FLOSS in Development Cooperation - Theory and Challenges

Free/Libre Open-Source-Software in
Development Cooperation
–
Theory and Challenges
Dissertation
Zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades
doctor rerum agriculturarum
(Dr. rer. agr.)
eingereicht an der
Landwirtschaftlich-Gärtnerischen Fakultät
der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin
von
Dipl. Phys. Martin Voß, MBA

geb. 24.3.1970, Preetz/Holst.
Präsident der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin

Prof. Dr. Christoph Markschies
Dekan der Landwirtschaftlich-Gärtnerischen Fakultät

Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. Otto Kaufmann
Gutachter
1. Herr Prof. Dr. Hans E. Jahnke
2. Herr Dr. Michael La Rosa Pérez
Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 20.12.2006

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FREE/LIBRE OPEN-SOURCE-SOFTWARE IN DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION – THEORY AND CHALLENGES
TABLE OF CONTENT
List of Figures .................................................................................... III
List of Tables...................................................................................... IV
Abstract ............................................................................................. VI
Zusammenfassung ............................................................................ VII
Acknowledgements...........................................................................VIII
Preface ............................................................................................... IX
1 Introduction............................................................................... 1
1.1 The Problem .............................................................................. 1
1.2 Objectives of the study............................................................... 3
1.3 Approach and Methodology ........................................................ 4
2 Free/Libre and Open-Source-Software ....................................... 7
2.1 History....................................................................................... 7
2.2 Open-Source-Software status..................................................... 9
2.2.1 Motivation for participation in FLOSS projects ......................... 11
2.2.2 Organization and communication ............................................ 12
2.2.3 The role of firms....................................................................... 13
2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages to users................................... 16
3 Information and communication technology as an instrument
in development cooperation...................................................... 19
3.1 Development policy objectives .................................................. 19
3.2 Development policy strategies .................................................. 21
3.3 The status of ICT in less developed countries ........................... 27
3.4 ICT for development ................................................................. 29
3.4.1 ICT and the MDGs ................................................................... 29
3.4.2 ICT for growth and empowerment ............................................ 31
3.5 Examples of ICT in development cooperation............................ 37
3.5.1 Radio based service.................................................................. 37
3.5.2 Mobile phone based project...................................................... 38
3.5.3 Individual computing ............................................................... 39
4 FLOSS within development cooperation ................................... 42
4.1 Special aspects of Open-Source-Software in development
cooperation.............................................................................. 42
4.1.1 ICT sustainability and autonomy ............................................. 44
4.1.2 Security ................................................................................... 46
4.1.3 Intellectual property rights....................................................... 47
4.2 The Status of FLOSS in development cooperation..................... 48
4.2.1 Country ICT policies options .................................................... 48
4.2.2 Examples of FLOSS ICT policies............................................... 53
4.2.3 Case studies of FLOSS in development cooperation .................. 54
4.2.4 Experiences and "Lessons Learned" ......................................... 56
5 Implications of FLOSS strategies for development cooperation.. 58
5.1 Creating an enabling environment for FLOSS........................... 58
5.1.1 FLOSS advocacy and education ............................................... 59
5.1.2 Market demand ....................................................................... 59
5.2 Readiness and awareness of actors in development
cooperation.............................................................................. 60
I
5.2.1 Readiness ................................................................................ 60

5.2.2 Awareness ............................................................................... 62
5.2.3 Examples of projects in development cooperation which are
not using and promoting FLOSS .............................................. 63
6 Awareness of actors of development cooperation for FLOSS...... 66
6.1 Survey Design.......................................................................... 66
6.1.1 Methodology ............................................................................ 66
6.1.2 Questionnaire Design............................................................... 67
6.2 Survey realization .................................................................... 71
6.3 Data analysis........................................................................... 73
6.3.1 Data overview .......................................................................... 73
6.3.2 Quantitative analysis ............................................................... 76
6.3.3 Qualitative analysis ................................................................. 88
7 Discussion............................................................................... 94
7.1 Literature ................................................................................ 94
7.1.1 FLOSS in general ..................................................................... 94
7.1.2 ICT application in development cooperation ............................. 96
7.1.3 FLOSS application in development cooperation ........................ 97
7.2 Survey Results....................................................................... 100
7.2.1 Quantitative results ............................................................... 101
7.2.2 Qualitative results ................................................................. 102
7.2.3 Common findings................................................................... 104
8 Conclusions and Outlook....................................................... 107
Appendix......................................................................................... 110
A Millennium Development Goals.............................................. 110
B Open Source Definition .......................................................... 111
C Questionnaire ........................................................................ 113
D Maps ..................................................................................... 115
References....................................................................................... 120
II
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Population Trends in Developing Regions.............................. 3
Figure 2: Brief history of FLOSS .......................................................... 8
Figure 3: Porter 5 Forces Analysis ..................................................... 14
Figure 4: Growth & Empowerment Development Strategy .................. 23
Figure 5: The determinants of empowerment ..................................... 26
Figure 6: Telephone subscribers per 100 inhabitants, Africa 1995-
2004 ................................................................................. 29
Figure 7: Influence of ICT on development strategy components ........ 32
Figure 8: NRI 2003–2004 vs GDP per Capita, Partial Log Regression.. 33
Figure 9: NRI and HDI, 2003 ............................................................. 34
Figure 10: Developments of Telecommunications in Peru................... 36
Figure 11: Range of technologies and users relevance........................ 37
Figure 12: Schematic Diagram of SIMpill Service Delivery.................. 39
Figure 13: Simputer and 100$ Laptop ............................................... 40
Figure 14: IT-Strategy Map for Developing Countries ......................... 43
Figure 15: Operationalization of ‘awareness and perception of
software’ ........................................................................... 68
Figure 16: Operationalization of ‘awareness and perception of FLOSS’69
Figure 17: Operationalization of ‘actors in development cooperation‘.. 70
Figure 18: Response over time of the FLOSS survey........................... 73
Figure 19: Age distribution of participants......................................... 74
Figure 20: Distribution of experience of participants.......................... 75
Figure 21: Distribution of gender and origin of participants ............... 76
Figure 22: Histogram for ‘country of origin’ for participants not
coming from Germany....................................................... 76
Figure 23: Recoding of variables ‘Age’ and ‘Years experience’ ............. 77
Figure 24: Frequencies for prospects and risks of software ................ 78
Figure 25: Frequencies for prospects and risks of FLOSS................... 80
Figure 26: Frequencies for prospects and risks of FLOSS, only for
participants who used FLOSS ........................................... 82
Figure 27: Crosstabulation of ‘Used FLOSS’ and age.......................... 83
Figure 28: Crosstabulation of ‘FLOSS reduces costs’ and ‘years
experience’........................................................................ 85
Figure 29: Crosstabulation of ‘increases human capital’ and ‘fosters
participation’ .................................................................... 86
Figure 30: Frequencies of ‘Know FLOSS’ and ‘Used FLOSS’ with 95%
confidence intervals .......................................................... 87
Figure 31: Frequencies for provision of answers to open questions .... 88
Figure 32: Rural Population in Total Population (2004).................... 115
Figure 33: World by Income - GDP per capita .................................. 116
Figure 34: Internet Users Worldwide................................................ 117
III
Figure 35: Router and population density........................................ 118

