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http://envfor.nic.in/divisions/iass/Constr uction_Manual.pd
2. Construction
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

For other uses, see Construction (disambiguation).

In large construction projects, such as this skyscraper in Melbourne, cranes are essential.

In the fields of architecture and civil engineering, construction is a process that consists of the building or assembling of infrastructure. Far from being a single activity, large scale construction is a feat of human multitasking. Normally, the job is managed by a project manager, and supervised by a construction manager, design engineer, construction engineeror project architect.

For the successful execution of a project, effective planning is essential. Involved with the design and execution of the infrastructure in question must consider the environmental impact of the job, the successful scheduling, budgeting, construction site safety, availability of building materials, logistics, inconvenience to the public caused by construction delaysand bidding, etc.
Contents
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1 Types of construction projects 1.1 Building construction 2 Construction processes 2.1 Design team 2.2 Financial advisors 2.3 Legal aspects 2.4 Interaction of expertise 2.5 Procurement 2.5.1 Traditional 2.5.2 Design and build 2.5.3 Management procurement systems 3 Authority having jurisdiction 4 Industry characteristics 4.1 Careers 5 Safety 6 History 7 List of countries by the largest output in construction 8 See also 9 References

10 impact of construction on env

Types of construction projects[edit source | editbeta]

Condo construction in Canada

In general, there are four types of construction:[citation needed] 1. Residential Building construction 2. Industrial construction 3. Commercial Building construction 4. Heavy Civil construction Each type of construction project requires a unique team to plan, design, construct and maintain the project.

Building construction[edit source | editbeta]

Building construction is the process of adding structure to real property. The vast majority of building construction jobs are small renovations, such as addition of a room, or renovation of a bathroom. Often, the owner of the property acts as laborer, paymaster, and design team for the entire project. However, all building construction projects include some elements in common design, financial, estimating and legal considerations. Many projects of varying sizes reach undesirable end results, such as structural collapse, cost overruns, and/or litigation reason, those with experience in the field make detailed plans and maintain careful oversight during the project to ensure a positive outcome.

Commercial building construction is procured privately or publicly utilizing various delivery methodologies, including cost estimating, hard bid, negotiated price, traditional, management contracting, construction management-at-risk, design & build and design-build bridging. Residential construction practices, technologies, and resources must conform to local building authority regulations and codes of practice. Materials readily available in the area generally dictate the construction materials used (e.g. brick versus stone, versus timber). Cost of construction on a per square meter (or per square foot) basis for houses can vary dramatically based on site conditions, local regulations, economies of scale (custom designed homes are always more expensive to build) and the availability of skilled tradespeople. As residential construction (as well as all other types of construction) can generate a lot of waste, careful planning again is needed here. The most popular method of residential construction in the United States is wood framed construction. As efficiency codes have come into effect in recent years, new construction technologies and methods have emerged. University Construction Management departments are on the cutting edge of the newest methods of construction intended to improve efficiency, performance and reduceconstruction waste. New techniques of building construction are being researched, made possible by advances in 3D printing technology. In a form ofadditive building construction, similar to the additive manufacturing techniques for manufactured parts, building printing is making it possible to flexibly construct small commercial buildings and private habitations in around 20 hours, with built-in plumbing and electrical facilities, in one continuous build, using large 3D printers. [1] Working versions of 3Dprinting building technology are already printing 2 metres (6 ft 7 in) of building material per hour as of January 2013, with the next-generation printers capable of 3.5 metres (11 ft) per hour, sufficient to complete a building in a week.[2] Dutch architect Janjaap Ruijssenaars's performative architecture 3Dprinted building is scheduled to be built in 2014.[3]

Construction processes[edit source | editbeta]

Design team[edit source | editbeta]

Shasta Dam under construction in June 1942

In the modern industrialized world, construction usually involves the translation of designs into reality. A formal design team may be assembled to plan the physical proceedings, and to integrate those proceedings with the other parts. The design usually consists of drawingsand specifications, usually prepared by a design team including surveyors, civil engineers, cost engineers (or quantity surveyors), mechanical engineers, electrical engineers, structural engineers, fire protection engineers, planning consultants, architectural consultants, and archaeological consultants. The design team is most commonly employed by (i.e. in contract with) the property owner. Under this system, once the design is completed by the design team, a number of construction companies or construction management companies may then be asked to make a bid for the work, either based directly on the design, or on the basis of drawings and a bill of quantities provided by a quantity surveyor. Following evaluation of bids, the owner will typically award a contract to the most cost efficient bidder. The modern trend in design is toward integration of previously separated specialties, especially among large firms. In the past, architects, interior designers, engineers, developers, construction managers, and general contractors were more likely to be entirely separate companies, even in the larger firms. Presently, a firm that is nominally an "architecture" or "construction management" firm may have experts from all related fields as employees, or to have an associated company that provides each necessary skill. Thus, each such firm may offer itself as "one-stop shopping" for a construction project, from beginning to end. This is designated as a "design Build" contract where the contractor is given a performance specification and must undertake the project from design to construction, while adhering to the performance specifications. Several project structures can assist the owner in this integration, including design-build, partnering and construction management. In general, each of these project structures allows the owner to integrate the services of architects, interior designers, engineers and constructors throughout design and construction. In response, many companies are growing beyond traditional offerings of design or construction services alone and are placing more emphasis on establishing relationships with other necessary participants through the design-build process. The increasing complexity of construction projects creates the need for design professionals trained in all phases of the project's life-cycle and develop an appreciation of the building as an advanced technological system requiring close integration of many sub-systems and their individual components, including sustainability. Building engineering is an emerging discipline that attempts to meet this new challenge.

Financial advisors[edit source | editbeta]

Trump International Hotel and Tower (Chicago)

May 23, 2006

September 14, 2007 (3 months before completion)

Interaction of expertise[edit source | editbeta]

Apartment complex under construction inDaegu, South Korea

Design and build[edit source | editbeta]

Main article: Design-build

Construction of the Phase-1 (first two towers) of the Havelock City Project, Sri Lanka.

This approach has become more common in recent years and involves the client contracting a single entity to both provide a design and to build that design. In some cases, the Design and Build (D & B) package can also include finding the site, arranging funding and applying for all necessary statutory consents. The owner produces a list of requirements for a project, giving an overall view of the project's goals. Several D&B contractors present different ideas about how to accomplish these goals. The owner selects the ideas he or she likes best and hires the appropriate contractor. Often, it is not just one contractor, but a consortium of several contractors working together. Once a contractor (or a consortium/consortia) has been hired, they begin building the first phase of the project. As they build phase 1, they design phase 2. This is in contrast to a design-bid-build contract, where the project is completely designed by the owner, then bid on, then completed. Kent Hansen pointed out that state departments of transportation (DOTs) usually use design build contracts as a way of getting projects done when states don't have the resources. In DOTs, design build contracts are usually used for very large projects. [5]

Authority having jurisdiction[edit source | editbeta]

See also: Planning permission

Construction on the Federal Reserve building in Kansas City, Missouri

Construction of the Rivers Towers building in Ccuta, Colombia.

In construction, the authority having jurisdiction(AHJ) is the governmental agency or sub-agency which regulates the construction process. In most cases, this is the municipality in which the building is located. However, construction performed for supra-municipal authorities are usually regulated directly by the owning authority, which becomes the AHJ. Before the foundation can be dug, contractors are typically required to verify and have existing utility lines marked, either by the utilities themselves or through a company specializing in such services. This lessens the likelihood of damage to the existing electrical, water, sewage, phone, and cable facilities, which could cause outages and potentially hazardous situations. During the construction of a building, the municipal building inspector inspects the building periodically to ensure that the construction adheres to the approved plans and the local building code. Once construction is complete and a final inspection has been passed, an occupancy permit may be issued. An operating building must remain in compliance with the fire code. The fire code is enforced by the local fire department. Changes made to a building that affect safety, including its use, expansion, structural integrity, and fire protection items, usually require approval of the AHJ for review concerning the building code.

History[edit source | editbeta]

A picture of a building under construction in India

Main article: History of construction See also: History of architecture The first huts and shelters were constructed by hand or with simple tools. As cities grew during the Bronze Age, a class of professional craftsmen, like bricklayers and carpenters, appeared. Occasionally, slaves were used for construction work. In the Middle Ages, these were organized into guilds. In the 19th century, steam-powered machinery appeared, and later diesel- and electric powered vehicles such as cranes, excavators andbulldozers. Architecture and construction involves creating awesome structures that can show the beauty and creativity of the human intellect. Fast-track construction has become more popular in the 21st century, with some estimates suggesting that 40% of projects.[18]

1.3 Major Types of Construction http://pmbook.ce.cmu.edu/01_the_owners'_perspective. html

Since most owners are generally interested in acquiring only a specific type of constructed facility, they should be aware of the common industrial practices for the type of construction pertinent to them. Likewise, the construction industry is a conglomeration of quite diverse segments and products. Some owners may procure a constructed facility only once in a long while and tend to look for short term advantages. However, many owners require periodic acquisition of new facilities and/or rehabilitation of existing facilities. It is to their advantage to keep the construction industry healthy and productive. Collectively, the owners have more power to influence the construction industry than they realize because, by their individual actions, they can provide incentives or disincentives for innovation, efficiency and quality in construction. It is to the interest of all parties that the owners take an active

interest in the construction and exercise beneficial influence on the performance of the industry. In planning for various types of construction, the methods of procuring professional services, awarding construction contracts, and financing the constructed facility can be quite different. For the purpose of discussion, the broad spectrum of constructed facilities may be classified into four major categories, each with its own characteristics. Residential Housing Construction Residential housing construction includes single-family houses, multi-family dwellings, and high-rise apartments. During the development and construction of such projects, the developers or sponsors who are familiar with the construction industry usually serve as surrogate owners and take charge, making necessary contractual agreements for design and construction, and arranging the financing and sale of the completed structures. Residential housing designs are usually performed by architects and engineers, and the construction executed by builders who hire subcontractors for the structural, mechanical, electrical and other specialty work. An exception to this pattern is for single-family houses which may be designed by the builders as well. The residential housing market is heavily affected by general economic conditions, tax laws, and the monetary and fiscal policies of the government. Often, a slight increase in total demand will cause a substantial investment in construction, since many housing projects can be started at different locations by different individuals and developers at the same time. Because of the relative ease of entry, at least at the lower end of the market, many new builders are attracted to the residential housing construction. Hence, this market is highly competitive, with potentially high risks as well as high rewards.

