2-D Mathematical Modeling of Boron Carbide Manufacturing Process

Development and validation of
two-dimensional mathematical model of

boron carbide manufacturing process
A Thesis submitted
for the degree of
Master of Science (Engg.)
in the Faculty of Engineering
by
Rakesh Kumar
Department of Materials Engineering

Indian Institute of Science
Bangalore 560 012 (India)
2006
Dedicated to my parents
i
Synopsis
Boron carbide is produced in a heat resistance furnace using boric oxide and petroleum
coke as the raw materials. In this process, a large current is passed through the graphite
rod located at the center of the cylindrical furnace, which is surrounded by the coke and
boron oxide mixture. Heat generated due to resistance heating is responsible for the
reaction of boron oxide with coke which results in the formation of boron carbide. The
whole process is highly energy intensive and inefficient in terms of the production of
boron carbide. Only 15% charge gets converted into boron carbide. The aim of the
present work is to develop a mathematical model for this batch process and validate the
model with experiments and to optimize the operating parameters to increase the
productivity.
To mathematically model the process and understand the influence of various operating
parameters on the productivity, existing simple one-dimensional (1-D) mathematical
model in radial direction is modified first. Two-dimensional (2-D) model can represent
the process better; therefore in second stage of the project a 2-D mathematical model is
also developed. For both, 1-D and 2-D models, coupled heat and mass balance equations
are solved using finite volume technique. Both the models have been tested for time step
and grid size independency. The kinetics of the reaction is represented using nucleation
growth mechanism. Conduction, convection and radiation terms are considered in the
formulation of heat transfer equation. Fraction of boron carbide formed and temperature
profiles in the radial direction are obtained computationally.
Experiments were conducted on a previously developed experimental setup consisting of

heat resistance furnace, a power supply unit and electrode cooling device. The heating
furnace is made of stainless steel body with high temperature ceramic wool insulation. In
order to validate the mathematical model, experiments are performed in various
conditions. Temperatures are measured at various locations in the furnace and samples
are collected from the various locations (both in radial and angular directions) in the
ii
furnace for chemical analysis. Also, many experimental data are used from the previous
work to validate the computed results. For temperatures measurement, pyrometer, C, B
and K type thermocouple were used.
It is observed that results obtained from both the models (1-D and 2-D) are in reasonable
agreement with the experimental results. Once the models are validated with the
experiments, sensitivity analysis of various parameters such as power supply, initial
percentage of B4C in the charge, composition of the charge, and various modes of power
supply, on the process is performed. It is found that linear power supply mode, presence
of B4C in the initial mixture and increase in power supply give better productivity
(fraction reacted). In order to have more confidence in the developed models, the
parameters of one the computed results in the sensitivity analysis parameters are chosen
(in present case, linear power supply is chosen) to perform the experiment. Results
obtained from the experiment performed under the same simulated conditions as
computed results are found in excellent match with each other.
iii
Acknowledgment
I don’t find adequate words to express my feelings and gratitude for the institute. To
me IISc is a place where I’ve realised my dreams and have seen a great future ahead.
It’s a real encouragement to watch passionate professors and students contributing
to the research field to the utmost of their dedication.
I am deeply indebted to my advisor, Prof. Govind S. Gupta for his unending guid-
ance and support throughout my graduate study. It is my tremendous honor to com-
plete this research work under his supervision. Advice from him has extended far
beyond the technical realm. His emphases on creativity, perseverance, written and
oral communications, and experimental skills are the most valuable treasures that I
have learnt from him, and I will implement them in my future work. ”Multi-prong
approach” is the most common word that I have always heard from Prof. Gupta.
Under his guidance I have overcome my all time fear of taking many task at hand
and doing equal justice to them all.
I am thankful to the Chairman in the Department of Metallurgy for allowing me to

use the lab facilities whenever required. I am also thankful to Prof. Subranmanian ,
Prof. Vikram Jayram, Prof. Choksi and Prof. Subodh Kumar in the Department of
Metallurgy for letting me use their lab facilities time to time. I am thankful to Mr.
Babu for helping me out with experimental setup problems.
I would like to thank Prof. R.V. Ravikrishana, and Prof. J. Srinivasan in the De-
partment of Mechanical Engineering for their valuable comments drawn from their
vast research experiences to enhance my dissertation. Moreover, I appreciate Prof.
N. Balakrishanan in the Department of Aerospace Engineering for his valuable tips
on writing efficient simulation code.
iv
Certainly my stay in IISc would not have been so delightful and fruitful without the
friends around. I would like to express my gratitude to all my friends and colleagues
who have supported my effort in the graduate study and academic research, includ-
ing Vikrant, Sabita, Rao, Manjunath, Manish, Suman, Abhishek, Arvind, Sachin,
Santosh, Rami, Ankit, Rathore, Neelam and Sunita. Without all these people contri-
bution, in one way or other, I would have never completed my work. Special thanks
are also due to Azeem and Ashwini for helping me out in carrying experiments time
to time.
In addition, I highly appreciate presence of Vishal and Foram around while I needed
some help on critical issues related to mathematical modeling and error handling.
More then that they worked as a stress-buster in the hour of peak tension.
Finally, my family deserves my warmest appreciation. I am thankful to god for be-

stowing me a loving and caring parents. I am thankful to my brother and sister for
being a source of constant love and inspiration. It is their patience, understanding,
encouragement, and help that gave my faith and strength to complete my graduate
studies at Indian Institute of Science, Banglore.
Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Research background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Crystal structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Chemical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Typical usages and applications of boron carbide . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 Boron carbide manufacturing routes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6.1 Direct from elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6.2 Magnesiothermic route . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6.3 Gaseous route . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6.4 Carbothermal reduction route . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.7 Current understanding of the process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.8 Modeling of boron carbide manufacturing process . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.9 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.10 Outline of present work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2 Thermodynamics and reaction kinetics 18
v
Contents vi
2.1 Thermo-chemistry of B-O-C system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2 Phase diagram for boron-carbon system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3 Reaction kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3.1 Rate of reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3 Mathematical modeling 25
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.2 Process description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.3 Mathematical formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.3.1 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.4 Governing equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.4.1 Overall 2-D heat balance equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.4.2 Boundary conditions for overall 2-D heat balance equation . 33
3.4.3 Overall 2-D mass balance equation for CO . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4.4 Boundary conditions for overall 2-D mass balance . . . . . 35
3.5 Determination of properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

o
3.5.1 Determination of CO generation (W ) . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.5.2 Determination of Dco-air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.5.3 Determination of effective properties . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.5.4 Determination of the rate of heat consumption (∆H r ) . . . 39
3.6 Non-dimensionalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.6.1 Overall 2-D heat balance equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.6.2 Overall 2-D mass balance equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

Contents vii
3.7 1-D model equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.8 Computational technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.8.1 Discretization and solution methodology . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.8.2 Solution methodology for 2-D model . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4 Physical modeling and process description 48
4.1 Experimental setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.1.1 Resistance heating furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.1.2 Power supply unit with control panel . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.1.3 Thermocouples and pyrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
4.1.4 Data recording device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.1.5 Safety accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.2 Experimental procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.2.1 Chemical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5 Results and discussion 61
5.1 Results obtained from 1-D model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.1.1 Comparison between fully explicit and implicit scheme . . . 63
5.1.2 Grid independency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.1.3 Time independency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.1.4 Validation of 1-D model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.2 Results obtained from 2-D model and its validation . . . . . . . . . 75
5.2.1 Comparative study of 1-D and 2-D models with experimen-

tal results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Contents viii
5.3 Yield analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.4 Sensitivity analysis / optimization of the process . . . . . . . . . . . 83
5.4.1 Effect of input power supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.4.2 Effect of mode of heating cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
5.4.3 Effect of varying charge composition . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.5 Comparison of experimental results with sensitivity analysis . . . . 92
6 Conclusions and scope of future work 95
6.1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
6.2 Scope for future work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
A Modeling details 97
A.1 Finite volume discretization technique for PDE’s . . . . . . . . . . 97
A.2 Correlation for property data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
A.2.1 Enthalpy correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
A.2.2 Thermal conductivity correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
A.2.3 Specific heat correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
A.2.4 Porosity correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

List of Tables
1.1 Physical properties of boron carbide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Conversion timing findings by various researchers . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.1 Non-dimensional parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5.1 Simulation parameters used for fully explicit and implicit schemes . 62
5.2 Simulation parameter used for 2-D model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.3 Standard data used for sensitivity analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
ix
List of Figures
1.1 Rhombohedral crystalline structure of B4 C . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Schematic of apparatus using pulsed-laser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3 Schematic of resistance heating furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.1 B-C phase diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.1 Computational domain for 1-D and 2-D mathematical model . . . . 31
3.2 Flow diagram for 1-D program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.3 Flow diagram for 2-D program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.1 Experimental setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.2 Internal construction of the furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
5.1 Effect of fully explicit and implicit scheme on core temperature us-
ing 1-D model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
5.2 Effect of grid size on core temperature using 1-D model and fully
implicit scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
5.3 Effect of time step on core temperature using 1-D model and fully
implicit scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
x
List of Figures xi
5.4 Variation in power and primary current supply to the transformer -

(Exp. 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.5 Temperature variations at different locations with time - (Exp. 1) . . 68
5.6 Product formation with distance – (Exp. 1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.7 Fraction of material reacted with time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.8 Enlarged view of figure 5.7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.9 Power supply and primary current variation with time – (Exp. 2) . . 73
5.10 Temperature variation at different locations with time – (Exp. 2) . . 74
5.11 Product formation with distance – (Exp. 2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.12 Typical 2-D plot for temperature variation with time at different
locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.13 Angular variation in product formation at various locations, as ob-

tained from 2-D model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.14 Temperature variation at different locations with time – (Exp. 3) . . 79
5.15 Comparison of 1-D and 2-D computed core temperature with ex-
perimental data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.16 Comparison of 1-D and 2-D computed temperatures away from core
with experimental data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.17 Temperature variation with time for different power input . . . . . . 85
5.18 Effect of power supply on conversion radius . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.19 Different modes of power supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.20 Effect of mode of power supply on core temperature . . . . . . . . . 87
5.21 Effect of mode of power supply on percentage conversion . . . . . . 87
5.22 Effect of excess B2 O3 on core temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

List of Figures xii
5.23 Conversion radius with excess B2 O3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5.24 Effect of initial B4 C on computed temperature . . . . . . . . . . . 90
5.25 Effect of initial B4 C content on final product formation . . . . . . . 90
5.26 Comparison between 1-D and 2-D model with experiment . . . . . 91
5.27 Comparison between 1-D and 2-D model for conversion radius . . . 93
A.1 Control volume in polar coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

Chapter 1
Introduction
Boron carbide was discovered about one and half century ago which has made a
tremendous impact on science and technology. The exceptional features of boron
carbide, e.g., specific gravity, extreme hardness, wear resistance, high mechanical
strength at both low and high temperature, thermal and chemical resistance, nuclear
properties, and chemical reactivity, makes it an outstanding material for material
processing and for nuclear and military applications.
1.1 Research background
Boron carbide is one of the hardest materials known, ranking third behind the dia-
mond and cubic boron nitride. It is the hardest material produced in tonnage quan-
tities. B4 C was originally discovered in mid 19th century around 1858 [1] as a
by-product in the production of metal borides. Joly in 1883 and Mossian in 1894
synthesized B4 C in a purer form [2] and identified boron-carbon compounds of
different composition as B3 C and B6 C respectively. Boron carbide was studied
in detail after 1930 and the first phase diagram was published in 1934 [3]. Stoi-
chiometric formula (B4 C) for boron carbide was assigned in 1934 [4]. After that
many other diverse formulae were proposed by Russian authors; which have not
1
Chapter 1 2
been confirmed yet [1, 5] but today a homogeneity range from B 4.0 C to B10.4 C has
been established [2, 6]. A high B/C molar ratio, as high as B 51 C, is also reported in
literature [7].
1.2 Crystal structure
Boron carbide can be considered a compound of α - rhombohedral boron which

include B12 C3 , B12 S, B12 O2 , B12 P2 etc. [6]. The lattice belongs to D3d5 − R 3̄
space group [2]. The rhombohedral unit cell contains 15 atoms corresponding
to B12 C3 as shown below in figure 1.1 (a). The boron carbides are composed of
(a) (b)
Figure 1.1: Rhombohedral crystalline structure of B4 C (a) Structure of D3d5 − R 3̄ space

group [2], (b) B4 C - shaded icosahedra are in the background [8].
twelve-atoms (icosahedral clusters) which are linked by direct covalent bonds and
through three-atom inter icosahedral chains [2]. As per recent study the sequence
Chapter 1 3
C-B-C can be assumed for the chain. In addition to these two carbon atoms per unit
cell, as shown in figure 1.1 (b), carbon likely replaces boron at the boron sites in
the icosahedra. It is pointed out that four sites are available for a total of 15 boron
and carbon atoms, so the most widely accepted structural model for B 4 C has B11 C
icosahedra with C-B-C inter icosahedral chains. Further details about the lattice
parameters can be found in literature [2, 8 -10].
Table 1.1: Physical properties of boron carbide