Figure 36: Human Development Index............................................. 119
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Crosstabulation of “Years experience” and “Age”................... 75
Table 2: Frequencies for prospects and risks of software.................... 77
Table 3: Frequencies for selected questions, only for participants
without experience with software in development
cooperation....................................................................... 79
Table 4: Frequencies for prospects and risks of FLOSS ...................... 80
Table 5: Frequencies for prospects and risks of FLOSS, only for
participants who used FLOSS ........................................... 81
Table 6: Crosstabulation of “Used FLOSS” and “Age” ......................... 83
Table 7: Crosstabulation of “FLOSS reduces costs” and “Years
experience” ....................................................................... 84
Table 8: Crosstabulation of “Increases human capital” and “Fosters
participation” .................................................................... 85
Table 9: Levels of significance and strengths of associations .............. 87
IV
Acronyms
CSS Closed source software
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FDI Foreign direct investment
FLOSS Free/Libre and Open-Source-Software, in the literature
FOSS is used synonymously for FLOSS
FLOSS4D Free/Libre and Open-Source-Software for development
FOSSFA Free Software and Open Source Foundation for Africa
FSF Free Software Foundation
GDP Gross Domestic Product
GPL General Public License
GPT General Purpose Technology
GTZ Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit
HDI Human Development Index
ICT Information and communication technology
ICT4D Information and communication technology for
development
IPR Intellectual property rights
IT Information technology
ITU International Telecommunication Unit
LDC Least Developed Country
LLDC Landlocked Developing Country
MDG Millennium Development Goals
NGO Non-government organization
NRI Networked readiness index
OSI Open Source Initiative
PRA Participatory Rural Appraisal
SIDC Small Island Developing Country
TCO Total cost of ownership
UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
UNDP United Nations Development Program
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization
WTO World Trade Organization
V
Abstract
Agriculture in development regions is often characterized by rural and
remote settings, poverty, low levels of education and high degrees of il-
literacy. Against this background the theoretical framework for the ap-
plication of information and communication technologies and in par-
ticular the application of Free/Libre Open-Source-Software (FLOSS) in
development regions is being outlined and the challenges for the appli-
cation analyzed.
It is elaborated that FLOSS supports current development objectives. In

addition the special situation of rural development regions is supported.
Improved means of communication, additional sources of household
income and distant learning programs are just a few examples for rural
development where FLOSS is applicable.
One challenge which is derived from the literature research is the ap-
propriate awareness of actors for the application of FLOSS in develop-
ment cooperation. This aspect is further analyzed by an expert survey.
The results suggest that the awareness and perception of FLOSS by ac-
tors in development cooperation can be described as uneven. This re-
lates to the level of knowledge about FLOSS itself as well as to the per-
ception of the suggested prospects and risks.
Key words: Information technology, development regions, ICT strate-

gies, Free/Libre Open-Source-Software, rural development
VI
Zusammenfassung
Die Landwirtschaft in den Entwicklungsregionen wird oft durch ländli-
che und abgelegene Situationen, Armut sowie geringes Bildungsniveau
einhergehend mit einer hohen Rate von Analphabetismus charakteri-
siert. Vor diesem Hintergrund werden die theoretischen Rahmenbedin-
gungen für die Anwendung von Free/Libre Open-Source-Software
(FLOSS) in den Entwicklungsregionen aufgezeigt sowie die Herausforde-
rungen analysiert.
Es wird aufgezeigt, dass mit Hilfe von FLOSS aktuelle Entwicklungszie-

le, insbesondere auch für die ländliche Entwicklung, unterstützt wer-
den können. Exemplarische Beispiele dafür sind Verbesserung der
Kommunikationsinfrastruktur, Schaffung von zusätzlichen Einkom-
mensmöglichkeiten und Fernbildungsprogramme.
Aus der Literaturrecherche wird als eine wesentliche Herausforderung

die angemessene Wahrnehmung der Anwendung von FLOSS durch Ak-
teure der Entwicklungszusammenarbeit abgeleitet. Dieser Aspekt wird
durch eine schriftliche Expertenbefragung weiter analysiert. Die Ergeb-
nisse legen nahe, dass das Bewusstsein und Wahrnehmung als unein-
heitlich innerhalb der Gruppe der Akteure beschrieben werden kann.
Dieses Ergebnis bezieht sich sowohl auf den Wissensgrad über FLOSS
im Allgemeinen als auch auf die Wahrnehmung der abgeleiteten Per-
spektiven.
Schlagworte: Informationstechnologie, Entwicklungsregionen, IKT Stra-

tegien, Free/Libre Open-Source-Software, ländliche Entwicklung
VII
Acknowledgements
Only the help of many people made it possible that I was able to finish
this thesis. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all of them.
First of all I want to thank Prof. Dr. Jahnke who enabled me to pursue
the idea of this interdisciplinary subject. Without his continuous sup-
port and suggestions this work would not have been possible.
I also received much support from all members of the department De-
velopment Planning and Project Management. Especially the expertise
of Mrs. Nowak was very helpful during the planning, execution and
analysis of the survey.
Further I would like to express my gratitude towards all individuals and

organizations supporting my survey. In particular Dr. Hülsebusch,
member of the organizing committee of the Tropentag 2005 in Hohen-
heim, Mrs. Grundmann, member of SLE and Prof. Dr. Hoffmann, from
the University Hohenheim and director of ATSAF, provided much help.
Last but not least I want to thank my beloved wife Cissa for her sup-
port, patience and never ending encouragement as well as my son
Henry who, despite of his young age of four months, had a big influence
on the completion of this thesis.
Martin Voß November 2006
VIII
Preface
At the beginning was an idea. In this case the “beginning” was a discus-
sion with Prof. Dr. Jahnke. Within this conversation the idea was born
to analyze relationships between development cooperation and new
technologies. At a request of Prof. Dr. Jahnke I started to investigate the
subject and after additional dialogues the topic evolved: Free/Libre
Open-Source-Software in Development Cooperation – Theory and Chal-
lenges. I enjoyed this interdisciplinary work very much and I feel grate-
ful that I was given the chance for this thesis.
IX
INTRODUCTION
1 Introduction
Information and communication technologies (ICT) have gained a con-
siderable importance in many aspects of nowadays life. The end of the
last century has seen a boom in the spread of internet technologies.
Even though stock markets overvalued many of the newly emerging
companies with the well known consequences, the trend has not
stopped.
Alongside with the spread of the internet, Free/Libre Open-Source-

