentration of in shear stress from the torsion.
load occurs. This occurs because the freedom of Figure 3.2.2 depicts a method of establishing
the free edges of the system to deflect and twist be- an effective resisting section for any type of load
comes more significant. A second factor is the to be distributed between slabs. In the midspan re-
spacing of the slab joints. With slabs available in gions, the effective width is defined as a function
widths ranging from 2 feet to 8 feet (0.6 to 2.4 m), of span length. At the supports, the effective
some differences in load distribution behavior can width is defined as an absolute width. The width
be expected. Finally, the span length affects the at the support is restricted to account for shear
number of contributing slabs. As span length stresses due to torsion. Use of these resisting sec-
changes for a wide system, the interaction of flex- tions will result in prediction of peak values of
ural and torsional stiffnesses changes. For longer moment and shear. That is, the effective width
spans, flexural stiffness reduces relative to tor- concept is simply a mechanism used to determine
sional stiffness. This results in relatively less slab the maximum design moments and shears rather
rotation and less transverse curvature. The result than a depiction of the actual load path through the
is that more slabs can contribute to distribution on system.
longer spans as long as the system is wide relative The performance of slab systems indicates that
to its length. shear and moment might affect additional slabs.
For example, for a load located some distance
from a free edge, the peak moment due to that load
3.2.2 Design Guidelines can be predicted by assuming the load is resisted
ACI 318-95 recognizes the load transfer capa- by a width equal to 0.50ℓ. In reality, in flexure, a
bilities of hollow core slabs in Section 16.3.1. total width equal to 85% to 90% of the span length
That section specifies that distribution of forces might have some moment attributable to that load.
be established by analysis or test. The guidelines In shear, the 1′-0″ (0.3m) effective section at the
presented here were based on extensive, full scale support at a free edge may be used to predict the
testing of a specific slab system. Additionally, a peak shear but, because of torsion, the total reac-
comparison of these guidelines to an analytical tion due to an edge load will not actually be con-
study has been done. Therefore, the guidelines centrated in the 1′-0″ (0.3m).
presented here should satisfy the requirement of Several limitations should be recognized for
ACI (318-95) 16.3.1. Figure 3.2.2.
3--2
Fig. 3.2.2 Effective resisting width of slab for load anywhere along span
0.25
0.50
0.25
4’-0" 1’-0"
Interpolate
Interpolate
0.50 0.25
1) As the width of the system becomes narrow- tablished by test for each slab system. Ref-
er than the span length, the effective resist- erence 23 provides guidance for edge loads.
ing widths will become narrower.
The concept of using an effective resisting sec-
2) For extremely high span-depth ratios (in ex- tion is subtlely different from the traditional con-
cess of approximately 50), the effective sec- cept of load distribution width. Traditionally,
tion at midspan may be reduced by 10 to 20 loads have been divided by distribution widths for
percent. design. Using an effective resisting section means
that a given load is resisted by a varying width de-
3) For spans less than about 10 ft, the effective pending on the location of the section being inves-
width at the support may become narrower. tigated in the span. This is best illustrated by ex-
ample.
4) Local load concentrations can cause longi-
tudinal splitting failures due to transverse Example 3.2.1 General Case
bending in the system. Punching shear type Given an untopped hollow core system using
failures can also occur. The magnitude of 36″ wide slabs as shown in Figure 3.2.3, deter-
concentrated loads must be limited to pre- mine the slab design loads. Slab weight = 53.5 psf
clude such failures. These limits are best es-
3--3
Fig. 3.2.3.
5 ’-6 "
P1
9 ’-6 "
w1
P2
25’-0"
6 ’-0" P2
w1
P1
9 ’-6 "
5 ’-6 "
3--4
Table 3.2.1 Shears and Moments for Example 3.2.1
Non-distributed Distributable Effective Final
Loads Loads Width
x Vux Mux Vux Mux DWx Vu(k/ft) Mu(ft-k/ft)
0 1.96 0 34.34 0 4.0 10.55 0
h/2 1.91 0.65 33.45 11.28 4.45 9.43 3.18
1 1.81 1.88 31.66 33.0 5.36 7.72 8.04
2 1.65 3.61 28.98 63.32 6.72 5.96 13.03
3 1.49 5.18 26.31 90.98 8.08 4.75 16.44
4 1.33 6.59 23.63 115.94 9.44 3.83 18.87
5 1.18 7.85 20.95 138.23 10.80 3.12 20.65
6 1.02 8.95 15.87 156.64 12.16 2.32 21.83
7 0.86 9.89 13.19 171.17 12.5 1.92 23.58
10 0.39 11.78 0 195.78 12.5 0.39 27.44
11 0.24 12.09 0 195.78 12.5 0.24 27.75
12.5 0 12.27 0 195.78 12.5 0 27.93
25’-0 "
D = 10 psf D = 10 psf
L = 40 psf L = 40 psf
Given the system shown, determine the design Given the system shown select a generic slab
load. from Figure 1.7.1 to support the loads shown.
Solution: Solution:
Make preliminary selection based on flexure:
Shear is judged to be not critical
From Figure 3.2.2 the effective width resisting 250 + 200
Superimposed w = 10 + 40 +
the line load is 0.50ℓ = 0.50(25) = 12.5 ft 0.5025
= 86 psf
Determine the design superimposed load:
Select 4 - 7/16″, 270 ksi low relaxation strands
w = 40 + 10 + 250/12.5 from Figure 1.7.1
First shear check
= 70 psf
effective width at support = 4′-0″ = DW
Using the generic slab load table in Figure 1.7.1 wu = 1.4(10 + 53.5) + 1.7(40)
select an 8″ slab with 4 - 7/16″ diameter strands. + (1.4 x 250 + 1.7 x 200)/DW
If it is not known whether shear is critical, sim- = 157 + 690/DW
ple iterative checks may be made.
Using DW = 4.0
3--5
Example 3.2.4
10’ 10’
9’-6"
25’-0"
6’-0"
9’-6"
Typ. wall load Effective
width Typ. point load
D = 300 plf
D = 1800#
L = 400 plf
L = 2880#
Uniform loads: slab wt = 53.5 psf
D = 10 psf
L = 40 psf
wu = 157 + 690/4.0 = 330 psf Therefore, shear check is complete and slab is ad-
equate.
Check shear based on this load and find
@ h/2 Vu = 4.02 k/ft and φVcw = 6.04 k OK To summarize the steps taken to check shear in
Example 3.2.3, distributable loads were divided
@ 3.0 ft Vu = 3.13 k/ft and φVci = 3.05 k NG by the effective width at the support to make a
conservative shear check. If shear along the span
Second Shear Check is found to be satisfactory, no further steps are re-
Inclined shear did not check at 3.0 ft so deter- quired and the shear check is complete. If shear in
mine effective width at 3.0 ft, recalculate distrib- the span at some point is found to be inadequate,
uted load and recheck shear. the effective width at that point is used to calcu-
lated a new load which will then be conservative
At ℓ/4, DW = 0.5ℓ = 0.5(25) = 12.5 ft for points further into the span. Shear is re-
At support, DW = 4.0 ft checked. This iterative approach is used until all
points further into the span check for shear. If
Interpolate at 3 ft, DW = 3 (12.5 -- 4) + 4 shear works for a given situation, generally no
25∕4 more than three cycles will be required.
= 8.08 ft A combination of loads will be used to further
wu = 157 + 690/DW demonstrate this method in the following exam-
ple.
= 157 + 690/8.08
= 242 psf
Example 3.2.4
Given the center bay of an apartment building
Again check shear at 3.0 ft and beyond and find as shown, design for the applied loads using the
φVci > Vu at all points. generic slab shown in Figure 1.7.1
3--6
Solution: x h/2 1.09′ 1.85′ 2.61′ 3.37′
Select preliminary slab based on flexure: Vu k/ft 7.11 6.93 6.45 6.12 5.79
Use DW = 0.50ℓ = 0.5(25) = 12.5 ft φVn k/ft 6.30 7.79 8.44 6.09 4.79
Because wall and point loads are spaced closer
than 12.5 ft, conservatively use spacing of loads as
Note that web shear at h/2 does not work. No
DW.
further modifications can be made to adjust the
At design strip:
shear calculation. Shear enhancement is required
in the form of stirrups, solid cores, higher concrete
468# 468# strength or using a deeper section.
Proceed to check inclined shear which was not
adequate at 2.61 ft.
70 70 Recalculate effective width at 2.61 ft as:
50 = 2.61 0.5ℓ − 4 + 4
0.25ℓ
= 2.61 (12.5 -- 4) + 4 = 7.54′
6.25
1758# 1758#
wu = 157 + 1100/7.54 = 303 psf
Pu = 7416/7.54 = 984 plf
1800 + 2880
Point loads = = 468 plf Obtain the following results:
10
300 + 400 x 2.61 3.37 4.14 4.90 5.66
Parallel walls = = 70 psf
10 Vu k/ft 3.97 3.74 3.51 3.28 3.05
Uniform load = 10 + 40 = 50 psf φVn k/ft 6.07 4.77 3.94 3.36 2.94
M = 11,511 ft-#/ft
equivalent uniform load = 8 x 11511/252 Inclined shear is now adequate to a distance of
= 147 psf 5.66 ft into the span. Recalculate the effective
width at 5.66 ft.
Select 4-1/2″, 270 ksi, low relaxation strands
capacity = 148 psf at 25 ft. 5.66 0.5ℓ − 4 + 4
Check shear 0.25ℓ
For design strip = 11.7 ft
including slab wt.
wu = 1.4(10 + 53.5)) + 1.7(40) Note that loads are located only 10 ft apart
+ (1.4 x 300 + 1.7 x 400)/DW which means that design strips would start to
overlap. For this case, the maximum effective
= 157 + 1100/DW
width might be used as the distance between
Pu = (1.4 x 1800 + 1.7 x 2880)/DW loads, or 10 feet, rather than 0.5 ℓ.
= 7416/DW wu = 157 + 1100/10 = 267 psf
3--7
3.3 Effect of Openings Fig. 3.3.1 Effects of openings
Openings may be provided in hollow core sys-
tems by saw cutting after a deck is installed and
grouted, by shoring and saw cutting, by forming
or sawing the openings in the plant or by installing > 3/8 0.25 0.25
short slabs with steel headers. Some typical head-
er configurations are shown in Section 5.7. In lay-
ing out openings for a project, the least structural
effect will be obtained by orienting the longest di- > 3/8
mension of an opening parallel to a span, or by
coring small holes to cut the fewest prestressing (a)
strands, or when several openings must be pro-
vided, aligning the openings parallel to the span to
again cut the least number of prestressing strands.
For slab design, openings cause load con-
centrations which may be distributed over the slab < 3/8 0.25
system as discussed in Section 3.2. As with non-
uniform loads, openings cause torsion in the slabs.
Therefore, the method of determining shear ade- 0.25 0.25
quacy must also consider the effects of torsion on
the shear stresses. In flexure, the primary consid-
< 3/8 0.25
erations are the length of the opening parallel to
the span and the length of strand embedment
1’-0 " 1’-0 "
available from the end of an opening to the point
(b)
of maximum moment.
Figure 3.3.1 shows some general opening loca-
tions with suggested interpretations of the effec-
tive resisting slab width described in Section 3.2.
Local slab producers may have information which
would allow different design approaches for their 0.5
particular slab.
Figure 3.3.1(a) depicts a relatively small open-
ing located at midspan. In flexure, the load from
the short slabs can be resisted by slabs within 0.25
0.25 ℓ on each side of the opening. As a guideline,
if an end of the opening shown is not closer to the 1’-0 " 1’-0 "
support than 3/8 ℓ, there will be no special consid- (c)
3--8
neglected when considering flexure. However,
some capacity reduction might be required for the
6’
D = 10 psf
slab with the opening when strand embedment L = 40 psf
25’-0"
length is less than full required development.
19’
When non-uniform loads are superimposed in the
area of an end opening, these loads should be con-
sidered as being at a free edge for shear calcula- Slab wt = 53.5 psf
3’
tions.
2’
load on strip with opening
Slab wt = 53.5 psf
w = 3(10 + 40 + 53.5)
= 311 plf
Given the slab system shown, select a generic for flexure and preliminary slab selection use ef-
slab from Figure 1.7.1 to carry the loads given fective width = 0.25 ℓ to each side
considering the opening. 311∕2
w = 10 + 40 +
0.2525
Solution:
= 75 psf
Check proximity of opening to support
3/8 ℓ = 0.375(25) = 9.38′ Try 4 - 7/16″ dia., 270 ksi, low relaxation strands
11.5′ > 9.38′ no special shear Check Shear
considerations effective width at support = 1′-0″ each side
Distribute load from strip with opening: wu = 1.4(10 + 53.5) + 1.7(40) +
superimposed w = 10 + 40 = 50 psf 3[1.4(10 + 53.5) + 1.740)]∕2
load on strip with opening =
DW
2(10 + 40 + 53.5) = 207 plf
= 157 + 235/DW
distributing 1/2 of strip load each side
where DW = effective width on each side
207∕2 wu = 157 + 235/1 = 392 psf
w = 50 +
0.25ℓ
Using this load, obtain:
= 50 + 104
0.2525 x h/2 1.1 1.85 2.61 3.37 4.14
= 67 psf Vu k/ft 4.77 4.47 4.17 3.87 3.58 3.28
φVn k/ft 6.08 7.29 6.62 4.80 3.80 3.15
Select, from Figure 1.7.1, 4 - 3/8″ dia., 270 ksi,
Shear is adequate to 4.14 ft into span.
low relaxation strands
Modify effective width at 4.14 ft
Example 3.3.2 DW = 4.14 (0.25ℓ − 1) + 1
0.25ℓ
Given the floor system shown, select a generic
slab from Figure 1.7.1 to carry the loads given. = 4.14 (6.25 -- 1) + 1
6.25
3--9
= 4.48 ft duced. A detailed discussion of this is presented
in Section 6.3.3.
wu = 157 + 235/DW
= 157 + 235/4.48 3.5 Cantilevers
Cantilever design in hollow core slabs differs
= 209 psf from design with conventional precast members
because of the production procedures used for
Find shear is adequate at 4.14 ft and all points fur-
hollow core slabs. Guidelines noted here are con-
ther into span. Use 4 - 7/16″ dia., 270 ksi, low re-
servative and may be exceeded depending on the
laxation strands.
specific product used.