Properties Unit Value
Melting point K 2720
Boiling point K 3770
Fracture toughness MP a.m1/2 2.9 - 3.7
Bulk density kg/m3 2520
Hardness (Knoop, 100g) kg/mm2 2900 - 3580
Young’s Modulus GPa 450 - 470
Shear Modulus GPa 180
Poisson’s ratio – 0.21
Electrical conductivity Ωm−1 140
Thermal conductivity W/(m − K) (298 K) 29 - 67
Expansion coefficient K −1 (298 K - 1273 K) 4.5 x 10−6
Neutron capture cross-section Barns 600
1.3 Physical properties
Important physical properties of B4 C are listed in table 1.1 [11, 12]. Because of its
high hardness and strength, B4 C is inferior in abrasive resistance only to diamond.
B4 C is a high temperature p-type semiconductor [2]. The electrical conductivity
depends on the B:C ratio and impurity content [6]. The electrical conductivity of
Chapter 1 4
boron carbides increases with temperature [2, 13]. Boron carbide has a negative
temperature coefficient of resistivity, similar to other ceramic material. Thermal
conductivity of boron carbide decreases with temperature; however, it has low re-
sistance to thermal shocks [6]. After 1950, more attention was paid towards boron
carbide applications based on its structural properties. In 1954 it was concluded
that B4 C has a rhombohedral structure with crystal lattice periods a = 5.598 Å, c =
12.12 Å [10]. The hardness of B4 C is known to depend heavily upon stoichiom-
etry with maximum hardness at molar B/C = 4.0. However, while stoichiometry
plays a major role in determining the hardness of boron carbide, other factors such
as microstructure and additives (T iB2 ), or impurities (Fe), have been found to be
important. The larger grain size and boron-enriched stoichiometry contribute to the
lower hardness [14].
1.4 Chemical properties
Boron carbide is supposed to be one of the most stable compounds to acids. It is not
dissolved by mineral acids or aqueous alkali; however, it is decomposed slowly in a
mixture of HF − H2 SO4 and HF − HNO3 acids [2]. Molten alkali decomposes
boron carbide to give borates. At high temperature boron carbide reacts with many
metal oxides to give carbon monoxide and metal borides [6]. It also reacts with
many metals that form carbides or borides at 1000 o C, i.e., iron, nickel, titanium
and zirconium. Above 1800 o C it reacts with nitrogen to give boron nitride. B 4 C
can be attacked by chlorine at about 600 o C and bromine attacks it at above 800 o C,
giving boron trihalides [2, 6]. Thus, it is a way to prepare boron halides. Boron
carbide can be melted without decomposition in a CO atmosphere, but it reacts in
the temperature range 600-750 o C with CO2 to form B2 O3 and CO. Boron carbide
has good oxidation properties in the air up to about 600 o C.
Chapter 1 5
1.5 Typical usages and applications of boron carbide
Boron carbide is one of the hardest materials that have been widely used in appli-
cations requiring a great hardness such as armor plating, bearings, dies and cutting
tools [15]. Boron carbide and boron suboxide have high potential opportunities to
be successfully used in nuclear power engineering and chemical industries, in ther-
moelectric energy converters and composites [16]. Major usage of B4 C are based
on its specific gravity, extreme hardness, wear resistance, high mechanical strength
at both low and high temperature, thermal and chemical resistance, nuclear proper-
ties and chemical reactivity. The majority of commercial B 4 C goes into abrasive
slurries, blast nozzles, and neutron absorbing materials [11].
Sintered-B4 C wheel-dressing sticks are used to produce new cutting edges on sur-
face grains of grinding wheels with minimum wear. The combination of extreme
hardness and low density of boron carbide has made it suitable material for uses
such as lightweight boron carbide armor in helicopter and fighter planes. Besides,
the lightweight coupled with a large heat of combustion (51900 J/g) of boron car-
bide makes it a useful solid propellant for rocket.
Boron has two principal isotopes, B 10 and B 11 . The effectiveness of boron as neu-
tron absorber is due to the high absorption cross section of B 10 isotope [17]. Boron
has another advantage over other potential neutron absorber materials.
10 1 4 7
5B + on → 2 He + 3 Li + 2.4MeV
The reaction products of neutron absorption namely helium and lithium are formed
as stable, non-radioactive isotopes. Also, no high-energy, secondary radioactive
products are produced. B4 C is both cheaper and easier to fabricate than the ele-
mental boron itself. As a result, it has found almost exclusive usage as a control rod
material, neutron poison, shutdown balls, and as neutron shielding material.
Chapter 1 6
The thermoelectric properties of B13 C2 are such that it could be an interesting ma-
terial for high-temperature thermoelectric conversion. Thermo-elements made of
the couple B4 C − C can be used for temperature measurement up to 2300 o C.
1.6 Boron carbide manufacturing routes
Boron carbide can be prepared by a variety of high temperature methods. They can
be grouped in the following major categories:
• Synthesis of boron carbide using virgin elements
• Synthesis of boron carbide by magnesiothermic route
• Synthesis of boron carbide by gaseous route
• Synthesis of boron carbide by carbothermal reduction route
1.6.1 Synthesis of boron carbide using virgin elements
Elemental route of B4 C production gives the best quality product. Boron, in its
elemental form, can be synthesized by the following routes [17- 20].
i) By reduction of boron halides with H2
ii) By reduction of boron halides with Zn
iii) By reduction of boron oxide with Mg
The reaction between amorphous boron and carbon is kinetically fast compared
to crystalline form. Initially the raw material is thoroughly mixed in ball mill to
get homogeneous product. The reaction between boron and carbon is completely
diffusion controlled. High temperature, of the order of 1800 K, is required for the
Chapter 1 7
preparation of boron carbide. Due to the susceptibility of boron for oxidation, the
reaction is carried out under vacuum of the order of 10−3 mbar.
1.6.2 Synthesis of boron carbide by magnesiothermic route
Gray et al., [21] discovered a method of producing fine particle size boron carbide
by heating a mixture of boron oxide, carbon and magnesium. Overall reaction can
be written as:
2B2 O3 + C + 6Mg −→ B4 C + 6MgO (1.1)
Oxidation of Mg is strongly exothermic and the heat liberated during the oxidation
is used for the reaction to form boron carbide from boric acid. The boron carbide,
produced by the this method, is unsatisfactory for high purity applications because
the boron carbide is contaminated with the magnesium, the starting material, and
even after repeated digestions with hot mineral acids the magnesium is difficult to
remove. More details are given in reference [22].
1.6.3 Synthesis of boron carbide by gaseous route
Very fine powders of boron carbide have been produced by vapor phase reactions
of boron compounds with carbon or hydrocarbons, using laser or plasma energy
sources. These reactions tend to form highly reactive amorphous powders. Due to
their extreme reactivity, handling in inert atmospheres may be required to avoid
the contamination by oxygen and nitrogen. These very fine powders have ex-
tremely low bulk densities, which make loading of hot press dies and processing
greenware very difficult. More details about the procedure can be found elsewhere
[23- 25].
Pulse laser technique is used for the synthesis of boron carbide crystallite encap-
sulated in graphite particles via chemical vapor deposition of C 6 H6 + BCl3 gas
Chapter 1 8
mixture. Gas mixture consisting of C 6 H6 + BCl3 or C6 H6 + CCl4 is introduced

into the Pyrex glass reactor chamber which is further connected to a vacuum sys-
tem [26]. Before the introduction of gas mixture into the reactor chamber, it is first
baked out. Raw material is then irradiated with Nd:YAG laser which is focused
with a lens (fl = 200 mm). The reaction gets completed because of intense laser
pulse. Schematic of the apparatus is shown in the figure 1.2. The interaction of IR
Figure 1.2: Schematic of apparatus using pulsed-laser
laser radiation with gases and gaseous mixture for the synthesis of boron carbide is
described by Bastl et al., [27]. Francis et al., [28] has described a gaseous phase
reaction of acetylene (C2 H2 ) and diborane (B2 H6 ) in a closed chamber at a tem-
perature of less than 80 o C, to produce amorphous porous boron carbide having a
mean particle size of few µm in diameter. Details are given elsewhere [12].
1.6.4 Synthesis of boron carbide by carbothermal reduction route
Carbothermal reduction of boric acid has scientific and economic advantages over
the other methods of boron carbide production. Powders prepared by carbothermic
reduction have excellent morphology and surface characteristics [29].
In carbothermal reduction process, boric acid or boron oxide as a source of boron

Chapter 1 9
and carbon active or petroleum coke as reducing agent is used as the main raw ma-
terial. Depending upon the method or process adopted, there are many ways of
producing boron carbide. Few of such methods for the synthesis of boron carbide
are as follow:
i) Using boron oxide and carbon black
ii) Using arc furnace process
iii) Resistance-heating furnace process
Using boron oxide and carbon black
Scott et al., [30] and Smudski et al., [31] have produced boron carbide by the car-
bothermic reduction of boron oxide. For carrying out the carbothermic reduction
reaction, a reactive mixture of a boric oxide source such as boric acid and a carbon
source such as carbon black, is prepared by mechanically mixing them together.
This reactive mixture is then heated at a reaction temperature for a sufficient length
of time to form B4 C. The temperature of firing the reactive mixture is in the range
of 1700 – 2100 o C.
The particle size of boron carbide can range anywhere between 0.5 and 150 µm
with no control of particle size distribution. Another shortcoming of this process
is the non homogeneity of the end product. The product samples, taken from the
various parts of the furnace, vary markedly in their composition such as, high free
carbon, or unreacted boric acid etc. Substantially complete reaction of the carbon
is desired to eliminate any ”free carbon” in the boron carbide product.
Arc furnace process
The reactant used for the process is a mixture of old mix and fresh charge. Old
mixture is from the previous run and differs from the fresh charge in that some
Chapter 1 10
part of it is partially converted B4 C material [30]. In other words, the old mix
has some boron compounds having less oxygen than B 2 O3 and some boron carbide
having more carbon than B4 C. The arc furnace in comparison to resistance furnace
requires only 59% of the power. Production rate in this method is much greater than
that of the resistance furnace. The major drawback of this process is that the control
of the temperature above 2300 K is not possible. This leads to the vaporization of
boron from the system affecting the B/C ratio. Therefore, more than 65% of excess
B2 O3 was used to compensate for the loss of boron during the process [12].
Resistance-heating furnace process
Industrially, boron carbide on large scale is produced by carbothermal reduction

process using boric acid and petroleum coke in graphite resistance-heating furnace
[29]. Operation and design wise this furnace is similar to the Acheson furnace
which is used for SiC synthesis. Resistance heating furnace is cylindrical in shape,
with a graphite electrode as the heating element. Since, graphite has a very high
melting point so it is an ideal choice for heating electrode in the resistance heating
furnaces. The interior is lined with high temperature ceramic bricks and glass wool
and the outer shell of the furnace is made of stainless steel [12]. Schematic of
the resistance heating furnace is shown in figure 1.3. Heat is generated due to the
application of voltage across the heating electrode and it is based on the Ohmic law
of resistance heating. According to the Ohmic law of resistance heating, the power
converted into heat is given by:
P = I 2R
Where, ’I’ is the amount of current flowing through the electrode and ’R’ is the
resistance of the heating electrode.
Boron carbide reaction is highly endothermic reaction, therefore, the heat gener-
ated due to resistance heating is responsible for heating the charge which surrounds
Chapter 1 11
Figure 1.3: Schematic of resistance heating furnace
the electrode. Once the reaction temperature is reached, the raw material reacts to
form B4 C. The overall carbothermal reduction reaction is described by
2B2 O3 (l, g) + 7C (s) → B4 C (s) + 6CO (g) (1.2)
Because of the slow rate of heat conduction [32] that controls the heat transfer
process, the cool-down period of the furnace is long. Formation of B 4 C is a
very complex process. It involves both physical and chemical phenomena such
as condensation, vaporization, decomposition and recrystallization of many chem-
ical species [12]. Upon heating there is a continuous phase change of the reacting
material. Softening of raw material (H3 BO3 ) starts at about 600 K, whereas it melts
down at 725 K and further down the line it makes various sub-oxides at 1550 K in
reducing atmosphere and it boils at 2133 K [32]. At higher reaction temperature
vaporization loss of boron occurs in the form its oxide/sub-oxides. Therefore, ex-
cess B2 O3 is used in the starting mixture than required by stoichiometrically. The
Chapter 1 12
loss of boron can be minimized if the reaction is carried out at lower temperature
[33]. CO gas, which evolves during the reaction, diffuses out through the charge
and burns at the top of the furnace.
The kinetics of B4 C formation is not understood properly. Several researchers have

investigated the reaction kinetics of the overall carbothermal reduction reaction us-
ing various carbon sources . The comparative results are summarized in table 1.2.
Intimate mixing of B2 O3 and C may improve the kinetics of the process [33]. More
Table 1.2: Conversion timing findings by various researchers

Researcher Carbon source Conversion Temperature Proposed
time range mechanism
Weimer [14], Carbon Less than Greater than Nuclei-growth
Rafaniello (From calcined 1 sec 2200 K control
and Moore [34] corn starch)
Pikalov [35] Technical 90 min 1870 K Phase boundary
carbon 15 min 2070 K reaction control
Carbohydrates, 30 min 2373 K –
Smudski [31] resins and
polyhydric 180 min 1973 K –
compounds
about reaction kinetics of carbothermal reduction reaction is discussed in chapter 2.
1.7 Current understanding of the process
As mentioned previously that the resistance heating furnace is used for the mass
production of B4 C. No other process compete it. Commercially, B4 C is produced
with boric acid and carbon by a carbothermal process at temperatures near the melt-
Chapter 1 13
ing point of B4 C in a batch resistance heating furnace [15, 33, 36]. Unfortunately,
not many efforts have been made to improve this process either experimentally or
theoretically. Similarly, the reaction kinetics of its formation is not well understood
yet.
Thevenot et al. [18] discusses about the significant contribution made by Prof.
Jean Cueilleron in the field of boron and refractory borides. Prof. Cueilleron de-
voted all his energies to resolve the difficult analytical problems associated with
boron and refractory borides. He established correlations between boron purity and
mechanical (Knoop microhardness) and electrical (Seebeck coefficient, resistivity)
properties. J. Cueilleron was one of the first in the world to perfect the fabrication
of boron fibers by continuous deposition of boron, obtained through reduction of
BCl3 by hydrogen, on a heated tungsten filament. He prepared boron carbide by
using BCl3 and methane in a plasma reactor. Choong-Hwan et al. [15] discusses
about the carbothermal reduction route adopted for the production of carbon free
B4 C. Several experiments were conducted to determine the minimum amount of
excess B2 O3 or the deficiency of carbon needed for the complete conversion to B4 C
at low temperature. Tsuneo et al. [13] discusses the simultaneous measurement of
the heat capacities and the electrical conductivities of Bx C (X = 3, 4 and 5) in the
temperature range of 300 to 1500 K.
As it is evident from the above discussion that there is almost no research or ex-
perimental data available on the production of boron carbide using heat resistance
furnace which is used for mass production of B4 C. It is bit unfortunate that this
century old process did not get much attention of the scientific community either in
understanding or in optimizing the process. It is true, that it is not easy to study this
process due to many reasons such as: black box nature of it, very high temperature
involvement in the process, hazardous nature of the process and emission of poi-
sonous products such as CO. Also, if product gases do not come out properly then
Chapter 1 14
high pressure will build up in the furnace which may lead to explosion. Recently
only our group has taken a challenge to study this process in a systematic way using
both experiments and mathematical model. No one else has attempted the process
until now in this way. In the previous study [12] the focus was on the development
of experimental facility for the production of B4 C using the resistance heating fur-
nace. Many experiments were conducted with the aims to measure the emissivity
of graphite in order to get accurate core temperature using pyrometer, porosity vari-
ation of raw material mixture (B2 O3 + C) with temperature and distance from the
core, calibration of temperature measuring devices and thermocouple sheaths. Cur-
rently this is the only known experimental study which has been done in detail to
understand the process. Though it is lacking a systematic study, it has been suc-
cessful in measuring high temperature and revealing some interesting features of
the process. A simplified mathematical model in 1-D was also developed in this
study.
1.8 Modeling of boron carbide manufacturing process
The Acheson process is similar to B4 C manufacturing process. This carbothermal

reduction process is used for the synthesis of SiC. The earliest mathematical model
of any carbothermal process is reported by Gupta et al. [37] in 2001 for SiC manu-
facturing. Gupta et al. [37] have developed a simplified 1-D mathematical model,
as shown by equation 1.3, to describe the Acheson process.

∂T 1 ∂ ∂T
ρe CPe = rke + QR (1.3)
∂t r ∂r ∂r
Source term
Heat accumulation Condution in r-direction
Where, QR is a source term which, in this case, includes the heat of reaction and
rate of reaction for the Acheson process. However, this model has ignored the effect
of radiation and convection on the process. Nevertheless, it was the first model for
this process to understand and led the foundation to develop it further.
Chapter 1 15
Because of the impossibility of seeing what is going on in the furnace [12], math-
ematical model becomes a valuable tool to explore the process. It is mentioned
previously that B4 C synthesis process is similar to the Acheson process for which
a simplified 1-D model was developed in the previous study [12, 38]. The model
was in the same lines as the Acheson process model developed by Gupta et al. [37].
In this model, in addition to conduction, convection and radiation terms were also
considered in the mathematical formulation. This model was having some conver-
gence and stability problems. Also, this model was lacking in validation especially
for heat transfer and mass transfer was not studied well. Therefore, a sound math-
ematical model both in 1-D and 2-D is lacking.
1.9 Objectives
This dissertation is a continuation of the previous work initiated by our group to look
into the physical and mathematical modeling aspects of the boron carbide manufac-
turing process. Previous research [12] was mainly focused on the development
of experimental facilities and carrying out the experiments in various conditions.
Apart from this a simplified 1-D mathematical model was also developed as dis-
cussed above. It is also mentioned that experimentally the process is hazardous in
nature and it is very difficult to perform the experiments and many precautions have
to be exercised during the experiment. So, it is thought to develop a good mathe-
matical model to study the process.
Therefore, the objectives of the present work are:
• To develop a more robust 1-D mathematical model of heat and mass transfer
for the B4 C manufacturing process and validate it with experimental results.
• To develop a 2-D mathematical model for heat and mass transfer which rep-
Chapter 1 16
resents the physical process more closely and validate the computed results
with experiments.
• To conduct more experiments to validate the model’s predictions on heat and

mass transfer.
• To optimize the process using mathematical model and conduct more experi-
ments to compare the optimised results.
1.10 Outline of present work
In chapter 2, an overview of the thermo-chemistry and kinetics of carbothermal

reduction reaction is discussed. This chapter, in particular, is focused toward the
thermodynamics of B-O-C system and the reaction kinetics of carbothermal reduc-
tion process.
In chapter 3 the mathematical formulation of the carbothermal reduction process

is presented. Various assumptions are discussed in details to justify them. Also,
the non-dimensional form of the governing heat and mass transfer equations with
their relevant boundary conditions are presented. Various computational techniques
which have been used to solve the governing equations are also discussed.
A brief discussion about the experimental setup and methodology adopted for con-
ducting the experiments is presented in chapter 4. This chapter in particular talks
about the physical modeling of carbothermal reduction process and about the intri-
cate details of the phenomenon taking place during the boron carbide manufactur-
ing operation. Finally, the complexities involved with the operation are discussed.
This chapter also discusses the various techniques of temperature measurement and
chemical analysis of the product.
Chapter 1 17
Chapter 5 is dedicated toward the results and discussion of 1-D and 2-D mathe-
matical modeling. Comparison between the experimental and computed results is
shown in this chapter. Optimisation of the process, using mathematical model, is
also discussed in this chapter.
Finally, Chapter 6 summarizes the research findings and suggests future research
directions.
Chapter 2
Thermodynamics and reaction

kinetics
This chapter presents an overview of the thermo-chemistry and kinetics of carboth-