Software (FLOSS) has acquired a noteworthy market share in many seg-
ments of the software industry.1 The most famous examples for FLOSS
include Linux in the operating system segment and the Apache web-
server as a middleware product.2 The openly available software products
also had an important impact on the momentum of the newly estab-
lished internet based businesses during the boom phase in the late
1990’s. Without license fees for operating systems and server software,
market entry barriers have been lowered significantly.
1.1 The Problem

As one result of the growing integration of global business and the
spread of internet access and technologies the global society has trans-
formed into a knowledge society. It has become increasingly important
for all economic actors to participate in the global knowledge network.
For actors from less developed and transitioning countries this is still a
big challenge. Availability of ICT infrastructure is just one aspect. Other
limiting factors include the education of actors, both in terms of aware-
ness as well as in terms of capabilities to utilize information and com-
1 Within this document, except otherwise noted, the term ‘FLOSS’ represents all
Software which has been published under a license that complies to the Open
Source Definition published by the Open-Source-Initiative (OSI). A copy of that
definition can be found in Appendix B. FLOSS and Open-Source-Software are used
as synonyms.
2 Netcraft (2005)
1
INTRODUCTION
munication technologies. This phenomenon of “haves” and “have-nots”

with regards to ICT access is commonly referred to as ‘digital divide’.3
The elimination of this digital divide is already at the center of many ac-
tivities in international development cooperation. The United Nations
Millennium Development Declaration states explicitly that the global
community will try to “ensure that the benefits of new technologies, es-
pecially information and communication technologies […] are available
to all.”4 There are also guarded hopes that investments in ICT foster im-
provements of other objectives of development cooperation. These goals
include poverty reduction in general, gender issues, good governance
and improvement of education and participation.
One special aspect of ICT for development cooperation (ICT4D) is the

utilization of FLOSS (FLOSS4D).5 The United Nations Conference on
Trade and Development (UNCTAD) discusses the application of FLOSS
in development cooperation6 and the UNDP7 together with UNESCO8
view FLOSS as “an avenue for economic and technological empower-
ment”.9 It is regarded as a tool which can help providing sustainable
ICT solutions in development cooperation. In addition common barriers
like high license fees and intellectual property issues can be tackled.
In order to promote Open-Source-Software in development cooperation

effectively it could be advantageous to foster shared ideas about the
benefits and modes of application. Local actors as well as international
consultants and agencies would have to be empowered to utilize FLOSS
and generate the anticipated benefits.
3 Dutta et al. (2004), page 65

4 General Assembly of the United Nations (2000), page 6
5 4D is the abbreviation of “for development (cooperation)”
6 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2003), pages 95 ff.
7 United Nations Development Program
8 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
9 UNDP/UNESCO (2003), page 2
2
INTRODUCTION
1.2 Objectives of the study

Less developed countries are among other things characterized by low
levels of income. Most of these countries are located in the tropical and
subtropical regions, as illustrated in Figure 33. In these areas high
rates of rural population can be observed, on average 50% of the popu-
lation (Figure 32). The majority is engaged in agriculture but accounts
only for about one quarter of the income. Considering poor people it is
estimated that even three quarters live in rural situations.10 Despite ur-
banization 60% are expected to be still rural in 2020. Within the next
three decades it is predicted that the majority of the population in de-
veloping countries will be rural.11 “However, as a result of the con-
stantly increasing proportion of urban dwellers (40 percent in 2000 ris-
ing to 56 percent in 2030), the total rural population is actually ex-
pected to decline after 2020” (Figure 1).12 A more or less constant level
of population in agriculture has to provide an increasing urban popula-
tion with food. Dixon emphasizes though, that rural to urban migration
rates are hard to predict as they depend on international commodity
prices, urban employment growth, and real exchange rates.
Figure 1: Population Trends in Developing Regions13
10 International Fund for Agricultural Development (2001)

11 Gasperini (2004)
12 Dixon (2001), page 3f.
13 Dixon (2001), page 4
3
INTRODUCTION
The outlined population development underpins the importance of rural

development. Thereby rural areas in developing countries are commonly
characterized by high importance of agriculture, long distances, pov-
erty, lack of services and institutions, low levels of education and high
rates of illiteracy, missing access to markets and poor health facilities.
The following discussion of the challenge of applying information and
communication technologies in development cooperation takes this spe-
cial situation into account. The considerations are supplemented by a
review of potentials and limits of FLOSS application in this context. This
also includes an analysis of the awareness and perception for the poten-
tials and limits by actors of development cooperation.
This study has two main objectives. The first one is to underpin the ap-
plicability of software in general and FLOSS in particular in develop-
ment cooperation. Especially the compatibility of Open-Source-Software
strategies with latest development policy approaches will be illustrated.
Secondly this thesis aims to shed light on the question of awareness

and perception of ICT and FLOSS of actors of development cooperation.
The key questions to be answered in this study are:
1. Can FLOSS be regarded as a valid tool in development coopera-

tion supporting latest development strategies and objectives?
2. What is the awareness and perception of actors in development

cooperation of Open-Source-Software?
For one the questions help to provide the theoretical framework of the
application of FLOSS in development cooperation. For the other they
aim to highlight the theoretical and practical challenges for FLOSS ap-
plication in development regions.
1.3 Approach and Methodology