Figure 1-2: Residential Housing Construction (courtesy of Caterpillar, Inc.)

Institutional and Commercial Building Construction Institutional and commercial building construction encompasses a great variety of project types and sizes, such as schools and universities, medical clinics and hospitals, recreational facilities and sports stadiums, retail chain stores and large shopping centers, warehouses and light manufacturing plants, and skyscrapers for offices and hotels. The owners of such buildings may or may not be familiar with construction industry practices, but they usually are able to select competent professional consultants and arrange the financing of the constructed facilities themselves. Specialty architects and engineers are often engaged for designing a specific type of building, while the builders or general contractors undertaking such projects may also be specialized in only that type of building. Because of the higher costs and greater sophistication of institutional and commercial buildings in comparison with residential housing, this market segment is shared by fewer competitors. Since the construction of some of these buildings is a long process which once started will take some time to proceed until completion, the demand is less sensitive to general economic conditions than that for speculative housing. Consequently, the owners may confront an oligopoly of general contractors who compete in the same market. In an oligopoly situation, only a limited number of competitors exist, and a firm's price for services may be based in part on its competitive strategies in the local market.

Figure 1-3: Construction of the PPG Building in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (courtesy of PPG Industries, Inc.) Specialized Industrial Construction Specialized industrial construction usually involves very large scale projects with a high degree of technological complexity, such as oil refineries, steel mills, chemical processing plants and coal-fired or nuclear power plants. The owners usually are deeply involved in the development of a project, and prefer to work with designers-builders such that the total time for the completion of the project can be shortened. They also want to pick a team of designers and builders with whom the owner has developed good working relations over the years. Although the initiation of such projects is also affected by the state of the economy, long range demand forecasting is the most important factor since such projects are capital intensive and require considerable amount of planning and construction time. Governmental regulation such as the rulings of the Environmental Protection Agency and the Nuclear Regulatory Commission in the United States can also profoundly influence decisions on these projects.

Figure 1-4: Construction of a Benzene Plant in Lima, Ohio (courtesy of Manitowoc Company, Inc.)

Infrastructure and Heavy Construction Infrastructure and heavy construction includes projects such as highways, mass transit systems, tunnels, bridges, pipelines, drainage systems and sewage treatment plants. Most of these projects are publicly owned and therefore financed either through bonds or taxes. This category of construction is characterized by a high degree of mechanization, which has gradually replaced some labor intensive operations. The engineers and builders engaged in infrastructure construction are usually highly specialized since each segment of the market requires different types of skills. However, demands for different segments of infrastructure and heavy construction may shift with saturation in some segments. For example, as the available highway construction projects are declining, some heavy construction contractors quickly move their work force and equipment into the field of mining where jobs are available.

Figure 1-5: Construction of the Dame Point Bridge in Jacksonville, Florida (courtesy of Mary Lou Maher)

List of countries by the largest output in construction[edit

source | editbeta]

Economy (01) United States (02) China (03) Japan (04) France (05) Germany (06) India (07) United Kingdom (08) Spain (09) Brazil (10) Italy (11) Canada (12) Australia (13) Russia (14) Indonesia (15) Mexico (16) South Korea (17) Netherlands (18) Poland (19) United Arab Emirates (20) Switzerland (21) Turkey (22) Iran (23) Venezuela (24) Sweden (25) Belgium
The twenty-five largest countries in the world by construction output (2011)[19]

List of countries with the greatest construction output in Construction outpu 611 496 330 153 147 144 143 137 122 120 119 110 103 86 75 59 40 36 36 35 34 29 28 26 26

Impact of construction on env

www.greenbuildingsolutions.org/... Construction/Environmental-Issues-in...
Construction of buildings and infrastructure affects the environment in mainly two ways by consuming resources and by creating pollutants and wastes. According to a report by the Willmott Dixon Group, the construction industry accounts for around 45-50 percent of global energy usage, nearly 50 percent of worldwide water usage, and around 60 percent of the total usage of raw materials. On the other hand, the industry contributes to 23 percent of air pollution, 50 percent of climate change gases, 40 percent of drinking water pollution, and another 50 percent of landfill wastes. It is important then that construction companies should focus more on minimizing waste production, maximizing the use of recycling, and creating sustainable buildings.

Factors Impacting the Environment

Here are two major facts to know about the impact of the construction industry on the environment: 1. Global warming According to the IPCC Synthesis Report 2012, average surface temperature of the world increased by 0.6 C during the last hundred years. A majority of climate scientists believe that the increase in global surface temperature has been mainly caused by an increase in the concentration of certain trace greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxide. The construction industry can be held accountable for this to a large extent. Pollution The construction industry produces pollutants in many forms and during different phases of construction. Some wastes and pollutants the construction industry produces include toxic elements, and carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, insulin, toxic elements, electric wiring, rubble, dredging materials, and asbestos. According to the 2008 statistics from the US Department of Energy, Americas domestic and commercial buildings contribute to around 38.9 percent of the countrys total carbon dioxide emissions, including 18 percent from commercial buildings and 20.8 percent from residential buildings. One way to reduce these wastes is by establishing a proper system for recycling and reuse. Turing to sustainable construction would be another effective way to save energy and resources.

2.

How does the construction industry effect on environment?

The construction process and building use not only consume the most energy of all sectors in the UK and create the most CO2 emissions, they also create the most waste, use most non-energy related resources, and are responsible for the most pollution. Climate Change Building use in the UK contributes about 50% of the UK's CO2 emissions and construction contributes about another 7%. The AECB have shown that the Government figures on energy performance of houses grossly underestimate the CO2 gains that could be made by building energy efficient buildings. The main base performance criteria for energy efficient buildings all concern the thermal performance of the building shell where most of the CO2 gains can be most easily made. The fact is that if we are serious about climate change then we need to stop playing games with technologies which do not deliver real CO2 savings. The real challenge in this area is the refurbishment of existing buildings. However it would help for a start, if we also produced really energy efficient new buildings. Waste According to DEFRA the waste going to landfill from the construction industry in 2004 was about 100 million tonnes. This is more than 3 times the amount of domestic waste collection (28 million tonnes). It has gone up from about 70 million tonnes in 2000. In many situations this is equivalent to one house being buried in the ground for every 3 built. This is an important consideration when the

embodied energy products. There are increasing regulations about waste disposal from construction and many products, even common products like gypsum plasterboard and mineral wool insulation are now labelled as hazardous and require special disposal. In addition there are many projects to find new uses for waste construction materials (through Government bodies such as WRAP). However here, as with waste disposal, the less processed a material is, and the less hazardous, the easier re-use, recycling or healthy disposal (for example through composting) will be. Resource Use The construction industry is the major consumer of resources of all industries in the UK. It accounts for 90% of all non-fuel mineral use, and a large proportion of timber use. Many of the materials used in the UK now come from abroad, sometimes from countries where with less environmental control or labour justice. As BioRegional and the World Wide Fund for Nature have shown in their One Planet Living material , if everyone in the world consumed resources at the same rate as we do in the UK it would take the equivalent of 3 planets now to sustain this consumption. As a global community we exceeded sustainable levels of consumption in the mid 1980s, so both from the point of view of human survival and of justice and equity, it is not feasible or desirable to continue at current levels of consumption. It is not possible for the way of consumption in the UK to be spread throughout the globe, and as a matter of urgency we and other western nations need to radically reduce our consumption of resources. A distinction needs to be made between sustainable and non- sustainable resources. Sustainable can be divided into renewable resources (those which can be renewed - particularly those that are grown in short time cycles such as food and certain kinds of timber) and plentiful resources (such as clay, chalk, and sand). In addition materials which can be indefinitely re-used (or recycled easily) are to some extent sustainable. Non-sustainable resources are those of which there is a known limited supply, and which cannot be replaced or easily reused or recycled with minimal extra energy input. These non-sustainable resources therefore include many minerals, oil and some timber (which is very slow growing or where the extraction causes the extinction of the habitat and therefore of the resource) at our current levels and forms of use. In the UK the construction industry is the main consumer of non-renewable resources, as well as a huge consumer of renewable resources, and this means it must bear greatest responsibility for addressing this situation, and addressing it quickly. Habitat Destruction While the three greatest and most imminent threats to the survival of our civilisation are global warming, peak oil (the growing energy gap between supply and demand) and resource depletion, habitat destruction can have a more immediate and disastrous effect on certain localised areas and species. Sometimes these can also have a global impact (for example the impact of the deforestation of the Amazon rain forests). It is hard to keep track of the number of species made extinct every year, and of the further erosion of biodiverse and rare habitats. It is equally hard to relate this destruction to construction use in the UK. However the fact that the construction industry is such a huge consumer of materials, particularly of imported chemicals, minerals, metals and organic materials such as timber, inevitably means it has a huge impact and obviously has the greatest impact of any sector in the UK, on habitat erosion and destruction globally. Many essential materials are now in short supply. These include materials such