ermal reduction reaction to produce boron carbide. Thermodynamics can tell the
feasibility of a reaction to occur, however, activation energies, diffusional resis-
tances, and other reaction kinetic considerations may prevent a reaction which oth-
erwise should occur [7].
2.1 Thermo-chemistry of B-O-C system
Thermodynamically, the overall reactions are not favorable unless the standard free
energy change become negative (i.e. ∆ G < 0). Therefore, at atmospheric pres-
sure, the minimum temperature required for the various overall reactions in B-O-C
18
Chapter 2 19
system to occur at equilibrium ∗ is as follow:
B2 O3 (l) + C(s) → B2 O2 (g) + CO(g) T∆G=0 = 2069K (2.1)
2B2 O2 (g) + 5C(s) → B4 C(s) + 4CO(g) T∆G=0 = 1339K (2.2)
B4 C(s) + 5B2 O3 (l) → 7B2 O2 (g) + CO(g) T∆G=0 = 2245K (2.3)
7C(s) + 2B2 O3 (l, g) → B4 C(s) + 6CO(g) T∆G=0 = 1834K (2.4)
2B2 O3 (l) + 2B(s) → 3B2 O2 (g) T∆G=0 = 2246K (2.5)
2B4 C(s) + B2 O2 (g) → 10B(s) + 2CO(g) T∆G=0 = 2231K (2.6)
B2 O3 (l) + 3B4 C(s) → 14B(s) + 3CO(g) T∆G=0 = 2242K (2.7)
In practice, temperature above the minimum is required to promote the reactions

at a reasonable rate. Since the reactions are reversible, it is desirable to remove
the by-product CO produced in the process [7]. Unless CO produced is removed
from the process; a higher temperature is needed to promote reaction at reasonable
rate [14]. Reactions ( 2.1), ( 2.2) and ( 2.3) add up to give the reaction ( 2.4) and
reaction ( 2.7) can be expressed as the sum of reactions ( 2.3), ( 2.5) and ( 2.6). From
matrix theory, it can be shown that the rank of the matrix formed considering the
coefficients of the components involved in the reactions (from reaction 2.1 - 2.7) is
3. Therefore, only three reactions are independent. Thus, main reactions describing
the manufacturing process of boron carbide system are:
B2 O3 (s) + C (s) → B2 O2 (g) + CO (g) (2.8)
2B2 O2 (g) + 5C (s) → B4 C (s) + 4CO (g) (2.9)
B2 O3 (l) + 3B4 C (s) → 14B (s) + 3CO (g) (2.10)
Here reaction ( 2.8) and ( 2.9) are the main product formation reactions, whereas
the reaction ( 2.10) is the product dissociation reaction which initiates at very high
∗
Equilibrium is said to exist in a system when it reaches a state in which no further change is
perceptible, no matter how long one waits [39]. This could happen if the system sinks into a very
deep free energy minimum.
Chapter 2 20
temperature to give elemental boron. The overall reaction, combining reaction ( 2.8)
and ( 2.9) can be written as follow:
2B2 O3 (l, g) + 7C (s) → B4 C (s) + 6CO (g) (2.11)
Figure 2.1: B-C phase diagram [2]
2.2 Phase diagram for boron-carbon system
Although numerous studies are available, not all parts of the B-C system have yet
been fully elucidated. Samsonov, Shuralov, et al. [6] reported the compounds B 13 C
and B12 C3 , both with a large homogeneity range, in addition to the carbon-rich BC 2
and the boron-rich phases. Elliott et al., [40] reported the solid solubility of boron
carbide from ≈ 8 to 20 mol % C over the temperature range from room temperature
to the melting point of 2450 o C. The B4 C-C eutectic temperature was reported
to be 2375 o C, at 29 mol % carbon (see figure 2.1). Recent measurements have
supported this broad range of solid solubility. In additions to the compounds given
in these publications, B25 C [20], B8 C [21], and B13 C3 [22] have been reported
Chapter 2 21
recently. These are likely low-temperature phases, which are often observed in
chemical vapor deposition [6].
2.3 Reaction kinetics
The formation of boron carbide is highly dependent upon the phase change of re-
actant boron oxide from solid to liquid to gaseous boron sub-oxides and the effect
of reaction environment (i.e., heating rate and ultimate temperature) on the rate at
which the phase change occur [32]. Although final reaction equilibrium products
are determined solely from the temperature, pressure and chemical species and the
reaction mechanism. The reaction rate depends on a number of additional variables
like particle size, the degree of mixing of reactants, diffusion rates, porosity and the
presence and level of impurities or catalyst [7].
There are many types of reaction rate expressions reported by various researchers
based upon their investigation for carbothermal reduction process. These are gener-
ally based upon the kind of rate controlling mechanism considered for the reaction
rate. It could be internal or external diffusion of reactants, nuclei growth or chem-
ical reaction that controls the overall process [7]. All these mechanisms can be
represented by the equation 2.12
F (X) = Kt (2.12)
Where ,
K = Ko exp (−Ea /Rg T )
Values of K for the reaction ( 2.11) are given as follows
K = 3.86 × exp [− (301000 ± 55000) /Rg T ] f or 1803 ≤ T ≤ 1976K
K = 2.00 × 1020 × exp [− (820000 ± 89000) /Rg T ] f or 1976 ≤ T ≤ 2123K
Chapter 2 22
The reaction rate constant, K, accounts for the effect of temperature on the reaction,
while the form of expression, F (X), accounts for virtually all other effects includ-
ing composition, diffusion and particle size. As such the proper reaction kinetics
of reaction ( 2.11) is not understood properly till now. However, the carbothermal
reduction reaction ( 2.11) generally takes place via fluid-solid and fluid-fluid mech-
anism rather than by solid - solid mechanism [7] and generally agreed mechanism
of boron carbide reaction is given by nucleation growth kinetics. The nucleation
kinetics mechanism is based on the activation of reaction sites, followed by growth
of the ’product’ nuclei through chemical reaction.
The nucleation and growth effects are combined into a single mechanism called nu-
cleation kinetics. An extensive explanation of this mechanism is given by Avrami
et al. [41 -- 43]. Tompkins et al. [44] indicates that the Erofeyev [45] approxim-
ation of Avrami’s expression is adequate for describing most kinetic data of the
nucleation type. Thus the form of Erofeyev [45] equation is
ln (1 − X) = − (Ktm )m (2.13)
Here,
– X is the fraction of carbon reacted
– K is the rate constant of the reaction, s−1
– tm is the reaction time, s
– m is the index which is 4 when the nucleus activation is rate limiting and 3
when isotropic 3-D nucleus growth is rate limiting. For 1-D rod-like growth
m → 1, while for 2-D planer growth m → 2 and m → 3 has been considered
for the reaction ( 2.11).
Above nucleation kinetic reaction model is well accepted [7, 32, 46]. In this present
study a similar approach is adopted. The free energy of the reaction ( 2.11) is posi-
Chapter 2 23
tive till 1834 K. Unless the CO produced is removed from the system, a higher tem-
perature is needed to promote reaction at a reasonable rate [7]. Reaction mechanism
is highly dependent on heating rates. Little nucleation occurs at lower temperature.
Then large crystallites are formed when growth takes place. But at large heating
rates or at higher temperatures the increased nucleation is the reason for many small
crystallites. At high temperatures, vaporization of boron oxide/suboxide may com-
pete with direct reaction of liquid oxide with carbon [32].
Boron carbide is both time dependent and temperature dependent process. Also
the reactant molar feed B/C ratio is crucial to the manufacturing of stoichiomet-
ric B4 C at temperature above 2300 K. It is studied that formation of B 4 C is heat
transfer controlled and heating rate has a substantial influence on the mechanism
of overall reaction. It is also observed that, the carbon conversion increase with
increasing the temperature and in excess of boron oxide. For slow heating rates,
reactants react via classical nucleation - growth mechanism due to the reaction pro-
ceeding through a liquid boron path [32]. For higher temperature range the reaction
proceed via gaseous route. There is a change in mechanism at about 1976 K, which
is believed to be the result of competition between B 2 O3 (l) and B2 O2 (g) reacting
with carbon. The liquid phase reaction dominates at lower temperature while the
gas phase reaction dominates at higher temperature [7].
2.3.1 Rate of reaction
The rate of reaction is rate of change in number of moles of reacting components

due to chemical reaction in its various forms, be it on unit volume or unit area basis
[47]. Equation 2.13 may be written in the following form:
X(t) = 1 − exp(−K m tm m ) (2.14)

Chapter 2 24
By differentiating equation 2.14 with respect to the time, we get
dX
= K m m tm m−1 exp(−K m tm m ) (2.15)
dtm
Since
dX
rA =Co = Co K m m tm m−1 exp(−K m tm m )
dtm

= Co mK K m−1 tm m−1 exp (−K m tm m )
Using ln (1 − X) = − (Ktm )m , above reaction can be written [46]

(m−1)
m
1
rA = Co K m(1 − X) ln
1−X
Putting the value of m = 3 taken from literature [32], above equation can be written
as
2/
1 3
rA = 3 × Co K(1 − X) ln (2.16)
1−X
Where,
X is the fraction of carbon/graphite reacted and rate of reaction is expressed in terms
of initial concentration of carbon/graphite.
Equation 2.16 is the desired equation for the rate of reaction for reaction ( 2.11)
and this would be used further in our mathematical modeling chapter 3.
Chapter 3
Mathematical modeling
3.1 Introduction
In today’s age where processor speed and memory usage is no longer a constraint,
numerical solutions are taking a big leap over physical experiments. In situations
where actual experiments are expensive and difficult to do, then mathematical mod-
eling is a best tool available to understand the complexities of the system. But it’s
not always true that numerical solutions of the complex process are cheap and easy
to do. In situations like capturing effects of turbulence, sometime even the best
available model will take months to make any meaningful prediction. Any model
available is not a good model if it cannot be validated with experimental results.
This chapter describes the formulation of mathematical model for B 4 C process.
3.2 Process description
The formation of boron carbide is least understood since last one century. Hardly
any systematic experimental or theoretical study is available in the open literature.
Therefore, any contribution toward understanding this process would be very ben-
25
Chapter 3 26
eficial. Many researchers [7] have given various reaction kinetics models as dis-
cussed in chapter 2 and still it’s a matter of debate in scientific community. More-
over there are so many changes taking place simultaneously into the reacting system
like condensation, vaporization and re-crystallization etc., which makes it more dif-
ficult to understand. This study is a step forward in the direction of understanding
the various controlling parameters in B 4 C manufacturing process with the use of
mathematical modelling.
Though furnaces can either be in rectangular shape or cylindrical shape. A cylindri-

cal shaped furnace is considered in the present study as shown in the figure 1.3. Heat
generated is transferred to the charged material surrounding the electrode by con-
duction, convection and radiation. Heat may get consumed during decomposition
and vaporization, while it may be recovered during recrystallization and condensa-
tion. Therefore, as a first approximation it can be assumed that these phenomena do
not have significant effect on heat transfer process. The reactive mixture has very
low thermal conductivity. Also, the specific heat of boron carbide is very high. So
one can expect steep temperature gradient around the reacting core. As such, far
from the electrode, above discussed phenomena would be absent.
Until the reaction temperature is reached, heat is chiefly transferred to the reac-
tive mixture by conduction. Thus the standard Fourier heat conduction equation
can be considered for heat transfer. During the chemical reaction some gaseous
products/by-products are produced. Some of them diffuses out (such as CO) through
the reactive mixture and burn at the top of the charge. Diffusion of these hot gaseous
products through the unreacted charge further add to the heat transfer. Mostly CO
gas, as by-product of the reaction comes out. So convective heat transfer can be
modeled considering diffusive heat flux of the by-product CO gas.
As discussed in the section 1.6.4, the reactive mixture in the furnace near the core
Chapter 3 27
is at very high temperature, and one may expect a good contribution of radiations in
heat transfer. However, the charge is very fine and is packed nicely around the core
and the void fraction is also low, therefore one may not expect a significant con-
tribution of radiation in the heat transfer process except from the outer surface of
the charge which is open to the atmosphere. Nevertheless, radiation effect has been
considered in the present case using Rosseland approximation. A brief discussion
is given below.
Opposite to heat conduction and convection radiation is a nonlocal phenomenon,

which can be described by an integro-differential equation – the so-called radia-
tive transfer equation. An additional complication in numerical solution is raised
that the relatively large grid size which is reasonable for integrating the radiation
terms without extensive computation are often not adequate to give good accuracy
for the local conduction and/or convection terms [48]. Apart from the mathemat-
ical complexities, there are difficulties in determining accurate physical properties
that are to be inserted into the integro-differential equations. Moreover, in case of
participating media the problem becomes more difficult because the participating
media are capable of absorbing, emitting and scattering thermal radiations. Thus,
this again limits the accuracy even if the exact mathematical solutions of integro-
differential equations are available. Hence, Rosseland approximation comes handy
to overcome such a difficulty.
Rosseland approximation neglects all the geometric information about the medium.
Therefore, the Rosseland approximation is valid only for very highly absorbing me-
dia. According to this approximation, also known as diffusion approximation, the
Chapter 3 28
∗
net radiative heat flux for the case of optically thick medium in near thermody-
namic equilibrium can be approximated by a simple correlation given as follow
[49]:
16η 2 σT 3
− (grad T )
3κ
Here,
– η is the refractive index
– κ is Rosseland mean extinction coefficient, 1/m
– σ is the Stephen Boltzmann constant , W/m2 − K 4
– T is the temperature, K
The extinction coefficient for a particular substance is a measure of how well it

absorbs electromagnetic radiation (EM waves). If the EM wave can pass through
very easily, the material has a low extinction coefficient. Conversely, if the radiation
hardly penetrates the material, but rather quickly becomes ”extinct” within it, the
extinction coefficient is high. The value of extinction coefficient data (κ) for B 4 C
is not available in the literature. Hence, the extinction coefficient value available for
the SiC [50] and carbon particles [51], which resembles our system is considered.
Thus, reported value of κ for SiC and carbon particles which is of the order of 103
has been considered here for B4 C. η is taken as 1.
Using the above result, 1-D steady state energy equation with simultaneous con-
duction and radiation terms without any source term can be written [52] as

d d
λT =0
dy dy
∗
A medium is said to be optically thick if the radiation mean free path i.e. reciprocal of the
extinction coefficient is very small compared to the characteristic dimension of the medium.
Chapter 3 29
Here, λT is the total thermal conductivity of the medium which further can be writ-
ten as
16η 2σT 3
λT = λC + λr = λC +
3κ
Where
– λC is effective thermal conductivity, W/m − K
– λr is radiative conductivity, W/m − K
This approximation gives good results with optically thick medium [50, 52]. There-
fore, radiation transport can be characterized as a diffusion process in the optically
thick limits. In our case, Rosseland approximation is used to account for radiative
heat transfer development of the mathematical model.
While considering the mass balance, mass transfer is occurring due to CO diffu-
sion through the reacting material and due to chemical reactions. Fick’s law of
mass diffusion is solved in its transient form coupled with energy equation. While
considering the advection of the by-product gas, which is a combined phenomenon
of fluid flow due to pressure gradient and diffusion due to difference in chemical
potential of the species, here, we consider only diffusional flow. The amount of CO
produced is not much to cause significant convection. CO produced during early
stages comes out of the system freely. At high temperature when reaction starts
and the reacting mass becomes viscous, CO gets entrapped into the bed and thus
diffusion process takes over the convective mass transfer.
Based on the above physico-chemical description of the process, the following as-
sumption have been made into the development of 1-D and 2-D mathematical mod-
els.
Chapter 3 30
3.3 Mathematical formulation
Before proceeding to 1-D and 2-D mathematical model formulation of the B 4 C

process, it is essential to make a few assumption which are listed below. The justi-
fication of their assumption have been given wherever it is necessary.
3.3.1 Assumptions
• Axisymmetry along vertical plane passing through the central axis of the fur-
nace is assumed.
Looking at figures 1.3 and 3.1 it is reasonable assumption which reduces the
domain of consideration for solution and thus adds in achieving the solution
faster without affecting the accuracy of the results.
• Continuum model based approach is adopted.
• Diffusion model is considered for the by-product gas i.e. CO (carbon mono-
oxide).
• The effect of high temperature phenomena, like condensation, vaporisation

and recrystallisation in the overall process is negligible.
It is thought whatever heat is consumed in phenomena like vaporisation is re-
covered during other phenomena such as condensation. Therefore, the overall
effect of these processes would be negligible. Moreover, it would be very dif-
ficult to model these phenomenon in absence of the availability of the proper
physics.
• Temperature dependence of density variation of the reacting mixture is not

considered.
The obvious reason behind this assumption is lack of data. Since during reac-
tion there is lot of physical and chemical changes occurring into the reacting
furnace, so practically it becomes very difficult to get the density variation
Chapter 3 31
with temperature and so constant density approach is fair enough for the
mathematical model development. Same can be later incorporated into the
model as per the availability of the requisite density data.
• Numerical domain of consideration is shown in the figure 3.1 for both 1-D
and 2-D model respectively.
• Rosseland approximation is applied to include the radiation effects into the

model.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.1: Computational domain for (a) 1-D and, (b) 2-D mathematical model
Here,
– ro is the inner periphery radius of the furnace, m
– r3 is the radius of furnace with refractory lining, m
– r4 is the radius of furnace with refractory lining and steel shell, m