Because long line beds are used for the produc-
3.4 Continuity tion of hollow core slabs, top prestressing strands
Hollow core slabs are normally designed as may be economical only when full bed capacity is
part of a simple span system. However, continuity utilized. Even then, substantial amounts of pre-
over supports can be achieved by placing rein- stressing strand may be used inefficiently because
forcing steel in the grouted keyways, in a compos- of debonding requirements. The economics of us-
ite structural topping, or by concreting bars into ing top strand must, therefore, be determined by
cores. Within limits, the result will be better con- the local producer.
trol of superimposed load deflections and a lower When top strands are used, the length of the
requirement for positive moment capacity. cantilever is usually not sufficient to fully develop
With reinforcing steel in either a composite a strand. A reduced value for fps is required and
topping or in cores, elastic moments with allow- the design procedures given in Section 2.6 should
ance for negative moment redistribution deter- be used. In dry cast systems, the bond of top
mine the amount of reinforcing required. Because strands may be less than desired so a further re-
of the relative efficiencies of positive prestressing duction in fps is required. This reduction may be
steel and negative mild reinforcing, it is difficult substantial and each producer should be consulted
to economically justify a continuous system de- on top strand bond performance.
sign. When top strands are not economical,
When reinforcing is required at supports for non-prestressed reinforcement may be placed in
reasons such as structural integrity ties or dia- the cores or directly in the unit in the case of a wet
phragm connections, the reinforcing ratios are cast product. This is generally done while the slab
generally quite low, and therefore, develop little concrete is still plastic so bond of the fill concrete
moment capacity. While this reinforcing may be with the slab may be achieved. The reinforcement
considered in calculating service load deflections, is selected based on conventional design with due
it is recommended that full simple span positive consideration given to bar development length.
moment capacity be provided for strength design With either top strands or reinforcing bars, it
unless moment-curvature relationships existing at may be necessary to debond portions of the bot-
the supports at ultimate loads are known. tom prestressing strand in the cantilever zone to
One situation that seems reasonable for consid- help minimize the top tension under service loads.
ering a reduction in the positive moment require- Not all producers have the ability to debond bot-
ments is where the slabs are required to have a fire tom strands which could potentially limit cantile-
rating developed using the rational design proce- ver length or load capacity.
dure. In this case, a limit analysis approach would It is desirable to limit service level tensions in
be reasonable. cantilevers so that uncracked section properties
The negative moment reinforcing, which is un- may be used to more accurately predict deflec-
affected by fire loads, can develop full yield mo- tions. The tensile stress limit may vary for differ-
ment potential and effectively provide a plastic ent systems used. For example, the practice with
hinge at the support. As a result, the positive mo- some dry cast systems is to limit tensile stresses to
ment at midspan may be correspondingly re- 100 psi (0.7 MPa). In other dry cast systems and in
3--10
wet cast systems, the limit may be raised to 6 f′ c. = --0.491 ksi (tension)
The tension limit will basically be a function of a Net tension with fully bonded bottom strands:
producer’s past experience.
ft = --0.176 + 0.463 -- 0.491
As a rule of thumb, cantilever lengths falling in
the range of 6 to 12 times the slab thickness will be = --0.204 ksi
workable depending on the superimposed load
and individual producer’s capabilities. Allow 6 5000 = 0.424 ksi OK
Note that some of the bottom strands could
Example 3.5.1 Cantilever Design have been debonded for the length of the cantile-
Using the generic hollow core slab section de- ver if top tensile stresses had exceeded a desirable
fined in Section 1.7, design for the following level.
conditions shown in Figure 3.5.1.
Stresses in backspan:
Fig. 3.5.1
200 plf D.L.
Because the backspan is long in this example,
stresses will not be critical in the backspan. When
40 psf L.L. the backspan is short relative to the cantilever
15 psf D.L.
length, stresses may require a check in the back-
26’ 7’ span to determine the length of bonding of the top
4.06 ft-k/ft strands.
D.L. + L.L.
2.87’ Ultimate Strength
7.25 ft-k/ft
5.98 ft-k/ft At the cantilever, strain compatibility will gen-
Full (D.L. + L.L.) u erally show that the bottom strands may be ig-
2.82’
nored in determining the nominal moment capac-
11.02 ft-k/ft
5.98 ft-k/ft ity. When the bottom prestress is very heavy or
D.L.u on backspan the bottom strands are high in the slab, a strain
4.79’ (D.L. + L.L.) on
5.39 ft-k/ft
u compatibility analysis should be performed con-
cantilever
sidering both strand layers.
Solution: For this example, assume the bottom strands
may be ignored.
From the load table in Figure 1.7.1, select 4 -
3/ ″
8 dia., 270 ksi strands as the primary reinforce-
ment. Try 2 - 3/8″ dia., 270 ksi, low relaxation
fps = 270 1 − 0.28
0.8
2(0.085)(270)
(36)(7)(5)
strands as cantilever reinforcement. Assume 15%
losses and 70% initial stress. = 265 ksi
3--11
Design summary
3--12
Fig. 3.6.1 Common platform details
w w w tg w
(a) (b)
w tg w
(c)
3--13
Fig. 3.6.2. Force distribution in horizontal joint Solution:
Loads
Roof: wu = 28 (1.4(53.5+15)+1.7(30))
= 4.ll klf
Pu Floors: wu = 28 (1.4(53.5+10)+1.7(40))
= 4.39 klf
V1 V2 Walls: wu = 1.4(800)
= 1.12 klf/story
Accumulate loads above floor noted
Floor wu Σwu
18 4.11 + 1.12 5.23
17 4.39 + 1.12 10.74
1-k Pu + V1 1-k Pu + V2
2 kPu 2 16 5.51 16.25
2/3w 15 5.51 21.76
2/3w
14 5.51 27.27
13 5.51 32.78
result. The splitting strength of the bearing wall is 12 5.51 38.29
reduced when the normal force restraining slab 11 5.51 43.80
end rotation is considered. Secondly, the joint or
slab may crack to relieve the frictional restraint. 10 5.51 49.31
This condition is undesirable from either the 9 5.51 54.82
standpoint of joint or slab integrity. Reinforcing 8 5.51 60.33
normal to the slab butt joint is most efficient for
controlling this condition. To date, there are no 7 5.51 65.84
published studies to evaluate effects of this rota- 6 5.51 71.35
tional restraint. No adverse effects have been 5 5.51 76.86
cited when nominal diaphragm or structural integ-
rity reinforcement has been provided across the 4 5.51 82.37
joint. 3 5.51 87.88
2 5.51 93.39
Example 3.6.1
Using the generic hollow core slab section de- a) Evaluate capacity of ungrouted joint (Fig.
fined in Section 1.7, determine the grouting re- 3.6.1(a))
quirements for an interior butt joint as depicted in bw = 10.5″ for generic slab = 3.5 in/ft of
Figure 3.6.1(a) given the following criteria: width
Slab span: 28 feet f′c (slab) = 5000 psi
18 story building with:
3 in bearing strips
8″ concrete bearing walls
f′c wall = 5000 psi φPn = φ0.85 Ae f′c Re (Eq. 3.6.1)
Loads: Roof -- DL = 15 psf LL = 30 psf
Floors -- DL = 10 psf LL = 40 psf
φPn = 0.7(0.85)(2)(3)(3.5)(5) 1 −
2(0)
8
Walls -- DL = 800 plf/story = 62.48 k/ft
LL Reduction: None for example Adequate for Floors 8 through roof
3--14
b) Evaluate strength of grouted joint using Use 1/2 in butt joint with cores filled below 8th
3000 psi grout for floor.
1) 2 in butt joint with no filled cores (Fig.
3.6.1(b)) It should be noted that this example may over-
state the height of building that can be supported
φPn = φ 0.85Aef′cRe (Eq. 3.6.1)
on an ungrouted joint. Concentrated loads due to
= 0.7(0.85)(2)(3)(3.5)(5) 1 −
2(0)
8
corridor lintels, wall openings, or exterior span-
drels must also be considered in most buildings re-
= 62.48 k/ft sulting in an increase in load to be transferred
or through the horizontal joint.
= 0.7(0.85)(2)(3)(12)(3) 1 −
2(0)
8
= 128.5 k/ft
or
φPn = φtg ℓfuCRe/k (Eq. 3.6.2)
fu = 3000 psi
C = 1.4 2500∕3000 = 1.28
k = 0.65 + (3000 -- 2500)/50,000 = 0.66
φPn = 0.7(0.5)(12)(3)(1.28)
x 1− 2(0)
8
∕0.66
3--15
CHAPTER 4
4--1
based on the building location, an exposure cate- wpx = portion of W at level under consideration
gory is selected based on the surrounding terrain, The magnitude of Fpx need not exceed
an importance factor is selected based on the oc- 0.75ZIwpx but shall not be less than 0.35 ZIwpx.
cupancy of the building, modifying factors are de- Many other requirements are included in the UBC
termined for the geometry of the building and the code which are not restated in this summary.
design positive and negative wind pressures are The BOCA code prescribes a seismic design
calculated. procedure. A very important note is that the
For seismic loads, the two codes take different BOCA provisions result in forces that are already
approaches. The UBC code allows an equivalent factored and are intended to be used with ultimate
static load approach for many building types. For strength design methods with no additional load
others, where certain heights or irregularities are factors. The base shear is calculated as:
present, a dynamic lateral force procedure is re- V = CsW (Eq. 4.2.3.)
quired. The static force procedure allows design
for a base shear of: where
V = ZIC W (Eq. 4.2.1) Cs = coefficient related to peak velocity-related
Rw acceleration, soil profile, structural system
where type and building fundamental period
Z = seismic zone factor W = total dead load plus other applicable loads
I = importance factor The base shear is distributed over the height of
C = factor dependent on site and structure fun- the building in proportion to the distribution of the
damental period building mass with consideration of the building
period. A minimum eccentricity of 5% of the per-
Rw = coefficient dependent on structural system pendicular building dimension is also required by
type BOCA when distributing forces to the lateral-re-
W = total dead load plus other applicable loads sisting elements. For Seismic Performance Cate-
This base shear is then distributed over the gories B and greater, each floor or roof diaphragm
height of the structure in proportion to the dis- shall be designed for a minimum load equal to
tribution of weights over the height. Additionally, 50% of the effective peak velocity-related accel-
a minimum eccentricity of 5% of the building di- eration times the weight attributable to the level
mension perpendicular to the direction being con- under consideration. The peak velocity-related
sidered shall be included when determining the acceleration is determined by the project location.
distribution of forces to the lateral-resisting ele- Again, there are many provisions in the BOCA
ments when the diaphragm is not flexible. Specif- code which are not covered in this summary.
ic to diaphragms, for Zones 2, 3, and 4, the UBC In light of the performance of some diaphragms
requires that a floor or roof diaphragm resist a in recent earthquakes, the seismic demand on dia-
force equal to: phragms is an area of new focus. Preliminary in-
n dications are that diaphragms should remain elas-
Ft + Σ Fi tic during a seismic event to ensure that post-elas-
i=x
Fpx = n w px (Eq. 4.2.2) tic behavior can be achieved in the
Σ wi lateral-resisting elements. By designing a dia-
i=x
phragm to remain elastic, several things are ac-
where complished. Diaphragm flexibility, discussed in
Fpx = force applied to diaphragm at level under Section 4.3 will be less significant. The ductility
consideration requirements for connection details will be of less
Ft = additional portion of base shear applied at concern. The horizontal distribution of forces to
top level lateral-resisting elements can be maintained.
The building code provisions summarized
Fi = portion of base shear applied at level i above are based on achieving post-elastic perfor-
wi = portion of W at level i mance. To keep a diaphragm compatible with
4--2
Fig. 4.3.1 Diaphragm bending moments
w w
M-
Moment Moment
M+ M+
M+ M+
Flexible diaphram on Rigid diaphram on
Rigid supports flexible supports
(a) (b)
4--3
tion 1631.1 that this consideration would only ap- Fig. 4.4.1 Tie forces in bearing wall buildings
ply in seismic zones 2, 3, and 4. The BOCA code
simply states that the horizontal distribution of
forces consider the relative stiffnesses of the later-
1
al-resisting system and the diaphragm. This pro-
vision would apply to Seismic Performance Cate- b T2
gories B and greater. By code then, diaphragm 2
4--4
web. (Also called dia- ing element as an axial tension or compression.
phragm strut.) Drag struts are not required for structural integrity
Longitudinal joint: Joint oriented parallel to the as long as the diaphragm is connected directly to
slab span. the lateral-resisting elements. Drag struts simply
Transverse joint: Joint oriented perpendicular spread out shears that might otherwise be highly
to the slab span. localized. Under the UBC code, it is implied that
To satisfy structural integrity, all diaphragms drag struts are required elements in Zones 2, 3,
should have boundary elements of some type. and 4. The BOCA code is silent on the use of drag
The boundary elements are essential to ensure that struts, but it can be implied that they are required
a diaphragm will have the strength to transfer lat- for Seismic Performance Categories B and great-
eral loads to the lateral-resisting system. As a er.
chord, tension reinforcement is placed in the When a bonded structural topping is used with
boundary element to allow the diaphragm to act as a hollow core slab diaphragm, these elements can
a deep horizontal beam or tied arch. This rein- be provided directly by reinforcement in the top-
forcement can also provide shear friction steel for ping. When no topping is provided, these ele-
shear transfer along the longitudinal joints. ments are developed as grouted or concrete ele-
Collectors are required in all diaphragms to ments external to the hollow core slabs. As a sim-
transfer forces from the diaphragm to the lateral- ple example, Figure 4.5.2 depicts two common
resisting elements. Such connectors are also re- boundary conditions. In (a), the boundary rein-
quired for structural integrity to provide a com- forcement is placed in a masonry bond beam and
plete load path for lateral forces to the foundation. the collector reinforcement is placed in the key-
Collectors may also function to get forces into a ways between slabs. In (b), the boundary rein-
diaphragm. forcement is placed in a grouted or concrete filled
Drag struts act to engage a longer length of dia- space at the end of the slabs. The collector rein-
phragm web for transferring diaphragm shears forcement is again placed in the keyways between
into the lateral-resisting elements. A drag strut is slabs. The primary difference between the details
parallel to the applied load, receives load from the is that the boundary reinforcement in (a) is eccen-
diaphragm and transfers load to the lateral-resist- tric from the diaphragm web while it is concentric
Lateral - Resisting
Element
Boundary Element
Drag
(chord)
Strut
Drag Strut
Lateral
Resisting
Element
Transverse
Joint
Collector
Load
Lateral - Resisting Boundary Element Longitudinal
Element (chord) Joint
4--5
Fig. 4.5.2 Boundary elements
(a) (b)
in (b). The concentric boundary element will ex- Fig. 4.6.1 Shear friction steel in butt joint
hibit better performance in a seismic situation and
should be used in Zones 3 and 4 under the UBC or
Seismic Performance Categories C, D and E un-
der the BOCA code.
4--6
Fig. 4.6.2 Alternate longitudinal shear Fig. 4.6.3 Collector detail
connections
Bar Spacing
by Design
Intermittent slab
cut-outs
4--7
4.6.2 Transverse Joints Mu
Vh = (Eq. 4.6.5)
The transverse joints serve many functions. As jh
described in Section 4.6.1, reinforcement in the In the first case, a unit shear is calculated and shear
transverse joints may provide the shear friction re- friction reinforcement is distributed according to
inforcement for shear in the longitudinal joints. the shear diagram. In the second case, the total
The transverse joint may also have to act as a drag shear is calculated as the tension or compression
strut with axial tension or compression to carry di- of the internal couple. In this case, shear friction
aphragm loads to the lateral-resisting elements. A reinforcement is uniformly distributed over the
transverse joint may also be the chord member length between zero moment and maximum mo-
where flexural tension is resisted. Finally, an inte- ment. It is suggested that the shear friction rein-
rior transverse joint disrupts the web of the hori- forcement be distributed according to the shear
zontal beam where horizontal shear would have to diagram in UBC zones 3 and 4 and BOCA Seis-
be transferred to maintain the composite depth of mic Performance Categories C, D and E to mini-
the diaphragm. mize the force redistribution required with a uni-
The design of shear friction reinforcement for form spacing.
longitudinal joint shear is covered in Section Because of the orientation of the joints and the
4.6.1. Drag strut reinforcement is calculated sim- loading directions considered, the reinforcement
ply as: in the transverse joint discussed above is not all
T additive. Typically, the chord tension and longitu-
As = u (Eq. 4.6.3) dinal joint shear will be concurrent. The drag strut
Ôf y
tension will typically occur with loads applied in
Chord tension is resisted by reinforcement to pro- the perpendicular direction.
vide flexural strength to the diaphragm. It is sug-
gested that the effective depth of the reinforce- 4.7 Collectors
ment from the compression side of the diaphragm Collectors function as connections to transfer
be limited to 0.8 times the depth of the diaphragm. forces into diaphragms and from diaphragms to
Hence, the chord reinforcement is calculated as: boundary elements, drag struts or lateral-resisting
Mu elements. The preceding discussion has indicated
As = (Eq. 4.6.4)
Ô0.8hf y that reinforcing bars may be used as collectors us-
ing shear friction design procedures. As shear
where friction reinforcement, the steel is used in tension
h = depth of the diaphragm to resist a shear force. In detailing the steel, a
crack plane is defined and the bars must be an-
φ = 0.9 chored for full strength on each side of the crack
Because diaphragms tend to act as tied arches plane. For anchorage at a transverse boundary
rather than beams, tension in the chord reinforce- element, the bars may be grouted into the keyways
ment does not go to zero at the ends of the dia- or into slab cores where the top of the core is cut
phragm. The chord reinforcement must be an- away. Concrete is then used to fill the cores for the
chored at the ends of the diaphragm where a stan- length of the bar embedment. Based on a review
dard hook at the corner will suffice. For of the literature, it is not clear when anchorage of
horizontal shear in the web of the diaphragm, a collector bars in keyways is sufficient and when
shear parallel to the transverse joint is developed. the collector bars should be placed in slab cores.