as copper, which is largely mined in South America where whole mountains have been taken down and landscapes altered in the search for ever more rare resources. They include materials like Titanium Ore which is used for the production of Titanium Dioxide, which is one of the main ingredients of paint among other things. This is often mined in rare habitats such as Madagascar with consequential and inevitable dangers to the ecology . Of course it is possible to mine and extract materials from habitats without destroying them. However there will always be consequences to this benign form of extraction in terms of cost, speed and quantity. It is therefore imperative that we radically reduce our demand on such materials in order to allow this process to happen benignly. At present the whole world is heading in the opposite direction, and we will lose huge areas of unique habitat forever in the coming years unless we change the way we consume such materials. This is particularly as regards how we build. It means using less of these materials by building more simply, with more local and plentiful (ie sustainable and renewable) materials and with less waste. Pollution Finally the environmental impact of construction is also felt in terms of pollution. This is not in the extraction but in the processing of materials for construction. And again, not surprisingly, the construction industry has the biggest effect of all sector because of the quantity of materials used in construction In the past there was a simple general equation between the amount of pollution and the amount of energy in a process. On the whole the more energy required, and the more processes, the more waste and the more pollution was generated. Processes such as the processing of plastics for PVC, PU and PI, the manufacture of Titanium Dioxide, the galvanising of metals were all very polluting. Much of this is now controlled by legislation and pollution of air, land and sea within the European Union and many Western Nations is now reducing. However we have also exported a lot of our pollution in the outsourcing of our manufacturing to non- western nations such as China, India, and areas of South East Asia and South America. Products may be assembled in the West, but most of the basic materials and components are often processed elsewhere. The loss of control of manufacturing processes therefore has a considerable environmental impact. As with habitat destruction, it is difficult to track this or control it. Assessments like BREEAM attempt to assess this effect but there is a huge lack of data and resource for doing it across all product lines. What we can do is reduce high energy material use, and use local and low energy materials as much as possible. Until there is proper global control of polluting processes or a clear legislation/ incentives in the UK along with proper assessment lifecycle assessment of all materials and manufacturers, we will have to stick to what we are sure of, and also what is inherently non-polluting.

Has green construction made an impact on the environment yet?

http://home.howstuffworks.com/home-improvement/construction/green/greenconstruction-impact-on-environment3.htm
Besides being noisy and dusty, construction projects also come with a hefty environmental footprint, and that's what green construction aims to fix. Green builders look at the entire construction process from material sourcing to the building's energy use, and try to construct the most environmentally friendly structures possible. The major factors that green builders look at are: energy and water efficiency, the impacts of the materials themselves, indoor air quality, and waste both on-site and in the completed structure. Many green builders also take the lives of the buildings' inhabitants into account, so convenient access to public transportation and green space can also be considered part of green building. The green building industry has been around since the turn of the last century, but it didn't begin to really take root until the late 70s after the rise of oil prices made people think twice about relying so heavily on fossil fuels [source: US Green Building Council]. As it becomes more hip to go green, many construction companies do the bare minimum to qualify. Green building proponents are calling foul, saying that what many builders are actually doing is adding "green" accessories (like a solar panel) to otherwise wasteful buildings [source: Bredenberg]. Buildings account for almost 70 percent of America's electricity use and 12 percent of our water use, and a major part of green building is reducing those numbers [source: EPA]. Instead of a conventional gas or electric hot water heater, a green builder might install a solar hot water heater which uses the sun's energy to heat the building's water. Green builders also beef up a building's insulation, so you won't have to run the heat or air conditioning as much to keep the temperature

comfortable inside. These types of upgrades reduce the building's environmental impact, and they benefit the inhabitants by reducing energy bills. Glen Meyers, editor of the Web site Green Building Elements, says this is why energy efficiency upgrades are the most common green building technique. But even the best-intended gestures have unintended consequences. A 2010 study found that the impact of installing thick, blown insulation actually outweighs the energy efficiency benefits because after a certain amount of thickness the environmental impact of producing, shipping, and installing the insulation outweighed the energy savings [source: Wilson]. Green builders also argue that you have to look at the building's overall footprint that there's no such thing as a green mansion, for example [source:Bredenberg]. So, how do green builders measure their impacts?

Measuring Green Construction's Impact

A common way to think about a building's impact is to look at it almost like a living thing. The "life" of the structure begins at construction, continues as people use it as living or work space, and its life ends when builders dispose of materials after demolition. You have to consider not just what materials you're using but where they come from, how they impact the environment as part of the building, and where they'll go when their "life" comes to an end. Energy efficiency is the most common green building focus, because the benefit is clear and immediate: lower utility bills. Green construction's overall environmental impact is tougher to measure, but there are some good case studies on energy and water usage in certified buildings that can give you an idea of the difference that green building can make. A 2011 survey of 21 commercial LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) buildings showed an average energy savings of 27 percent over more conventional structures. Interestingly, the number ofLEED points (given for green construction techniques by the Green Building Certification Institute which determines the certification level) didn't directly correlate to the amount of energy savings [source:Diamond]. That means that a LEED Silver building could be more energy-efficient than a LEED Gold structure, depending on what green building elements the designers focused on. The other major environmental impact is reducing the carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions in the construction process from processes like producing and shipping materials and running equipment on-site. A February 2009 EPA report looked at green building's potential to reduce these emissions. While the researchers admit that it's hard to measure the construction industry's overall CO2 emissions, the study estimated that through green construction techniques like onsite recycling and using alternative fuels for trucks, the construction industry could reduce their yearly CO2 emissions by almost 8 million metric tons [source:EPA]. To put that in perspective, the U.S. emitted 6,865.5 million metric tons of CO2 in 2010 [source:EPA]. It's pretty clear that green building techniques can reduce energy and C02 emissions, which benefit the environment, but what is green construction's true impact?

What is green construction's impact?

You could argue that green construction's biggest impact so far has been in raising consumer and industry awareness because the actual number of green buildings is still very small. In Europe, the total number of green buildings is less than 1 percent and is expected to quadruple to more than 2 percent by 2016, as EU countries try to conform to regulations and react to higher energy prices [source: Pike Research]. Back in the 80s, Germany began subsidizing more efficient buildings, and building codes have followed suit, as these structures proved the benefits of green building in terms of energy savings and techniques became more affordable [source: Brussels]. That's the big payoff that we're really seeing from current green building projects: each project shows that green construction is doable, that it makes a difference, and that builders and manufacturers can find ways to make green upgrades more cost-effective. In the U.S., green construction made up around 17 percent of the single-family residential construction market in 2011, up from just 2 percent in 2005 [source: Bredenberg]. But keep in mind when you look at that number is that it's 17 percent of current projects -- not all buildings -and the big market share increase is partially due to the decrease in home construction. Builders say that "higher quality" and "increases in energy costs" are the main reasons for increased green building activity in the U.S. The biggest obstacles are "higher perceived first cost" and "lack of consumer education," according to a McGraw-Hill Construction report.

Both in the U.S. and in Europe, we have a long way to go on the green construction front if we're going to stay ahead of dwindling resources and rising energy costs. Green construction is a growing field, but it's still only a small part of the construction industry [source: Watson]. Its biggest impact right now isn't so much on the environment as it is showing that we can make more efficient, healthier buildings as builders find ways to reduce the up-front costs for constructing more efficient buildings.

steps to be taken while doing construction to save environment

1. Protecting Trees from Construction Damage:
A Homeowner's Guide
Copyright 2013 Regents of the University of Minnesota. All rights reserved.
This is a revision of the original publication authored by Nancy L. Miller, David M. Rathke,and Gary R. Johnson, and is dedicated to the memory of David M. Rathke.

http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/housingandclothing/dk6135.html

Table of Contents
The Root of the Matter . . . Plan Ahead! Minimize the Impact of Construction Activities Treatment of Damaged Plants

Water Excavation of Back-Filled Trees Aeration Fertilizer Pruning and Wound Repair Oak Wilt Other Insect and Disease Problems

Site Clearing Soil Damage Grade Changes Excavation Pavement

Symptoms of Construction Damage

Tree Removal

Street Trees and Construction Damage Conclusion References

Are you

planning to build or remodel a home? Are your city's streets, curbs, sidewalks, and

buried utilities about to be widened, modernized, or replaced? Before you start, consider the impact of construction on plants. Trees and shrubs contribute to property values by enhancing appearance, reducing noise, cutting energy costs, screening unsightly views, and attracting songbirds and other wildlife. Unfortunately, plants meant to be part of a home's permanent landscape often are needlessly damaged or killed during construction. Careful planning and coordination with a tree-care specialist and your builder can reduce damage and save you the trouble and expense of treating or removing injured plants. This publication explains some things that landowners can do to minimize the impact of construction on trees. It describes landscape protection plans, special construction techniques, symptoms of damage, and treatment strategies. Although the information presented focuses on trees, it also can be applied to protecting shrubs.