Chapter 3 32
3.4 Governing equations
3.4.1 Overall 2-D heat balance equation
Using the first principle of the heat balance and applying it across a radial elemental
ring of size ”dr” present at distance r from the core of furnace (as shown in figure 3.1),
the heat balance equation can be written as follow:
⎡ ⎤
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
Enthalpy leaving
⎢ ⎥
⎢
Rate of accumulation
⎥ ⎢
Enthalpy entering the ⎢
⎥ ⎢ the CV due to ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎥
⎢ of enthalpy in the ⎥ = ⎢ CV due to conduction, ⎥ − ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ ⎢
⎢ cond., convection
⎥
⎥
control volume (CV) convection and radiation ⎣ ⎦
and radiation
⎡ ⎤
Rate of heat generation
⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥
+ ⎢ in the CV by chemical ⎥
⎣ ⎦
reaction
Inside the furnace, both, solid and gas are assumed to be at the same temperature
i.e., Tg = Ts = T . Therefore the final shell balance equation for heat transfer in 2-D
co-ordinate can be written as:

∂T 1 ∂ ∂T 1 ∂ ∂CCO
ρe CPe = rke + rDCO−air,e CPg T
∂t r ∂r ∂r r ∂r ∂r

Heat accumulation Condution in r-direction Diffusion in r-direction

1 ∂ 16ση 2 T3 ∂T 1 ∂ ke ∂T
+ r +
r ∂r 3κ ∂r r ∂θ r ∂θ

Radiation in r-direction Conduction in θ-direction

1 ∂ DCO−air,e CPg T ∂CCO
+
r ∂θ r ∂θ

Diffusion in θ-direction

1 ∂ 16ση 2 T3 ∂T
+ − ∆Hr (1−ε) (3.1)
r ∂θ 3rκ ∂θ
Heat generation
Radiation in θ-direction
Chapter 3 33
J
Each term in the above equation has units as m3 −s
.
Where,
– CCO is the concentration of carbon mono-oxide (CO), kgmol/m3
– CP e is effective specific heat of gas-solid mixture, J/kgmol − K
– CP g is effective specific heat of CO gas, J/kgmol − K
– DCO−air,e is the effective mass diffusivity of CO in air, m2 /s
– ∆Hr is the rate of heat consumption during reaction, W/m 3
– ke is the effective thermal conductivity of raw material, W/m − K
– L is the length of the furnace, m
– ε is the porosity of raw material
– ρe is the effective density of solid mixture, kgmol/m 3
Estimation of effective properties will be explained later in the section 3.5. The
correlations used for finding the property data are given in appendix A.2.
3.4.2 Boundary conditions for overall 2-D heat balance equation
• At time t = 0, for all r and θ, T = Ti
• At time t > 0, for r = ri at all θ (at electrode surface)

∂T Heat input
−ke =
∂r 2πri L
• At time t > 0, for θ = 0 and θ = π for all r (axisymmetry boundary
condition)
∂T
=0
∂θ
Chapter 3 34
• At time t > 0, for r = ro (at the inner periphery of furnace)

2π ∂T Heat loss
i) For 0 < θ ≤ ; −ke = 2
3 ∂r 3
× 2πro L
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
Heat loss due to Heat recovered
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
2π ∂T ⎢ conv. and radiation ⎥ ⎢ due to CO burning ⎥
ii) For < θ < π ; − ke = ⎢⎢ 1
⎥−⎢
⎥ ⎢ 1
⎥
⎥
3 ∂r ⎢ 3
× 2πro L ⎥ ⎢ 3
× 2πro L ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
Where,
0.25
2πL (Tref − Tamb ) (TSS −Tamb )
Heat loss = r3 r4 ; h [53]= 1.32
n r n r 2r4
λref
o
+ λSS 3
+ hr14
⎡ ⎤
Heat loss due to
⎣ ⎦ = σA(Tg 4 − Tamb 4 ) + hA(Tg − Tamb )
conv. and radiation
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
Heat recovered Heat of combustion No. of moles of CO
⎣ ⎦=⎣ ⎦×⎣ ⎦
due to CO burning of CO per mole reaching the top surface
Here,
– TSS is the temperature of outer steel shell, K
– Tref is the reference temperature, K
– Tamb is the ambient temperature, K
– Tg is the gas temperature burning at the top surface of furnace, K
– h is the convective heat transfer coefficient for heat loss between the surface
of steel shell and atmospheric air, W/m2 − K
– σ is Stefan-Boltzmann constant, W/m2 − K 4
– r3 and r4 are defined in figure 3.1, m

Chapter 3 35
3.4.3 Overall 2-D mass balance equation for CO
Considering only the diffusive flux of CO through the reacting mixture and adopting
the similar approach for mass balance as for heat balance, we can formulate the mass
balance equation for CO as given below:
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
Rate of CO accumulation Rate of CO entering Rate of CO leaving
⎣ ⎦ = ⎣ ⎦−⎣ ⎦
per unit control volume (CV) the CV by diffusion the CV by diffusion
⎡ ⎤
Rate of CO generation
+ ⎣ ⎦
per unit control volume

∂CCO 1 ∂ ∂CCO
ε = rDCO−air,e
∂tm r ∂r ∂r

Mass accumulation Diffusion in r-direction

1 ∂ DCO−air,e ∂CCO o
+ + W (1−ε) (3.2)
r ∂θ r ∂θ
Mass generation
Diffusion in θ-direction
o
Here, W is the rate of CO generation.
kg moles of CO
Each term in the above equation has units as
m3 − s
3.4.4 Boundary conditions for overall 2-D mass balance
• At time t = 0, for all r and θ (inside the furnace)

CCO = 0
• At time t > 0, for r = ri at all θ (at the surface of electrode)
∂CCO
=0
∂r
• At time t > 0, for θ = 0 and θ = π at all r (axisymmetry boundary
condition)
∂CCO
=0
∂θ
Chapter 3 36
• At time t > 0, for r = ro (at the inner periphery of furnace)

2π ∂CCO
i) For 0 < θ ≤ ; =0
3 ∂r
2π
ii) For < θ < π ; CCO = CCO−air
3
3.5 Determination of properties
o
3.5.1 Determination of CO generation (W )
From the overall reaction ( 2.11) of boron carbide formation we know that
2B2 O3 (l, g) + 7C (s) → B4 C (s) + 6CO (g) (3.3)
For the above reaction we can write the reaction rate with respect to different com-
ponents involved i.e. in terms of depletion of C/B 2 O3 or in terms of formation of
B4 C/CO. Therefore from stoichiometry we can write [47]
rc rB O rB C rCO
− = − 2 3 = 4 = (3.4)
7 2 1 6
Here,
• (−r c ) is the rate of consumption / depletion of carbon
• (−r B2 O3 ) is the rate of consumption / depletion of boron oxide
• rB4 C is the rate of formation of boron carbide
• rCO is the rate of formation of carbon mono - oxide
Hence, using equation 3.4 we can write,

6
rCO = − × rc
7
o6
i.e. Rate of formation of CO (W ) = × Rate of depletion of carbon/graphite.
7
Here, the rate of depletion of carbon is found using equation 2.13. Detailed expla-
nation is given in section 2.3.1.
Chapter 3 37
3.5.2 Determination of Dco-air
The diffusion coefficient of CO in air is found using Gilliland equation [54, 55],
which is a function of temperature (o C) and pressure (atmosphere).
⎡ ⎤
⎢ 0.0606T 1.78 ⎥ 1 + √M + M
⎢ ⎥
DCO−air = ⎢ 2 ⎥ √ CO air
E −4
⎣ 1/ 1/ ⎦ 60 MCO × Mair
P (VCO ) 3 + (Vair ) 3
Here,
– DCO−air represents CO diffusivity in air, m2 /s
– MCO and Mair represents molar mass of CO and air respectively, kg/mol
– VCO and Vair represents molar volume of CO and air respectively, l/mol
3.5.3 Determination of effective properties
Effective properties used in the equations 3.1, 3.2, 3.7 and 3.8 are calculated on the
weighted average basis. Thus the effective properties of gas – solid mixture can be
expressed as follows:
Pe = εPg + (1 − ε) Ps

n
Where, Ps = xi pi
i=1
Here,
– Pg represents physical properties of the gas.
– Ps represents physical properties of the solid.
– xi represents mole fraction of ith solid component.
– pi represents the physical property of ith solid component.
– n represents the total number of solid component.
Weighted mole fraction average is used to determine the molar specific heat whereas
weighted volume average is used to determine the thermal conductivity of gas-solid
mixture [37]. For example, the molar specific heat based on weighted mole fraction
Chapter 3 38
average is given by
CP,M = ε × CP,g + (1−ε) ×CP,s
CP,s = CP,C ×XC +CP,BO ×XBO +CP,BC ×XBC
Here,
– CP,M is the total specific heat of solid-gas mixture, J/kgmol − K
– CP,g is the specific heat of the by-product gas, J/kgmol − K
– CP,s is the specific heat of solid mixture, J/kgmol − K
Where,
XC = MC /(MC +MBO +MBC )
XBO = MBO /(MC +MBO +MBC )
XBC = MBC /(MC +MBO +MBC )
Here, XC , XBO and XBC are the mole fraction of carbon/graphite, boric acid and
boron carbide into the reacting mixture. MC , MBO and MBC are used for molar
masses of carbon, boric acid and boron carbide respectively. Similarly, thermal
conductivity of the gas-solid mixture based on weighted volume average can be
given by
KT,M = ε×KT,g + (1−ε) ×KT,s
KT,s = KT,C ×XVC +KT,BO ×XVBO +KT,BC ×XVBC
Here,
– KT,M is the total thermal conductivity of solid-gas mixture, W/m − k
– KT,g is the thermal conductivity of the by-product gas, W/m − k
– KT,s is the thermal conductivity of solid mixture, W/m − k
– XVC , XVBO and XVBC are volume fraction of the reacting raw material.
Where,
MC

ρC
XVC = MC MBO
ρC
+ ρBO + M BC
ρBO
XVBO and XVBC can also be calculated on the same line as discussed above.
Chapter 3 39
3.5.4 Determination of the rate of heat consumption (∆Hr )
The rate heat consumption for the reaction 3.3 at any temperature T can be deter-
mined as
∆Hr = ∆H × rate of reaction (rA ) (3.5)
Here, ∆H is the heat of formation for the reaction 2.11 which can be found from
enthalpy difference of ’product’ minus ’reactants’. In mathematical terms we write
∆H = (1 × HB4 C + 6 × HCO ) − (2 × HB2 O3 + 7 × HC ) (3.6)
In other words heat of the reaction at temperature T is the heat transferred from
source to the reacting system where, say, ’x’ moles of reactant disappear to form
’y’ moles of product at the same temperature and pressure before and after reac-
tion [47]. Enthalpy data are given in the appendix A.2.1.
Table 3.1: Non-dimensional parameters

Quantity Dimensional quantity Non-dimensional quantity
Temperature T T ∗ = T /Ti
Radius r r ∗ = r/ro
∗
Concentration of CO CCO CCO = CCO /CCO−air
Time (in energy balance) t t∗ = (tαe,i )/r2o
Time (in mass balance) tm tm ∗ = (tm DCO−air,e,i)/r2o
Diffusion coefficient DCO−air,e
∗
DCO−air = DCO−air,e
DCO−air,e,i
Thermal diffusivity αe = ke/(ρe Cp,e ) ∗ α
α = e/αe,i
3.6 Non-dimensionalization
The non-dimensional parameters which have been used to represent the governing
equations are given in table 3.1. Here, subscript ’e’ denotes the effective properties
Chapter 3 40
and subscript ’i’ denotes the initial property i.e. property at time t = 0. Any property
with superscript ’*’ is used to denote non-dimensional quantity.
3.6.1 Non-dimensionalization of overall 2-D heat balance equation
Using the non-dimensional quantities, as given in table 3.1, the overall heat balance
equation 3.1 can be written in non-dimensional form as
∗
∂T ∗ 1 ∂ ∗ ∗ ∂T
∗
1 ∂ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∂CCO
= ∗ r α + ∗ r DCO−air N T
∂t∗ r ∂r ∗ ∂r ∗ r ∂r ∗ ∂r ∗
∗

1 ∂ ∗ ∗ ∗ 3 ∂T 1 ∂ α∗ ∂T ∗
+ ∗ r k T + ∗
r ∂r ∗ ∂r ∗ r ∂θ r ∗ ∂θ
∗
∗
1 ∂ DCO−air ∗ ∗ ∂CCO 1 ∂ k ∗ T ∗ 3 ∂T ∗
+ ∗ N T + ∗ − ∆H∗r
r ∂θ r∗ ∂θ r ∂θ r ∗ ∂θ
Here,

∗ CCO−air DCO,e,i Cp,g
N =
ρe Cp,e αe,i

∆Hr (1 − ε) ro2
∆H∗r =
Ti ρe Cp,e αe,i

∗ 16η 2σTi 3
k =
3κρe Cp,e αe,i
Non-dimensional boundary conditions for 2-D heat balance equation
• At time t = 0, for all r ∗ = r/ro and θ, T ∗ = 1
• At time t > 0, for r ∗ = ri /ro at all θ (at electrode surface)

∂T ∗ Heat input
− ∗ =
∂r 2πr ∗ Lke Ti
Chapter 3 41
• At time t > 0, for θ = 0 and θ = π for all r ∗ (axisymmetry boundary

condition)
∂T ∗
=0
∂θ
• At time t > 0, for r ∗ = 1 (at the inner periphery of furnace)

2π ∂T ∗ Heat loss
i) For 0 < θ ≤ ; − ∗ = 2
3 ∂r 3
× 2πr ∗ Lke Ti
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
Heat loss due to Heat recovered
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
2π ∂T ∗ ⎢ conv. and radiation ⎥ ⎢ due to CO burning ⎥
ii) For <θ<π ; − ∗ = ⎢ ⎢ 1 × 2πr ∗ k LT
⎥−⎢
⎥ ⎢ 1 × 2πr ∗k LT
⎥
⎥
3 ∂r ⎢ 3 e i ⎥ ⎢ 3 e i ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦
3.6.2 Non-dimensionalization of overall 2-D mass balance equation
Using the non-dimensional parameters as discussed in table 3.1, the 2-D mass bal-
ance equation in its non-dimensional form can be written as follows:
∗
∂C∗CO 1 ∂ ∗ ∗
∗
∂CCO 1 ∂ DCO−air ∗
∂CCO
ε = ∗ r DCO−air + ∗ +W∗
∂tm ∗ r ∂r ∗ ∂r ∗ r ∂θ r∗ ∂θ
Here,
o
∗ W r2o (1 − ε)
W =
CCO−air DCO−air,e,i
Non-dimensional boundary conditions for 2-D mass balance equation
• At time t = 0, for all r ∗ and θ (inside the furnace)

∗
CCO =0
• At time t > 0, for r ∗ = ri /ro , (at the surface of electrode)
∗
∂CCO
=0
∂r ∗
Chapter 3 42
• At time t > 0, for θ = 0 and θ = π at all r ∗ (axisymmetry boundary

condition)
∗
∂CCO
=0
∂θ
∗
2π ∂CCO
i) For 0 < θ ≤ ; =0
3 ∂r ∗
2π ∗
ii) For < θ < π ; CCO =1
3
3.7 1-D model equations
As discussed in section 1.8, that a simplified 1-D mathematical model was devel-
oped in a previous study [12] where validation of the model was lacking. In particu-
lar the mass transfer model was not validated at all. Also instability and convergence
problems were reported in the earlier model. Therefore, first 1-D model was stud-
ied in detail particularly from numerical stability view point. Adopting the same
approach as used for the development of 2-D heat and mass balance equations in
this chapter, 1-D heat and mass balance equations can be developed. For the sake of
brevity, only the non-dimensional form of 1-D heat and mass balance equations are
shown here. Therefore, 1-D heat balance model equation with relevant boundary
conditions can be expressed as follows:

∂T ∗ 1 ∂ ∗ ∗ ∂T
∗
1 ∂ ∗ ∗
∗
∗ ∗ ∂CCO
= ∗ r α + ∗ r DCO−air N T
∂t∗ r ∂r ∗ ∂r∗ r ∂r ∗ ∂r∗

Heat accumulation Conduction in r-direction Diffusion in r-direction
∗

1 ∂ ∗ ∗ ∗ 3 ∂T
+ ∗ r k T − ∆H∗r (3.7)
r ∂r ∗ ∂r∗
Heat generation
Radiation in r-direction
• At time t = 0, for all r ∗ = r/ro , T ∗ = 1

Chapter 3 43
• At time t > 0, for r ∗ = r/ro (at the surface of electrode)

∂T ∗ Heat input
− ∗ =
• At time t > 0, for r ∗ = 1 (at the inner periphery of the furnace)

∂T ∗ Heat loss
− ∗ =
Similarly, non-dimensional form of 1-D mass balance equation for CO can be ex-
pressed as:

∂C∗CO 1 ∂ ∗ ∗
∗
∂CCO
ε = ∗ r DCO−air + W∗ (3.8)
∂tm ∗ r ∂r ∗ ∂r ∗
• At time t = 0, for all r ∗ (inside the furnace)

∗
CCO =0
• At time t > 0, for r ∗ = ri /ro , (at the surface of electrode)
∗
∂CCO
= 0.0
∂r ∗
∗
CCO =1
In 1-D model, no resistance is considered for the CO diffusion at the furnace bound-
ary whereas for heat transfer a series of resistances are considered based upon the
thickness of glass-wool, fire bricks and steel shell etc. In other words, wall is as-
sumed porous for CO diffusion in case of 1-D mathematical model.
Chapter 3 44
3.8 Computational technique
As a part of the solution methodology, initially, 1-D model is first discretized in its
non-dimensional form using Finite Volume Method † (FVM). The resulting algebric
equations were solved using tri-diagonal matrix algorithm (TDMA) method, using
a computer code written in FORTRAN 95. The computed results obtained from
1-D model are then validated with some experimental results. Similarly, the results
obtained from 2-D model are validated with experimental results.
3.8.1 Discretization and solution methodology
Discretization is a way of replacing the continuous information in discrete points.