Shear friction reinforcement perpendicular to the There is a concern that as the boundary element
transverse joint and embedded in the slab key- and keyway crack, anchorage for a collector bar in
ways can be used to reinforce for this shear. The a keyway may be lost. Deformations and revers-
applied shear can be calculated as: ible loading in a seismic event would suggest that
anchoring collector bars in slab cores would be
V Q
Vh = u preferable in more intense seismic areas. In keep-
I ing with code philosophy, it is suggested that bars
or be anchored in slab cores in UBC zones 3 and 4
4--8
Fig. 4.9.1 Example Problem
8 @ 25’-0"= 200’-0"
30’
20’
80’
30’
30’
30’
and BOCA Seismic Performance Categories C design forces. It is suggested that a topping be
and greater. considered in high seismic zones in buildings with
In non-seismic and low seismic design situa- plan irregularities or large diaphragm span to
tions, the collectors need not be reinforcing bars. depth ratios.
Particularly for direct connections to lateral-re- Untopped hollow core diaphragms are sug-
sisting elements, welded and bolted connections gested when the diaphragm force system is
will suffice for the collector connections when straightforward and the in-plane diaphragm
they are compatible with the slab system used. deflections are acceptable. An example at the end
of this chapter illustrates a procedure for deter-
4.8 Topped vs. Untopped Diaphragms mining diaphragm deflections. In high seismic
When a composite structural topping is pro- areas, local codes may limit the use of untopped,
vided, it should have a minimum thickness of 2 to hollow core diaphragms.
2 1/2 in (50-65 mm). The topping can then be de-
signed as the diaphragm without consideration of
the hollow core slabs. When the topping provides 4.9 Design Example
the strength and stiffness for the diaphragm but Given the building plan shown in Figure 4.9.1,
the connections are made in the hollow core slabs, design and detail the untopped hollow core dia-
shear stresses will be present at the interface of the phragm assuming:
topping and the hollow core slabs. These stresses
will generally be well distributed throughout the a. wind design per UBC
interface, but may be more highly localized near b. Zone 2A seismic per UBC.
the connections. As discussed in Chapter 2, hori-
zontal shear stresses should be kept below a nomi- Building data
nal strength of 80 psi (0.55 MPa). 6 stories
The primary benefits of a composite structural 14 ft floor to floor
topping are to increase stiffness and to allow easi- 8 in hollow core floors wt = 53.5 psf
er continuous ties in plans with irregular shapes or partitions & mechanical wt = 20 psf
large openings. However, in seismic areas, the precast framing system wt = 32 psf
additional topping weight increases the seismic exterior wall system (avg.) wt = 35 psf
4--9
Solutions: Mu = 1.3(1739) = 2261 ft-k
a. Seismic Zone 0; Basic wind speed 80 mph • Chord Forces:
Use Exposure C
Using the perimeter beams as chords:
Design wind pressure = P = CeCqqsIw
Mu
where Tu =
Ô0.8h
Ce = 1.53
= 2261 = 39.3k
Cq = +0.8, -- 0.5 0.9(0.8)(80)
qs = 16.4
Connect beams through columns for this force
Iw = 1.0 plus forces due to volume change and gravity
P = 1.53(0.8)(16.4)(1.0) = 20.1 loads. (Fig. 4.9.2 Det. C)
= 1.53(0.5)(16.4)(1.0) = 12.5
The chord must continue through the center
32.6 psf
wall.
Wind to diaphragm = w = 14(0.0326) = 0.46k/ft
T
As = u (φ was included in Tu)
• Consider load applied parallel to the slabs fy
40 k 12 k 40 k
Distribute over length from zero moment to
maximum moment
40
6 Vuh = 35.3 = 0.41k/ft
87
V
87ft
6
Additionally, this connection must resist the
40 negative wind pressure from the exterior wall
system.
M
wu = 1.3(0.0125)(14)
1739 ft-k
= 0.23k/ft
Use 300 lb/ft for structural integrity
4--10
to the transverse joint. With keyways at 3 ft on Using shear friction reinforcement
center:
Avf = 1.02 in2 (from above) or
3(0.3) 3(0.41)
As = + 6
0.9(60) 0.85(60)(1.4) As = = 0.11 in2 does not control
0.9(60)
= 0.034 in2/keyway
Use 4 - #5 located near slab ends
Use #3 at every 2nd keyway
(Fig. 4.9.2 Det. D)
(Fig. 4.9.2 Det. B)
Alternatively, mechanical connections of slab
• Longitudinal shear to wall could be used to transfer the same
forces.
The maximum longitudinal joint shear is at the
first slab joint from the 30 ft shear wall. Since con- • Shear at center 20 ft wall:
nections will be made directly from the center bay With the rigid diaphragm assumption:
to the shear wall, only the center bay joint length
should be considered. Vu = 7.8k on each side of wall
Vu = 52k Avf = 7.8
0.85(60)(1.0)
φVn = φ(0.08)hn ℓ
= 0.15 in2
= 0.85(0.08)(8 -- 2)(20 x 12)
Use 2 - #4 located near slab ends or use
= 97.9k mechanical connections
With concerns for shrinkage cracking in joints, (Fig. 4.9.2 Det. E)
transverse shear friction reinforcement can be • Consider load applied perpendicular to the
provided in the transverse joints at each end of the slabs
center bay.
Total V = 80(0.46) = 36.8k
Vu
Avf =
Ôf yμ Distribution to walls is:
52 V = 36.8/2
=
0.85(60)(1.0)
= 18.4k
= 1.02 in2 / 2 transverse joints
The diaphragm equilibrium is:
= 0.51 in2 per joint
0.46 k/ft
Use 1 - #7 in transverse joint
(Fig. 4.9.2 Det. B)
• Shear connection to 30 ft wall 18.4 k 18.4 k
Vu = 52k 18.4
4--11
The factored design forces are then: #3 at every 2nd keyway will be adequate
Vu = 1.3(18.4) = 23.9k (Fig. 4.9.2 Det. B)
= 478 = 1962k
0.9(0.8)(200)
then
= 3.3k W = 6(1962)
As = 3.3 = 0.06 in2 = 11772k
60
• Base shear
The #3 bars across the transverse joints will be
adequate for the chord force. (Fig. 4.9.2 Det. B) V = ZIC W
Rw
Longitudinal shear
Z = 0.15
Mu
Vuh = I = 1.0
jh
C = 2.75
≅ 478
0.8(200) Rw = 8
= 3.0k will not control 0.15(1.0)(2.75)
V = (11772)
8
• Shear connection to walls
= 607k
Using shear friction reinforcement • Vertical Distribution
Vu = 23.9k/30 ft wall Ft = 0.07TV
= 0.8k/ft controls over parallel wind with a site coefficient of 1.2 and C = 2.75
With bars in keyways at 3 ft on center T = 0.4 sec < 0.7 sec
3(0.8) Ft = 0
Avf =
0.85(60)(1.4) (V − F t)w xh x
Fx = n
= 0.034 in2 per keyway Σ w ih i
i=1
Use #3 in every 2nd keyway
wi hi wxhx Fx
(Fig. 4.9.2 Det. F)
1962 84 164808 173
• Shear in transverse joint 1962 70 137340 145
Vu = 1.3(18.4 -- 0.46 × 30) 1962 56 109872 116
= 6k 1962 42 82404 87
1962 28 54936 58
Avf = 6
0.85(60)(1.0) 1962 14 27468 29
= 0.12 in2 576828
4--12
Fig. 4.9.2 Wind design summary
8 @ 25’-0"= 200’-0"
C F
A
30’
E
30’
20’
80’
D
30’
B
30’
#4 near each
end of wall
0.3k/ft
0.41k/ft
39.3k
Chord Force
Intermittent slab
cut-outs
A C
E
#3 @ every
2nd keyway
#7 cont. 2-#5 near each
#3 every
end of bay
2nd keyway
2-#6
Intermittent slab
cut-outs
B D F
4--13
• Diaphragm load The diaphragm equilibrium is:
n
Ft + Σ Fi 2.77 k/ft
i=x
Fpx = n w px
Σ wi
i=x
= 554k Mu
Vuh =
jd
The factored roof diaphragm load by code pro-
visions is ≅ 10483
0.8(80)
Fpxu = (1.1)(1.3)(173)
= 164k
= 248k
Distribute over length from zero moment to
Design roof diaphragm for a factored load of maximum moment
554k to keep in elastic range. Vuh = 164 = 1.89k/ft
87
• For shear parallel to slabs
Additionally, this connection must resist the
Using a rigid diaphragm, the shear distribution outward force from the exterior wall system.
to the walls is: Conservatively, this force will be:
30 ft walls: V = 241k T = 0.75ZIww
20 ft wall: V = 72k = 0.75(0.15)(1.0)(14 × 0.035)
4--14
= 0.055k/ft Avf = 269
0.85(60)(1.0)
Tu = 0.055(2)(8)/5
= 5.27 in2 / 4 joints
= 0.176k/ft
= 1.32 in2 per joint
Tu V
As = + u In boundary elements, add chord requirement
Ôf y Ôf yμ
At first joint
= 0.176 + 1.89
0.9(60) 0.85(60)(1.4) Mu = 241(3) -- 32(2.77)/2
As = 1.32 + 711
Use #3 at 3 ft on center grouted into cores 0.9(0.8)(80)(60)
(Fig. 4.9.3 Det. A) = 1.53 in2
At the transverse joint, the same shear parallel 4 - #8 ok
to the transverse joint as at the chord must be
transferred. However, the tension should con- (Fig. 4.9.3 Det. A)
sider the inertial force from the weight of the
In transverse joints
exterior bay. Conservatively
As = 1.32 in2
T = 0.75ZIwp
Use 2 - #8
wp = 14(0.035) + 30(0.0535 + 0.020 + 0.032)
(Fig. 4.9.3 Det. B)
= 3.66k/ft
• Shear connection to 30 ft wall:
T = 0.75(0.15)(1.0)(3.66)
Transfer shear to wall and drag strut
= 0.41k/ft
Tu = 0.41(2)(8)/5 Vu = 253
80
= 1.31k/ft = 3.16k/ft
4--15
• Shear connection at 20 ft wall nAs = 6.74(3.16)
Vu = 36k
= 21.3 in2
over building width
Vu = 36 = 0.45k/ft 57(x -- 4) + 4.3(x -- 8)2/2 = 21.3(956 -- x)
80
Avf = 0.45
0.85(60)(1.0) find x = 87.9 in
= 0.009 in2/ft
Use #4 dowels at 8 ft on center Icr = 57(87.9 -- 4)2 + 4.3(87.9 -- 8)3/3
+ 21.3(956 -- 87.9)2
(Fig. 4.9.3 Det. F)
Drag strut reinforcement = 17,184,000 in4
(80 − 20)
Tu = (0.45)(2)
2
= 829 ft4
= 27k
As = 27
0.9(60) As a rigid diaphragm, the factored load deflec-
tion between end shear walls is:
= 0.5 in2
(2.77)(200) 4 72(200) 3
Use 2 - #5 ∆ = 5 −
384 (4300)(829)(12) 48(4300)(829)(12)
(Fig. 4.9.3 Det. E)
• In-plane deflection of diaphragm = 1.07 in (ignoring shear deflections)
Idealize the diaphragm section as
As a flexible diaphragm with rigid supports the
deflection will be substantially smaller. The
4.3" nA s
8" diaphragm deflection plus the deflection of the
8" lateral-resisting system is used to evaluate the
gravity load support members for integrity
x
when deformed.
956"
• Consider load applied perpendicular to the
with 4000 psi concrete in chord slabs
Ec = 3835
with 5000 psi concrete in slab Total Vu = 554k
Ec = 4300
normalize on slab concrete Distribution to walls is
nchord = 0.89
ATchord = 0.89(64)
Vu = 554/2
= 57 in2
nsteel = 6.74 = 277k
4--16
The diaphragm equilibrium is: Drag strut reinforcement
(200 − 30)
Tu = (1.52)
6.93 k/ft 2
= 129.2k
Mu V = 0.75ZIw
Tu =
Ô0.8h = 0.75(0.15)(1.0)(442)
= 5544
0.9(0.8)(200) = 49.7k
= 38.5k Vu = 49.7(0.55)(2)(8)/5
= 87.5k per joint including
As = 38.5 = 0.64 in2
60 5% eccentricity
The #4 bars across the transverse joints at 3 ft Load parallel to slabs will control
on center will be adequate. (Fig. 4.9.3 Det. B)
See Figure 4.9.3 for summary
Longitudinal shear
Mu
Vuh =
jd
≅ 5544
0.80(200)
= 34.7k will not control
• Shear connection to walls
With 5% eccentricity
Vu = 1.1(277) = 304.7k
Transfer shear to wall and drag strut
Vu = 304.7/200 ft
= 1.52k/ft
Loading parallel to slabs controls
4--17
Fig. 4.9.3 Seismic design summary
8 @ 25’-0"= 200’-0"
G
A
30’
E
F
30’
20’
80’
D
30’
B
30’
4 - #8 4 - #8 cont.
cont. Intermittent slab
cut-outs
A C E G
2 - #8 cont.
Intermittent slab
2 - #5 cont.
cut-outs
B D F
4--18
CHAPTER 5
5--1
5.3 Typical Details with Concrete Beams
Design Considerations:
Fig. 5.3.1
Design Considerations:
Bearing strip
Erection Considerations:
Fig. 5.3.2
Other connection details perform functions similar to those shown. Consult the local PCI producer for information on relative economy and
design capabilities.
5--2
5.3 (Continued)
Design Considerations:
Fabrication Considerations:
Bearing strip
Erection Considerations:
Fig. 5.3.3
Design Considerations:
Reinforcement draped
• Can transfer internal diaphragm forces over beam and grouted
• Can be designed as structural integrity tie in slab keyway
• Consider concrete cover on reinforcement Topping if
Grout
over beam required
Fabrication Considerations:
Erection Considerations:
Fig. 5.3.4
Other connection details perform functions similar to those shown. Consult the local PCI producer for information on relative economy and
design capabilities.
5--3
5.3 (Continued)
Design Considerations:
Fabrication Considerations:
Bearing strip
Erection Considerations:
with
P.C. or C.I.P. headed
• Connections can be completed by follow-up concrete stud anchors
crew beam
• Access for welding may require ladders or
scaffold
• Spacer may be required to make weld
Fig. 5.3.5
Design Considerations:
Reinforcement
grouted in
• Can transfer internal diaphragm forces
slab keyway
• Can be designed as structural integrity tie
Reinforcement per
• Horizontal shear from beam cap must be design
Concrete
transferred Topping if
• Opposing slab joints must line up required
Fabrication Considerations:
Dam
Bearing strip
Erection Considerations: cores
Fig. 5.3.6
Other connection details perform functions similar to those shown. Consult the local PCI producer for information on relative economy and
design capabilities.