In order to asses the applicability of FLOSS in development cooperation
a comprehensive literature review was conducted. This also includes the
4
INTRODUCTION
origin and development of the FLOSS software model and the applica-
tion of ICT in general in development cooperation.
Chapter 2 summarizes the development of the Open-Source-Software

phenomenon and its impact on the IT industry. Special attention is
drawn to the current status of FLOSS including organizational issues as
well as the increasingly important role of commercial firms.
The illustration of ICT in development cooperation in chapter 3 includes

an analysis of recent development strategies as well as a discussion of
development objectives which are aided by the appropriate application
of ICT. The chapter is concluded by case studies of ICT in development
cooperation.
Chapter 4 takes up the discussion about the application of FLOSS

within development cooperation. In addition to a presentation of pros
and cons and experiences from the past, countries’ ICT policy options
for FLOSS are described.
The analysis in chapters 2 to 4 is mainly based on my master

thesis.14 I am using parts of that work without additional citation.
From the findings based on the literature review implications of the ap-
plication of FLOSS in development cooperation are derived in chapter 5.
FLOSS strategies make demands on various levels. From a country’s
perspective an enabling environment has to be established. From an
actors view readiness and awareness for FLOSS itself and its expected
advantages have to be assured.
These implications are the basis for the analysis in Chapter 6. A ques-
tionnaire is used to determine if FLOSS is perceived as a valid tool by
experts of international development cooperation. In addition light is
shed on the homogeneity of the perception of Open-Source-Software us-
ing qualitative and quantitative analysis of the collected data.
14 Voss (2006) “Potential Analysis of Open-Source-Software as an Instrument in De-

velopment Cooperation”
5
INTRODUCTION
Chapter 7 discusses the findings from the literature review as well as

from the empirical study. This also includes an assessment of the meth-
ods and results of this thesis.
Concluding remarks and future prospects round off the thesis.
6
FREE/LIBRE AND OPEN-SOURCE-SOFTWARE
2 Free/Libre and Open-Source-Software

This chapter provides an introductory overview about Open-Source-
Software. More comprehensive presentations can be found in the litera-
ture.15
Open-Source-Software has gained considerable importance within the

last couple of years. An increasing number of companies are participat-
ing in Open-Source projects or are using FLOSS products. This is par-
ticularly evident in the case of the operating system Linux which is one
of the most successful FLOSS projects.16 More and more companies
utilize Linux even for the very core of their business. Unilever, as one
example, announced that by 2006 all IT applications will run on Linux
while IBM agreed to provide the technical support for this shift.17 In ad-
dition to commercial companies many public authorities are switching
their IT infrastructure to FLOSS.18
FLOSS products are also successful in other market segments. The Net-
craft web server survey indicates an almost 70% market share for the
Open-Source Apache web server.19
2.1 History
The FLOSS phenomena itself is nothing new. The roots of Open-Source-
Software development can be found in the computer departments of
American universities (Stanford, Berkeley, Carnegie Mellon and MIT) in
the 1960’s and 1970’s.20 By that time the small software developer
community exchanged source code and improvements of existing pro-
grams freely for mutual benefits. But with the rising software industry
an increasing number of programs became proprietary and the aca-
15 E.g. Brügge et al. (2004), Grassmuck (2004) and Weber (2004) as a starting point
for discussions about Open-Source-Software.
16 In the general public Linux is used instead of the proper term “GNU/Linux”. In this
document the term “Linux” is meant to denote “GNU/Linux”.
17 Heise Online (2003a)
18 Bundestux (2005)
19 Netcraft 2005
20 Rasch (2000)
7
demic code sharing ceased. Coming from the collegial background at

the MIT computer labs in the 1970’s Richard Stallman founded the
GNU-Project, which in 1985 evolved into the creation of the Free Soft-
ware Foundation (FSF). This organization was set up to promote GNU
and other Free Software licensed under the GNU General Public License
(GPL). Although other projects created free software as well (e.g. X-
Consortium or the Perl project) the FSF was the most visible by that
time.
Stallman and his fellow developers realized an important set of essential

tools but were missing an operating system. Though work started on a
kernel project called HURD it progressed very slowly. In 1991 Linus
Torvalds published a Unix-like kernel to various mailing lists for review
and received very positive feedback. Other programmers started to mod-
ify and enhance that kernel and Linux (Linus + UNIX) became the de-
facto kernel for the GNU operating system. With GNU/Linux the first
Unix-like free operating system became available.
E. Raymond: IBM supports

OSI Foundation Linux
L. Torvalds:
Linux-Kernel 2000
R. Stallmann:
FSF Foundation 1998
1991
1985
Figure 2: Brief history of FLOSS
Another milestone in the history of FLOSS was the publication of Eric

Raymond’s “The Cathedral and the Bazaar” in 1997.21 In his essay,
which spread quickly through the developer community, Raymond ar-
gues that Open-Source licenses result in higher quality and less expen-
21 Raymond (2001)
8
sive software. In the same year Netscape faced enormous losses in mar-
ket shares for its browser software Netscape Navigator. Influenced by
Raymond’s article Netscape decided to open its browser software to the
Open-Source community in early 1998. Following Netscape’s decision
Raymond and fellow Open-Source evangelists founded the Open-
Source-Initiative (OSI). The main idea was to promote free software to
the business community in a more pragmatic way than the FSF and to
provide a body for certification of Free/Open-Source licenses. The com-
mon rules for these licenses are articulated in the Open-Source-
Definition (refer to Appendix B, Open Source Definition).
This pragmatic approach resulted in additional interest of the business

community and an increasing number of companies announced sup-
port for the Linux operating system. E.g. in 2000 IBM planned to invest
one billion dollars in Linux.22
2.2 Open-Source-Software status

Today FLOSS is an important part of the software industry. Big compa-
nies like IBM and HP are investing in FLOSS projects, both by funding
as well as by active participation. The German Federal Government is
taking part in this development model and the European Union is ana-
lyzing possibilities for the application of Open-Source-Software. 23
At the same time the FLOSS model is discussed controversially and

emotionally. Naturally companies like Microsoft, whose business model
traditionally relies on license fees, try to emphasize the disadvantages of
the FLOSS model.24 On the other side “Open-Source-Evangelists” de-
scribe in an almost romantic way the Open-Source-Movement as an al-
22 Linux Today (2000)

23 The German Government financed the development of a free groupware solution,
which was released in June 2004 under the GNU General Public License
(http://kroupware.org/faq/faq.html#General2), on the activities of the European
Union see Schmitz/Castiaux (2002).
24 Heise Online (2003b)
9
ternative system of values.25 For a more detailed discussion of FLOSS

pros and cons see chapter 2.3.
In addition the FLOSS phenomenon became a subject of scientific re-

search in the last couple of years. Researchers are trying to explain the
motivation of individuals for their participation in FLOSS projects with
economic theories or are developing models for knowledge transfer in
Open-Source-Software projects.26 The EU initiated a FLOSS report
which concentrates on economic aspects and questions:27
• How and to what extent are companies and public authorities us-
ing Open-Source-Software and why did they decide to do so?
• Which business models for Open-Source based companies do

really work?
• Why are especially the big players in the software industry in-
volved in Open-Source-Software projects and which are the politi-
cal implications of that engagement?
Apart from the extensive final report the survey data collected is freely
available and is used as the basis for additional research. The main re-
sults of the study are that FLOSS was mainly used on the server side as
operating system (e.g. Linux), for databases and web server applica-
tions. The distribution on the desktop was low at the time of the survey.
In addition it was stated that companies utilize FLOSS products mainly
because of cost and license issues. Further important reasons are secu-
rity concerns and the stability of selected Open-Source-Software prod-
ucts.
The high investments of private companies and public authorities make