Hiring a Tree Care Specialist

Each construction site has its own unique set of soil, tree species, and building process conditions. For this reason we recommend that you get advice from a professional urban forester or arborist with experience in protecting trees from construction damage. This person will be familiar with the growth characteristics and common problems faced by tree species in your area. He or she can help you evaluate plant health and the likely impacts of construction activities. For your own protection:

hire only professionals who are part of an established business listed in the phone book ask for references make sure the person you hire carries insurance for property damage, personal liability, and workers compensation.

Membership in the National Arborist Association, Minnesota Society of Arboriculture, or International Society of Arboriculture or certification from the International Society of Arboriculture are good indicators of reputable businesses. Check with your local Extension office, or contact the local chapter

of the International Society of Arboriculture (217-355-9411) for a directory of tree-care companies with certified arborists.

The Root of the Matter . . .

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Figure 1. One common method used to define a tree's protected root zone (PRZ) is to consider it to be the part of the roots that lie directly below its branches within an area known as the dripline.

Trees can be damaged or killed by a wide variety of construction activities. Some practices lead to obvious injuries such as broken branches or torn bark. Open wounds of this type deplete a plant's energy resources and provide entry points for insects, or for diseases such as oak wilt. The worst damage, however, often remains hidden underground. Roots are one of the most vital parts of a tree. They are responsible for nutrient and water uptake, store energy, and anchor the plant. Because they are so important, it is critical that you protect roots that lie in the path of construction. Trees are never the same shape below ground as they are above, so it is difficult to predict the length or location of their roots. Typically, however, approximately 90-95 percent of a tree's root system is in the top three feet of soil, and more than half is in the top one foot. The part of this root system in which construction damage should be avoided is called the Protected Root Zone (PRZ). One common method used to identify the PRZ is to define it as the "dripline"--the area directly below the branches of the tree (Figure 1). However, many roots extend beyond the longest branches a distance equal to two or more times the height of the tree. For this reason you should protect as much of the area beyond the dripline as possible. Unfortunately, on most sites space is limited and this rule must be bent. Just how close an activity can come without seriously threatening the survival of a tree depends on the species, the extent of damage, and the plant. s health.

Figure 2. Approximate a tree's Protected Root Zone by calculating the critical root radius (crr). First, measure the tree diameter in inches at breast height (DBH). Then multiply that number by 1.5 or 1.0. Express the result in feet. Example: dbh=8 inches 8 X 1.5 =12 crr=12 feet Measure diameter (width)=dbh dbhX 1.5=critical root radius for older, unhealthy, or sensitive species or dbh X 1.0=critical root radius for younger, healthy, or tolerant species

Some healthy trees can survive after losing 50 percent of their roots. However, other species are extremely sensitive to root cutting, even outside the dripline. Table 1 shows the relative sensitivity of various tree species to root disturbance. If possible, disturb no more than 25 percent of the roots within the dripline for any tree, protect intermediate species to the dripline, and allow extra space beyond the dripline for sensitive species. For all trees, avoid needless or excessive damage. A qualified tree-care specialist can help you determine how much root interference a particular tree can tolerate. When dealing with trees that have been growing in the forest or that naturally have a narrow growth habit, an approach called the "critical root radius" is more accurate than the dripline method for determining the PRZ. This is particularly true for columnar trees and for those where competition has reduced the canopy spread. To calculate critical root radius, begin by measuring the diameter at breast height (dbh). This is done by measuring the tree's trunk diameter (thickness) at a point 4.5 feet above the ground. The measurement should be done in inches. For each inch of dbh, allow for 1.5 feet of critical root radius for sensitive trees, or 1.0 feet for tolerant trees. For example, if a tree's dbh is 10 inches, then its critical root radius is 15 feet (10 x 1.5 = 15). The PRZ is an area around the tree with a diameter of 30 feet (2 x radius), and is the area in which a critical amount of the tree's roots may be found. Whenever possible, isolate this area from construction disturbance (see Figure 2).

Plan Ahead!
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Figure 3. Careful planning may avoid the creation of hazardous tree situations such as damaged trees located too close to the house or dangerous overhanging limbs.

You'll save time and money if you develop a landscape protection plan before construction begins. Careful planning will help you avoid the expense and heartache of later repairing or removing trees located too close to construction activities. These steps will help you create a successful landscape protection plan:

1.

1. Mark construction zone boundaries. Obtain a complete set of site development plans,
including the proposed location of buildings, drive-ways, sidewalks, and utility lines. Ask the builder or architect to mark areas where heavy equipment will be used, where soil will be permanently added or removed and to what depth, and where fill and building materials will be temporarily stockpiled. Use a measuring tape, stakes, and string to temporarily mark the boundaries of construction activities on the site.

1.

2. Inventory trees on the site. Record the location, size, and health of each tree. Wilted leaves,
broken or dead limbs, trunk rot, and thin tops are all symptoms of stress. Trees that are overmature, display poor form, lean heavily over future buildings, or have severe insect or disease problems (Figure 3) should be marked for removal prior to construction. Also mark trees that need prun-ing to make room for future structures and construction equipment.

Figure 4. You may be able to save some trees by siting the new construction away from the center of the lot.

2.

Select the trees to be saved. Examine the site carefully and note how each tree fits into the future landscape. Keep in mind that the builder may be able to shift the location of a building, utility line, or driveway. Although local ordinances differ, driveways and utility lines don't always have to be straight, and homes don't always have to be in the center of the lot (Figure 4). If considerable damage to the tree's root system within the PRZ is inevitable, you should seriously consider changing the original design, adding protection measures, or removing the tree before construction begins.

3.

Protect the trees you plan to save. Develop a map with the builder or architect showing the location of trees to be protected and the safest route for access to the building zone. Then install bright orange polypropylene fencing and post "Off Limits" signs at the PRZ of the trees you plan to save (Figure 5). Your primary objective is to protect delicate root systems, so provide your trees with as much space as possible. Make sure all construction workers know that nothing inside this area is to be raked, cut, stored, or otherwise disturbed. A landscape protection contract signed by the builder and all contractors will help ensure compliance. Take several photographs of the site before construction begins to document the protection methods used and the condition of individual trees.

4.

Prepare the trees for construction disturbance. You'll boost your trees' chance for survival if you make sure they're as healthy as possible before construction begins. Regularly water the trees if rainfall is not adequate. Fertilize them if soil tests or deficiency symptoms indicate they are nutrient stressed. (For soil test information, contact your county extension agent or call the University of Minnesota's Soil Testing Lab at 612-625-3101.) Prune branches that are dead, diseased, hazardous, or detrimental to the plant's natural form.

5.

Protect and preserve the soil for future tree planting. Apply a layer of wood chips at least six inches thick over areas that will be used for traffic or materials storage during construction. If these areas become part of the new landscape, the wood chips will prevent the soil from becoming too compacted.

Figure 5. Put up fences and signs around trees you want to save to alert construction workers to damage potential.

6.

Monitor the construction process. Visit the site periodically and inspect the trees. Irrigate the PRZ of the trees regularly-- never let trees become water-stressed. Your presence alerts workers of your concern for the careful treatment of the trees. Should damage occur, begin repairs as soon as possible. Immediately inform the builder of any violations in the landscape protection contract and photograph the damage. Insist that protective fences remain in place until all construction workers have left the site.

7.

Make a final inspection of the site. After construction has been completed, evaluate the condition of the remaining trees. Look for indications of damage or stress. It may take several years for severe problems to appear. Careful monitoring and preventive treatment (e.g., watering) may help minimize damage.

8.

Commit to long-term maintenance. Trees will not recover from construction damage in one or two years. Mulch as much of the PRZ as you can tolerate and plant understory shrubs and perennials within the mulched areas. Irrigate the PRZ regularly for several years--never let the trees become water-stressed. Have an arborist inspect the trees every year or two for several years to determine if pruning, fertilization, and/or pest/disease control tactics are necessary.

Tree selection tips . . .

Save the best and chip the rest. Use those wood chips to provide a blanket of protection over the root systems of trees that can be saved. It is expensive for the builder to work around trees, and it also is expensive to remove damaged trees after construction has been completed. Understand the characteristics of your trees or get the advice of someone who does. If you know about your trees you can help insure their survival and improve the future site appearance of the site. Select tree species that fit the spatial constraints of the site (Table 1), remembering that trees grow throughout their lives. Be sure to consider overhead powerlines. Young, small trees tend to survive disturbance better than old, large trees. Large trees almost never survive within five feet of a new building and should not be kept. Healthy young trees that fall in the construction zone may be saved by transplanting. Don't put all your eggs in one basket! Save a mixture of tree species to safeguard your landscape against contagious diseases or insects. Improve tree survival by saving groups of trees rather than individuals.