5--4
5.3 (Continued)
Design Considerations:
Reinforcement
• Can transfer internal diaphragm forces grouted in
• Can be designed as structural integrity tie slab keyway
• Horizontal shear in composite beam must be
transferred Reinforcement per
• Opposing slab joints must line up design
Topping
Fabrication Considerations:
Fig. 5.3.7
Erection Considerations:
Fig. 5.3.8
Other connection details perform functions similar to those shown. Consult the local PCI producer for information on relative economy and
design capabilities.
5--5
5.3 (Continued)
Design Considerations:
Plate with deformed bar
• Can transfer diaphragm shear
anchor grouted in
• Can provide lateral brace for beam
slab keyway
• Potential to develop negative moment in slabs
Topping if
required
Fabrication Considerations:
Fig. 5.3.9
Design Considerations:
Reinforcement grouted
in slab keyway
• Can transfer internal diaphragm forces
• Can be designed as structural integrity tie
Topping if
required
Fabrication Considerations:
Erection Considerations:
Bearing
• Clean and simple strip
• Keyway dimensions may limit the
reinforcement diameter
P.C. or C.I.P.
concrete
beam
Fig. 5.3.10
Other connection details perform functions similar to those shown. Consult the local PCI producer for information on relative economy and
design capabilities.
5--6
5.3 (Continued)
Design Considerations:
Reinforcement grouted
• Can transfer diaphragm shear in slab keyway
• Can be designed as structural integrity tie
Topping if
Longitudinal required
bar as req’d.
Fabrication Considerations:
Erection Considerations:
Bearing
• Reinforcement must be tied in place
strip
• Concrete must be cast around reinforcement
• Edge form is required for cast-in-place
concrete
• Dowels from beam may present safety hazard P.C. or C.I.P.
concrete
beam
Fig. 5.3.11
Fabrication Considerations:
Erection Considerations:
with headed
• Connections can be completed by follow-up P.C. or C.I.P. stud anchor
crew concrete
• Access for welding may require ladders or beam
scaffold
• Spacer may be required to make weld
Fig. 5.3.12
Other connection details perform functions similar to those shown. Consult the local PCI producer for information on relative economy and
design capabilities.
5--7
5.3 (Continued)
Design Considerations:
Design Considerations:
Field bend
• This detail is not recommended because of into slab Topping
installation difficulties which may result in an keyway and if req’d.
unreliable connection grout
Fabrication Considerations:
Bearing
Erection Considerations: strip
Longitudinal
• Potential difficulties in bending bars bar as req’d.
• Possible fracture of bent bars
• Second rebar bend may be required to align P.C. or C.I.P.
with slab joints concrete
• Cast-in-place concrete required around beam
reinforcement DO NOT USE
• Edge forming required
Fig. 5.3.14
Other connection details perform functions similar to those shown. Consult the local PCI producer for information on relative economy and
design capabilities.
5--8
5.4 Typical Details with Walls
Design Considerations:
Reinforcement
• Can transfer diaphragm shear grouted in Wall
• Can be designed as structural integrity tie slab keyway
• Can provide lateral brace for wall Grout
• Consider axial force path through slab ends
• Opposing slab joints must line up Topping if
required
Fabrication Considerations:
Erection Considerations:
Dowels as
P.C. or C.I.P.
• With longitudinal bar, have potential congestion required
concrete
• Slab erection must consider tight tolerance on wall
butt joint gap
• With precast walls, consider method of
installing vertical dowel
Fig. 5.4.1
Design Considerations:
Bearing
Erection Considerations: strip
• Clean and simple
• Wall is not braced until grout is placed and
P.C. or C.I.P.
cured Dowels as concrete
required wall
Fig. 5.4.2
Other connection details perform functions similar to those shown. Consult the local PCI producer for information on relative economy and
design capabilities.
5--9
5.4 (Continued)
Design Considerations:
Fig. 5.4.3
Design Considerations:
Fabrication Considerations:
Fig. 5.4.4
Other connection details perform functions similar to those shown. Consult the local PCI producer for information on relative economy and
design capabilities.
5--10
5.4 (Continued)
Bar to be field
Design Considerations: bent into slab
keyway or field
• This detail is not recommended because of drilled into wall
installation difficulties which may result in Topping
an unreliable connection if req’d
Fabrication Considerations:
Erection Considerations:
Bearing Bearing
• Mason will have great difficulty locating bars at wall strip
slab joints
• Potential difficulties to field bend bars including
fracture
• Second bend may be required to align bars
with joints
DO NOT USE
Fig. 5.4.5
Design Considerations:
Topping
if req’d
Fabrication Considerations:
Clearance
Erection Considerations:
Non-bearing
wall
• Small tolerance in slab layout
Fig. 5.4.6
Other connection details perform functions similar to those shown. Consult the local PCI producer for information on relative economy and
design capabilities.
5--11
5.4 (Continued)
Design Considerations:
for camber
developed from deflections or camber growth
• Drypack may be required under slab for axial
Allow
Topping
load transfer if req’d
Fabrication Considerations:
Wall
Erection Considerations:
Fig. 5.4.7
Design Considerations:
Deformed bar
• Can transfer diaphragm shear or steel strap
• Can provide lateral brace for wall
• Consideration should be given to forces Grout
Topping
developed from deflection or camber growth if req’d
• Consider axial load path
Fabrication Considerations:
Erection Considerations:
Other connection details perform functions similar to those shown. Consult the local PCI producer for information on relative economy and
design capabilities.
5--12
5.4 (Continued)
Design Considerations:
for camber
detailing of keyway and reinforcement
Allow
• For long spans consider effects of restraint of
vertical movement
Fabrication Considerations:
Erection Considerations:
P.C. or C.I.P.
• Edge joint must be grouted which may not concrete
be standard practice wall
Fig. 5.4.9
Design Considerations:
Topping
Fabrication Considerations: if req’d
Erection Considerations:
Wall
• If not done in plant, holes must be field cut into
edge core
• Mason may have to cut block to install
reinforcement
Fig. 5.4.10
Other connection details perform functions similar to those shown. Consult the local PCI producer for information on relative economy and
design capabilities.
5--13
5.4 (Continued)
Design Considerations:
Bearing
Bond Strip
Erection Considerations: Beam
Fig. 5.4.11
Design Considerations:
Field Drill
Fabrication Considerations:
Fig. 5.4.12
Other connection details perform functions similar to those shown. Consult the local PCI producer for information on relative economy and
design capabilities.
5--14
5.5 Typical Details with Steel Beams
Design Considerations:
Erection Considerations:
5" Min. flange
• Unsymmetrical loading may cause beam 6" Recommended
flange
instability Steel beam
Note: Top flange is
unbraced
Fig. 5.5.1
Design Considerations:
Grout
Fabrication Considerations: Reinforcement
grouted in
Topping
• Slab layout must align slab joints slab keyway
if req’d
• Stabilizer bars might be field or shop installed
depending on local regulations or agreements
• Beam flange width must be sufficient for
minimum slab bearing
5--15
5.5 (Continued)
Design Considerations:
Fabrication Considerations:
Fig. 5.5.3
Design Considerations:
Fabrication Considerations:
Steel beam
Erection Considerations:
Other connection details perform functions similar to those shown. Consult the local PCI producer for information on relative economy and
design capabilities.
5--16
5.5 (Continued)
Design Considerations:
Erection Considerations:
Steel beam
• Welding of bars must be coordinated with slab
erection for alignment
• Depending on forces to be transferred
concrete may have to be cast along edge
• Beam will not be braced until keyway grout
cures
Fig. 5.5.5
Design Considerations:
1" 1"
• Internal diaphragm forces can be Additional Clr. Clr.
transferred only through topping reinforcement
2" (Min.) topping
• Provides lateral brace for steel beam over steel
if required
• Consider potential torsion on beam during beam
slab erection
1/2" Clr.
Fabrication Considerations:
Other connection details perform functions similar to those shown. Consult the local PCI producer for information on relative economy and
design capabilities.
5--17
5.5 (Continued)
1/2" Clr.
Fabrication Considerations:
Optional
Continuous ’s
• Angle legs must be sufficient for minimum slab reinforcement
welded to steel
bearing grouted in
beam
• Beam depth must be sufficient for clearance slab keyway
Steel Beam
under top flange 3" Min. Leg
4" Recommended leg
Erection Considerations:
Note:
Difficult erection if
• Slab erection will be very difficult if this detail
this detail occurs at
occurs at both slab ends. Slabs will have to
both ends of slab
be slid into beams possibly through access
holes in flanges
• Beams will not be braced during slab erection
Fig. 5.5.7
Design Considerations:
Erection Considerations:
Channel and
• Watch for stability of lintel prior to slab erection plate lintel
Fig. 5.5.8
Other connection details perform functions similar to those shown. Consult the local PCI producer for information on relative economy and
design capabilities.
5--18
5.5 (Continued)
Design Considerations:
Fabrication Considerations:
Fig. 5.5.9
Design Considerations:
Fabrication Considerations:
for camber
clearance reinforcement
Erection Considerations:
Fig. 5.5.10
Other connection details perform functions similar to those shown. Consult the local PCI producer for information on relative economy and
design capabilities.
5--19
5.6 Typical Cantilever Details
Design Considerations:
Fabrication Considerations:
Wall
Erection Considerations:
Fig. 5.6.1
Design Considerations:
Fabrication Considerations:
Erection Considerations:
Fig. 5.6.2
Other connection details perform functions similar to those shown. Consult the local PCI producer for information on relative economy and
design capabilities.
5--20
5.6 (Continued)
Fabrication Considerations:
Bearing
strip
Wall
Erection Considerations:
Fig. 5.6.3
Design Considerations:
Verify max. dimension
• Wall will not be braced by slabs with slab supplier
• Depending on end support conditions wall may
have to support edge slab Keyway filled
• No thermal break provided between interior with grout
and exterior
Fabrication Considerations:
Bearing wall
Erection Considerations: beyond
Non-bearing
• None wall
Preferred end of
bearing wall
Fig. 5.6.4
Other connection details perform functions similar to those shown. Consult the local PCI producer for information on relative economy and
design capabilities.
5--21
5.6 (Continued)
Design Considerations:
Fabrication Considerations:
Fig. 5.6.5
Other connection details perform functions similar to those shown. Consult the local PCI producer for information on relative economy and
design capabilities.
5--22
5.7 Miscellaneous Details
Bearing
Feather edge
Hollow core with latex, conceal
slab in wall, or
recess when
no topping
Header angles
"A"
SECTION "A-A"
"A"
PLAN
HEADER DETAIL
Fig. 5.7.1
Other connection details perform functions similar to those shown. Consult the local PCI producer for information on relative economy and
design capabilities.
5--23
5.7 (Continued)
Bearing
Hollow core
slab
"B" "B"
Header angles
SECTION "A-A"
"A"
"A"
SECTION "B-B"
HEADER DETAIL
Fig. 5.7.2
Other connection details perform functions similar to those shown. Consult the local PCI producer for information on relative economy and
design capabilities.
5--24
5.7 (Continued)
Fig. 5.7.3
Other connection details perform functions similar to those shown. Consult the local PCI producer for information on relative economy and
design capabilities.
5--25
CHAPTER 6
ate
p
eg
(10
gr
t (1
Fire Endurance, Hr
ht
3
ate
igh
htw
on
e
te
rb
Lig
ga
igh
Ca
g
nd
2 A
“Standard Methods of Fire Endurance Tests of s
Sa
e ou
Building Construction and Materials”, or on the lic
Si
basis of Appendix D, “Fire Performance Rat-
1
ings”. While the general principles set forth in this
Manual are fully valid in that they are based on
materials properties and structural engineering 0
procedures, users of the Manual are cautioned that 1-1/2 2 3 4 5 6 7
in Canada, fire resistance ratings should be deter- Equivalent Thickness, in.,
of Hollow Core Unit
mined strictly in accordance with applicable
6--1
In Figure 6.2, concrete aggregates are desig- for two hours or more. The addition of toppings,
nated as lightweight, sand-lightweight, carbon- undercoatings, fire resistive ceilings, roof insula-
ate, or siliceous. Lightweight aggregates include tion, or filling the cores with dry aggregates will
expanded clay, shale, slate, and slag which pro- increase the heat transmission fire endurance.
duce concretes having unit weights between about Figure 6.2.2.1 shows graphically the thickness of
95 and 105 pcf (1520 - 1680 kg/m3) without sand spray applied undercoating required for heat
replacement. Lightweight concretes in which transmission fire endurances of 2, 3 and 4 hours.
sand is used as part or all of the fine aggregate and Figure 6.2.2.2 shows the thickness of sand-light-
weigh less than about 120 pcf (1920 kg/m3) are weight concrete, insulating concrete and high
designated as sand-lightweight. For normal strength gypsum concrete overlays required for 2,
weight concrete, the type of coarse aggregate in- 3 and 4 hours. Figure 6.2.2.3 shows data for 2 and
fluences the fire endurance; the type of fine aggre- 3 hr. roofs with mineral board or glass fiber board
gate has only a minor effect. Carbonate aggre- insulation with 3-ply built-up roofing. Data
gates include limestone, dolomite, and limerock, shown in Figures 6.2.2.1, 6.2.2.2 and 6.2.2.3 ap-
i.e., those consisting mainly of calcium or magne- ply directly to hollow core slabs made with sili-
sium carbonate. Siliceous aggregates include ceous aggregates and are conservative for slabs
quartzite, granite, basalt, and most hard rocks oth- made with carbonate aggregates or with light-
er than limestone or dolomite. weight aggregates.
1.0
0.8
Thickness of SMF
4h
or VMC, in.
r
0.6
3h
r
0.4
0.2
2h
r
0
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
Equivalent Thickness, in.
of Hollow Core Unit
6--2
Fig. 6.2.2.2 Floors with overlays of sand-lightweight concrete (120 pcf maximum), insulating concrete
(35 pcf maximum), and high strength gypsum concrete
Overlay
2.5
4h
r
Overlay Thickness, in.
2.0
4h
r
1.5
3h
r 3h
r
1.0
2h 2h
r r
0.5
0
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
Equivalent Thickness, in., of Hollow Core Units
y
Fire Endurance, Hr.
3 erla
. Ov
. C ay
.G verl
1 in .C . O
in. G
1/2
2
0
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
Equivalent Thickness, in., of
Hollow Core Units
6--3
Fig. 6.2.2.3 Roofs with insulation board and 3-ply built-up roofing
(Heat transmission fire endurance)
0.75
Thickness, in., of Mineral Board
or Glass Fiber Board
0.50
3h
r
0.25 2h
r
0
3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5
Equivalent Thickness, in., of
Hollow Core Unit
6--4
Fig. 6.2.3 Details of 3 hr. assembly consisting of hollow core slabs with a gypsum wall board
ceiling
4 3
5 Max. 4’
Restrained Unrestrained
3 1 1 6
7/8"
5/8" 3/4"
6 4
5 5
End Joint Side Joint
1. Precast concrete hollow core slabs - Minimum equivalent thickness = 2.75 in
2. Grout - (Not Shown) - Sand-cement grout along full length of joint.
3. Hanger Wire - No. 18 SWG galvanized steel wire. Hanger wire used to attached wallboard furring channels to precast concrete units.
Wire to be located at each intersection of furring channels and joints between hollow core slabs, but not to exceed 4 ft o.c.
4. Wallboard Furring Channels - No. 26 ga. galvanized steel, 7/8 in high, 2 3/4 in base width, 1 3/8 in face width and 12 ft long. Channels
to be installed perpendicular to hollow core slabs and spaced 24 in o.c., except at wallboard butt joints where they are spaced 6 1/2 in
o.c. Channels secured to concrete units with double strand of hanger wire looped through fasteners. At furring channel splices, chan-
nels to be overlapped 6 in and tied together with hanger wire at each end of splice.
5. Wallboard - 5/8 in thick, 4 ft wide, Type X, installed with long dimension perpendicular to furring channels. Over butt joints, a 3 in wide
piece of wallboard to be inserted with ends extending a minimum 6 in beyond board width.