Open-Source-Software an interesting research subject. But as Baake
and Wichmann point out, the main focus of research is on individuals
25 “As a professional computer science educator, I see a danger in romanticizing the

OSS world, especially for college audiences.”, Bezroukov (1999).
26 E.g. Lerner/Tirole (2002) and Lanzara/Morner (2003).
27 University of Maastricht /Berlecon Research GmbH (2002).
10
participating in Open-Source-Software projects.28 The contribution of

private companies which seems to be very important for the huge suc-
cess of FLOSS is just slowly gaining more attention.
2.2.1 Motivation for participation in FLOSS projects
The impressive success of FLOSS raises the question why programmers

spend their time and efforts on the creation of non-profit software in-
stead of taking a career in a closed source software (CSS) company. The
motivation of the individual programmer is the topic of many articles
about the Open-Source phenomenon. Lerner and Tirole analyze the mo-
tivation using traditional economic theory.29 Using a net benefit analy-
sis they conclude that the motivation is mainly based on the delayed
benefits “career concern incentives” and “ego gratification incentives”.
The former relates to future professional advantages like job offers or
venture capital while the latter refers to an aspiration for peer recogni-
tion. Lerner and Tirole argue that from an economic view these motiva-
tions can be grouped together to the “signaling incentive”. This encour-
agement is stronger for Open-Source-Software than for CSS projects.
Lee et al. continue this argument and develop a quantitative model. The
main results from this quantitative analysis are: 30
1. FLOSS and CSS systems can coexist. FLOSS cannot exist alone
but CSS can.
2. FLOSS needs a critical mass of excellent programmers to become

visible and reach a level of sufficient quality.
3. An environment which is able to signal the capabilities of the in-

dividual programmers is an essential prerequisite for FLOSS.
4. Even if wages are set strategically in a CSS system there is a

probability for a FLOSS system to emerge.
28 Baake/Wichmann (2004), page 3

29 Lerner/Tirole (2002)
30 Lee et al. (2003), pages 21f.
11
An interesting argument provided is that mediocre programmers in CSS

systems can receive wages that exceed their capabilities. This can also
be viewed as free-riding, a problem commonly only attributed to FLOSS.
Lee et al. conclude that an equilibrium exists in which Open-Source-
Software and closed source software can co-exist.
In addition to these economic arguments von Hippel brings forward the

point of lead user innovation.31 Even before FLOSS, users revealed their
innovations freely, e.g. in the 18th century iron industry. The differences
to Open-Source-Software are mainly the clear policies that demand pro-
ject contributors to publish their code.
Though much research on motivation for participation in FLOSS pro-

jects concentrates on individual programmers the results can be care-
fully transferred to the corporate world. An investment of a company in
Open-Source-Software can also be considered as signaling to attract the
best programmers available.
2.2.2 Organization and communication
As stated above the success of FLOSS started at the beginning of the

1990’s with the evolution of Linux.32 Coinciding with the diffusion of the
internet it became possible for developers spread across the world to
participate in the development of Linux and other Open-Source-
Software projects. Another important aspect of the availability of inter-
net access was the possibility for quick release cycles and cheap ad-hoc
communication technologies like electronic mail.33 The pure number of
distributed developers and the complexity of the software (Linux in this
example) can be regarded as a new phenomenon. In ‘traditional’ soft-
ware development Brooks’ law predicts an increasing communication
overhead by a rising number of developers on a team.34 Raymond ar-
gues in his essay “The Cathedral and the Bazaar” that Brooks’ law does
31 Von Hippel (2005), pages 9 f.

32 Weber (2004), pages 94 ff.
33 “During this period there were updates and re-releases almost every couple of
days.” Weber (2004), page 103
34 Brooks’ law is often phrased as “Adding manpower to a late software project makes
it later"
12
not apply to the Open-Source-Process with its internet based develop-

ment model.35 Bezroukov on the other hand reasons that “the non-
applicability of the ‘mythical man-month postulate’ and Brooks' law is
limited only to projects for which a fully functional prototype already
exists and most or all architectural problems are solved”.36 Furthermore
the project needs a strong leader who manages the tasks and develop-
ers. Even though Open-Source-Software development is sometimes de-
scribed as a democratic process large FLOSS projects have central
structures for decision making. E.g. the Apache Foundation introduced
“a formal de facto constitution” and Linus Torvalds used to take all final
decisions for Linux.37
The organizational form of many FLOSS projects since apache web

server and Linux is a virtual and distributed team. The developers and
many users are members of a virtual community whose communication
is mainly based on mailing lists. At the beginning of the analysis of the
Open-Source phenomenon the idea of a single community prevailed.
Today the modularization of large projects like Linux supports the im-
pression of an “ecology of development communities”.38
2.2.3 The role of firms
In order to discuss the role of the corporate world, the economic impact
of Open-Source-Software has to be analyzed. The application of Porter’s
5 forces analysis framework highlights the dramatic effects of FLOSS on
the software market (Figure 3). This analysis can be carried out for dif-
ferent sectors. In the case of software producing companies the major
threats are substitute products from the Open-Source world, rising cus-
tomer power due to FLOSS alternatives and new entrants as financial
entry barriers were lowered by FLOSS products. Another very important
aspect is the rising intra-market competition. With successful FLOSS
software providers in the sector, the market shares of CSS companies
35 Raymond (2001), pages 61 ff.