Minimize the Impact of Construction Activities

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In addition to protecting the PRZ, there are other ways in which you can reduce the impact of construction activities on your trees. Some of these are relatively simple; others can be extremely expensive. Carefully consider the importance of each tree to the future appearance of the site and consult a tree-care specialist before deciding whether protective measures are worth the cost.

Figure 6. A root system bridge will help protect trees in the path of construction vehicles.

Figure 7. If you change the grade within the root zone, use retaining walls to keep as much of the original grade as possible.a)backfilling; b) cutting.

Site Clearing
When you remove a large number of trees, you expose the remaining plants to new conditions. Sudden increases in amounts of sunlight and wind will shock many of your trees. It is not uncommon to find scorched leaves, broken branches, and uprooted trees after a site is cleared. Although some of these problems are temporary, they may compromise tree health when coupled with additional construction damage. You can avoid sun and wind stress by saving groups of trees rather than individuals. When possible, remove the unwanted plants in winter after the leaves have fallen. Dormant plants are less susceptible to damage, and frozen ground helps protect roots. Bulldozers should not be used to remove trees near plants to be preserved. Heavily wooded sites should be gradually thinned over two to three years to reduce removal shock on remaining plants. This is especially important in dense pine, spruce, or fir forests.

Soil Damage
Soil compaction is the single largest killer of urban trees. Tree roots need loose soil to grow, obtain oxygen, and absorb water and nutrients. Stockpiled building materials, heavy machinery, and excessive foot traffic all damage soil structure. Lacking good soil aeration, roots suffocate and tree health declines. Prevent soil compaction by carefully selecting storage areas and traffic routes (the future driveway is a good choice for both) and installing protective fences and signs. If you can. t reroute traffic, install root system bridges with steel plates suspended over railroad ties or spread several inches (six inches or more) of wood chips on the soil within the PRZ (Figure 6). Trees that are pruned or removed during the construction process should be chipped on site and the chips used for soil preservation tactics such as this. Heavy mixing trucks can be kept off tree roots by transporting concrete from the truck through conveyor pipes. Improper handling or disposal of materials used during construction also can harm roots. For example, wood products treated with pentachlorophenol and creosote can be deadly to tree roots; CCA-treated timber (greenish color) is a better alternative. Ask the builder about the materials to be used on the site and read product labels. Chemical spill damage can be prevented by filling gas tanks, cleaning paintbrushes and tools, and repairing mechanical equipment well outside tree PRZs. Insist that all building debris and chemical wastes be hauled away for proper disposal, and not burned or buried on the site. Finally, avoid changes in soil pH (acidity). Increases in pH are particularly dangerous to many species (Table 1). Alkaline clays or limestones should not be used for fill or paving, and concrete should be mixed on a thick plastic tarp or outside the site. Mixing trucks should never be rinsed out on the site.

Grade Changes

Figure 8. Protect roots from damage when laying utility lines by tunneling rather than trenching.

Figure 9. You can minimize damage to trees near foundations by using posts, pillars, or I-beams rather than foundation walls.

Moving large amounts of soil within the PRZ usually kills a tree. Except where absolutely necessary, avoid disruptions to the natural contour of the site or shift them well outside the PRZ. Soil additions compact the soil around a tree and often raise the water table. You may be able to protect compaction-tolerant trees (Table 1) from additions of six inches or less of soil by using a porous fill within the PRZ. Porous fill can be made by mixing one part loam, one part coarse sand, and one part shredded bark. Deeper fills require more expensive measures. A retaining wall beyond the PRZ may protect some trees (Figure 7a). These walls preserve much of the original root system and redirect excess water away from sensitive plants. Your tree-care specialist may suggest other, more elaborate measures for protecting trees that must be covered with soil close to the trunk. However, as a general rule, it is best to remove trees that would be buried by 24 inches or more of fill around the base. Cutting the soil away from a tree removes vital feeder roots, eliminates nutrient-rich topsoil, and often lowers the water table. Damage caused by shallow cuts (less than two inches) at least three feet away from the base of the tree may be minimal, but still can be a shock to a tree's vitality (health). If possible, avoid making the cut during hot, dry weather; water the tree (undisturbed portions) before, during, and after soil removal; and allow only hand digging inside the PRZ. A shallow layer of mulch (pine needles, wood chips, or coarsely chopped twigs and bark) and clean root cuts will help wound closure and regrowth. Deeper cuts within the root zone will require construction of a retaining wall no closer than the limit of the PRZ (Figure 7b).

Excavation
As much as 40 percent of a tree's root system could be cut during the installation of a nearby utility line. This reduces water and nutrient uptake, and may compromise the stability of the tree. If it is not possible to relocate the utility line outside the tree's PRZ, you can reduce root damage by as much as 25 percent by tunneling under the tree's root system (Figure 8). When digging a trench near a tree, begin tunneling when you encounter roots larger than one inch in diameter.

Figure 10. Paving materials such as brick or flagstone over sand will produce less disruption than poured concrete to the roots of a nearby tree.

Figure 11. A "mini-ramp" can be used to smooth the uneven surface caused by root damage to pavement.

Figure 12. A vertical underground barrier will help keep tree roots from damaging concrete as they grow.
For all digging operations, insist that exposed roots be cut cleanly to promote quick wound closure and regeneration. Vibratory plows, chain trenchers, and hand tools do a better job at this than bulldozers and backhoes. Minimize damage by avoiding excavation during hot, dry weather; keeping the plants well watered before and after digging; and covering exposed roots with soil, mulch, or damp burlap as soon as possible.

Pavement
Sidewalks and driveways located too close to a tree endanger its health and may threaten pavement stability. Factors such as frost heaving, poor drainage, and pavement flaws give roots an opportunity to expand, gain a foothold, and cause damage. Homeowners are faced with costly repair bills and potential liability for the hazardous situation that develops. These problems can be avoided if you consider the spatial needs of a tree and its root system when designing the layout of new sidewalks and driveways. Just how much space is required depends on a tree's sensitivity to root cutting and its future size (Table 1). It's best to locate sidewalks and driveways outside the anticipated PRZ. At a minimum, walkways should be at least three feet from the trunk of a tree; driveways may cover up to half the distance from the tree's PRZ to its trunk, as long as no excavation occurs. No tree should be boxed into an area less than eight feet by eight feet by three feet deep, with larger trees receiving at least 300 cubic feet of root/soil volume. You can minimize disruption by using alternatives to conventional paving materials. In some communities, brick or flagstone walkways on sand foundations can be substituted for concrete (Figure 10). These materials protect soil pH and allow water and oxygen penetration. Preserve natural contouring by spanning uneven areas with wooden walkways elevated on posts. Elevated decks are excellent alternatives to concrete porches. Where additional pavement strength is needed (e.g., driveways), concrete requires less excavation than asphalt. "Structural soils" may be used under pavement to allow for both adequate

pavement base strength and tree root penetration. . Structural soils. are composed of 80% stone chips, 20% clay-loam soil, and a polymer binding agent. Ask your builder about raised pavement techniques near valuable trees. There are several techniques for repairing pavement that has been damaged by protruding roots. For trees that are highly sensitive to root disturbance, consider creating a concrete or asphalt . mini-ramp. to smooth the uneven surface between two sidewalk sections (Figure 11). Local ordinances governing liability should be consulted prior to using this technique. Relocate walkways with broken concrete slabs a few feet farther from the tree. For trees that can tolerate root disturbance, a vertical underground barrier may redirect root expansion away from pavement (Figure 12). All tree species are capable of causing root damage to sidewalks, foundations, or pipes. Species notorious for damage-causing roots are noted in Table 1.

Symptoms of Construction Damage

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Conspicuous symptoms of construction damage may take years to symptom of construction damage. appear. Tree decline from soil compaction, for instance, may take three to seven years to appear as obvious symptoms of distress. Because of this delay, landowners often attribute tree losses to other causes. Carefully monitor affected plants and keep written records to help you recognize the less visible signs of tree stress. Remember, the most serious damage remains hidden in the root system.

Figure 13. Suckering is one

Figure 14. Annual growth is the distance between bud scale scars on twigs. The twigs of healthy trees usually grow two to six inches longer each year.

Figure 15. To determine whether the grade has been changed around trees on a newly built site, check for the presence of buttress flares at the base of the trunk.
Wilted or scorched leaves and drooping branches usually are the first signs of construction damage. In deciduous plants these symptoms may be followed by early fall coloring and premature leaf drop. Damaged conifers will drop excessive amounts of inner needles. In subsequent years you may notice yellowed or dwarfed leaves, sparse leaf cover, or dead branches. Other indicators might include flowering out of season, excessive water sprout formation on the trunk (Figure 13), abnormal winter dieback, or abnormally large amounts of seed. Flower and seed production and water sprout formation are defense mechanisms for ensuring species survival and commonly indicate that the plant is experiencing extreme stress. In addition to observing a tree's appearance, monitor its annual growth. A slightly damaged plant will grow more slowly and be less resistant to insects, diseases, and weather-related stress. Examine the annual shoot and branch growth (Figure 14). Healthy trees generally will grow at least two to six inches at the ends of the branches each year. Photographs and records of the tree prior to construction also can help identify growth problems. If you purchased your home following construction, you can identify deep fills around large trees by looking for buttress flares at the base of the trunk (Figure 15). Most common shade trees in Minnesota have buttress flares, and their absence usually indicates that the tree's base has been covered. It may be helpful to examine the condition of trees on other sites where your builder has worked. In many cases you would be wise to have a tree-care specialist look for early symptoms of tree stress. Dollars invested in consultations with professionals before damage becomes obvious may be repaid in considerable savings later on.