6. Wallboard Fasteners - 1 in long, Type S, bugle head screws. Fasteners spaced 12 in on center along each furring channel except at
butt joints where fasteners spaced 8 in on center. At butt joints, fasteners located 3 1/4 in from board edge. Along side joints, fasten-
ers located 3/4 in from board edge.
7. Joint System - (Not Shown) - Paper tape embedded in cementitious compound over joints, and covered with two layers of cementi-
tious compound with edges feathered out. Wallboard fastener heads covered with two layers of cementitious compound.
out the fire endurance period. Failure to support the ultimate moment capacity is constant through-
the loads is called the structural end point. out the length:
The most important factor affecting the struc- φMn = φApsfps(dp -- a/2) (Eq. 6.3.1)
tural fire endurance of a floor or roof assembly is
See Chapter 2 for evaluating fps.
the method of support, i.e., whether the assembly
If the slab is uniformly loaded, the moment dia-
is simply supported and free to expand (“unre-
gram will be parabolic with a maximum value at
strained”) or if the assembly is continuous or ther-
midspan of:
mal expansion is restricted (“restrained”).
M = wℓ
2
6.3.1 Simply Supported Slabs (Eq. 6.3.2)
8
Figure 6.3.1.1 illustrates the behavior of a sim-
ply supported slab exposed to fire from beneath.
Because strands are parallel to the axis of the slab,
6--5
Fig. 6.3.1.1 Moment diagrams for simply sup- Where
ported beam or slab before and w = dead plus live load per unit of length,
during fire exposure
k/in
ℓ = span length, in
As the material strengths diminish with ele-
vated temperatures, the retained moment capacity
Fire becomes:
Mnθ = Apsfpsθ(dp -- aθ /2) (Eq. 6.3.3)
in which θ signifies the effects of high tempera-
@ 0 Hr
tures. Note that Aps and dp are not affected, but fps
is reduced. Similarly, a is reduced, but the con-
M = applied moment
crete strength at the top of the slab, f′c, is generally
not reduced significantly because of its lower
temperature.
Mn = moment capacity
@ 2 Hr
applied
M = moment
100
High strength
alloy steel bars
(tensile strength)
80
Hot-rolled steel
(yield strength)
Percent of Strength At 70 F
60
o
40
Cold-drawn
prestressing steel
250 or 270 ksi
(tensile strength)
20
0
70 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
o
Temperature, F
6--6
Fig. 6.3.1.3 Temperatures within Fig. 6.3.1.4 Temperatures within
carbonate aggregate concrete siliceous aggregate concrete
slabs during fire tests slabs during fire tests
1600 1600
Siliceous Aggregate
Carbonate Aggregate Concrete
1500 1500
Concrete (Normal Weight) (Normal Weight)
1400 1400
1300 1300
.
n.
e
in
c
4i
rfa
4
1/
1/
e
fac
Su
.
1200
in
1200 r
in.
F
F
d
Su
se
1/
o
o
1/2 d
po
se
po
Ex
1100
Temperature,
1100
Temperature,
Ex
.
ro
om
in
Fr
.F
1
1000 n. n. 1000
1i
in
.
4i in
4
3/
3/
in. 1/
2
u=
=
900 1/2
900 1-
u
1-
.
in
800 n. 800
2
2i
700 700
.
in
n.
3i
3
600 600 .
n. in
4i 4
500 500
1/2 1 1-1/2 2 3 4 1/2 1 1-1/2 2 3 4
Fire Test Time, Hr Fire Test Time, Hr
in
rfa
4
floors, but also for roofs with insulation on top of 1200 1/
Su
.
in
F
the slabs. 2
1/
se
o
po
1100
Temperature,
Ex
1000 .
in
in
Figure 6.3.1.3, 6.3.1.4 and 6.3.1.5 show tempera- 1
4
3/
=
.
in
800
1-
6--7
Example 6.3.1 wL = w -- wD = 170 -- 54 = 116 psf
Determine the maximum safe superimposed load
(d) Calculate maximum allowable wL at room
that can be supported by an 8 in deep hollow core
slab with a simply supported unrestrained span of temperature
25 ft and a fire endurance of 3 hr.
Given:
h = 8 in; u = 1.75 in; six 1/2 in 270 ksi strands;
fps = 270 1 − 0.28 0.918 270
0.80 366.25 5
Aps = 6(0.153) = 0.918 in2; b = 36 in; dp = 8 -- 1.75
= 249 ksi
= 6.25 in; wD = 54 psf; carbonate aggregate con-
crete; ℓ = 25 ft 0.918249
a = = 1.49 in
Solution: 0.85536
(a) Estimate strand temperature at 3 hr. from Fig- φMn = 0.9(0.918)(249)(6.25 -- 0.75)/12
ure 6.3.1.3, θs at 3 hr. at 1.75 in above fire-ex-
posed surface = 925 degrees F. = 94.3 ft-kips
fpsθ = 89.1 1 − 0.28 0.918 89.1
0.80 366.25 5
wL =
402 − 1.454
1.7
= 192 psf
Conclusion: wL = 116 < 192; 116 psf governs
= 86.8 ksi
Note: Fire endurance for heat transmission
0.91886.8 should also be checked
aθ = = 0.52in
0.85536
Table 6.3.1 shows values of u for simply sup-
Mnθ = 0.918(86.8)(6.25 -- 0.52/2)/12 ported unrestrained hollow core slabs for various
= 39.8 ft-kips moment ratios and fire endurance of 1, 2, and 3
hours. The values shown are based on
839.81000
w = = 170 psf Apsfpu/bdpf′c = 0.05 and can be reduced by 1/16 in
(25) 23 for Apsfpu/bdpf′c = 0.10.
Table 6.3.1 “u” inches, for simply supported unrestrained hollow core slabs*
Fire Aggregate Type
Endurance M/Mn Siliceous Carbonate Sand-Lightweight
(hr) (in) (mm) (in) (mm) (in) (mm)
1 0.50 1 1 /4 (32) 1 1/16 (27) 1 1/16 (27)
1 0.40 1 1/16 (27) 15/
16 (24) 15/
16 (24)
1 0.30 15/ (24) 13/ (21) 13/ (21)
16 16 16
2 0.50 15
1 /16 (49) 1 13/16 (46) 1 13/16 (46)
2 0.40 1 3 /4 (44) 1 9/16 (40) 1 9/16 (40)
2 0.30 1 9/16 (40) 1 5/16 (33) 1 5/16 (33)
3 0.50 2 1 /2 (64) 2 5/16 (59) 2 1 /8 (54)
3 0.40 2 3/16 (56) 2 (51) 1 15/16 (49)
3 0.30 1 15/16 (49) 1 11/16 (43) 1 11/16 (43)
*“u” is distance between center of strands and bottom of slab with all strands having same “u”. Based
on Apsfpu/bdpf′c = 0.05; conservative for values greater than 0.05.
6--8
Fig. 6.3.2 Equivalent concrete cover thickness for spray-applied coatings
5
4 )
Equivalent Concrete Cover Thickness, in. sla
bs
)(
M
( VC
rial
ate
3 sM bs
)
tiou ( sla
men F)
Ce SM
lite r(
be
icu Fi
rm ral
2 Ve ine
e dM
ray
Sp
0
0 1/4 1/2 3/4 1 1-1/4 1-1/2
6.3.2 Effect of Spray-Applied Coatings Fig. 6.3.3.1 Moment diagrams for continuous 2-
The fire endurance of hollow core slabs can be span beam before and during fire
increased by the addition of a spray-applied coat- exposure
ing of vermiculite cementitious material or
sprayed mineral fiber. Figure 6.3.2 shows the
relationship between thickness of spray-applied
coatings and equivalent concrete cover. Thus, if
strands are centered 3/4 in (19 mm) above the bot-
tom of a hollow core slab and if 1/4 in (6 mm) of
sprayed mineral fiber is applied, the u distance to Fire Fire
6--9
Fig. 6.3.3.2 Uniformly loaded member Fig. 6.3.3.3 Symmetrical uniformly loaded mem-
continuous at one support ber continuous at both supports
M -n θ M -n θ M -n θ
w w
M -n θ
M -n θ
2
M+n θ
8
w
x1
x2 x0
M+n θ
x0 x2 x0
the interior support. This action results in a redis- simply supported at the other. Also shown is the
tribution of moments, i.e., the negative moment at redistributed applied moment diagram at failure.
the interior support increases while the positive Values for M +
nθ can be calculated by the proce-
moments decrease. dures given for “Simply Supported Slabs”.
During the course of a fire, the negative mo- Values for M −
nθ and xo can be calculated:
ment reinforcement (Figure 6.3.3.1) remains
wℓ 2 wℓ 2 2M +
cooler than the positive moment reinforcement M−
nθ =
n
(Eq. 6.3.4)
because it is better protected from the fire. Thus, 2 wℓ 2
the increase in negative moment can be accom- M− nθ
modated. Generally, the redistribution that occurs xo =2 (Eq. 6.3.5)
wℓ
is sufficient to cause yielding of the negative mo- In most cases, redistribution of moments oc-
ment reinforcement. The resulting decrease in curs early during the course of a fire before the
positive moment means that the positive moment negative moment capacity has been reduced by
reinforcement can be heated to a higher tempera- the effects of fire. In such cases, the length of xo is
ture before a failure will occur. Therefore, the fire increased, i.e., the inflection point moves toward
endurance of a continuous concrete beam is gen- the simple support. For such cases,
erally significantly longer than that of a simply 2M − n
supported beam having the same cover and loaded xo = (Eq. 6.3.6)
wℓ
to the same moment intensity. Figure 6.3.3.3 shows a symmetrical beam or
It is possible to design the reinforcement in a slab in which the end moments are equal. In that
continuous beam or slab for a particular fire en- case:
durance period. From Figure 6.3.3.1, the beam
M− nθ = wℓ ∕8 − M nθ
2 + (Eq. 6.3.7)
can be expected to collapse when the positive mo-
ment capacity, M + wx 22
nθ, is reduced to the value indi- and = M+ (Eq. 6.3.8)
8 nθ
cated by the dashed horizontal line, i.e., when the
redistributed moment at point x1, from the outer In negative moment regions, the compressive
support, M x1 = M + zone is directly exposed to fire, so calculations for
nθ.
dθ and aθ must be modified by (a) using f′cθ from
Figure 6.3.3.2 shows a uniformly loaded beam
Figure 6.3.3.4 and (b) neglecting concrete hotter
or slab continuous (or fixed) at one support and
than 1400 degrees F (760 degrees C).
6--10
Fig. 6.3.3.4 Compressive strength of concrete at high temperatures
Carbonate
Percent of Original Compressive Strength 100 100
Sand-Lightweight
80 80
Siliceous
60 60
40 40
0 0
70 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
o
Temperature, F
6--11
Assume f′cθ in compressive zone = 0.8f′c = 4 ksi Fig. 6.4.1 Moment diagrams for axially
Assume d -- aθ/2 = 8.1 in restrained beam during fire exposure.
26.912 Note that at 2 hr. Mnθ is less than M
As = = 0.66 in2 and effects of axial restraint permit
608.1 beam to continue to support load.
0.6660 dT
check aθ = = 0.24 in
0.85448 T T
d -- aθ /2 = 8.25 -- 0.12 = 8.13 in ≅ 8.1 OK Fire
Use 6 x 6 - W2.1 x W2.1 WWF throughout plus #4
Grade 60 at 16 in in negative moment region.
As = 80.021 + 48 0.20 = 0.768 in2 @ 0 Hr, T=0
Mn
16 M
Calculate xo for dead load plus one-half live load.
@ 2 Hr.
M− 0.768 (26.9) = 31.3 ft-kips
nθ = M nθ
0.66 MT =
loading = 4(0.065 + 0.050) = 0.46 k/ft; T(d T - _a θ - ∆ )
2
Mn = 34.0 ft-kips (calculated for room tem-
(curved due to beam deflection)
peratures)
6--12
Fig. 6.4.2. Examples of typical restrained and unrestrained construction classifications (from
Appendix X3 of ASTM E119-88)
I. Wall Bearing:
Single span and simply supported end spans of multiple baysa
(1) Open-web steel joists or steel beams, supporting concrete slab, precast units or metal decking unrestrained
(2) Concrete slabs, precast units or metal decking unrestrained
Interior spans of multiple bays:
(1) Open-web steel joists, steel beams or metal decking, supporting continuous concrete slab restrained
(2) Open-web steel joists or steel beams, supporting precast units or metal decking unrestrained
(3) Cast-in-place concrete slab systems restrained
(4) Precast concrete where the potential thermal expansion is resisted by adjacent constructionb restrained
II. Steel Framing:
(1) Steel beams welded, riveted, or bolted to the framing members restrained
(2) All types of cast-in-place floor and roof systems (such as beam-and-slabs, flat slabs, pan joints, and
waffle slabs) where the floor or roof system is secured to the framing members restrained
(3) All types of prefabricated floor or roof systems where the structural members are secured to the framing
members and the potential thermal expansion of the floor or roof system is resisted by the framing
system or the adjoining floor or roof constructionb restrained
III. Concrete Framing:
(1) Beams securely fastened to the framing members restrained
(2) All types of cast-in-place floor or roof systems (such as beam-and-slabs, flat slabs, pan joists, and
waffle slabs) where the floor system is cast with framing members restrained
(3) Interior and exterior spans of precast systems with cast-in-place joints resulting in restraint equivalent
to that which would exist in condition III(1) restrained
(4) All types of prefabricated floor or roof systems where the structural members are secured to such
systems and the potential thermal expansion of the floor or roof system is resisted by the framing
system or the adjoining floor or roof constructionb restrained
IV. Wood Construction
All Types unrestrained
aFloor and roof systems can be considered restrained when they are tied into walls with or without tie beams, the walls being
designed and detailed to resist thermal thrust from the floor or roof system.
bFor example, resistance to potential thermal expansion is considered to be achieved when:
(1) Continuous structural concrete topping is used.
(2) The space between the ends of precast units or between the ends of units and the vertical face of supports is filled with concrete
or mortar.
(3) The space between the ends of precast units and the vertical faces of supports, or between the ends of solid or hollow core
slab units does not exceed 0.25 percent of the length for normal weight concrete members or 0.1 percent of the length for structural
lightweight concrete members.
To be considered as restrained:
c1 + c2 < 0.0025 ℓ for normal weight concrete
c1 + c2 < 0.0010 ℓ for lightweight concrete
Example: Determine maximum value of c1 + c2 for normal weight hollow core slabs with a clear span of 30 ft
Solution: c1 + c2 = 0.0025(30 x 12) = 0.90 in
6--13
Example 6.4.1 strength, the assembly will generally be satisfac-
Hollow core floor slabs were installed in a tory structurally.
building several years ago when a 1 hr. fire endur-
ance was required. The occupancy of the building
will be changed and the floors must qualify for a 3
hr. fire endurance. What can be done to upgrade
the fire endurance?
Given:
Slabs are 4 ft wide, 8 in deep, prestressed with
five 3/8 in 270 ksi strands located 1 in above the
bottom of the slab, and span 24 ft. Slabs are made
with 5000 psi siliceous aggregate concrete, have
an equivalent thickness of 3.75 in, and weigh 47
psf. The slabs are untopped and the superimposed
load will be 50 psf.
Solution:
There are a number of possible solutions. The
appropriate solution will depend on architectural
or functional requirements and economics.
For some parts of the building, the slabs might
be made to qualify as “restrained” in accordance
with Figure 6.4.2 and Figure 6.4.3, in which case
those slabs would qualify structurally for 3 hours,
but would still have to be upgraded to qualify for 3
hours by heat transmission.