36 Bezroukov (1999)
37 Weber (2004), page 64
38 Tuomi (2001)
13
are seriously at stake. An example for this situation is Oracle and its
database product which is competing against the Open-Source MySQL
database. As reaction to MySQL’s success Oracle has tried to shift its
main revenue source from the database product to new territories. The
acquisition of Innobase on the other hand is likely to be intended to
weaken the Open-Source rival.39 It is noteworthy that one of the biggest
software corporations in the world could have been challenged by a
small start-up company. This is even more noteworthy as the complex-
ity of a product usually imposes high entry barriers which demand high
investments to overcome.
The bargaining
power of New Entrants
suppliers The threat of new
entrants
Competitive
Suppliers Rivalry Customers
The intensity of The bargaining

competitive rivalry power of customers
Substitute
Products The threat of
substitute products
Figure 3: Porter 5 Forces Analysis40
Also interesting is the analysis of the impact of FLOSS on the compa-

nies using the internet as their main business environment. The com-
plete dot.com boom of the late 1990’s would have probably not been
possible without Open-Source-Software. Entry barriers were lowered
tremendously by FLOSS applications. Linux as operating system,
MySQL as database backend, the apache web-server as middle-ware
product and freely available programming languages provided a cheap
infrastructure for web-based businesses that allowed the use of cheap
personal computers.
39 Heise Online (2005)

40 Figure following Porter (1980), page 4
14
Another important aspect is the rationale of firms for the participation

in FLOSS projects or for the release of the source code as Open-Source.
Hawkins was one of the first researchers addressing the issue whether
a firm should publish its software under an Open-Source-License.41 He
concludes that such behavior is in line with standard economic theory
as firms “will consume the software available at the lowest costs, and
will participate in the production of commodity components of their
product line as a method of reducing costs”.42 IBM’s involvement in the
eclipse consortium is a good example for this rationale. While the basic
product is available under an Open-Source-License, IBM sells an en-
hanced version as part of the application-server product suite. Henkel
argues that the main benefits are “increased sales of complementary
goods” and “pricing pressure on competitors”.43 These arguments also
explain the strategy of MySQL mentioned above.
In the case of utility programs and modules the publication as Open-

Source-Software guarantees the continuous maintenance of code even if
the original developers left the company. Cisco’s release of CEPS, an
enterprise printing system, followed this rationale.44
In-house tools have never been developed to create revenue by selling

licenses. This is an important reason for releasing those tools as
FLOSS, since passing it to the Open-Source-Community does not result
in missed sales opportunities. Henkel’s example of the investment bank
Dresdner Kleinwort Wasserstein demonstrates that an Open-Source-
Strategy can be reasonable, especially for non-technical companies. If
the developed software does not provide a competitive advantage it
might be more expensive to keep it proprietary.45
Baake and Wichmann extend the analysis for the motivation of com-
mercial companies to release software as Open-Source by developing a
41 Hawkins (2002), page 2

42 Hawkins (2002), page 16
43 Henkel (2003), page 15
15
simple quantitative model. They conclude that not only the standard
arguments like cost reduction have to be considered but rather “strate-
gic considerations with respect to actual and potential competitors”
have to be taken into account.46 Again the case of MySQL serves as a
good example for these findings.
2.3 Advantages and Disadvantages to users

Open-Source-Software is currently widely discussed and often at the
center of emotional and heated debates. The most common advantages
and disadvantages of FLOSS are shortly summarized. A more detailed
discussion can be found in the literature.47
Advantages
• Lower Price
Without any doubt FLOSS is cheaper to get hold of as no license

fees have to be paid. For the analysis of the total cost of owner-
ship (TCO) all costs resulting from procurement, installation and
maintenance have to be considered. Though a detailed TCO
analysis depends on the concrete circumstances, evidence is pro-
vided by the literature that FLOSS has some advantages over
CSS.48
• Re-use of source code
One of the big advantages of FLOSS is the possibility for code re-
use. As the complete code is published, developers do not have to
re-invent existing features but can integrate modules in their own
work. By that means software development can become much
more efficient.49
46 Baake/Wichmann (2004), page 20

47 E.g. Hang/Hohensohn (2003) and Mendys-Kamphorst (2002)
48 Hang/Hohensohn (2003), pages 39 f.
49 Neumann/Breidert (2005)
16
• Higher quality and reliability
Generally FLOSS is considered to have a higher product quality

and reliability than CSS counterparts. Raymond argues that
“given enough eyeballs, all bugs are shallow”.50 Additionally most
FLOSS projects have the advantage that they do not face any
pressure from market entry dates. Usually FLOSS gets released
when a developer considers his piece of work finished. Further-
more Wheeler provides a compilation of relations of FLOSS and
CSS for various categories, e.g. reliability and scalability.51
• Possibility of customization and independent bug fixing - Open-

ness and Flexibility52
If a CSS product does not fit the customer’s needs he has two op-
tions: live with the restrictions or search for a different product.
FLOSS provides a third option. The customer can modify the
product to fit his needs. This is especially interesting in the case
of bug fixing. CSS customers rely on the producer of the software
to fix the bug. In the case of FLOSS any user might fix the bug or
the customer itself is able to correct any errors.
Disadvantages
• Limited warranty and liability
FLOSS is usually provided “as is” and without any warranty.

There is no possibility for compensation if the usage of the pro-
gram caused any damage. Furthermore no agent exists in the
case of FLOSS who can be made responsible for errors and con-
sulted for support.
• Poor Documentation
50 Raymond (2002), page 30

51 Wheeler (2005)
52 Programming errors are commonly referred to as “bugs”.
17
As FLOSS is commonly produced by programmers the amount

and quality of available documentation is often smaller than for
CSS products.
• Data exchange
The lack of reliable data exchange interfaces is often raised in the

discussion about FLOSS and commonly refers to the exchange of
Microsoft Office documents. As the format is proprietary and
closed, Open-Source-Software office suites still fail to handle
these files correctly. While this is a drawback the origin for the
problem is the closed document format.
• Lower user-friendliness, poor usability
The origins of most Open-Source-Software applications are tech-

nically trained developers. Therefore the user friendly control of
many applications has not been a large issue. But in the recent
years efforts have been made to improve the usability, e.g. by pro-
jects like KDE and Gnome, which provide graphical user inter-
faces similar to Windows for the Linux operating system.53
Summarizing these arguments it has to be noted that the FLOSS com-

munity as well as many companies involved in the development of
Open-Source-Software are successfully working on these issues. E.g.
the number of applications for Linux hugely increased in the last few
years. Other arguments like limited warranty for FLOSS products are
put into perspective by the serious commitment of many big players of
the software industry.
53 http://www.kde.org and http://www.gnome.org
18
INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY AS AN INSTRUMENT IN DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION
3 Information and communication technology as

an instrument in development cooperation
For a more detailed discussion of the application of information and
communication technologies (ICT) in development cooperation common
objectives and strategies of development policy have to be analyzed.
3.1 Development policy objectives