Treatment of Damaged Plants

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When a tree is injured by construction activities, energy and resources normally used for growth must be redirected toward the process of wound closure and regrowth. During this critical period plants are particularly vulnerable to additional stress, especially insects, diseases, and severe weather. You can minimize these problems by quickly treating the damage.

Water
Construction activities often alter the amounts of water received by trees. Thoroughly water plants before and immediately after they receive any kind of direct damage (e.g., severed roots). Continue periodic watering (at least four to five times per summer) throughout the next several growing seasons. Be careful not to overwater your trees. Soaking the soil to a depth of 8-10 inches throughout the PRZ is a good rule-ofthumb. Two to four inches of mulch (wood chips or bark) spread over as much of the root system as practical will help the tree retain water and stimulate root regeneration. Living ground covers over the root system will have a similar effect, and may be more aesthetic. Apply these techniques to any deciduous tree exhibiting wilted leaves or any coniferous tree dropping excessive amounts of needles from the inner branches. Drainage systems and grade changes may cause some trees to receive too much water. Species differ in the amount of water they can tolerate (Table 1). Intolerant plants will exhibit twig and branch death. don't wait for these symptoms to appear. If you suspect your plant is receiving too much water, contact a tree-care specialist for an evaluation of the problem. Treatment differs by tree species and by the amount of time the water remains on or close to the surface. For some species, a retaining wall or culvert may be needed to redirect the flow of water.

Excavation of Back-Filled Trees

Figure 16. Before you remove fill that has been added around trees, take vertical samples to determine how deep you need to go.

Figure 17. A series of two-inch holes 12 to 18 inches deep will help alleviate root damage caused by compaction.
If you or your tree-care specialist has determined that excessive soil additions have been made around valuable trees, efforts should be made to restore the original grade, at least within the PRZ. Approach this grade restoration carefully. Determine how much fill has been added by sampling depths at several different points within the PRZ (Figure 16). If the depth is great (more than 12 inches), you may remove most of the backfill with mechanical equipment. Once you are within 10 to 12 inches of the original grade, complete the fill excavation carefully with shovels and rakes. Make certain no soil is piled up against the tree trunk, and aerify the soil within the PRZ to complete the operation. If the tree is already exhibiting advanced symptoms of decline, however, restoration to original grade will probably be fruitless. In this case, remove the tree and plant a new one.

Aeration and vertical mulching

Soil compaction around a tree's roots may cause leaf wilt, early fall coloring, top dieback, and slow growth. Reduce the effects of compaction by carefully drilling a series of two-inch-diameter holes in the soil to a depth of 12 to 18 inches. Begin three feet from the tree trunk and continue drilling at one- to three-foot intervals in concentric rings around the tree out to the PRZ (Figure 17). Each hole may be refilled with sand, peat moss, or mulch. For severely compacted soils, this procedure--called vertical mulching--should be repeated every two to three years until the tree has fully recovered. A tree-care specialist may recommend other alternatives, including soil injections of air or pressurized water, to improve soil aeration.

Fertilizer
Injured trees may need additional nutrients to replace damaged root systems. Fertilizers containing phosphorus and nitrogen can help stressed plants recover since these nutrients promote root and plant growth. Avoid excessive nitrogen; increased stem and foliage growth can cause stress, especially during hot, dry weather or if the tree has been stressed due to construction activities. Because of this problem, many experts recommend waiting two years after damage has occurred before fertilizing the trees. Specific guidelines for selecting and applying fertilizer are described in Tree Fertilization (Minnesota Extension Service publication FO-2421).

Pruning and Wound Repair

Careful pruning and wound repair are important treatments for damaged trees. Prune broken or dead branches cleanly at the branch collar (Figure 18). To test whether a branch is dead, bend several twigs.

Twigs on live branches tend to be pliable, while twigs on dead branches tend to break. Buds also can be used to evaluate branch condition. Live buds appear full and normal in color while dead ones appear

Figure 18. Pr une branches at the branch collar.

shriveled or dry. Pruning is commonly recommended for large trees that have suffered root damage. However, opinions differ over the merits of this practice. Assuming that the tree has adequate water and is not in severe decline, some experts believe that retaining maximum leaf cover is important for root regeneration and only dead limbs should be removed. Others argue that pruning selected live limbs is necessary to compensate for lost roots. Generally, it is best to follow the recommendation of your tree-care specialist experienced in construction damage to trees. When properly done in moderation by a skilled professional, pruning may reduce wind resistance and limb failure and improve tree health and appearance. DO NOT let anyone cut off all of the top branches to the same height (" topping"). The treatment of trunk wounds depends on the extent of damage. If 50 percent or more of the bark has been removed around the entire trunk, the tree will not likely survive and should be removed. If only a patch of bark has been removed leaving a few splinters, use a sharp knife to cleanly cut off the loose bark to a place on the stem where it is firmly attached. DO NOT make the wound any larger than necessary. You do not need to use pruning paint or dressing to cover exposed wounds or pruned limbs. Except for special cases involving disease control, these products do little more than improve appearance.

Oak Wilt
Oak wilt is a lethal fungal disease normally spread through root grafts between adjoining oak trees. The disease also may be spread overland by sap beetles of the Family Nitidulidae. In Minnesota, construction activities that injure roots, break branches, or otherwise open a wound on an oak between April 1 and July 1 provide the beetles easy access to transmit the fungus. (Some studies have found the occurrence of oak wilt to be four times more likely within 160 feet of a construction site.) Immediately (within minutes) cover all open wounds with any water-based paint or shellac during this period. If you suspect oak wilt, contact your city forester or private tree-care specialist. If you have oaks on your site, obtain a copy of Oak Wilt in Minnesota (Minnesota Extension Service publication MI-3174) for additional information on identifying the disease and protecting your trees.

Other Insect and Disease Problems

Insects are attracted by distinctive chemicals that are released by plants recovering from injuries. Examples of insect pests that can sense a tree under stress include the pine bark beetle, bronze birch borer, two-lined chestnut borer, sap beetle (transports oak wilt fungus), and some scale insects. These insects can kill a plant by their feeding or boring or by transmitting disease.

Likewise, some diseases multiply in plants experiencing stress. Verticillium wilt, ash yellows, and Armillaria mellea are examples of diseases that attack weakened trees. Continually monitor the health of your trees, especially those near construction activities, for insect and disease problems. Proper treatment, including corrective pruning, watering, and pesticide or fungicide applications, can restore tree health. Contact your county extension educator or local forester for additional information on specific tree pests.

Tree Removal
Even the best protection plans cannot guarantee plant survival. Death may occur shortly after construction or years later. Look for trees with very few leaves and many dead branches. If the tree does not leaf out the following year it is dead. Large trees that lean or exhibit rot, deep trunk cracks, or extensive top dieback are potentially hazardous (Figure 19). They should be evaluated by a tree-care specialist or be removed. Dead trees are excellent for wildlife, but dangerous to people and buildings. Large trees should be carefully removed by professionals so as not to damage the remaining plants. Tree loss can have a dramatic impact on site appearance. Prompt replacement will minimize your grief. Remember, the tree you plant is your own.

Figure 19. Trees with extensive dieback, disease, or damage may pose a threat to property and people. A tree-care specialist should evaluate and if necessary remove such trees.

Street Trees and Construction Damage

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Established street trees are subjected to damage from construction activities perhaps even more frequently than forest trees. The infrastructure of any community--streets, sidewalks, curbs, and buried utilities--is

continually updated, repaired, or expanded and trees growing in boulevards (tree lawns) or close to these public services are vulnerable to construction activities. The most common type of damage street trees suffer is root loss. This is particularly harmful because these trees already are growing in root-limited spaces, and are often less healthy than other landscape trees due to the environmental stresses of boulevards (small volumes of soil, often a poor quality of soil, accumulations of deicing salts, and characteristically drier conditions than other landscape sites). Trees growing in boulevards or near streets typically have an unbalanced and very restricted root distribution. Therefore, any root removal or damage during construction is often a more significant loss compared to trees growing in more open areas. Root loss not only affects the health of these trees but a more serious effect may be on their condition or stability. A boulevard tree that experiences significant root loss will have a different center of gravity as a result. This shift in balance often results in less stable trees-especially the large, mature ones - and leaves them more vulnerable to toppling (wind throwing) during severe weather.

Minimizing construction damage to street trees

Minimize root loss.
Most healthy trees can tolerate one-sided root cutting and recover from the loss with long-term after-care. Trees that have roots cut on two sides usually suffer much more damage and are less stable (see Figure 20). It is questionable whether to save trees that suffer root loss on three or more sides.

The number of cuts near street trees may be reduced by a variety of methods and compromises. If possible, avoid widening streets or sidewalks when they are replaced. If curbs are slated to be replaced, hand-form the curbs adjacent to tree roots, rather than excavating with machinery for mechanical forms. Excavation with machinery destroys major branch roots, even if the new curb remains in the same position as the old curb.

Figure 20. Root cuts on more than one side seriously affect the health and stability of even healthy trees.

Figure 21. Consider planting a "blooming boulevard" as an alternative to turf cover.