A gypsum wallboard ceiling installed as shown
in Figure 6.2.3 would provide three hours both
structurally and for heat transmission. Calcula-
tions of the ultimate capacity and stresses should
be made to assure that the added weight of the ceil-
ing can be adequately supported.
A spray-applied undercoating of vermiculite
cementitious material or sprayed mineral fiber
can also be used. For heat transmission, the re-
quired thickness for three hours of undercoating is
0.6 in (see Figure 6.2.2.1). From Figure 6.3.2, it
can be seen that with a thickness of 0.6 in of VCM
or SMF, the equivalent thickness of concrete cov-
er is more than 2 in. Thus, the equivalent “u” dis-
tance is more than 2 in plus 1 in or more than 3 in.
From Figure 6.3.1.4, with u more than 3 in, the
strand temperature will be less than 600 degrees F
at three hours, so the strength of the prestressing
steel will be 65% of its 70 degrees F strength (Fig-
ure 6.3.1.5) or more than 0.65 x 270 = 175.5 ksi.
Calculations can be made in accordance with the
procedures in the section headed “Simply Sup-
ported Slabs”, but if the strand strength is reduced
less than about 50% of its room temperature
6--14
CHAPTER 7
ACOUSTICAL PROPERTIES OF
HOLLOW CORE FLOOR SLABS
Decibel (dB) - a logarithmic unit of measure of Sound Absorption Coefficient (α) - the fraction of
sound pressure or sound power. Zero on the deci- randomly incident sound energy absorbed or
bel scale corresponds to a standardized references otherwise not reflected off a surface (ASTM
pressure (20 µPa) or sound power (10-12 watt). C423).
Sound Pressure Level (SPL) - ten times the com-
Flanking Transmission - transmission of sound by
mon logarithm of the ratio of the square of the
indirect paths other than through the primary bar-
sound pressure to the square of the standard refer-
rier.
ence pressure of 20 µPa. Commonly measured
Frequency (Hz) - the number of complete vibra- with a sound level meter and microphone, this
tion cycles per second. quantity is expressed in decibels.
Impact Insulation Class (IIC) - a single figure rat- Sound Transmission Class (STC) - the single
ing of the overall impact sound insulation merits number rating system used to give a preliminary
of floor-ceiling assemblies in terms of a reference estimate of the sound insulation properties of a
contour (ASTM E989). partition system. This rating is derived from mea-
sured values of transmission loss (ASTM E413).
Impact Noise - the sound produced by one object Sound Transmission Loss (TL) - ten times the
striking another. common logarithm of the ratio, expressed in deci-
Noise - unwanted sound. bels, of the airborne sound power incident on the
partition that is transmitted by the partition and ra-
Noise Criteria (NC) - a series of curves, used as diated on the other side (ASTM E90).
design goals to specify satisfactory background
Structureborne Sound - sound that reaches the
sound levels as they relate to particular use func-
point of interest over at least part of its path by
tions.
vibration of a solid structure.
Noise Reduction (NR) - the difference in decibels
between the space-time average sound pressure 7.2 General
levels produced in two enclosed spaces by one or The basic purpose of architectural acoustics is
more sound sources in one of them. to provide a satisfactory environment in which de-
Noise Reduction Coefficient (NRC) - the arithme- sired sounds are clearly heard by the intended lis-
tic average of the sound absorption coefficients at teners and unwanted sounds (noise) are isolated or
250, 500, 1000 and 2000 Hz expressed to the near- absorbed.
est multiple of 0.05 (ASTM C423). Under most conditions, the architect/ engineer
can determine the acoustical needs of the space
Reverberation - the persistence of sound in an en- and then design the building to satisfy those
closed or partially enclosed space after the source needs. Good acoustical design utilizes both ab-
of sound has stopped. sorptive and reflective surfaces, sound barriers
7--1
and vibration isolators. Some surfaces must re- introduce resilient layers or discontinuities into
flect sound so that the loudness will be adequate in the barrier.
all areas where listeners are located. Other sur- Sound absorbing materials and sound insulat-
faces absorb sound to avoid echoes, sound distor- ing materials are used for different purposes.
tion and long reverberation times. Sound is iso- There is not much sound absorption from an 8 in
lated from rooms where it is not wanted by se- (200 mm) hollow core concrete slab; similarly,
lected wall and floor-ceiling constructions. high sound insulation is not available from a po-
Vibration generated by mechanical equipment rous lightweight material that may be applied to
must be isolated from the structural frame of the room surfaces. It is important to recognize that the
building. basic mechanisms of sound absorption and sound
Most acoustical situations can be described in insulation are quite different.
terms of: (1) sound source, (2) sound transmis-
sion path, and (3) sound receiver. Sometimes the 7.4 Sound Transmission Loss
source strength and path can be controlled and the Sound transmission loss measurements are
receiver made more attentive by removing dis- made at 16 frequencies at one-third octave inter-
traction or made more tolerant of disturbance. vals covering the range from 125 to 4000 Hz. The
Acoustical design must include consideration of testing procedure is ASTM Specification E90,
these three elements. Laboratory Measurement of Airborne Sound
Transmission Loss of Building Partitions. To sim-
7.3 Approaching the Design Process plify specification of desired performance charac-
Criteria must be established before the acousti- teristics, the single number Sound Transmission
cal design of a building can begin. Basically a sat- Class (STC) was developed.
isfactory acoustical environment is one in which Airborne sound reaching a floor or ceiling pro-
the character and magnitude of all sounds are duces vibration in the slab and is radiated with re-
compatible with the intended space function. duced intensity on the other side. Airborne sound
Although a reasonable objective, it is not al- transmission loss of a floor-ceiling assembly is a
ways easy to express these intentions in quantita- function of its weight, stiffness and vibration
tive terms. In addition to the amplitude of sound, damping characteristics.
the properties such as spectral characteristics, Weight is concrete’s greatest asset when it is
continuity, reverberation and intelligibility must used as a sound insulator. For sections of similar
be specified. design, but different weights, the STC increases
People are highly adaptable to the sensations of approximately 6 units for each doubling of weight
heat, light, odor, sound, etc. with sensitivities va- as shown in Figure 7.4.1.
rying widely. The human ear can detect a sound
Fig. 7.4.1 Sound Transmission Class as a
intensity of rustling leaves, 10 dB, and can toler- function of weight of floor
ate, if even briefly, the powerful exhaust of a jet
engine at 120 dB, 1012 times the intensity of the 65
Sound Transmission Class (STC)
rustling sound.
60
7--2
Fig. 7.4.2 Acoustical test data of hollow core slabs (normal weight concrete)
70 70
8 in. hollow core (bare).IIC-28
50 50
30 30
10 10
125
315
125
315
100
160
200
250
400
500
630
800
1000
1250
1600
2000
2500
3150
4000
5000
100
160
200
250
400
500
630
800
1000
1250
1600
2000
2500
3150
4000
5000
Frequency, Hz
Precast concrete floors and roofs usually do not The test method used to evaluate systems for
need additional treatments in order to provide ad- impact sound insulation is described in ASTM
equate sound insulation. If desired, greater sound Specification E492, Laboratory Measurement of
insulation can be obtained by using a resiliently Impact Sound Transmission Using the Tapping
attached layer(s) of gypsum board or other build- Machine. As with the airborne standard, mea-
ing material. The increased transmission loss oc- surements are made at 16 one-third octave inter-
curs because the energy flow path is now in- vals but in the range from 100 to 3150 Hz. For per-
creased to include a dissipative air column and formance specification purposes, the single num-
additional mass. ber Impact Insulation Class (IIC) is used.
The acoustical test results of both airborne Hollow core floors in combination with resil-
sound transmission loss and impact insulation of 6 ient materials effectively control impact sound.
and 8 in (150 and 200 mm) hollow core slabs are One simple solution consists of good carpeting on
shown in Figure 7.4.2. Table 7.4.1 presents the resilient padding. Table 7.4.1 shows that a carpet
ratings for various floor-ceiling assemblies. and pad over a bare slab will significantly increase
the impact noise reduction. The overall efficiency
varies according to the characteristics of the car-
7.5 Impact Noise Reduction peting and padding such as resilience, thickness
Footsteps, dragged chairs, dropped objects, and weight. So called resilient flooring materials,
slammed doors, and plumbing generate impact such as linoleum, rubber, asphalt vinyl, etc. are
noise. Even when airborne sounds are adequately not entirely satisfactory directly on concrete, nor
controlled there can be severe impact noise prob- are parquet or strip wood floors when applied di-
lems. rectly. Impact sound also may be controlled by
7--3
Table 7.4.1 Airborne sound transmission and impact insulation class ratings from laboratory
tests of hollow core slab floor-ceiling assemblies
Assembly
No. Description STC IIC
1. 6 in (150 mm) hollow core slabs 48 23
2. Assembly 1 with carpet and pad 48 69
3. Assembly 1 with 1/2 in (13 mm) wood block flooring adhered directly 48 48
4. Assembly 1 with 1/2 in (13 mm) wood block flooring adhered to 1/2 in (13 mm)
sound-deadening board underlayment adhered to concrete 49 49
5. Assembly 1 with 3/4 in (19 mm) gypsum concrete 50 41
6. Assembly 1 with 3/4 in (19 mm) gypsum concrete on 1/2 in (13 mm) sound-
deadening board underlayment adhered to concrete 50 50
7. Assembly 1 with carpet and pad on 3/4 in (19 mm) gypsum concrete on
1/ in (13 mm) sound-deadening board underlayment adhered to concrete 50 72
2
7--4
providing a discontinuity in the structure such as same, regardless of the original sound pressure
would be obtained by adding a resilient-mounted level and depends only on the absorption ratio.
plaster or drywall suspended ceiling. This is due to the fact that the decibel scale is itself
a scale of ratios, rather than difference in sound
7.6 Absorption of Sound energy.
A sound wave always loses part of its energy as While a decibel difference is an engineering
it is reflected by a surface. This loss of energy is quantity which can be physically measured, it is
termed sound absorption. It appears as a decrease also important to know how the ear judges the
in sound pressure of the reflected wave. The change in sound energy due to sound condition-
sound absorption coefficient is the fraction of en- ing. Apart from the subjective annoyance factors
ergy incident but not reflected per unit of surface associated with excessive sound reflection, the ear
area. Sound absorption can be specified at indi- can make accurate judgments of the relative loud-
vidual frequencies or as an average of absorption ness between sounds. An approximate relation
coefficients (NRC). between percentage loudness, reduction of re-
A dense, non-porous concrete surface typically flected sound and absorption ratio is plotted in
absorbs 1 to 2% of incident sound and has an NCR Figure 7.6.2
of 0.015. In the case where additional sound ab- The percentage loudness reduction does not de-
sorption of precast concrete is desired, a coating pend on the original loudness, but only on the ab-
of acoustical material can be spray applied, acous- sorption ratio. (The curve is drawn for loudness
tical tile can be applied with adhesive, or an acous- within the normal range of hearing and does not
tical ceiling can be suspended. Most of the spray apply to extremely faint sounds.) Referring again
applied fire retardant materials used to increase to the absorption ratio of 5, the loudness reduction
the fire resistance of precast concrete and other is read from Figure 7.6.2 as approximately 40 per-
floor-ceiling systems can also be used to absorb cent.
sound. The NCR of the sprayed fiber types range
from 0.25 to 0.75. Most cementitious types have
7.7 Acceptable Noise Criteria
an NCR from 0.25 to 0.50.
As a rule, a certain amount of continuous sound
If an acoustical ceiling were added to Assem-
can be tolerated before it becomes noise. An “ac-
bly 11 of Table 7.4.1 (as in Assembly 23), the
ceptable” level neither disturbs room occupants
sound entry through a floor or roof would be re-
nor interferes with the communication of wanted
duced 7dB. In addition, the acoustical ceiling
sound.
would absorb a portion of the sound after entry
The most widely accepted and used noise crite-
and provide a few more decibels of quieting. Use
ria today are expressed as the Noise Criterion
of the following expression can be made to deter-
(NC) curves, Figure 7.7.1a. The figures in Table
mine the intra-room noise or loudness reduction
7.7.1 represent general acoustical goals. They can
due to the absorption of sound.
also be compared with anticipated noise levels in
Ao + Aa specific rooms to assist in evaluating noise reduc-
NR = 10 log (Eq. 7.6.1)
Aa tion problems.
where The main criticism of NC curves is that they are
NR = sound pressure level reduction, dB too permissive when the control of low or high
Ao = original absorption, Sabins frequency noise is of concern. For this reason,
Room Criterion (RC) Curves were developed
Aa = added absorption, Sabins (Figure 7.7.1b).39,40 RC curves are the result of
Values for Ao and Aa are the products of the ab- extensive studies based on the human response to
sorption coefficients of the various room materi- both sound pressure level and frequency and take
als and their surface areas. into account the requirements for speech intelligi-
A plot of this equation is shown in Figure 7.6.1. bility.
For an absorption ratio of 5, the decibel reduction A low background level obviously is necessary
is 7dB. Note that the decibel reduction is the where listening and speech intelligibility is im-
7--5
Fig. 7.6.1 Relation of decibel reduction of Fig. 7.7.1b RC (Room Criteria) Curves
reflected sound to absorption ratio
70
8
6 60
4 50
RC
2
40 50
0 C
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 45
Absorption Ratio, A2 /A1 30 40
35
20 30
Fig. 7.6.2 Relation of percent loudness reduction
25
of reflected sound to absorption ratio
10
16 31.5 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000
Octave Band Center Frequencies, Hz
Percent Loudness Reduction
60
50
Region A: High probability that noise-induced vibration levels in
40
lightweight wall/ceiling constructions will be clearly feelable; antic-
30 ipate audible rattles in light fixtures, doors, windows, etc.
Region B: Noise-induced vibration levels in lightweight wall/ceil-
20 ing constructions may be moderately feelable; slight possibility of
rattles in light fixtures, doors, windows, etc.
10 Region C: Below threshold of hearing for continuous noise.
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Absorption Ratio, A 2 /A 1
portant. Conversely, higher levels can persist in
large business offices or factories where speech
Fig. 7.7.1a NC (Noise Criteria) Curves
communication is limited to short distances.
Often it is just as important to be interested in the
Octave Band Sound Pressure Level, dB re 20 micropascals
7--6
Thus, the designer must always be ready to ac- Table 7.7.1 Recommended category classi-
cept the task of analyzing the many potential fication and suggested Noise
sources of intruding sound as related to their fre- Criteria range for steady back-
quency characteristics and the rates at which they ground noise as heard in various
occur. The level of toleration that is to be expected in-door functional activity
by those who will occupy the space must also be areas*39
established. Figures 7.7.2 and 7.7.3 are the spec-
NC OR RC
tral characteristics of common noise sources.
TYPE OF SPACE CURVE
Fig. 7.7.2 Sound pressure levels - exterior noise 1. Private residences 25 to 30
sources
2. Apartments 30 to 35
120 3. Hotels/motels
jet aircraft takeoff
500 ft a. Individual rooms or suites 30 to 35
b. Meeting/banquet rooms 30 to 35
100
bus c. Halls, corridors, lobbies 35 to 40
d. Service/support areas 40 to 45
Sound Pressure Level, dB
propeller aircraft
80 takeoff-500 ft 4. Offices
heavy truck - 20 ft
a. Executive 25 to 30
60 b. Conference rooms 25 to 30
automobiles - 20 ft c. Private 30 to 35
40 d. Open-plan areas 35 to 40
e. Computer/business
machine areas 40 to 45
20
f. Public circulation 40 to 45
5. Hospitals and clinics
0
63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000 a. Private rooms 25 to 30
Frequency, Hz. b. Wards 30 to 35
c. Operating rooms 25 to 30
d. Laboratories 30 to 35
Fig. 7.7.3 Sound pressure levels - interior noise e. Corridors 30 to 35
sources f. Public areas 35 to 40
6. Churches 25 to 30**
120
7. Schools
riveting a. Lecture and classrooms 25 to 30
b. Open-plan classrooms 30 to 35**
100 8. Libraries 30 to 35
stero phonograph
teenager level 9. Concert Halls **
Sound Pressure Level, dB
typical office
80 10. Legitimate theatres **
11. Recording studios **
60 business machine 12. Movie theatres 30 to 35
tabulating room
bed or dining room * Design goals can be increased by 5 dB when
40
kitchen dictated by budget constraints or when noise
intrusion from other sources represents a lim-
20 iting condition.