The leaders of 189 nations adopted a common declaration of develop-
ment goals in September 2000. These objectives are commonly referred
to as the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).54 They consist of eight
goals which are further divided into 18 targets. Combined with indica-
tors for each target they outline the roadmap for further action.55
The goals themselves are not new but the common vigorous efforts of
the global community to fight poverty and hunger is unprecedented.
They are based on the experience from development cooperation in the
last 50 years and though all were an issue in the past they have not
been outlined in such detail before. The goals are:56
MDG 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
About two thirds of the 1.2 billion people who have to live on less than
one dollar a day reside in Asia. As poverty reduction in India and China
is making good progress the subgoal of cutting poverty by half until
2015 is still possible on a global average. Admittedly for Sub-Saharan
Africa the situation is critical.
MDG 2: Achieve universal primary education
Primary school education for all children by 2015 is the target of this
goal. On average today 80% of all children of the poorest countries visit
primary schools. But again Sub-Saharan Africa falls behind with a rate
54 General Assembly of the United Nations (2000), see also Appendix A, page 110
55 United Nations Statistics Division (2005)
56 Bundesministerium für wirtschaftliche Zusammenarbeit und Entwicklung
(2004), pages 511 ff., applies to all MDGs and Appendix A
19
of only 60%. Nevertheless outlooks are commonly good and successful

projects are signs for improvements.
MDG 3: Promote gender equality and empower women
The means to promote gender equality is to create equal chances for

boys and girls in education. Referring to primary school education the
situation is already promising. For the context of political rights and
empowerment of women progress is slow and coming from a weak initial
position.
MDG 4: Reduce child mortality
The target is to reduce child mortality by two thirds until 2015. While
mortality was cut in half between 1960 and 1990 still 11 million chil-
dren are dying in developing countries before they reach an age of five
years. Sub-Saharan Africa is the region with the lowest improvements
in the recent years, where child mortality is the highest in the world.
MDG 5: Improve maternal health
The objective is to reduce maternal mortality rates by increasing the

number of births conducted by trained medical personnel. There are big
differences in mortality rates. The probability for maternal death in
Sub-Saharan Africa is 175 times higher than in a developed country.
While the number of births conducted by birth attendants has risen in
many parts, especially East-Asia, the level remained static in Sub-
Saharan Africa.
MDG 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
The community committed itself to work on the termination of increas-

ing infection rates and on a starting trend reversal of serious diseases.
While there are some good examples for successfully limiting HIV/AIDS
infections the problem remains fatal for many regions. Furthermore ma-
laria and tuberculosis continue to have increasing rates.
20
MDG 7: Ensure environmental sustainability
On the one hand this goal aims at a sustainable use of limited environ-
mental resources. On the other hand access to drinking water and hygi-
enic improvements for more than 100 million inhabitants of slums are
aspired.
Access to pure water has improved in many regions across the world
with Sub-Saharan Africa falling behind and staying at a constant level
of supply.
MDG 8: Develop a global partnership for development
Part of this goal is to improve an open and non discriminatory trade and
finance system. This includes the propagation of good governance to
foster a sustainable development and eradicate poverty. The special
economic needs of LDCs, LLDCs and SIDCs as well as efforts for the re-
duction of debts are also covered.57 In addition to these predominantly
economic targets social aspects are taken into consideration as well.
These include the development and implementation of strategies for the
creation of employment possibilities for young people as well as a guar-
anty for affordable access to important drugs. Last but not least the
community agreed to create opportunities for the application of new
technologies, especially of ICT. The access to the new technologies
should be provided by cooperation with the private sector.
3.2 Development policy strategies

The agreed objectives are the foundation for today’s development coop-
eration. While the targets themselves have not changed substantially in
the past the strategies to achieve them did. In the 1950s and 1960s
many countries followed an interventionist approach which was fol-
lowed by a free market orientation in the 1980s and early 1990s.58 The
57 Least Developed Country (LDC), Landlocked Developing Country (LLDC) and Small
Island Developing Country (SIDC). For more information on the UNCTAD country
classification see http://www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/ohrlls/default.htm
58 Stern et al. (2005), page 88
21
latter is commonly referred to as the Washington Consensus and char-

acterizes the post-Cold War approach to development. In the mid 1990s
critics began to arise.
Stiglitz as one prominent example states that studies tried but failed to
prove a relationship between globalization, growth and poverty reduc-
tion. He argues that the “debate is not about whether growth is good or
bad, but whether certain policies – including policies that may lead to
closer global integration – lead to growth; and whether those policies
lead to the kind of growth that improves the welfare of poor people”.59
He underlines his views by analyzing the most successful countries in
terms of growth and poverty reduction. China as well as many other
East Asian countries experienced remarkable growth as well as poverty
reduction without adhering to the Washington Consensus. Especially
China was slow to remove trade barriers and is yet not fully liberalized.
Chile as another example introduced a tax on short term capital inflows
in the early 1990s, a period of high growth for the country. Stiglitz sug-
gests that instead of following the Washington Consensus these coun-
tries implemented policies which avoided economic instability and inse-
curity. Therefore a policy should not only concentrate on trade liberali-
zation but also on an environment which avoids asymmetric effects of
globalization.
Stern et al. pick up these thoughts in a brief review of the history of de-
velopment policies. According to them it is not a question of determining
the best balance between states and markets. “These ways of defining
the role of the state suggest that states and markets are substitutes,
when in fact they are usually complements.”60 Stern develops the idea
of a state which focuses on education, health, infrastructure, protection
of poor people and development of an environment that fosters (new)
businesses. Hemmer concludes that the main regulatory task of the
state is to strive for a relationship of private and public activities which
59 UNDP (2003), page 80

22
best reflect a country’s tradition and fits the economic and socio-
cultural conditions.61
These ideas are accompanied by a change in the perception of develop-

ment policy objectives of the international community. The Monterrey
Consensus, which emerged at the International Conference on Financ-
ing for Development in Monterrey and replaced the Washington Con-
sensus, emphasizes the responsibility of the individual countries to
achieve the MDGs. Furthermore the international community agreed to
support these countries by multilateral cooperation and an increase in
official development assistance. The Monterrey Consensus and the
MDGs are the corner stones for today’s development cooperation. These
ideas are not only shared within the UN organizations. Pascal Lamy,
Director-General of the WTO, demands an international consensus
which reflects the benefits of open trade but takes social values into ac-
count.62
Poverty Reduction
Growth & Empowerment

External Constraints
Internal Constraints
Macroeconomic and
Individual Capital
Governance and
Infrastructure
trade policies
Institutions
Investment Climate Empowerment
Strategy for Development
Figure 4: Growth & Empowerment Development Strategy
61 Hemmer (2002), pages 354 f.