These discrete points are called grid points. It is this systematic discretization of
space and of the dependent variables that makes it possible to replace the governing
differential equations with simple algebraic equations, which can be solved with
relative ease [56]. There are techniques like Finite Element Method (FEM), Finite
Difference (FD) and Finite Volume Method (FVM) etc. to do this discretization
job. Each of them, in certain way has advantage over other technique and they
have their own drawbacks also. Like, finite difference (FD) discretization of the
partial differential equation (PDE) is inappropriate near discontinuities because the
PDE does not hold there, whereas with finite volume method (FVM) discretization,
which implies integral conservation, is still valid even for discontinuous solution.
But unfortunately the integral form is more difficult to work with than the differen-
tial equation, especially when it comes to discretization. Since the PDE continues
to hold except at discontinuities, another approach is to supplement the differential
equation by additional ”jump condition” that must be satisfied across discontinu-
ities. These can be derived by again appealing to the integral form [58].
†
A brief explanation of FVM technique is given in appendix. Detailed explanation is available in
literature [56, 57].
Chapter 3 45
Thus applying the integral form of discretization scheme for coupled heat and
mass balance equations, we get a set of discretized coupled algebraic equations in
the cylindrical calculation domain, which further can be solved directly by apply-
ing TDMA. Both, fully explicit and fully implicit formulation schemes have been
solved for 1-D model. A computer code, in FORTRAN 95 [59], has been devel-
oped to solve the system of equations. Computational procedure adopted here in
1-D case is shown in a flow chart (see figure 3.2).
3.8.2 Solution methodology for 2-D model
Fully explicit and fully implicit formulation schemes have been used to solve the
1 - D model whereas for 2 - D model only fully implicit scheme has been used
along with the line-by-line TDMA. ‡ A computer code, in FORTRAN 95 , has been
developed to obtain the solution of 2-D model. Figure ( 3.3) shows the flowchart
adopted for the solution of discretized equations in their non-dimensional form in
2-D case. The results obtained are later converted into their dimensional form.
‡
In line-by-line TDMA, for a particular time step we first find the converged solution in one
direction; say in r-direction at a particular θ, assuming the quantities to be constant in the neighbor-
hood of ’r’ in θ-direction. Thus we keep applying TDMA in r-direction and sweep in θ-direction.
By doing so we cover the full domain of consideration. Same procedure is adopted while applying
TDMA in θ-direction and sweeping in r-direction.
Chapter 3 46
Figure 3.2: Flow diagram for 1-D program

Chapter 3 47
Figure 3.3: Flow diagram for 2-D program

Chapter 4
Physical modeling and process

description
As discussed in chapter 1 and 3 that experimental setup for the B 4 C manufacturing

process was developed in the previous study [12]. Therefore, only a brief discus-
sion on the experimental setup is given in this chapter followed by the experimental
procedure which has been adopted in the current study to perform the desired ex-
periments. A detailed discussion on the experimental setup with the accuracy of
various instruments and data are given in reference [12].
4.1 Experimental setup
Carbothermal reduction process and various other routes of manufacturing B 4 C are

discussed briefly in chapter 1. The reaction of formation of B4 C is strongly en-
dothermic in nature with a favorable free energy change at high temperature which
at its best is carried out in a specially designed graphite resistance furnace at tem-
perature above 1834 o C, using boric acid and graphite/petroleum coke as starting
materials. A schematic diagram of the experimental setup is shown in the figure 4.1.
48
Chapter 4 49
Chapter 4 50
The experimental setup mainly consists of the following:
1. Resistance heating furnace
2. Power supply unit with control panel
3. Thermocouples and pyrometer
4. Data recording device
5. Safety accessories
A brief discription of each equipment is given below.
4.1.1 Resistance heating furnace
Resistance heating furnace is cylindrical in shape with opening at the top so as to

provide a way out for the by-product gases generated during the operation. Also
an exhaust blower is provided with hood assembly on the top of the furnace for
fast removal of the by-product gases. The outer body of the furnace is made-up
of stainless steel sheet of 3 mm thickness . Inside part of the furnace is lined with
high temperature fire bricks and glass wool. A special electrode holding arrange-
ment is developed in-house with cooling facility. The electrode holding assembly
is connected to a water pump for continuous water supply for cooling purpose. Ar-
rangement of two water tanks in tandem with water pump works as a source of
continuous water supply system. One of the electrode holder assemblies is on a
small movable trolley that gives it an advantage to move it and fix the electrode
into the holder assembly properly. Otherwise loose electrode connection is a ma-
jor reason for failure of the experiments. When high potential is applied across
the graphite electrode, it generates lots of heat based on the principle of resistance
heating. Through-holes, as shown in figure 4.2, are provided along circumferential
line at various θ locations in the furnace to note down the temperatures during the
Chapter 4 51
Figure 4.2: Internal construction of the furnace
experiments via the use of various types of thermocouples and two-colour radiation
pyrometer.
4.1.2 Power supply unit with control panel
The whole unit consists of the following:
• II-phase oil cooled transformer (75 kVA, manufactured by Universal Trans-

formers, Banglore)
• Variac assembly fixed on the top of transformer for an on load power supply
variation
• LED displays for voltmeter and ampere meter
• Thermocouple temperature display unit

Chapter 4 52
To meet the energy requirements a customized transformer was designed by M/s

Universal Transformers, Banglore with 75 kVA rating. It is a step down transformer,
which converts the 440 V coming from control panel to maximum 35 V output. A
variac wheel is used to control the power supplied to the heating furnace. By rotat-
ing this wheel in clockwise or anti-clockwise direction one can control the amount
of power fed to the heating furnace. Also, this variac assembly gives us advantage
of doing the experiments with different modes of power supply like constant power
supply or with stepwise change in power supply. To record the secondary voltage
and current, suitable voltmeter and ammeter assembly is given at the top of trans-
former. Control panel displays primary current, voltage displays and all the ther-
mocouple readings to calculate the temperature during the experiment. The supply
coming from mains goes to the transformer via control panel. For safety purposes,
molded case circuit breaker (MCCB) is installed along with the power supply unit
which trips when the system withdraws more power then the rated capacity.
4.1.3 Thermocouples and pyrometer
Thermocouples and pyrometer setup is the backbone of the experiment and data
obtained using these assemblies play an important role in validation of the mathe-
matical models. Since there exists a wide range of temperature (100o C to 2500o C)
in the heating furnace, so a verity of thermocouples along with two-colour radi-
ation pyrometer are used to capture the temperature in different ranges. C-type
thermocouple (Tungsten-5% Rhenium v/s Tungsten-26% Rhenium) has been used
to measure temperature in the range of 1473-2473 K. To avoid the oxidation of
thermocouple wires, it is placed inside a graphite tube (5.5 mm thick) which is con-
nected with a continuous UHP (ultra high pure) N2 supply. B-Type thermocouple
(Pt-30 % Rh v/s Pt) is used with 12 mm thick re-crystallized alumina sheath, for
the temperature range of 1173 K to 1973 K. B-type thermocouples are placed at
different locations into the furnace. For measuring temperature rise at the surface
Chapter 4 53
of heating electrode, a non-contacting temperature measuring device, such as py-

rometer, is used. It works in the temperature range of 1173-3273 K. Pyrometer is
focussed on the heating electrode via a graphite tube (sighting tube) running through
the furnace and touching the heating electrode in the furnace. The view field of py-
rometer should be free from smoke, dust or any other kind of scattering particles.
Thus, UHP N2 purging is provided into the sighting tube so as to remove the CO or
any other gaseous product produced during the reaction. M/s Mikron infrared Inc.,
U.S.A, supplied the pyrometer. It works on the principle of two-color radiation py-
rometery. Extensive literature is available on this subject [60 - 62].
As there is no published data available on relative emissivity of the graphite at

very high temperature so to capture the accurate core temperature using pyrometer,
experiments were conducted with a calibrated C-type thermocouple and emissiv-
ity value was adjusted online for pyrometer to match the temperature as obtained
using C-type thermocouple. Once the emissivity variation in the operating tempera-
ture range in known, suitable emissivity is set for pyrometer during the experiment.
Experiments were conducted with ±10 K accuracy in temperature value between
pyrometer and C-type thermocouple reading. More details are provided in refer-
ence [12]. Both graphite tube and recrystallized alumina sheaths, which are used
as thermo well for C-type and B-type thermocouples respectively were also cali-
brated. About other experimental details on calibration and other findings one can
go through the reference [12].
4.1.4 Data recording device
The data recording system consists two major parts which are:
• Thermocouple amplifier and,
• Data logger
Chapter 4 54
The voltage produced by the thermocouples is in the range of µV to mV. In order

to get a reading that is easy to record, thermocouple voltage amplifier is used. The
input to the thermocouple amplifier comes straight from the thermocouple and out-
put of the amplifier goes into the input junction of data logger ∗ . The data logger
can be interfaced with a computer for the analysis of recorded data. Later, using the
temperature-voltage correlation for particular thermocouple, the data can be con-
verted back into temperature.
4.1.5 Safety accessories
For any high temperature experiment the safety of the working personnel is must.
For the safety purposes, the main accessories used are as follows:
• Heat resistant gloves
• Apron
• Goggles and face shield
• Breathing masks
• CO detector
A good amount of CO is produced as a by-product of carbothermal reduction re-

action. If inhaled in large quantity, it can cause giddiness, lose of sight, vomiting
etc. Thus a CO detector (product supplied by M/s Cole Parmer Instrument Com-
pany, U.S.A) is used to give a audio-visual warning signal. Using this instrument,
the working personnel can maintain a good distance from the furnace to avoid the
inhalation of CO.
∗
Data logger is a sort of mini computer with a programmable chip and a hard drive to store the
online data.
Chapter 4 55
4.2 Experimental procedure
Before starting the experiment, an intimate mixture of reactants (boric acid and
graphite/petroleum coke) is prepared. The composition of the product is highly
dependent on temperature and the initial molar ratio of C and B 2 O3 [7, 63]. Ther-
modynamic study shows that B 2 O3 (s) is highly hygroscopic in nature. Chemically
bounded water (as H3 BO3 ) may react with C, which results in the reduction of the
amount of feed C available for the reaction with B2 O3 . So, it is first dried in an
oven for about 3-4 hours at a temperature of about 150-200 o C so as to remove
the bounded water with it. Once the mixture is ready to charge in the furnace,
electrode and its assembly along with sighting tube assembly is fixed in the fur-
nace. Before charging the mixture into the furnace, exhaust fan is switched-on and
thermocouples are inserted at the desired locations and distance from the core into
the pockets provided through furnace. After this, material is charged into the fur-
nace carefully without disturbing the heating electrode and sighting tube assembly.
Thermocouples are connected to data logger via thermocouple amplifier to record
the data. Water pump is switched-on for the cooling of electrode holder and then de-
sired power is supplied to the resistance-heating furnace using variac wheel. Variac
wheel is rotated as per the power supply requirement. Heat generated at the surface
of the electrode is transferred to the surrounding reacting material. With time the
reacting mass becomes hard, sticky and viscous and the level of top surface starts
receding toward the heating electrode. Thus we keep on adding fresh charge from
the opening provided at the top of the furnace. During the experiment, depending
upon the power supply, the core temperature of the furnace varies between 2200-
3000 K. CO produced during the early stage of heating comes out at the top of the
furnace where it gets burnt. At later stage in the heating CO is gets entrapped in the
region around the core because of the formation of viscous mass. As the viscous
mass has the least porosity, so poking is done intermittently to provide a passage
for CO to go out. Otherwise, the pressure because of CO accumulation keeps on
Chapter 4 56
building inside the furnace which may lead to hazardous situations. First, this may
results in the lateral movement of the electrode holding assembly that ultimately
results into the loose connection between electrode holder and graphite rod (heating
electrode). This loose connection further leads to sparking at the joints that may
cause the electrode breakdown during the experiment. Second, due to the presence
of gas around the core, it pushes the reacting mass away from the core and there is
swelling of the reacting mass. It has been observed during experiments that in such
situation the electrode gets consumed/melts down, which again leads to breakdown
of the electrode. Third, from safety point of view, if the entrapped gases come out
at their own then there are chances of spillage of reacting mass because of sudden
bursting. So one has to be careful while conducting experiments and should take
care of all these points as explained above. The CO detector meter when exposed
to these fumes confirms the presence of CO by its audio-visual alarm.
Core temperature is measured using pyrometer which is focused on the electrode

through the sighting tube. Depending upon the power supply, after about an hour
or so, green flames are observed at the top of the reacting mass. These green flames
are the indication of the start of the main reaction and occurs due to the oxidation
of boron oxide gas. After sometime the temperature at core becomes constant at
around 2300-2400 K. Still the firing is done for 4-5 hours. Once the green and blue
flames are diminished at the top of the furnace, which is an indication of completion
of reaction, the power supply through control panel is switched-off thereafter and
the furnace is left for a day for cooling. Cooling pump and exhaust fan are kept
in on position till the temperature at the core reaches around 500-600 K. After the
cooling, the side gate of furnace is opened to collect the samples of B 4 C formed
from different locations in the furnace. After cleaning, the furnace is prepared again
for the next run.
Boron carbide produced this way (mixing the charge in stoichiometric quantity)
Chapter 4 57
contains about 10-12% of free carbon [29]. This is due to the loss of boron in the
form of B2 O2 (g) at high temperature. Thus excess of boric acid (10-20% more
then the stoichiometric amount) is added while preparing the raw material mixture
to compensate the losses due to volatilization during the reaction. Boron carbide
with 10-12% free carbon is not suitable for certain applications, e.g., in the nuclear
industry. So, control of the reactant feed B/C ratio and temperature is crucial to
manufacture stoichiometric B4 C at temperature above about 2300 K [14].
4.2.1 Chemical analysis
For the analytical investigations of B-C system, there are many techniques avail-
able in literature [2, 5]. These techniques are broadly classified into two major
categories i.e. destructive methods and non-destructive methods for quantitative
analysis. Chemical analysis is a destructive method technique used for total boron,
total carbon and free-boron and free-carbon analysis. The same approach is adopted
in this study also.
As such the sample may have a mixture of B4 C, free carbon and boron oxides.
In order to determine the percentage of each constituent in the mixture, the follow-
ing procedure has been adopted. The samples of B4 C collected from the various
locations in the furnace after the experiment was done. Boron being a light element,
chemical analysis is the best tool available for the determination of total boron con-
tent of the product sample.
Dissolution step forms the most important step in the chemical analysis. Conven-
tional fusion technique using sodium carbonate is adopted. Boron carbide is totally
oxidized by fusion with alkaline carbonate. The resulting fused mass is dissolved by
HCl. The total boron content is then determined as orthoboric acid H 3 BO3 , com-
plexed by manitol and titrated by soda using potentiometry [2]. In simple words,
the boron in the melt is converted to boric acid with the aid of excess mineral acid,
Chapter 4 58
which is neutralized by NaOH solution to a pH of 7 by using indicator. Mannitol is