**An acoustical expert should be consulted for
0 guidance on these critical spaces.
63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Frequency, Hz.
7--7
Sound Pressure Level - (dB)
Frequency (Hz) 63 125 250 500 1000 2000 4000 8000
Stereo Source Noise (teenager) 60 72 84 82 82 80 75 60
(Figure 7.7.3)
Bedroom Room Criteria 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15
RC 30 (Figure 7.7.l)
Required Insulation 10 27 44 47 52 55 55 45
With these criteria, the problem of sound isola- termined analytically by (1) identifying exterior
tion now must be solved, namely, the reduction and/or interior noise sources, and (2) by establish-
process between the high unwanted noise source ing acceptable interior noise criteria.
and the desired ambient level. For this solution,
two related yet mutually exclusive processes must Example 7.8.1
be incorporated, i.e., sound transmission loss and Assume a precast prestressed concrete apart-
sound absorption. ment building with hollow core floor slabs. The
first step is to determine the degree of acoustical
7.8 Establishment of Noise Insulation objec- insulation required of the floor-ceiling assembly
tives by using Figures 7.4.1 and 7.7.3
Often acoustical control is specified as to the The 500 Hz requirement, 47 dB, can be used as
minimum insulation values of the dividing parti- the first approximation of the floor STC category.
tion system. Municipal building codes, lending The selected floor should meet or exceed the
institutions and the Department of Housing and insulation needs at 11 frequencies. However, to
Urban Development (HUD) list both airborne achieve the most efficient design conditions, cer-
STC and impact IIC values for different living en- tain limited deficiencies can be tolerated. Experi-
vironments. For example, the HUD minimum ence has shown that the maximum deficiencies
property standards41 are: are 3 dB on one frequency point.
7--8
Fig. 7.9.1 Effect of safing insulation seals structure is much less than in one of steel or wood
frame.
concrete floor
In addition to using basic structural materials,
inorganic
mineral wool flanking paths can be minimized by:
insulation
1. Interrupting the continuous flow of energy
with dissimilar material, i.e., expansion or con-
exterior
wall trol joints or air gaps.
steel bent plate
gap 2. Increasing the resistance to energy flow with
floating floor systems, full height and/or
Combined
double partitions and suspended ceilings.
Transmission Loss
No closure 14 STC 7.10 Human Response to Building Vibrations
With steel vent plate closure 28 STC Modern buildings often use components with
With 4 in thick safing insulation 30 STC
steel bent plate added 42 STC
low weight-to-strength ratios, which allow longer
With 6 in thick safing insulation 38 STC spans with less mass. This trend increasingly re-
steel bent plate added 45 STC sults in transient vibrations which are annoying to
the occupants. Unlike equipment vibration, a per-
son often causes the vibration and also senses it.
Anticipation and prevention of leaks begins at These vibrations usually have very small ampli-
the design stage. Flanking paths (gaps) at the pe- tudes (less than 0.05 in [1 mm]) and were not not-
rimeters of interior precast walls and floors are iced in older structures with heavier framing and
generally sealed during construction with grout or more numerous and heavier partitions, which pro-
drypack. In addition, all openings around pe- vided greater damping and other beneficial dy-
netrations through walls or floors should be as namic characteristics.
small as possible and must be sealed airtight. The This problem is not well understood. Predict-
higher the STC of the barrier, the greater the effect ing human response to floor motion and the dy-
of an unsealed opening. namic response to floor motion and the dynamic
Perimeter leakage more commonly occurs at response of a floor system to moving loads are de-
the intersection between an exterior curtain wall veloping technologies. A number of discomfort
and floor slab. It is of vital importance to seal this criteria have been published44-51, but they often
gap in order to retain the acoustical integrity of the give contradictory results.
system as well as provide the required fire stop be- The vibration problem is most effectively
tween floors. One way to achieve this seal is to treated by modifying the structural system. The
place a 4 pcf (64 kg/m3) density mineral wood natural period (or its inverse, frequency), stiff-
blanket between the floor slab and the exterior ness, mass, and damping are the structural param-
wall. Figure 7.9.1 demonstrates the acoustical eters related to vibration control. Stiffness is in-
isolation effects of this treatment. creased by providing greater section properties
In exterior walls, the proper application of seal- than may be required for supporting loads. An in-
ant and backup materials in the joints between crease in mass improves the natural frequency, but
units will not allow sound to flank the wall. increases deflections and stresses, so by itself is
If the acoustical design is balanced, the maxi- only partially effective in controlling vibrations.
mum amount of acoustic energy reaching a space For example, increasing the depth of a flexural
via flanking should not equal the energy trans- member will aid greatly in vibration control, but
mitted through the primary barriers. increasing the width will not.
Although not easily quantified, an inverse rela- Recent research has emphasized the effect that
tionship exists between the performance of an ele- damping plays in the human perception of vibra-
ment as a primary barrier and its propensity to tion. In a study of 91 floor systems it was con-
transmit flanking sound. In other words, the prob- cluded that with damping greater than 5.5 to 6 per-
ability of existing flanking paths in a concrete cent of critical, structural systems were accept-
7--9
able; systems with less were not46. Damping is From the above, the required static deflection
usually attributed to the existence of partitions, of an isolator can be determined as follows:
supported mechanical work, ceilings and similar
items, but is really not well understood. Guides fn = fd/3 = 188 1∕∆ i or
for quantifying damping effect are scarce, and
∆i = (564/fd)2 (Eq. 7.11.2)
those that are available are very approximate49-51.
and:
7.11 Vibration Isolation for Mechanical
Equipment ∆f ≤ 0.15 ∆i (Eq. 7.11.3)
Vibration produced by equipment with unbal-
where:
anced operating or starting forces can usually be
isolated from the structure by mounting on a fd = driving frequency of the equipment
heavy concrete slab placed on resilient supports.
This type of slab, called an inertia block, provides ∆f = static deflection of the floor system caused
a low center of gravity to compensate for thrusts by the weight of the equipment, including
such as those generated by large fans. inertia block, at the location of the equip-
For equipment with less unbalanced weight, a ment.
“housekeeping” slab is sometimes used below the
resilient mounts to provide a rigid support for the
mounts and to keep them above the floor so they
are easier to clean and inspect. This slab may also Example 7.11.1 - Vibration Isolation
be mounted on pads of precompressed glass fiber Given:
or neoprene. A piece of mechanical equipment has a driving
The natural frequency of the total load on resil- frequency of 800 CPM.
ient mounts must be well below the frequency
Problem:
generated by the equipment. The required weight
of an inertia block depends on the total weight of Determine the approximate minimum deflec-
the machine and the unbalanced force. For a long tion of the isolator and the maximum deflection of
stroke compressor, five to seven times its weight the floor system that should be allowed.
might be needed. For high pressure fans, one to Solution:
five times the fan weight is usually sufficient. Isolator, ∆i = (564/800)2 = 0.50 in.
A floor supporting resiliently mounted equip- Floor, ∆f = 0.15(0.50) = 0.07 in.
ment must be much stiffer than the isolation sys-
tem. If the static deflection of the floor ap- Additional Bibliography
proaches the static deflection of the mounts, the L.L. Beranek; Noise Reduction, McGraw-Hill
floor becomes a part of the vibrating system, and Book Co., New York, 1960.
little vibration isolation is achieved. In general,
the floor deflection should be limited to about 15 Ceramic Tile Institute of America and American
percent of the deflection of the mounts. Enka Company unpublished floor/ceiling tests.
Simplified theory shows that for 90% vibration
isolation, a single resilient supported mass (isola- C.M. Harris, Handbook of Noise Control,
tor) should have a natural frequency of about 1/3 McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1967.
the driving frequency of the equipment. The natu-
ral frequency of this mass can be calculated by:52 C.M. Harris, C.E. Crede; Shock & Vibration
Handbook - 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co.,
fn = 188 1∕∆ i (Eq. 7.11.1) New York, 1976.
where:
A. Litvin, H.W. Belliston; “Sound Transmission
fn = natural frequency of the isolator, CPM Loss Through Concrete and Concrete Masonry
∆i = static deflection of the isolator, in Walls”, ACI Journal, December, 1978.
7--10
CHAPTER 8
This Guide Specification is intended to be used as a basis for the development of an office
master specification or in the preparation of specifications for a particular project. In either
case, this Guide Specification must be edited to fit the conditions of use.
Particular attention should be given to the deletion of inapplicable provisions. Necessary
items related to a particular project should be included. Also, appropriate requirements
should be added where blank spaces have been provided
The Guide Specifications are on the left. Notes to Specifiers are on the right.
8--1
GUIDE SPECIFICATIONS NOTES TO SPECIFIERS
7. Caulking and Sealants: Section 1.01.B.7 Caulking between slab edges at exposed
_________. underside of floor members and/or perimeter
caulking may be included in this section.
8. Holes for Mechanical Equipment: Sec- 1.01.B.8 Holes may be drilled or cut and trimmed
tion _______. with a chisel. Cut outline of hole through lower
portion of slab from underside, after which the top
side may be removed from above. Do not cut pre-
stressing strand without permission of engineer.
9. Painting: Section _________. 1.01.B.9 Prime coat should be a latex base paint.
Finish coat may be an oil base, flat wall or emulsi-
fied finish
10. Carpet and Pad: Section _________. 1.01.B.10 Specify minimum 55 oz. pad when no
cast-in-place topping is used
11. Roofing and Roof Insulation: 1.01.B.11 Non-absorbent rigid board insulation
Section _________. 1” or more in thickness should be used on roofs.
Check local energy code for exact requirements.
8--2
GUIDE SPECIFICATIONS NOTES TO SPECIFIERS
E. Requirements of Regulatory Agencies: All 1.02.E Always include the specific year or edi-
local codes plus the following specifications, tion of the specifications, codes and standards
standards and codes are a part of these specifi- used in the design of the project and made part of
cations: the specifications. Fire safety and resistance re-
1. ACI 318-Building Code Requirements quirements are specified in local or model codes.
for Structural Concrete. When required, fire rated products shall be clear-
2. AWS D1.1-Structural Welding Code - ly identified on the design drawings.
Steel. For projects in Canada, the National Building
3. AWS D1.4-Structural Welding Code - Re- Code of Canada governs design. Canadian Stan-
inforcing Steel. dards Association Standards A23.3-94, “Design
4. ASTM Specifications - As referred to in of Concrete Structures” and A23.4-94, “Precast
Part 2 - Products, of this Specification. Concrete - Materials and Construction” also ap-
ply. Fire resistance is specified in the National
Building Code and the National Fire Code.
1.03 Submittals
A. Shop Drawings
1. Erection Drawings
a. Plans locating and defining all hollow 1.03.A.1.a Openings shown on erection draw-
core slab units furnished by the ings are considered in the slab design. Verify slab
manufacturer, with all openings larger adequacy for any other openings with the Engi-
than 10 in (250 mm) shown and lo- neer of Record.
cated.
b. Sections and details showing connec-
tions, edge conditions and support
conditions of the hollow core slab
units.
c. All dead, live and other applicable
loads used in the design.
d. Estimated cambers. 1.03.A.1.d Floor slabs receiving cast-in-place
topping. The elevation of top of floor and amount
of concrete topping must allow for camber of pre-
stressed concrete members.
2. Production Drawings 1.03.A.2 Production drawings are normally sub-
a. Plan view of each hollow core slab mitted only upon request.
unit type.
b. Sections and details to indicate quanti-
ties, location and type of reinforcing
steel and prestressing strands.
c. Lifting and erection inserts.
d. Dimensions and finishes.
e. Prestress for strand and concrete
strength.
8--3
GUIDE SPECIFICATIONS NOTES TO SPECIFIERS
2. PRODUCTS
2.01 Materials 2.01 Delete or add materials that may be re-
quired for the particular job.
A. Portland Cement:
1. ASTM C150 - Type I or III
B. Admixtures: 2.01.B Verify ability of local producer to use ad-
mixtures
1. Air-Entraining Admixtures: ASTM
C260.
2. Water Reducing, Retarding, Accelerat-
ing, High Range Water Reducing Admix-
tures: ASTM C494.
C. Aggregates:
1. ASTM C33 or C330.
8--4
GUIDE SPECIFICATIONS NOTES TO SPECIFIERS
D. Water:
Potable or free from foreign materials in
amounts harmful to concrete and embedded
steel.
E. Reinforcing Steel:
1. Bars: 2.01.E.1 When welding of bars is required, weld-
Deformed Billet Steel: ASTM A615. ability must be established to conform to AWS
Deformed Rail Steel: ASTM A616. D1.4.
Deformed Axle Steel: ASTM A617.
Deformed Low Alloy Steel: ASTM
A706.
2. Wire:
Cold Drawn Steel: ASTM A82.
F. Prestressing Strand: 2.01.F Low-relaxation strand is the predominant
1. Uncoated, 7-Wire, Stress-Relieved strand in use. References to stress-relieved strand
Strand: ASTM A416 (including supple- are from the ASTM titles.
ment) - Grade 250K or 270K.
2. Uncoated, Weldless 2- and 3-Wire Strand:
ASTM A910
3. Indented, 7-Wire, Stress-Relieved Strand:
ASTM A886 (including supplement)
G. Welded Studs: In accordance with AWS
D1.1.
H. Structural Steel Plates and Shapes: ASTM 2.01.H When required for anchorage or lateral
A36. bracing to structural steel members, some meth-
ods of manufacturing hollow core slabs preclude
the use of anchors and inserts
I. Grout: 2.01.I Grout strengths of 2000 psi to 3000 psi
1. Cement grout: Grout shall be a mixture of (13.8 - 20.7 MPa) can generally be achieved with
not less than one part portland cement to the proportions noted. Rarely is higher strength
three parts fine sand, and the consistency grout required. Non-shrink grout is not required
shall be such that joints can be completely for satisfactory performance of hollow core slab
filled but without seepage over adjacent systems.
surfaces. Any grout that seeps from the
joint shall be completely removed before
it hardens.
J. Bearing Strips:
1. Random Oriented Fiber Reinforced: 2.01.J.1 Standard guide specifications are not
Shall support a compressive stress of 3000 available for random-oriented, fiber-reinforced
psi (20.7 MPa) with no cracking, splitting pads. Proof testing of a sample from each group
or delaminating in the internal portions of of 200 pads is suggested. Normal design working
the pad. One specimen shall be tested for stresses are 1500 psi (10.3 MPa), so the 3000 psi
each 200 pads used in the project. (20.7 MPa) test load provides a factor of 2 over
design stress. The shape factor for the test speci-
mens should not be less than 2.
8--5
GUIDE SPECIFICATIONS NOTES TO SPECIFIERS
2. Plastic: Multi-monomer plastic strips 2.01.J.2 Plastic pads are widely used with hollow
shall be non-leaching and support core slabs. Compression stress in use is not nor-
construction loads with no visible overall mally over a few hundred psi and proof testing is
expansion. not considered necessary. No standard guide
specifications are available.
3. Tempered Hardboard. 2.01.J.3 Hardboard bearing strips should not be
used in areas where undesirable staining is pos-
sible or where bearing strips may be continually
wet.
4. Untempered Hardboard
2.03 Manufacture
A. Manufacturing procedures shall be in com-
pliance with PCI MNL-116.