Consolidate utilities into common trenches whenever possible, and tunnel under tree root systems (see Figure 8). Often it is possible to run several utilities in a common trench, minimizing the number of trenches and root cuts. Do not regrade the surface of the boulevard. Although it is not trenching, it still cuts and removes roots, usually the fine roots that absorb most of the water and nutrients for the tree. If the new grade creates a mowing/maintenance problem, consider the installation of retaining walls at the curb line, or remove the turfgrass from the boulevard and replace it with mulch and landscape plantings.

Avoid Damage to the Soil.

Do not allow equipment, vehicles, or materials to be stored on the boulevard. Establish a separate staging and parking area on a paved area away from the tree lawn. If this is not possible, cushion the boulevard with at least six inches of wood chips applied as a mulch. Do not allow any foreign materials to be buried or deposited into the boulevard soil. Don't bury debris (such as concrete) or wash out equipment or tools in the boulevard soil area.

Maintain the Health of the Trees During Construction.

As long as the soil drains water adequately, water, water, water the trees. root systems. Adequate water before, during, and after construction is the most critical requirement for boulevard trees if they are to tolerate construction damage. Place soaker hoses over their root systems and soak them a minimum of one time per week during construction and immediately after, allowing two to three hours per soaking.

Continue Therapy and Care for Several Years After Construction.

Never let the trees become water stressed. Plan on having an arborist remove dead wood in the canopy within two to three years after the construction. Seriously consider removing the turf from the trees' root systems and replacing it with mulch and low-growing shrubs and herbaceous perennials. "Blooming boulevards" are becoming more common in communities across the nation and are often allowed in city ordinances (Figure 21). If your community's ordinances don't allow "blooming boulevards," try to have them changed.

Reconsider Replanting Narrow Boulevards.

Not all boulevards should have trees growing in them. Trees are most at risk for future construction/reconstruction damage when they are planted in boulevards less than 8-10 feet wide. In places where boulevards are very narrow, consider creating "green easements" that allow public trees to be planted in private lawns adjacent to the public property. They will enjoy a larger rooting area and a longer life.

Conclusion
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It's not always easy to save trees during construction, but your efforts are worth the trouble. Healthy, wellplaced trees can increase property values by 9 to 27 percent. Protecting tree health on a construction site is a matter of recognizing the potential impacts. Advance planning and simple steps to minimize damage often can prevent future problems. Many trees have a tremendous capacity to survive disturbance, but in an urban setting we continually test them. Take the time to protect and monitor the health of your investment. Your home and our communities will be healthier, more attractive places to live.

References
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Cervelli, Janice A. 1984 "Container Tree Plantings in the City" Journal of Arboriculture 10(3):83-86. Fazio, J. R., ed. 1988. Resolving Tree-Sidewalk Conflicts (No. 3). Tree City USA, National Arbor Day Foundation, 100 Arbor Avenue, Nebraska City, NE 68410. 8 p. Fazio, J. R., ed. 1989. How to Save Trees During Construction (No. 7). Tree City USA, National Arbor Day Foundation, 100 Arbor Avenue, Nebraska City, NE 68410. 8 p.

Forest Health Monitoring, 1998 Field Methods Guide. USDAFS, 1998. Number 649. National Forest Health Monitoring Program. Research Triangle Park, NC 27709. French, D. W., and J. Juzwik. 1999. Oak Wilt in Minnesota (MI-3174). University of Minnesota, Minnesota Extension Service, St. Paul, MN 55108. 6 p. Harris, R. W. 1992. Arboriculture: Integrated Management of Landscape Trees, Shrubs, and Vines. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ 07632. 674 p. Hauer, Richard J., Robert W. Miller, and Daniel M. Ouimet. 1994 "Street Tree Decline and Construction Damage"Journal of Arboriculture 20(2): 94-97. Hightshoe, G. L. 1988. Native Trees, Shrubs, and Vines for Urban and Rural America. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, NY 10003. 819 p. Maryland Department of Natural Resources. October 30, 1990. Natural Design in Development . . . Development Potential Through Forest Conservation. Maryland Department of Natural Resources, Annapolis, MD. Matheny, N. P., and J. R. Clark. 1991. Evaluation of Hazard Trees in Urban Areas. International Society of Arboriculture, Urbana, IL 61801. 72 p. Matheny, Nelda, and James R. Clark. 1998. Trees and Development--A Technical Guide to Preservation of Trees During Land Development. International Society of Arboriculture, Champaign, IL 61826-3129. 184 p. Miller, F. D., and D. Neely. 1993. "The Effect of Trenching on Growth and Plant Health of Selected Species of Shade Trees" Journal of Arboriculture 19(4):226-229. Minnesota Association of Soil and Water Conservation Districts Forestry Committee. 1986. Minnesota Tree Handbook. Adventure Publication, Staples, MN 56479. 408 p. Minnesota Society of Arboriculture. 1996. . "Minnesota Supplement to the Guide for Plant Appraisal." Minnesota Society of Arboriculture, c/o Tree Trust, 6300 Walker Street, St. Louis Park, MN 55416. 25 p. Moll, Gary A., ed. 1990. "Community Forests Get a Check Up." Urban Forest Forum 9(6):10-12. Perry, T. O. 1982. . "The Ecology of Tree Roots and the Practical Significance Thereof." Journal of Arboriculture8(8):197-211. Swanson, B. T., and C. Rosen. 1990. Tree Fertilization (FO-2421). University of Minnesota, Minnesota Extension Service, St. Paul, MN 55108. 4 p. Watson, Gary W., and Dan Neely, ed. 1995. Trees and Building Sites. International Society of Arboriculture, Champaign, IL 61826-3129. 191 p.

Contributors
Author
Gary R. Johnson, Associate Professor, Urban and Community Forestry, University of Minnesota Extension Service, Department of Forest Resources.

Technical Advisors

Melvin J. Baughman, Extension Specialist, Extension Specialist--Forest Resources and Professor, University of Minnesota, Department of Forest Resources. David W. French, Professor Emeritus, University of Minnesota, Department of Plant Pathology. Rich Hauer, Plant Health Specialist, Minnesota Department of Agriculture. Paul G. Walvatne, Senior Forestry Staff Specialist, Minnesota Department of Transportation, Environmental Service. Patrick Weicherding, Extension Horticulturist, Anoka County Extension Service. The authors also wish to acknowledge Scotty Scholten, Michael Zins, Charlie Blinn, and Carl Vogt of the University of Minnesota for reviewing the manuscript and providing valuable insights.

Production
Product Manager: Gail M. Tischler Editor: Mary Hoff Design & Illustration: Jim Kiehne

This publication was produced with the support of the USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Area, State and Private Forestry; the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, Division of Forestry, Urban and Community Forestry Program; the Minnesota Shade Tree Advisory Committee; and the Minnesota Extension Service.

Funding provided by University of Minnesota Extension Service [the Renewable Resources Extension (RREA) program of the University of Minnesota Extension Service and the U. S. Department of Agriculture-Cooperative States Research, Education and Extension Service (CSREES)].

The information given in this publication is for educational purposes only. Reference to commercial products or trade names is made with the understanding that no discrimination is intended and no endorsement by University of Minnesota Extension is implied. In accordance with the Americans with Disabilities Act, this material is available in alternative formats upon request. Please contact your University of Minnesota Extension office or the Extension Store at (800) 876-8636.

Eco-friendly construction catches on in India but has a long way to go

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Eco-friendly construction catches on in India but has a long way to go

New Delhi: Imagine working in an office that uses sunlight instead of artificial lights for illumination and that has in place central air conditioning instead of the split or window air conditioners. In an increasing revolt against over-urbanization, companies are opting for eco-friendly options. The concept of environment-friendly buildings, or green buildings as they are popularly known, is catching on in India. While the green building movement has been around globally since the 1970s, it has picked up momentum in India only in the last couple of years.

The ITC Centre in Gurgaon has got a platinum ranking from the US Green Building Council. The council rates buildings as silver, gold or platinum based on certain parameters such as water and energy ef

A green building essentially uses better design and construction material to minimize the consumption of power and water within the building. Such buildings are eco-friendly and energy-efficient. But in most case, the external appearance of green buildings does not differ very much from that of normal buildings. Green buildings are steadily increasing their footprint in India with an increase from 6,000 sq. m of green space in 2003 to 304,800 sq. m expected by the end of 2008, according to the Indian Green Building Council, which is promoting the green building movement in India. The first green building in India was the CII-Sohrabji Godrej Green Business Centre in Hyderabad. Kolkatas Technopolis lays claim to be the countrys first green building for information technology. A mix of green building projects is coming up in the country, which includes residential, commercial and hotel properties. As cities get hemmed in by concrete buildings and green spaces rapidly disappear, companies are looking at green buildings to do their bit for the environment. In turn, some of them can earn carbon credits for the clean buildings.