added to convert the weakly acidic boric acid to a relatively stronger acid complex
of manitol-boric acid, which is estimated by visual alkalimetry to a phenolphthalein
end-point using standard NaOH solution. Discussed chemical analysis is a well de-
veloped and standardized technique [2, 5]. Steps followed for chemical analysis
are provided by Dr. A.K. Suri [64] in a documented form. The steps followed in
the analysis are
1. Take a measured weight of B4 C sample (about 0.13-0.14 gm) in a the plat-

inum crucible.
2. Add Sodium Carbonate (Na2 CO3 ) in sufficient quantity in the above sample
and mix it properly.
3. Keep the lid covered platinum crucible in a muffle furnace at 900o Cfor about
an hour. This is to ensure that Na2 CO3 can fuse with B4 C completely.
4. After 1 hour of heating, take the crucible out of the furnace and let it cool to
reach the room temperature.
5. Take 100-150 ml of deionized water into beaker and heat it till it starts boiling.
6. Put the platinum crucible into the heated beaker to dissolve the diffused mass.
7. Add 1-2 drops of methyl red indicator into the final solution. Appearance
of yellow color corresponds to basic nature of the solution which is due to
the formation of sodium borate. If the color becomes red, it means that the
final solution obtained is acidic in nature and boron is present as boric oxide.
Generally one gets yellow color after the addition of methyl red indicator.
8. If the obtained solution is yellow in color, add HCl solution(1:1 by vol.) to

make the solution red. After it becomes red, boil the solution for 2-3 minutes
to expel CO2 .
Chapter 4 59
9. After cooling, titrate the solution against NaOH solution (40 gm solid NaOH
+ 1 liter of deionized water). Continue titration till a neutral color is reached
i.e., neither red nor yellow.
10. Add manitol into the solution which will change the color to pink-red. After
dissolution of manitol, it again becomes neutral.
11. Add phenolphthalein indicator.
12. Titrate the final solution against previously prepared NaOH (in step 9) solu-
tion till the color of solution turns back to slightly pink. Note down the total
volume of NaOH solution consumed in step 9.

0.011×0.1×100
Total boron ( % ) = Vol. of NaOH solution consumed × Wt. of sample taken
Thus, from the above procedure one can find out the percentage of total boron
present in the sample taken.
For analysis of water soluble boron there is not much difference in the procedure
as discussed above. Following is the procedure to obtain the percentage of water
soluble boron in the sample.
1. Take a measured weight of B4 C sample (about 0.13-0.14 gm) in a platinum

crucible.
2. Dissolve the sample into hot deionized water.
3. Filter the above solution into a beaker.
4. With filtrate solution follow the same procedure from steps 7 to 12 as fol-
lowed for ’total boron analysis’. Repeat the same calculation methodology as
discussed above to find out the water soluble boron present into the sample.
Chapter 4 60

0.011×0.1×100
Water soluble boron ( % ) = Vol. of NaOH solution consumed × Wt. of sample taken
Free carbon can modify the physiochemical properties of boron carbide and in nu-
clear applications it is suspected that it carburizes the metallic cladding materials
[65]. It is thus important to determine the amount of free carbon present. Determi-
nation of free carbon in boron carbide using chemical methods are unreliable and
irreproducible / give poor results [65]. For successful estimation of free carbon
in the boron carbide samples, there are number of conditions that need to to be
fulfilled. These conditions are discussed in detail in literature [65, 66]. Seeing the
complexity and time constraints, no chemical analysis for free carbon determination
is carried out.
Chapter 5
Results and discussion
This chapter describes the typical results obtained from model’s simulation. The
temperature profiles and the fraction reacted profiles are explained in detail. Results
have been presented for both 1-D and 2-D models. Predictions have been verified
against the experimental data. Experimental data have been obtained by performing
various experiments which are reported here. The sensitivity analysis of the model
is presented to know the effect of various initial parameters on the process and
to optimize the process. Though the model developed has been solved in non-
dimensional form, the results are converted back into their respective dimensions
while presenting the results. It is advised that reader should go through figure 3.1
in order to understand the various locations in the process for which the results have
been presented.
5.1 Results obtained from 1-D model
Before proceeding to the model’s result for the process, it becomes mandatory to
make the model independent of time-step and grid-size because the dependency
on time-step and grid-size is a major source of numerical errors. In case of fully
explicit method, the ease of solution and less memory requirement comes with an
61
Chapter 5 62
additional drawback of system instability. As we go on refining the grid-size, the

time-step which is a function of grid-size also reduces and at any point if the Courant
stability condition is violated, physically unrealistic results could emerge [56], thus
fully explicit scheme is conditionally stable scheme. So in case of explicit schemes,
time step is dictated by numerical stability but not by the physics of the problem
whereas this is possible in case of fully implicit scheme, which is an uncondition-
ally stable scheme.
If a scheme is unconditionally stable then it does not mean that the solution ob-
tained for any time-step or grid size is a desired result. Unconditional stability
ensures that the errors because of time-step or grid-size are bounded; they will not
grow with time as they do in case of fully explicit scheme. Therefore, check of grid
and time independency is necessary for fully implicit scheme also so as to get more
accurate results. In case of 1-D model, both fully implicit and fully explicit schemes
are being made time-step independent and grid-size independent.
Table 5.1: Simulation parameters used for fully explicit and implicit schemes
Index Simulation Exp-1 Exp-2
Radius of electrode (mm) 17.5 17.5 17.5
Furnace in radius (mm) 180 180 180
Inner wool thickness (mm) 20 20 20
Thickness of furnace steel shell (mm) 3 3 3
Refractory bricks thickness (mm) 300 300 300
Length of furnace (mm) 360 360 360
Furnace heating time (min) 360 340 345
Total material added (kg) 33 32 31
Power input ( kWh) 55.45 106.20 97.82
Chapter 5 63
5.1.1 Comparison between fully explicit and implicit scheme
Simulated results obtained from 1-D mathematical model for fully implicit and
explicit schemes are shown in figure 5.1. From this figure, it is seen (in explicit
scheme) that after a certain time step, in this case more than 0.10162 s, results starts
diverging and system become unstable. Parameters used in the simulation are given
in table 5.1. Grid size is taken as 0.3202 mm. Comparing the results, it can be
2500
2000
Temperature (K)
1500
1000
All the profiles are for simulated core temperature

500 Explicit with time-step 0.10162 s
Explicit with time-step 0.11799 s
Implicit with time-step 10.8 s
0
-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Time (min)
Figure 5.1: Effect of fully explicit and implicit scheme on core temperature using 1-D model
concluded that even though the implicit code is run for much coarser time step still
the results obtained are in very much agreement with the results obtained from ex-
plicit scheme. Thus, using the fully implicit scheme we can get the results much
faster on finer grid without losing much accuracy. Therefore, this scheme has been
adopted in all simulation here. Any change in grid size for explicit scheme asks
Chapter 5 64
for the repetition of above process to get the converged solution on new grid. For
convergence criterion, the relative error is considered to be less then 0.1%.
5.1.2 Grid independency
Simulations were carried out using implicit scheme for grid size independency
with the same parameters as given in table 5.1. Figure 5.2 shows the effect of grid
size on core temperature. It can be seen that there is no significant change in the
temperature profile at core for grid size finer than 0.2717 mm so we can say that the
system has converged for this grid size. Hence, for further simulations this size i.e.
0.2717 mm is used as standard grid size.
2500
2000
1500
Temperature (K)
1000
3.3854 mm
0.2717 mm
500
0.1628 mm
0
-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Time (min)
Figure 5.2: Effect of grid size on core temperature using 1-D model and fully implicit
scheme
Chapter 5 65
5.1.3 Time independency
Again the simulation study using implicit scheme is carried out to establish the time
step independency using same simulation parameters as described in table 5.1. An
interesting phenomenon can be seen from figure 5.3 that when the value of time step
goes beyond a critical value, the temperature profile bifurcates and starts diverging.
A smaller time step is thus chosen for further simulations. However, there is not
much noticeable difference in the temperature profiles when time step is less than
42 s. Here, in all simulations, 25.42 s time step has been chosen.
Temperature - time plot for different time steps for implicit scheme
2500
2000
1500
Temperature (K)
1000
Time step : 60 sec

500
Time step : 41.14 sec
Time step : 25.42 sec
0
-50 0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Time (min)
Figure 5.3: Effect of time step on core temperature using 1-D model and fully implicit
scheme
Chapter 5 66
5.1.4 Validation of 1-D model
Experiments were conducted following the methodology as explained in section

4.2. The detailed analysis of the results obtained is presented here. Tempera-
ture profiles obtained from experiments are validated with the simulation results.
The product obtained after the experiment was analyzed for the percentage of B4 C
present in the samples taken from different locations away from the core of the
furnace. Distance up to which the presence of product is seen through chemical
analysis is also validated with simulation results.
Experiment - 1
All experimental parameters for this experiment are given in the table 5.1 under
’Exp-1’ column and the same parameters have been used for simulation. The power
supply and primary current to the transformer during the experiment is shown in the
figure 5.4. Primary voltage is almost constant around 238 V. Temperature variations
with time during the experiment at various locations are shown in figure 5.5. ”Exp”
and ”Sim” legends indicate experimental and simulated data respectively. Surface
of the heating electrode is labeled as ”core” of the furnace, which is the source of
the heat required for the reaction. Power fed to the system is increased in steps till
100 minutes of the run and then it is kept constant as shown in figure 5.4. Small
fluctuations shown in power supply curve after 100 minutes of run are because of
voltage fluctuations in the main supply. Total power supplied during the experi-
ment is ≈106 kWh for 360 minutes run. Approximately 18-20 kg of raw material
is charged into the furnace at the beginning in one go and rest ≈13 kg is charged
during the experiment with intermittent poking. As explained in chapter 4, pyrome-
ter focused through the sighting tube is used to capture the temperature variations at
the core. Since pyrometer temperature measurement range is in between 1173-3273
K, so the core temperature data at the beginning of the experiment are not available.
It can be seen from the figure 5.5 that temperature of the core is 1600 K after 75
Chapter 5 67
25,000 100
20,000 80
Power supplied (W)
Primary current (A)

15,000 60
10,000 40
5,000 20
Power
Primary current
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Time (min)
Figure 5.4: Variation in power and primary current supply to the transformer - (Exp. 1)
min, which keeps on rising with time.
One can clearly see from this figure 5.5 that after 120 minutes of the start of ex-
periment, the temperature of the core is nearly 2200 K and temperature at 100 mm
and 115 mm away from the core is 510 K and 360 K respectively. These large
temperature gradients are because of poor thermal conductivity of the precursor
material. It is also obvious from the figure 5.5 that temperature at 100 mm and 115
mm away from the core starts rising only after 100 minutes of the start of experi-
ment. The main reason for this is that when the core temperature is more than 1834
K, the main reaction (reaction 3.3) responsible for B4 C formation takes place and
Chapter 5 68
Exp - Core
3,000 Sim - Core
Exp - 100 mm
2,750
Sim - 100 mm
Exp - 115 mm
2,500
Sim - 115 mm
2,250
2,000
Temperature (K)
1,750
1,500
1,250
1,000
750
500
250
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Time (min)
Figure 5.5: Temperature variations at different locations with time - (Exp. 1)
the CO produced as by-product starts coming out of the system. This hot CO while
coming out from the system gives the heat to the surrounding material which is at
lower temperature and thus gives rise to the temperature at locations away from the
core. After reaching to the top this CO get burnt which again adds to the recovery
of heat into the system.
After the experiment is over, samples are collected from the different locations
and are analysed for the boron content. The results from the chemical analysis
are shown in figure 5.6. Left, right, top and bottom directions are shown in the fig-
ure 5.6 which indicates that the samples are taken from these locations. In case of
Chapter 5 69
samples, taken from the top and bottom side of the core, there is an initial rise in the
total boron content of the sample and then it decreases as one moves away from the
core. Similarly, samples taken from, both, left and right side show the same trend
of decreasing boron content as one moves away from the core. Simulation study
100
% Boron in B 4C as per chemical analysis
Average of % B in B 4C - Right
90 Average of % B in B 4C - Bottom Top
Average of % B in B 4C - Left
80 Average of % B in B 4C - Top
Right
Left
Conversion radius - simulation
70
60
Bottom
50
40
30
20
10
1 2 3 4 5
Distance from core (cm)
Figure 5.6: Product formation with distance – (Exp. 1)
for the above experiment is carried out using the same simulation parameters as in
experiment and are shown in table 5.1 under column ’Exp-1’. Computed results
under the same experimental conditions are shown in figure 5.5. One can see that as
the power supply is increased, the core temperature also increases with the time and
as soon as the reaction temperature (1834 K) is reached, a drop in the temperature is
observed after 45 minute. As explained earlier in section 1.6.4 (resistance-heating
furnace process), B4 C formation is highly endothermic process. So, after the re-
action temperature is reached, there is a sudden temperature drop at the core. This
Chapter 5 70
drop in the temperature indicates that the reaction (reaction 3.3) between B 2 O3 and
C has begun and B4 C is being formed.
In fact, from the fraction reacted profile in figure 5.7, it can be seen that at the
surface of the core all the charge has been converted into B4 C in less than 50 min-
utes from the start of the experiment. It should be noted, from figure 5.8, that within
few minutes (about 4 minutes), when temperature becomes favorable for reaction
to occur, the fraction of B4 C becomes 1.
Because there is a continuous power supply from the electrode to the material, so
temperature again starts rising. After reaction at the core is completed, no other
sudden drop in temperature is observed in the figure 5.5. Once the power sup-
ply becomes constant, no significant rise in the simulated core temperature is seen
from figure 5.5. Temperature profile becomes flatter. It can also be seen from the
figure 5.7 that the drop in temperature is observed at the same time when the con-
version reaches from 0 to 1. From the enlarged view as shown in figure 5.8, it is
clear that the main reaction takes about 4 min for completion.
Experimentally observed temperature profile at the core is in very good match with
the simulated temperature profile except at the beginning. The simulated profiles of
temperature at 100 mm and 115 mm away from the core do not show the prominent
rise with time as observed during the experiment. Main reason of this discrepancy
in the result is due to neglecting θ-direction effect on the results as it is 1-D model
only. There is a strong effect of θ-direction on temperature which will become evi-
dent in the later section where we present 2-D model’s results. Also, the prominent
drop in core temperature is not that prominent in 2-D results. It should be noted that
pyrometer can measure the temperature above 1200K and not below this. As such
the reliable reading starts above 1400 K. Therefore, experimental core temperatures
are reported after 1400 K in figures 5.5 and 5.10. Due to this, pyrometer is not able
Chapter 5 71
0.8
0.6
Conversion
0.4
0.2
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Time (min)
Figure 5.7: Fraction of material reacted with time
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
Conversion
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Time (min)
Figure 5.8: Enlarged view of figure 5.7

Chapter 5 72
to detect this sudden drop which is a limitation of the instrument and experimental
conditions under which it is being used. In fact in a carefully performed experiment
in a previous study [12], it has been shown that pyrometer is able to detect this
fluctuation in temperature though not prominent.
From simulated results it is clear that one can get boron carbide formation till 3.8
cm distance away from the core surface for experiment one i.e ’Exp-1’. Simulation
results will always give formation of boron carbide as 100% after which it becomes
zero due to the reaction kinetics which has been adopted in the modeling. However,
in experiments this is not the case. But it seems model and experimental results
both show that after some distances product formation is negligible. Experiment
results show that formation of boron carbide becomes negligible between distance
3 and 4 cm away from the core. We say negligible formation of boron carbide when
percentage of boron carbide experimentally below 20%. Simulation results at 3.8
cm distance from the core show that B4 C formation is zero which is again due to
the reaction kinetics. It is obvious that this reaction kinetics is not perfect and one
has to put the proper reaction kinetic expression in order to get the better agreement
between the simulated and experimental results. However, it should be noted that
qualitatively still the present reaction kinetics gives reasonable results. Therefore,
in absence of any other reaction kinetics for this process, the present expression for
the reaction kinetics seems good enough.
Experiment - 2
Figure 5.9 shows the power and current supply curves for experiment two. Raw
materials used are in stoichiometric ratio. Simulation parameters are shown in ta-
ble 5.1 under ’Exp-2’. Trend of experimental temperature profiles and B4 C fraction
can be explained in a similar way as it is done for experiment-1 above. Therefore,
they are not repeated again. Figure 5.10 shows a comparison between computed
and experimental temperature profiles at various locations. One can clearly see
Chapter 5 73
25000
20000
Primary current (A)