3. EXECUTION
3.01 Product Deliver, Storage, and Handling
A. Delivery and Handling:
8--6
GUIDE SPECIFICATIONS NOTES TO SPECIFIERS
3.02 Erection
A. Site Access: The General Contractor shall be
responsible for providing suitable access to
the building, proper drainage and firm level
bearing for the hauling and erection equip-
ment to operate under their own power.
B. Preparation: The General Contractor shall be 3.02.B Construction tolerances for cast-in-place
responsible for: concrete, masonry, etc., should be specified in
those sections of the specifications.
1. Providing true, level bearing surfaces on
all field placed bearing walls and other
field placed supporting members.
2. All pipes, stacks, conduits and other such 3.02.B.2 Should be in Electrical, Mechanical,
items shall be stubbed off at a level lower and Plumbing sections of project specifications.
than the bearing plane of the prestressed
concrete products until after the latter are
set.
8--7
GUIDE SPECIFICATIONS NOTES TO SPECIFIERS
3.04 Attachments
A. Subject to approval of the Architect/Engineer,
hollow core slab units may be drilled or ”shot”
provided no contact is made with the pre-
stressing steel. Should spalling occur, it shall
be repaired by the trade doing the drilling or
the shooting.
8--8
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2. ACI Committee 318, “Building Code Re- sioned Hollow Core Units”, ACI Journal,
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318-95) and Commentary (ACI 13. Zia, Paul and Mostafa, Talat, “Develop-
318R-95)”, American Concrete Institute, ment Length of Prestressing Strands”, PCI
Farmington Hills, MI, 1995. JOURNAL, September-October, 1977, pp
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L, and Workman, Edwin B., “Estimating 16. Discussion and Closure, “A Review of
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6. Martin, L.D., “A Rational Method for Es- NAL, V. 41, No. 2, March-April, 1996, pp
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JOURNAL, January-February, 1977. “Strength of Prestressed Concrete Mem-
7. ACI Committee 301, “Standard Specifica- bers at Sections Where Strands are not
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Farmington Hills, MI, 1996. 58-66.
8. Scott, Norman L., “Performance of Pre- 18. Brooks, Mark D., Gerstle, Kurt H., and
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Composite Concrete Topping”, PCI Strand Slip on the Strength of Hollow
JOURNAL, March-April, 1973, pp 64-77. Core Slabs”, PCI JOURNAL, V. 33, No.
9. Martin, Leslie D. and Scott, Norman L., 1, January-February, 1988, pp 90-111.
“Development of Prestressing Strand in 19. LaGue, David J., “Load Distribution Tests
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gust 1976, pp 453-456. Construction”, PCI JOURNAL, Novem-
10. Anderson, Arthur R., and Anderson, Rich- ber-December, 1971, pp 10-18.
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457-464. tember, 1983.
11. Discussion and Closure, “Development of 21. Johnson, Ted and Ghadiali, Zohair, “Load
Prestressing Strand in Pretensioned Mem- Distribution Test on Precast Hollow Core
Slabs with Openings”, PCI JOURNAL, 31. PCI Manual for Structural Design of Ar-
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MNL-121-77, Prestressed Concrete Insti-
22. Pfeifer, Donald W. and Nelson, Theodore
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A., “Tests to Determine the Lateral Dis-
tribution of Vertical Loads in a Long-Span 32. Uniform Building Code, “Structural Engi-
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JOURNAL, Vol. 28, No. 6, November-De- tional Conference of Building Officials,
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23. Aswad, Alex and Jacques, Francis J., “Be- 33. The BOCA National Building Code,
havior of Hollow Core Slabs Subject to Thirteenth Edition, Building Officials &
Edge Loads”, PCI JOURNAL, V. 37, No. Code Administrators International, Inc.,
2, March-April, 1992, pp 72-83. Country Club Hills, IL, 1996.
34. Cosper, Steven J., Anderson, Arthur R.,
24. Stanton, John F., “Response of Hollow
Core Slab Floors to Concentrated Loads”, Jobse, Harold J., “Shear Diaphragm Ca-
pacity of Untopped Hollow Core Floor
PCI JOURNAL, V. 37, No. 4, July-Au-
Systems”, Concrete Technology
gust, 1992, pp 98-113.
Associates, Technical Bulletin 80B3,
25. Stanton, John F., “Proposed Design Rules 1981.
for Load Distribution in Precast Concrete 35. Clough, D.P., “Design of Connections for
Decks”, ACI Structural Journal, V. 84, No. Precast Prestressed Concrete Buildings for
5, September-October, 1987, pp 371-382. the Effects of Earthquake”, National Sci-
26. Rosenthal, I., “Full Scale Test of Continu- ence Foundation, 1985.
ous Prestressed Hollow Core Slab”, PCI 36. Moustafa, Saad E., “Effectiveness of
JOURNAL, Vol. 23, No. 3, May-June, Shear-Friction Reinforcement in Shear Di-
1978, pp. 74-81. aphragm Capacity of Hollow Core Slabs”,
27. Harris, Harry G., and Iyengar, Srikanth, PCI JOURNAL, Vol. 26, No. 1, January-
“Full Scale Tests on Horizontal Joints of February, 1981, pp 118-132.
Large Panel Precast Concrete Buildings”, 37. Design and Detailing of Untopped Hollow
PCI JOURNAL, Vol 25, No. 2, March- Core Slab Systems for Diaphragm Shears,
April, 1980, pp. 72-92. Structural Engineer’s Association of Ari-
28. Johal, L.S. and Hanson, N.W., “Design for zona, 1981/82.
Vertical Load on Horizontal Connections 38. PCI Fire Committee, “Design for Fire Re-
in Large Panel Structures”, PCI JOUR- sistance of Precast Prestressed Concreter-
NAL, Vol. 27, No. 1, January-February, Second Edition”, Precast/Prestressed Con-
1982, pp 62-79. crete Institute, Chicago, IL, 1989.
29. PCI Committee on Precast Bearing Wall 39. ASHRAE: ASHRAE Systems Handbook
Buildings, “Considerations for the Design for 1984. American Society of Heating,
of Precast Concrete Bearing Wall Build- Refrigerating & Air Conditioning Engi-
ings to Withstand Abnormal Loads”, PCI neers, Inc., New York, 1984.
JOURNAL, Vol. 21, No. 2., March-April, 40. Blazier, W.E., “Revised Noise Criteria for
1976, pp. 18-51. Design and Rating of HVAC Systems”,
30. Fintel, Mark and Schultz, Donald M., “A paper presented at ASHRAE Semiannual
Philosophy for Structural Integrity of Meeting, Chicago, IL, January 26, 1981.
Large Panel Buildings”, PCI JOURNAL, 41. Berendt, R.D., Winzer, G.E., Burroughs,
Vol. 21, No. 3, May-June, 1976, pp. 46-69. C.B.; “A Guide to Airborne, Impact and
Structureborne Noise Control in Multi- 46. Murray, T.M., “Acceptability Criterion for
family Dwellings”, prepared for Federal Occupant-Induced Floor Vibration”,
Housing Administration, U.S. Govern- Sound and Vibration, November, 1979.
ment Printing Office, Washington, D.C., 47. “Design and Evaluation of Operation
1975. Breakthrough Housing Systems”, NBS
42. Sabine, H.J., Lacher, M.B., Flynn, D.R., Report 10200, Amendment 4, September,
Quindry, T.L.; “Acoustical and Thermal 1970, U.S. Department of Housing and
Performance of Exterior Residential Urban Development, Washington, D.C.
Walls, Doors & Windows”, National Bu- 48. Wiss, J.F. and Parmelee, R.H., “Human
reau of Standards, U.S. Government Print- Perception of Transient Vibrations”, Jour-
ing Office, Washington D.C., 1975. nal of the Structural Division, ASCE, Vol.
100, No. ST4, April, 1974.
43. IITRI; “Compendium of Materials for
49. “Guide to Floor Vibrations”, Steel Struc-
Noise Control”, U.S. Department of
tures for Buildings-Limit States Design
Health, Education & Welfare, U.S. Gov-
CSA S16.1-1974, Appendix G. Canadian
ernment Printing Office, Washington,
Standards Association, Rexdale, Ontario.
D.C., 1980.
50. “Guide for the Evaluation of Human Ex-
44. “Vibrations of Concrete Structures”, Pub- posure to Whole-Body Vibration”, In-
lication SP-60, American Concrete Insti- ternational Standard 2631, International
tute, Detroit, MI. Organization for Standardization, 1974.
45. Galambos, T.V., Gould, P.C., Ravindra, 51. Murray, T.M., “Design to Prevent Floor
M.R., Surgoutomo, H., and Crist, R.A., Vibration”, Engineering Journal, AISC,
“Structural Deflections - A Literature and Third Quarter, 1975.
State-of-the-Art Survey”, Building Sci- 52. Harris, C.M. and Crede, C.E., Shock and
ence Series, Oct., 1973, National Bureau Vibration Handbook, 2nd Edition,
of Standards, Washington, D.C. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, 1976.
INDEX
A Decibel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7---1, 7---5, 7---6
Deflection . . . . . . . . . 1---3, 1---4, 3---1, 3---10, 3---12
Acoustical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---3, 7---1
Deflections . 2---1, 2---5, 2---11 to 2---16, 4---3, 4---7,
Admixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---1, 1---2, 8---4 4---9
Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . 1---2, 6---1, 6---2, 6---4, 8---4 Design responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---5, 4---1
Air entrainment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---1 Design strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2---2, 2---19, 2---20
Allowable live load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---5 Details - Cantilevers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5---20
Details - Concrete beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5---2
B Details - Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5---23
Details - Steel beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5---15
Bearing strips . . . . . . 3---12, 3---13, 8---5, 8---6, 8---8
Details - Walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5---9
Bonding agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2---16
Development length . . . 2---19 to 2---21, 3---9, 3---12
Boundary element . . . . . . . . . . . 4---4 to 4---8, 4---15
Diaphragm flexibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4---2 to 4---4
Diaphragms . 1---3, 2---15, 2---16, 3---10, 3---14, 4---1,
C to 4---9, 5---1
Camber . . 1---4, 1---14, 2---3, 2---11 to 2---13, 2---14, Differential shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2---15, 2---16
2---15, 2---16, 8---3, 8---4 Drag strut . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4---4, 4---5, 4---7, 4---8
Cantilevers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3---10 to 3---12 Dy-Core . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---1, 1---8
Caulking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8---2 Dynaspan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---1, 1---8
Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8---2
Chord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4---4, 4---5, 4---8 E
Collector . . . . . . . . . . . . 4---4, 4---5, 4---7, 4---8, 4---9
Effective resisting section . 3---2, 3---3, 3---6 to 3---8
Composite ties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2---16
Elematic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---1, 1---9
Composite topping 1---3, 2---13, 2---15, 2---16, 3---10,
End restraint . . . . . . . 1---3, 6---5, 6---8, 6---12, 6---13
4---9
End slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2---20, 2---21
Connections 1---3, 1---5, 3---10, 4---1, 4---2, 4---4, 4---7
to 4---9, 5---1 Equivalent live load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---5
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3---10, 6---5, 6---9, 6---10 Equivalent thickness . 1---2, 1---3, 6---1, 6---2, 6---4,
6---14
Contract documents . . . 1---3, 1---5, 4---1, 8---4, 8---6
Equivalent uniform load . . . . . . . . 1---5, 1---6, 3---7
Control joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2---16
Erection drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---5, 8---3
Cracking moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2---19
Extruder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---1, 2---9
Creep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2---11 to 2---16, 6---12
Creep losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2---1, 2---3, 2---5
Curling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2---16
F
Finishes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---4
Fire endurance 3---10, 6---1, 6---2, 6---4, 6---5, 6---7 to
D 6---14
Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7---2, 7---9, 7---10 Fire rating . . . . . . . . . . . 1---2, 1---3, 1---5, 1---6, 8---3
Debonded strands . . . . . . 2---2, 2---20, 3---10, 3---11 Fixed form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---1
Flanking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7---1, 7---8, 7---9 M
Flexicore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---1, 1---9 Manufacturing . . 1---1, 1---5, 1---8, 2---2, 2---3, 2---9,
Flexural bond length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2---19, 2---20 3---1, 3---10, 8---1, 8---2, 8---5, 8---6
Flexural design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2---1
Flexural strength . . 1---6, 2---1, 2---6, 2---9, 2---19 to N
2---21, 4---8
Non-shrink grout . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---2, 8---5
Normal end slip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2---21
G
Grout . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---2, 2---16, 3---12, 4---6, 8---5
O
Grout column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3---12, 3---13 Openings . 1---3, 1---5, 3---1, 3---8, 3---9, 3---15, 4---9,
8---3, 8---4, 8---6
H P
Headers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3---8 Partially developed strand . . . . . . . . 2---19 to 2---21
Heat transmission 1---3, 6---1, 6---2, 6---4, 6---8, 6---14 PCI Standard Design Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2---1
Production drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8---3
Horizontal joints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3---12 to 3---15
Horizontal shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2---16, 4---8, 4---9
Q
Quality assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2---15, 8---2
I
Impact insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7---3 R
Impact Insulation Class . . . . . 1---3, 7---1, 7---3, 7---4 Release strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2---2, 2---3
Impact noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7---1, 7---3
Inclined shear . . . . . . . . . . . . 2---10, 3---4, 3---6, 3---7 S
Sandwich panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---4
K Seating losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2---1
Seismic base shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4---2
Keyways . . . 1---2, 1---3, 3---1, 3---10, 4---5, 4---6, 4---8
Service load stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . 2---1, 2---3, 2---5
Shear friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4---5 to 4---8
L Shear reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . 2---9, 2---11, 3---7
Shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---2, 2---15, 2---16
Lateral loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4---1, 4---4 to 4---6
Shrinkage cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---2, 3---1, 4---11
Lateral-resisting elements . . . . . . . . . . 4---1 to 4---9
Shrinkage losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2---1, 2---3
Load concentrations . . . . . . 2---20, 3---1, 3---3, 3---8
Slab thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---3, 1---5, 1---6, 3---11
Load distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3---1 to 3---3 Slip form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---1, 1---2
Load tables . . . . . . . 1---3, 1---5 to 1---7, 2---1, 2---16 Slump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---1, 1---2, 2---20
Longitudinal shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4---6, 4---7 Sound absorption . . . . . . . . . . 7---1, 7---2, 7---5, 7---8
Loss of Prestress . . 2---1, 2---3 to 2---5, 2---11, 2---13 Sound insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7---1 to 7---3
Sound transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---3 Transfer stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2---1, 2---2
Sound Transmission Class . . . 1---3, 7---1, 7---2, 7---4 Transverse bending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3---1, 3---3
Sound transmission loss . . . . . . . . 7---1 to 7---3, 7---8 Transverse reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3---1
Span-depth ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3---3
Spancrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---1, 1---10
U
Spray-applied coatings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6---9, 6---14
Ultra-Span . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---1, 1---11
Steel relaxation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2---1, 2---4
Unit weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---2, 1---14
Strain compatibility 2---6, 2---7, 2---9, 2---20, 2---21,
3---11
Stress-strain diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2---7, 2---8 V
Structural end point . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6---5
Vibration isolators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7---2, 7---10
Structural integrity . . 3---10, 3---14, 4---1, 4---4, 4---5
W
T
Wall panels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---1, 1---4
Tolerances . . . 1---4, 1---6, 1---14, 1---15, 8---6 to 8---8
Water-cement ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2---20
Topping 1---3, 1---4, 2---13, 2---15, 2---16, 3---10, 4---5
4---9, 6---2, 6---4, 6---11, 8---1 to 8---4 Web shear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2---18, 3---4, 3---7
Torsion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3---1, 3---2, 3---8 Weep holes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---4
Transfer length . . . . . . 2---10, 2---19 to 2---21, 3---12 Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1---2, 1---6