Corporates feel that they are fulfilling corporate social responsibility by opting to make their buildings eco-friendly, says Varun Pahwa, assistant vice-president of Desiccant Rotors International Pvt. Ltd, which supplies green building materials. Also, as green buildings use less power and water, the cost of running the building is less. There are other ways in which such buildings pay off. Technopolis, for example, makes money through trading carbon creditsabout Rs75 lakh a year. Technopolis is also the first green building in the world to be registered under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change as a clean development mechanism project. The clean development mechanism allows companies to obtain carbon credits for initiating projects that reduce carbon dioxide emissions while enhancing sustainable development in countries. The concept of carbon credit trading seeks to encourage countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions, as it rewards those countries which meet their targets and provides financial incentives to others to do so as quickly as possible. Surplus credits (collected by overshooting the emission reduction target) can be sold in the global market. One credit is equivalent to one tonne of carbon dioxide emission reduced. There are also other benefits to be had. For instance, real estate developers also find it advantageous to construct green buildings as they can then charge a higher rate for such buildings. Green buildings cost between 4% and 10% more than the normal buildings, says Pahwa. Spectral has designed energy and lighting systems for Wipro Technologies development centre and the ITC Centre, both in the New Delhi suburb of Gurgaon. However, the bulk of the commercial and residential buildings in India are still non-green. In fact, some of the sprawling suburbs of New Delhi and Mumbai have come in for sharp criticism for the hundreds of ordinary glass-fronted structures, which let in heat and consequently use up more energy in cooling the interiors. This, despite the fact that summer is the countrys dominant season. Still, according to Pahwa, there are around 100 green buildings in India in cities such as New Delhi, Chennai, Hyderabad and Kolkata. Green buildings can save as much as 30% on power consumption every year compared with normal buildings. We use a special glass which reflects sunlight better, said Prem C. Jain, chairman and managing director of Spectral Services Consultants Pvt. Ltd, a consulting firm that designs lights and heating for green buildings. We work with sunlight during the daytime, which results in a lot of saving on power. Spectral uses very little artificial lights in the buildings it designs. These buildings also use 40% less potable water and water is conserved through a zerodischarge system under which the entire effluent is treated in a sewage treatment plant and

this water is recycled for air conditioning and other purposes. Green buildings are also environment-friendly because they are built of materials that are good for the environment. We use aerated concrete blocks instead of bricks, Jain said. This provides good insulation. Such buildings are also getting fashionable as polluted cities bring in more respiratory diseases and germs that travel through stale air and air-conditioning ducts. However, not all green buildings are equal. They are scored by rating systems, such as the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design rating system developed by the US Green Building Council. The council rates buildings as silver, gold or platinum based on certain parameters such as water and energy efficiency. In India, Hyderabads Green Business Centre, Wipro Technologies office and the ITC Centre have been certified as platinum-rated green buildings by the US Green Building Council. The Green Business Centre was the first building to get a platinum rating in the country, and was in fact the third in the world to achieve this rating. However, there is still a scarcity of green building materials and equipmentand their suppliersin India. The Indian Green Building Council estimates the demand for green building materials and equipment will reach $4 billion (Rs15,720 crore) every year by 2010. Some environmentfriendly building materials such as fly-ash cement, recycled aluminium, steel and tiles are available in India, but for more specialized goods, imports are the answer.
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First Published: Fri, Nov 09 2007. 01 01 AM IST

Green building in India

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

A green building is one which uses less water, optimises energy efficiency, conserves natural resources, generates less waste and provides healthier spaces for occupants, as compared to a conventional building.
Contents
[hide]

1 LEED Certification 2 BEE Certification 3 Green Building Service Provider 4 Green houses 5 Traditional buildings

6 See also 7 References 8 External links

LEED Certification[edit source | editbeta]

IGBC has licensed the LEED Green Building Standard from the U.S. Green Building Council and currently is responsible for certifying LEED-New Construction and LEED-Core and Shell buildings in India. There are many energy efficient buildings in India, situated in a variety of climatic zones. One of these is RMZ Millenia Park, Chennai, India's largest LEED gold-rated Core & Shell green building.[1] Indian Green Building Council, formed by Confederation of Indian Industry (CII) in the year 2001, is continuously striving towards wider adoption of eco-friendly / green building concepts in the Indian Industry. IGBC promotes a whole-building approach to sustainability, based on the principles of 5 elements of nature [the Panchabutas viz. earth, water, fire(energy), air & sky] by recognizing performance in the following five key areas:

Sustainable site development Water savings Energy efficiency Materials selection Indoor environmental quality

Triggering off the Green building movement in India is the first Platinum Green Building in India; CII-Sohrabji Godrej Green Business Centre in Hyderabad as per the LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) Rating system. This landmark achievement put India on the global map of green building movement, through support of all stakeholders from the construction industry. With a modest beginning of 20,000 sq ft (1,900 m2). green built-up area in the country in the year 2003, as on date, 1,724 projects in India have registered under the IGBC Rating programmes, with a total footprint of over 1.2 billion sq. ft. These developments include various kinds of buildings like: Corporate offices, Hotels, Hospitals, Airports, IT Parks, SEZs, Townships, Gated Communities, Residential Buildings, Government Offices, Schools, Colleges etc. Today, India has 267 certified green buildings, which are fully functional and operational. IGBC has launched different rating programmes to suit variety of building types.

IGBC Green Homes Version 2: This rating system is designed for rating new residential buildings, such as Individual homes, Gated communities and High rise residential apartments, etc., IGBC Green Factory Building: This rating system is designed for new & existing factory buildings, such as manufacturing facilities, etc., IGBC Green SEZs: This rating system is designed for Special Economic Zones (SEZ). The rating meets the guidelines of Ministry of Commerce & Industry (MoCI). IGBC Green Townships : This rating system is designed for rating integrated township developments LEED 2011 for India-New Construction: This rating system is applicable for those buildings where the design and operation is fully in the scope and control of owner or the developer, such as, Corporate office, Institutional building, etc., LEED 2011 for India-Core & Shell: This rating system can be used for projects where the developer controls the design and construction of the entire core and shell base building including MEP/FP systems, but has no control over the design and construction of the tenant fit-out. Such type of developments include: Retail Malls, IT Parks, etc. The council, now in its 10th year of operation, has crossed significant milestones, as highlighted below:

Over 1 billion sq ft (built up space) of registered green buildings in India Over 1,300 strong IGBC member organizations Organizing Green Building Congress - Indias annual flagship event on green

building, since 2001.

BEE Certification[edit source | editbeta]

The Indian Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) had launched the Energy Conservation Building Code (ECBC). The code is set for energy efficiency standards for design and construction with any building of minimum conditioned area of 1000 Sq mts and a connected demand of power of 500 KW or 600 KVA. The energy performance index of the code is set from 90 kWh/sqm/year to 200 kWh/sqm/year where any buildings that fall under the index can be termed as "ECBC Compliant Building"[2] More over the BEE had launched a 5 star rating scheme for office buildings operated only in the day time in 3 climatic zones, composite, hot&dry, warm&humid on 25 February 2009. IGBC rated green buildings are also able to meet or exceed the ECBC compliance. The CII Sohrabji Godrej Green Business Centre is a BEE 5 star rated building. The Reserve Bank of India's buildings in Delhi, Bhubaneshwar in Orissa and in Kerala have been star rated.[3] In Tamil Nadu 11 buildings were star rated by BEE, in the year 2010, including RBI buildings. [4]

Green Building Service Provider[edit source | editbeta]

SGS India provides certification services to corporates, manufacturing companies, education institutions, hospitals, hotels and residential project owners. It has been associated with more than 100 green building projects. SGS has been associated with BEE & successfully completed more than 110 building projects for measuring its EPI for star rating.

Green houses[edit source | editbeta]

In Tamil Nadu, Government is planning to build solar powered green houses for rural poor. It has allotted Rs.1,080 Crore for construction of 60,000 houses. [5]

Traditional buildings[edit source | editbeta]

Traditional buildings were energy efficient. This was because architecture depended on the places. Buildings in the hot and dry regions, had corridors directing the wind to cool naturally. In wet regions, structures using natural light and breeze, were used. [6] Some examples are Hawa Mahal - Articulated windows provides cool breeze in a desert area [7] Golkonda - Ventilation is designed to let in fresh cool breeze, in spite of summer. [8]

The traditional building practices were utilized in constructing the Dhyanalinga. Mud mortar stabilized with lime, sand, alum and some herbal additives was used. [9][10]

See also[edit source | editbeta]

SGS Green Building & Energy Services Energy Conservation Building Code Laurie Baker Solar power in India Green Building in Bangladesh

References[edit source | editbeta]

1. 2. ^ IGBC Newsletter (September 2007). Green Habitat. ^ "BEE Star rating for buildings". Ministry of New & Renewable Energy, Indian Government. Retrieved 20 January 2012. 3. 4. ^ "RBI building gets four-star rating". The Hindu (NewDelhi, India). 26 February 2009. ^ "11 buildings in Tamilnadu get energy-efficient rating from central agency". Times of India (Chennai, India). 23 July 2010. 5. ^ "Construction of solar-powered green houses for the poor to begin soon". The Hindu (Madurai, India). 14 November 2011. 6. ^ "Redoing green buildings". Business Standard (New Delhi, India). 26 March 2010.

7.

^ T A Vijayasanan. "Ecological Building". University of

Indian green companies

Suzlon Energy The worlds fourth largest wind-turbine maker is among the greenest and best Indian companies in India. Tulsi Tanti, the visionary behind Suzlon, convinced the world that wind is the energy of the future and built his factory in Pondicherry to run entirely on wind power. Suzlons corporate building is the most energy-efficient building ever built in India.