Power supplied (W)
15000
10000
current
5000 Power
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Time (min)
Figure 5.9: Power supply and primary current variation with time – (Exp. 2)
from figure 5.10 that the core temperature trend predicted by the model is in good
agreement with the temperature profiles obtained from the experiment. The trends
obtained from the model at other positions are also in reasonable agreement with
the experimental values. As such there is a variation in experimental core tempera-
ture which is due to having a difficulty in maintaining constant power supply during
the experiment. The small deviation in computed results, besides the θ-direction
effect, may be because of the errors in the material properties like thermal con-
ductivity and specific heat taken for the simulation, porosity variation, which is
dynamic with both temperature and position in the furnace, poking of the charge
and addition of the fresh charge into the furnace during the experiment etc., which
are not accounted in the model. As such results obtained from 1D model are quite
encouraging lending a good support to the model. Computed fraction reacted or
Chapter 5 74
2500
2000 Exp - Core

Sim - Core
Temperature (K)
Exp - 80 mm
Sim - 80 mm
Exp - 100 mm
1500 Sim - 100 mm
Exp - 115 mm
Sim - 115 mm
1000
500
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400

Time (min)
Figure 5.10: Temperature variation at different locations with time – (Exp. 2)
100
Average of % B in B 4C - Top
90 Average of % B in B 4C - Left
Top
Average of % B in B 4C - Right
80 Average of % B in B 4C - Bottom
Conversion radius - simulation
Right
Left
70
60
50 Bottom
40
30
20
10
1 2 3 4 5
Figure 5.11: Product formation with distance – (Exp. 2)

Chapter 5 75
Table 5.2: Simulation parameter used for 2-D model

Index 2-D Simulation Exp-3 Exp-4
Radius of electrode (mm) 17.5 13.5 17.5
Furnace in radius (mm) 180 205 180
Inner wool thickness (mm) 20 30 20
Thickness of furnace steel shell (mm) 3 3 3
Refractory bricks thickness (mm) 300 300 300
Length of furnace (mm) 360 360 360
Grid size in r-direction (mm) 0.8125 0.8125 0.8125
Grid size in θ-direction (180o = π radians) 0.36o 0.36o 0.36o
Time step for simulation (s) 20 20 20
Furnace heating time (min) 250 205 285
Total material added (kg) 32 41 33
Power input (kWh) 88.75 27.96 86.35
formation of boron carbide along with experimental data for experiment two are
shown in figure 5.11.
5.2 Results obtained from 2-D model and its validation
Like 1-D model, 2-D model is also tested for grid size and time step independency
before obtaining the desired results. Most of the findings which are true in 1-D case,
apply to 2-D case also. Therefore, these results are not reported here again. Fully
implicit scheme has been used for 2-D model. Standard simulation parameters are
used in 2-D model and they are mentioned in table 5.2. 2-D model is computa-
tionally intensive and takes a long time to get the results. Therefore, only salient
Chapter 5 76
2500 o
Theta = 180
o
2000 At core (theta = 0 )
o
At core (theta = 180 )
o
Temperature (K)
Inner periphery (theta = 0 )
o o
1500 Theta = 0 Inner periphery (theta = 180 )
o
9.45 cm (theta = 0 )
o
9.45 cm (theta = 180 )
1000 o
6.45 cm (theta = 0 )
o
6.45 cm (theta = 180 )
500
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (min)
Figure 5.12: Typical 2-D plot for temperature variation with time at different locations, as
obtained from 2-D model
1.0
2.87 cm away from core

0.8
Conversion
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
-20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200

Angle
Figure 5.13: Angular variation in product formation at various locations, as obtained from
2-D model
Chapter 5 77
results have been presented in this section. 2-D results have also been compared
with experiments and 1-D results.
Figures 5.12 and 5.13 show the typical temperature and conversion profiles ob-
tained from 2-D mathematical model. The simulation parameters used are given
in table 5.2 under the heading ’2-D simulation’. Stoichiometric composition of the
raw material is used for computational purpose. Figure 5.12 shows that with time
there is an increase in temperature at all locations in the furnace. Maximum temper-
ature is achieved at the core of the furnace. This is because of the continuous power
supply to the heating electrode. Once the temperature at the core becomes favorable
for reaction i.e, 1834 K, a sudden temperature drop is seen at the core temperature
profile. This drop in temperature indicates that the formation of boron carbide is
taking place. It is already discussed that reaction 2.4 is highly endothermic and
as this reaction occurs, it will absorb an enormous amount of heat. This leads to
sudden temperature drop at points where reaction occurs. Because of the continu-
ous heat supply to the core, temperature keeps on increasing and the reaction at the
neighboring node starts. Temperature reduces very fast as we move away from the
core. This is because of the poor thermal conductivity of the reacting charge. From
figure 5.12, one can see that temperature at inner periphery near the open boundary,
i.e., at θ = 180o , is more than what is computed at θ = 0 o . This is because of the
heat recovered due to CO burning at the open boundary. Trends of all the tempera-
ture profile can be explained in a similar way as it is done for 1-D results in section
5.1.4.
However, it should be noted that sudden drop in core temperature, during the re-
action, is not that much as it is in 1-D model which is clearly showing the effect
of second dimension (i.e. θ-direction) on heat transfer mechanism. Same finding is
true for other temperature profiles at other locations.
Chapter 5 78
Also, it should be noted that 1 st drop in the core temperature is observed at longer
time than the corresponding 1-D model, though there is not a big difference in power
supply especially in the starting of experiment. This point will be discussed further
during the validation of 2-D model.
Figure 5.13 shows the angular variation of conversion at different locations in the
furnace at the end of the computational run. It is clear that the charged material is
completely reacted till 2.87 cm away from the core. Angular variation in conver-
sion can be seen in the fraction profile which is at 2.93 cm away from the core. As
we move from θ = 0o to 180o, there is a decrease in conversion but near the open
boundary again the conversion rise is seen. Heat carried away by CO diffusion is
responsible for this partial increment in conversion. Also, heat is recovered at the
top surface by burning CO.
Experiment - 3
Figure 5.14 shows the variation in experimental and computed temperature with
time at different locations in the furnace. Raw material used is in stoichiometric
ratio. Other simulation parameters used in the calculations are given in table 5.2
under ’Exp-3’ column. One can see very clearly from this figure that there is an
excellent match between the simulated and experimental temperature profiles at the
core. The deviation of computed results from experimental data is almost negligible
considering the magnitude of the temperature and complex nature. Though the core
temperature profile is simulated at two different θ values but there is no visible dif-
ference in the core profile with respect to θ-direction at the core which is expected as
core is a source of temperature. From the computed results as shown in figure 5.14,
one can see that there are little humps in the temperature profile at the core which
may be due to the uncertainties in the material properties like thermal conductivity
and specific heat taken for simulation. Also, the power supply considered for com-
puted results is taken from experimental data which itself has some fluctuations.
Chapter 5 79
The trends obtained from the model at other positions also agree reasonably with
the experimental values. This excellent match of temperature between the exper-
o
2500 113
o
2000 67
o o
20
Temperature (K)
Exp - Core (113 )

o
1500 Sim - Core (180 )
o
Sim - Core (113 )
o
Exp - 94 mm (67 )
o
1000 Sim - 94 mm (67 )
o
Exp - 184 mm (20 )
o
Sim - 184 mm (20 )
500
0
0 50 100 150 200
Time (min)
Figure 5.14: Temperature variation at different locations with time – (Exp. 3)
iment and theory at various locations in the furnace clearly demonstrates that this
complex process has been modeled quite successfully in terms of heat transfer and
all the assumptions which have been made in developing the model are reasonable.
Certainly, these results are lending a good support to the developed model.
It is thought that we should compare the results of both the models 1-D and 2-D
against experimental data so that one can know how much deviation these model
have with experiment. The idea of this comparison is that if there is no significant
difference between 1-D and 2-D results with experiments than sensitivity analysis /
optimization of the process could be done using 1-D model as 2-D model is highly
computational intensive and takes very long time.
Chapter 5 80
5.2.1 Comparative study of 1-D and 2-D models with experimental results
Figure 5.15 and 5.16 shows the computed temperature plots using 1-D and 2-D
model and the computed results are compared with experimental data. The simu-
lation study is done with same parameters as discussed in table 5.2 under column
’Exp-3’. Experimental data is taken from figure 5.14 as discussed in section 5.2
under the heading ’Experiment - 3’.
Comparison between the computed results obtained from 2-D model and experi-
ment 3 has already been explained. One can see from the figure 5.15 that in early
stage there is a reasonable match of 1-D model result with experimental data and
with computed 2-D results. The only discrepancy appearing in 1-D and 2-D result
is the shift of temperature dip observed during endothermic reaction. The probable
caused for this has already been explained in section 5.2. However, the other pos-
sible reason for higher temperature at the early stage in case of 1-D model is that
we have considered conduction resistance all through the inner periphery of heating
furnace. So heat is lost due to conduction only, whereas in case of 2-D model be-
sides the enclosed furnace periphery, there is an open boundary from which the heat
is lost. Also, heat flow from other dimension (θ-direction) is taking place which is
giving more realistic profiles. In the later stages, there is almost no difference in
temperature profiles obtained using 1-D and 2-D model, which are in an excellent
match with experimental results.
Also, from figure 5.16 it is clear that the computed results obtained using 1-D
and 2-D models, away from the reacting core, have a similar trend of temperature
variation. There is a minor temperature difference in the computed profiles obtained
at 94 mm away from the core. The reason for this has been explained above. How-
ever, at 184 mm away from core there is almost no difference between the computed
results obtained from both the models. As 2-D model is computationally more in-
Chapter 5 81
2500
2000
Temperature (K)
1500
o
113
1000 Exp - Core
Sim - Core (1-D)
o
Sim - Core (2-D, 113 )
o
500 Sim - Core (2-D, 180 )
o 67
o
20
0
0 50 100 150 200
Time (min)
Figure 5.15: Comparison of 1-D and 2-D computed core temperature with experimental
data
550
o
o
113
Exp - 94 mm (67 )
Sim - 94 mm (1-D)
500 o o
Sim - 94 mm (2-D, 67 ) 67
o o
Exp - 184 mm (20 ) 20
450 Sim - 184 mm (1-D)
Temperature (K)
o
Sim - 184 mm (2-D, 20 )
400
350
300
0 50 100 150 200

Time (min)
Figure 5.16: Comparison of 1-D and 2-D computed temperatures away from core with
experimental data
Chapter 5 82
tensive compared to 1-D model, so this comparative study gives us a confidence that
1-D model can be used for faster results for sensitivity analysis without any serious
drawback. Finally, the experiment is conducted based on the predictions made with
sensitivity analysis and the results are discussed later in section 5.5. Here again, 1-
D and 2-D models are validated with the experimental data to have more confidence
in the developed models.
5.3 Yield analysis
Yield of B4 C formation is an important issue for the optimization of manufactur-

ing process. Theoretical power requirement for B4 C production is approximately
40,000 kJ/kg of B4 C [67]. Considering the percentage of B4 C as per our chem-
ical analysis in the samples taken after experiment and taking account of porosity
effects, the actual power requirement for B4 C production comes out to be approxi-
mately 1,22,000 kJ/kg of B 4 C. This is almost 3 times the theoretical power require-
ment.
Not enough experimental data, on industrial process, are available in the litera-
ture in order to calculate the power requirement for the formation of boron carbide.
However, the data made available through a private communication [64] shows
that one can get about 12 kg B4 C from 75 kg charge. Considering these data, the
actual power requirement at large scale production of B4 C is about 2,57,000 kJ/kg
of boron carbide which is nearly 8 times the theoretical power requirement. This
indicates that industrial process can be improved substantially if those operations
are adopted which are used at laboratory scale. Probably, it may not be possible to
adopt the all operations which have been used at laboratory scale due to constraints
in the working environment of the industry. However, it is felt that some operations
certainly can be implemented at industrial scale to improve the process which may
enhance its efficiency. These observations are made based on limited number of
Chapter 5 83
Table 5.3: Standard data used for sensitivity analysis

Index Values
Radius of electrode (mm) 17.5
Furnace in radius (mm) 180
Inner wool thickness (mm) 20
Thickness of furnace steel shell (mm) 3
Refractory bricks thickness (mm) 300
Length of furnace (mm) 360
Furnace heating time (min) 380
Total material added (kg) 33
experiments.
As such sensitivity analysis (using mathematical model) shows that the produc-
tivity / yield is affected by charge composition and mode of power supply. It further
shows that that the yield can be improved further even at laboratory scale exper-
iments. Therefore, mathematical model becomes a very useful tool to study this
dangerous and unexplored process.
5.4 Sensitivity analysis / optimization of the process
Once both the computer codes (1-D and 2-D) are validated against experiments,
sensitivity analysis is done in order to optimize the process. Simulations are con-
ducted for various parameters like input power supply, mode of power supply and
initial charge composition on the process. The results are presented in this section.
The standard parameters used for sensitivity analysis are given in table 5.3.
Chapter 5 84
5.4.1 Effect of input power supply
Figure 5.17 shows the core temperature variations with time for different power in-
puts. The corresponding product formation profile is given in figure 5.18. All the
results obtained are for stoichiometric charge composition i.e., B 2 O3 : C :: 1.69 : 1
with no amount of B4 C into the initial charge. It is clear from figure 5.18 that at
low power supply i.e., at 63.54 kWh, the conversion radius ∗ is less in comparison
with other two cases. It is because, as the temperature reaches to reaction tempera-
ture, it drops and goes through a dip in the profile which takes longer time to reach
to the reaction temperature again as it is seen in figure 5.17.
As discussed earlier in chapter 1, the conversion rate is temperature controlled

phenomenon. So, lower power supply demands the furnace to be run for longer
time. One can see from figure 5.17 that as the power supply is increased from 63.54
to 129.56 kWh, the temperature at the core and other places in the furnace is also
increased. Thus the effect of higher power supply is directly reflected in the con-
version radius. If the power supply is not sufficient then it ends up just heating of
the charge and no product is formed, because the charge does not to reach to the
reaction temperature.
5.4.2 Effect of mode of heating cycle
Figure 5.19 shows three different modes of power supply keeping the total
power supply and run time constant. In case of regular power supply, which is the
usual case during experiments, the power is gradually increased from 0 to 16350
watts in the duration of 150 minute and then kept constant for 3 hours. Afterwords
the power is further increased 20700 watts in 20 minutes and kept constant. In case
of linear power supply the power is gradually kept increasing with time whereas
∗
Conversion radius is the distance from the reacting core surface up to which the product is
formed.
Chapter 5 85
3000
2500
2000
Temperature (K)
1500
63.54 KWH
1000 121.93 KWH
129.56 KWH
500
0
0 100 200 300 400
Time (min)
Figure 5.17: Temperature variation with time for different power input
4.0
Conversion radius from the core surface (cm)
3.8
3.6
3.4
3.2
3.0
2.8
2.6
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
Power Supply (kWh)
Figure 5.18: Effect of power supply on conversion radius

Chapter 5 86
30000
Regular
25000 Step
Linear
20000
Power (Watts)
15000
10000
5000
0
0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280 320 360 400 440
Time (min)
Figure 5.19: Different modes of power supply keeping the total power supply and time
constant
in case of constant power supply it is suddenly increased to 15000 watts and kept
constant thereafter till the end of the run as shown in figure 5.19.
It can be seen from figure 5.20, in case of linear power supply the core tempera-
ture profile keeps on rising with time whereas in case of constant and regular power
supply it becomes almost flat after about 150 minute. For all the three cases the
total power supply is 63.58 kWh. From figure 5.21, one can see that in case of lin-
ear power supply the percentage conversion is higher. This indicates that for higher
product formation, adoption of linear power supply mode is beneficial.
Chapter 5 87
2500
2000
Temperature (K)
1500
1000
500
Linear supply
Regular supply
Step supply
0
0 100 200 300 400

Time (min)
Figure 5.20: Effect of mode of power supply on core temperature
8.4
8.2
% conversion of reactant
8.0
7.8
7.6
7.4
Regular Step Linear
Mode of power supply
Figure 5.21: Effect of mode of power supply on percentage conversion

Chapter 5 88
5.4.3 Effect of varying charge composition
Effect of excess of B2 O3 in the initial charge
Simulations are performed for three different initial boric oxide percentages besides
stoichiometry content in the charge. The results are shown in figures 5.22 and 5.23.
One can see from figure 5.22 that in all the cases there is a sudden drop in the tem-
perature during the reaction almost at the same time. Figure 5.23 shows that as the
boric acid content are increased in the charge from 0 to 20% there is only a slight in-
crease in conversion radius. When the boric acid content is increased to 30%, there
is almost no change in the conversion radius. This is because with the increased
B2 O3 content the amount of graphite/charcoal per unit control volume is decreased
and hence the endothermic requirement for the reaction per unit control volume is
decreased. Also, increased B2 O3 results in the change in physical properties of the
reacting mixture and thus affects the temperature and reaction kinetics.
Effect of B4 C
Figure 5.24 shows the temperature profiles at the center of the furnace with time for
five different initial percentages (weight) of the boron carbide in the charge. Except
the initial boron carbide content, all other simulations parameters are kept constant
for all the runs. It is clear from the fact that as the initial percentage of boron carbide
is increased from 0% to 50% the time for the first drop increases from 29 minutes to
36 minutes. This may be explained by the fact that boron carbide being a refractory
material has higher specific heat content compared to the other two materials (B 2 O3
and C). The thermal conductivity of boron carbide is higher than the other two ma-
terials. Because of these properties, as one increase the boron carbide content in the
initial precursor material, the time needed for heating up the material to the reaction
temperature is much higher. As the initial boron carbide content is increased, the
reacting material per control volume decreases and hence, the endothermic require-
Chapter 5 89
Temperature - time plot for various B 2

O 3feed composition
2500
2000
Temperature (K)
1500
No excess
1000
10% B 2O3
20% B 2O3
500
30% B 2O3
0
0 100 200 300 400
Time (min)
Figure 5.22: Effect of excess B2 O3 on core temperature
3.4
3.2
Conversion radius (cm)
3.0
2.8
2.6
0 10 20 30 40
% excess of B 2O 3 into feed
Figure 5.23: Conversion radius with excess B2 O3

Chapter 5 90
2500
2000
Temperature (K)
1500
1000 As per stoichiometry

10 % excess of B 4C
20 % excess of B 4C
30 % excess of B 4C
500
40 % excess of B 4C
50 % excess of B 4C
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450
Time (min)
Figure 5.24: Effect of initial B4 C on computed temperature
4.5
Converstion radius from core surface (cm)
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
% excess of B 4C into feed
Figure 5.25: Effect of initial B4 C content on final product formation

Chapter 5 91
ment per control volume also decreases correspondingly.
Figure 5.25 shows the effect of initial percentage of boron carbide present in the
mixture on the total formation of boron carbide. One can clearly see from the graph
that as the initial percentage of boron carbide increases, the conversion increases.
The conversion of the reactant into the product is about 2.7 cm from the core surface
at 0% initial boron carbide while, the same is 4.1 cm when the initial boron carbide
content is 50% in raw materials. This may be, due to the relatively increased in ther-
mal conductivity of the boron carbide as compared to the boron oxide and carbon.
As the reaction of boron carbide formation is dependence on heat transfer also, if
the thermal conductivity of the mixture increases the conversion also increases as
one can gets favourable reaction temperature at longer distance from the core.
3300
3000
2700
2400
Temperature (K)
2100
1800
1500
1200
900
Experimental temperature profile
600
1-D simulated temperature profile
o
300 2-D simulated temperature profile (113 )
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time (min)
Figure 5.26: Comparison between 1-D and 2-D model with experimental data
Chapter 5 92
5.5 Comparison of experimental results with sensitivity analysis
Figure 5.26 shows the comparison between the computed results obtained from
both, 1-D and 2-D, mathematical models and experimental results for linear case
power supply case as discussed above. Although both the models have been vali-
dated against experiments and sensitivity analysis has also been done, it is thought
that in order to have more confidence in using the developed model in real practice
to pick up any one optimization condition from this sensitivity analysis and verify
the theoretical results by doing an experiment under the similar conditions in which
the theoretical predictions have been made. Therefore, we have picked up the mode
of power supply condition (section 5.4.2) in which it is mentioned that linear power
supply gives better yield / product. For this purpose we have taken standard param-
eters mentioned in table 5.2 under ’2-D simulation’ column. Total power in this
case is 88 kWh, which is taken in linear mode. Experiment is done under similar
conditions and we tried to keep the total power in linear mode, same as in theory.
Experimental parameters are given in table 5.2 under ’Exp-4’ column. One can
see from this table that there is almost no difference between theoretical and exper-
imental parameters. Results are reported below. The data under the column ’Exp-4’
given in table 5.2 are used for simulating the results for 1-D model. In both the
simulations (1-D and 2-D), linear power supply is assumed. Figure 5.26 shows the
comparative plots only for the core temperature with time. One can see that there
is an excellent match between the results obtained from 2-D model and experiment.
However, comparison between 1-D computed results and experiment is reasonable.
After the completion of the reaction 1-D model also gives good results.
Figure 5.27 shows a comparison between the optimized computed fraction reacted,
obtained using 1-D and 2-D models with experiment which has been performed un-
der same conditions as the computed results. One can see that the conversion radius
obtained from 1-D model is little better than the 2-D model. The probable reason of
Chapter 5 93
100 Top
90
Left
80
70
Bottom
60
50
40 B in B 4C - Bottom
B in B 4C - Right
30 B in B 4C - Top
B in B 4C - Left
20 1-D model result
2-D model result (Bottom)
10 2-D model result (Top)
2-D model result (Left/right)
0
1 2 3 4 5
Figure 5.27: Comparison between 1-D and 2-D model results for conversion radius
these discrepancies have already been discussed in section 5.2 and therefore, they
are not reported here. It is clear from figure 5.26 that the core temperature as per
1-D model is higher than that of the 2-D model core temperature so in 1-D model
the temperature penetrates deeper into the bed. Also one can see that in case of
2-D, better conversion radius is achieved from the bottom side. This is because the
top side of the core is loosing much heat toward the open boundary and hence is
the reason for better conversion from bottom side. There is not much change in the
conversion radius from the left/right side. Since axisymmetry is considered so ’left
side’ and ’right side’ conversion radius comes out to be same. Nevertheless, it is
good to see such a pleasing match when a set of computed optimized conditions are
Chapter 5 94
verified against experiment. Indeed, it is giving a much desired boost in applying

these models in actual practice. We consider it as big milestone in developing a
realistic model which can be used in practice.
Chapter 6
Conclusions and scope of future work
6.1 Conclusions
From this work it is conclude that
• One and two-dimensional mathematical models have been developed suc-

cessfully considering conduction, convection and radiation heat transfer mech-
anisms.
• Both the models give reasonable predictions with respect to temperature and
boron carbide formation. However, two-dimensional model gives more real-
istic results.
• Many high temperature experiments have been performed in order to validate

both the models with respect to temperature and boron carbide formation.
Both the data match very well lending a good support to the developed mod-
els.
• From sensitivity analysis one can say that having some amounts of boron car-
bide in the starting material increases the heat transfer inside the furnace and
hence the conversion is increased. Increase in the power supply increases the
95
Chapter 6 96
conversion of boron carbide. Simulation results indicate that linear heating of

the charge gives better conversion.
• In order to get more confidence in the developed model so that they can be
used in real situations, one of the optimized conditions from the sensitivity
analysis was reproduced experimentally and it is found that both the results
are matching very well.
• Preliminary analysis of limited laboratory scale experiments shows that yield

can be improved in substantial way in the industry if proper procedure is
adopted in the production of boron carbide as they were adopted during the
laboratory scale experiments.
6.2 Scope for future work
• Models can be improved as per the availability of more accurate property data
and reaction kinetics to achieve the better results.
• The future work should be directed toward a systematic study of improving

the process yield further.
Appendix A
Modeling details
A.1 Finite volume discretization technique for PDE’s
To illustrate the control volume discretization scheme, an example of an unsteady

heat conduction with source term in polar coordinates is considered.

∂T 1 ∂ ∂T 1 ∂ k ∂T o
ρCP = rk + +S (A.1)
∂t r ∂r ∂r r ∂θ r ∂θ
The grid and control volume in r − θ coordinates are shown in figure A.1. In z-
direction the thickness of the control volume is assumed to be unity. The discretized
equation is obtained by multiplying equation A.1 by r and by integrating it with
respect to r and θ and over the time interval from t to ∆t in the control volume. This
way we get a volume integral, where rdrdθ represents the volume of the element
with unit thickness. The discretization equation can be written as
aP TP = aE TE + aW TW + aN TN + aS TS + b (A.2)
Where
ke ∆r
aE =
re (δθ)e
kw ∆r
aW =
rw (δθ)w
97
Appendix A 98
kn rn ∆θ
aN =
(δr)n
ks rs ∆θ
aS =
(δr)s
ρCP ∆V
aoP =
∆t
b = Sc ∆V + aoP TPo
aP = aE + aW + aN + aS + aoP − Sp ∆V
Here ∆V is the volume of the control volume. ∆V not necessarily be equal to

rP ∆θ∆r, unless P lies midway between ’n’ and ’s’.
Figure A.1: Control volume in polar coordinates
A.2 Correlation for property data
Temperature dependent variation is considered for the property data for the species
namely B4 C, B2 O3 , C and CO. For each species the correlation was developed
from the literature available [12].
Appendix A 99
A.2.1 Enthalpy correlations
Here HB2 O3 , HC , HBC and HCO represents the enthalpy of boric acid, car-
bon/graphite, boron carbide and carbon mono-oxide respectively.
For 298 ≤ T ≤ 723

5

−3 2 1.31 × 10
HB2 O3 = −4170 + 8.73T + 12.70 × 10 T + −305400 ×4.184 × 1000
T
For 3000 > T > 723
HB2 O3 = {(−7590 + 30.50T) −305400} ×4.184 × 1000.0
For 3000 > T ≥ 298

5

−3 2 2.10 × 10
HC = −1972 + 4.10T + 0.51 × 10 ×T + ×4.184 × 1000
T
For 3000 > T ≥ 298

5

−3 2 10.72 × 10
HBC = −10690 + 22.99T + 2.70 × 10 T + −13800 ×4.184 × 1000
T
For 3000 > T ≥ 298

5

−3 2 0.11x10
HCO = −2100.0 + 6.79T + 0.49x10 T + −26416.0 ×4.184 × 1000
T
A.2.2 Thermal conductivity correlations
Here KB2 O3 , KC and KBC represents the thermal conductivity of boric acid,
carbon/graphite and boron carbide respectively.
Appendix A 100
For 298 < T < 700 KB2 O3 = 1.07

For 700 ≤ T < 1250
KB2 O3 = 14.10751 − 0.04231T + 4.33252 × 10−5 T2 −1.34861 × 10−8 T3
For T ≥ 1250 KB2 O3 = 2.65
For 298 ≤ T < 1000

KC = 4.12045 × 10−4 +7.96255 × 10−5 T − 8.26172 × 10−8 T2 +3.31235 × 10−11 T3 ×100
For 1000 ≤ T < 1300 KC = 0.027 × 100

For 1300 ≤ T < 1480

KC = −4.51076 + 0.00975T − 6.99371 × 10−6 T2 +1.67613 × 10−9 T3 ×100
For 1480 ≤ T < 1700
KC = −89.81462 + 0.17062T − 1.07898 × 10−4 T2 +2.27232 × 10−8 T3 ×100
For 1700 ≤ T < 2400

KC = 40.6564 − 0.08689T + 6.96269x10−5 T2 −2.47679x10−8 T3 +3.30059x10−12 T4 ×100
For 298 < T < 3250
KBC = 0.09061 − 7.78777 × 10−5 T − 1.01299 × 10−8 T2 +6.94771 × 10−11 T3 ×4.184 × 102

+ −4.575927 × 10−14 T4 +1.24536 × 10−17 T5 −1.25502 × 10−21 T6 ×4.184 × 102
For thermal conductivity of gas the correlation used is

−0.00815 + 0.00101T − 5.319 × 10−7 T2 +1.73778 × 10−10 T3
KTG =
10
Appendix A 101
A.2.3 Specific heat correlations
Here CPC , CPB2 O3 and CPBC represents the specific heat of carbon/graphite,
boric acid and boron carbide respectively. For 298 < T < 3000

CPC = 0.04245 + 6.60261 × 10−4 T − 3.57548 × 10−7 T2 +7.07561 × 10−11 T3 ×4184 × 12
For 298 ≤ T ≤ 723

CPB2 O3 = −0.1518 + 0.00181T − 2.42373 × 10−6 T2 +1.27257 × 10−9 T3 ×4184 × 68
For 723 < T < 1000

CPB2 O3 = 0.18398 + 2.53222x10−4 T ×4184×68
For 1000 ≤ T < 3000
CPB2 O3 = 0.4372 × 4184.0 × 68
For 298 ≤ T ≤ 2300

CPBC = 0.12376 + 3.67825x10−4 T − 5.41582x10−8 T2 −4.82847x10−12 T3 ×4184 × 52
For 2300 < T < 3000 CPBC = 136000.0
A.2.4 Porosity correlation
Porosity of the reactive mixture is represented by ε. Experiments were con-

ducted to correlate the porosity variations with temperature.
For 298 < T ≤ 725

ε= 0.51088 − 3.04455 × 10−4 T + 7.25663 × 10−8 T2
For 725 < T ≤ 1834
ε= 0.23895 + 1.20336 × 10−4 T

Appendix A 102
For 1834 < T ≤ 1960
ε= −1.58536 + 0.00112T
For T > 1960 ε = 0.59

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2-D Mathematical Modeling of Boron Carbide Manufacturing Process

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Development and validation of

two-dimensional mathematical model of

Department of Materials Engineering

Experiments were conducted on a previously developed experimental setup consisting of

I am thankful to the Chairman in the Department of Metallurgy for allowing me to

Finally, my family deserves my warmest appreciation. I am thankful to god for be-

1.1 Research background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.2 Crystal structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

1.3 Physical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

1.4 Chemical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

1.5 Typical usages and applications of boron carbide . . . . . . . . . . 5

1.6 Boron carbide manufacturing routes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.6.1 Direct from elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

1.6.2 Magnesiothermic route . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.6.3 Gaseous route . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

1.6.4 Carbothermal reduction route . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

1.7 Current understanding of the process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

1.8 Modeling of boron carbide manufacturing process . . . . . . . . . . 14

1.10 Outline of present work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

2 Thermodynamics and reaction kinetics 18

2.1 Thermo-chemistry of B-O-C system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2.2 Phase diagram for boron-carbon system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

2.3 Reaction kinetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

2.3.1 Rate of reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

3.2 Process description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

3.3 Mathematical formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3.4 Governing equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3.4.1 Overall 2-D heat balance equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3.4.2 Boundary conditions for overall 2-D heat balance equation . 33

3.4.3 Overall 2-D mass balance equation for CO . . . . . . . . . 35

3.4.4 Boundary conditions for overall 2-D mass balance . . . . . 35

3.5 Determination of properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

3.5.2 Determination of Dco-air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.5.3 Determination of effective properties . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

3.5.4 Determination of the rate of heat consumption (∆H r ) . . . 39

3.6.1 Overall 2-D heat balance equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

3.6.2 Overall 2-D mass balance equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.7 1-D model equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

3.8 Computational technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

3.8.1 Discretization and solution methodology . . . . . . . . . . 44

3.8.2 Solution methodology for 2-D model . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

4 Physical modeling and process description 48

4.1 Experimental setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

4.1.1 Resistance heating furnace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

4.1.2 Power supply unit with control panel . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

4.1.3 Thermocouples and pyrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

4.1.4 Data recording device . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

4.1.5 Safety accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

4.2 Experimental procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

4.2.1 Chemical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

5 Results and discussion 61

5.1 Results obtained from 1-D model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

5.1.1 Comparison between fully explicit and implicit scheme . . . 63

5.1.2 Grid independency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

5.1.3 Time independency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

5.1.4 Validation of 1-D model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

5.2 Results obtained from 2-D model and its validation . . . . . . . . . 75

5.2.1 Comparative study of 1-D and 2-D models with experimen-

5.3 Yield analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

5.4 Sensitivity analysis / optimization of the process . . . . . . . . . . . 83

5.4.1 Effect of input power supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

5.4.2 Effect of mode of heating cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

5.4.3 Effect of varying charge composition . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

5.5 Comparison of experimental results with sensitivity analysis . . . . 92