62 Pascal Lamy in a speech in Santiago, Chile,
http://www.wto.org/english/news_e/sppl_e/sppl16_e.htm
23
Based on theses concepts Stern et al. propose a strategy as illustrated

in Figure 4.63 It combines the latest ideas of open markets with the con-
sideration of social aspects. As it is also one of the latest published
strategies for development the following discussions of ICT in develop-
ment cooperation will refer to this approach. Therefore a more detailed
analysis of Stern’s proposal is necessary.
Two pillars, one regarding the improvement of the investment climate

and the other one aiming at the empowerment of the individual, are the
foundation for “pro-poor” growth and empowerment resulting in poverty
reduction. The strategy embodies the idea of an active state which is
complementary to the markets. Furthermore Stern et al. consider the
strategy to be “pro-poor” in terms of poor people being enabled to par-
ticipate in growth and being the driver of growth in participatory proc-
esses.
The first of the two pillars symbolizes the importance of a good invest-
ment climate. Firms must be encouraged to invest, create jobs and con-
tribute to overall growth. Within the described strategy the investment
climate can be broken down to the three elements “macroeconomic and
trade policies”, “infrastructure” and “governance and institutions”.
Many efforts have been spent on the analysis of macroeconomic aspects

of the investment climate and there is much evidence for a relationship
between growth and low inflation, openness to trade and foreign direct
investments. Most developing countries worked on the improvement of
macroeconomic stability. But for many countries this topic is still an
issue. It seems important though that the macroeconomic improve-
ments are accompanied by complementary actions from the govern-
ment. Otherwise participatory growth and environmental protection
could face fierce pressure and might be opposing the intended objec-
tives of the strategy.
63 Stern et al. (2005), pages 127 ff.
24
The second element of the “investment climate pillar” symbolizes the

quantity and quality of available infrastructure. This includes physical
and financial structures, e.g. power, transportation, telecommunica-
tions and banking. Reliable power availability, transportation times and
access to ICT services are often highlighted as especially important fac-
tors for companies in developing countries. It is obvious that an insuffi-
cient infrastructure results in higher costs for firms to conduct busi-
ness. Furthermore there is evidence that small companies in particular
suffer most from infrastructure shortages.64
Governance and institutions is the third element of the strategy’s first

pillar. The main topics are bureaucratic hurdles and corruption which
increases entry barriers and costs to conduct business. The key factors
according to Stern et al. are:65
• Competitiveness of output markets with conditions for entry and

exit
• Functioning of labor and capital markets, especially strong finan-

cial institutions
• Application of legal structures, including taxation and property

rights
• Style of enforcement of rules that are of public interest, such as

those protecting the environment, health and safety
The importance of these aspects is backed by empirical research which

allows deriving a relationship between “governance and institutions”
indicators and development outcomes. Though in general small and
large firms are affected, the impact for small firms is higher due to their
credit constraints and missing possibilities for political influence.
Empowerment is at the heart of the strategy’s second pillar. In this con-

text empowerment “is defined at the individual level as having the abil-

25
ity to shape one’s life”.66 The core elements of empowerment according

to Stern et al. are outlined in Figure 5. Investing in poor people to in-
crease health, education, security and mechanisms for improved par-
ticipation is the main focus of this pillar. The integration of poor peo-
ple’s assets and resources is pushed forward to help to foster economic
growth.
The first determinant of empowerment refers to the individual capital.

This includes education and skills providing opportunities for the peo-
ple, health characteristics and physical assets, e.g. land use rights or
animals.
External constraints are the second group of factors affecting the way
people live their lives. They are shaped by the social environment which
influences the capabilities of the individual. Examples for improvements
of these constraints include the expansion of women’s rights or partici-
pation in the management of public goods, e.g. schools.
What the individual owns:

• Assets
• Human capital
External constraints
• Family
Empowerment • Community (caste, religion)
• Society
• Governance
Internal constraints
• Perception of own role
• Preferences
• Capacity to aspire
Figure 5: The determinants of empowerment67

26
The third aspect of empowerment as used by Stern et al. relates to in-

ternal constraints. This determinant describes the perception of an in-
dividual’s role and the capacity to aspire. In terms of a person’s contri-
bution to growth it is strongly related to the ability and willingness to
take risks and to innovate.
Obviously there are interdependencies between the determinants of em-

powerment. E.g. the kind of governance may influence the accumula-
tion of assets or determine the quality of education. The same is true for
the two main pillars of the strategy. While the first deals with aspects
on the firm level the second focuses on challenges of the individual. But
both have in common that the governance aspect is an essential and
vital part of each pillar. Furthermore both pillars share that progress
and future development occur through (dramatic) changes. These
changes affect the investment climate and its determinants as well as
the individual level. The latter also includes changes of preferences, e.g.
the willingness to invest in primary education of girls.
3.3 The status of ICT in less developed countries

With these policy objectives and this strategy in mind it stands to rea-
son if and how ICT can help in development cooperation. But before a
deeper analysis of the possibilities of ICT is made the current situation
in developing countries will be illustrated.
Historically less developed countries face technological gaps and uneven

diffusion of ICT. This gap between haves and have-nots of ICT is com-
monly referred to as digital divide. But even within countries a gap be-
tween rural and urban areas can be observed.
Figure 34 and Figure 35 in Appendix C give an impression of the

asymmetrical distribution of internet access technologies (i.e. router
density) and the resulting internet usage in relation to the population
density. It is noteworthy that India, which commonly serves as the
prominent good example for the positive impact of ICT on national
growth, has a comparably low rate of population with online access. But
27
given its high population the absolute number is comparable or higher

than in most Western European countries. China is another example
for this phenomenon. The highly industrialized areas in combination
with the high population density result in a large share of the world’s
internet users. But for the rest of the less developed countries internet
access and usage is generally not correlating to population density.
Again this is particularly true for Africa where on average less than two
percent of a country’s population is online. But the maps do not only
highlight international gaps. They also show domestic asymmetries,
which are again best visible for China and India but Brazil and Latin
America are good examples as well.
The UNCTAD e-Commerce and Development Report 2004 concludes

that the gap seems to close on an international level though the pro-
gress is slow and countries in the most difficult situations do not seem
to benefit from this development.68 On the other hand this process may
not result from an increased performance of the developing countries
but may be the result from saturation effects. As growth rates for base
technologies like PCs and internet slow down in developed countries the
gap seems to be closing as the underserved still increase baseline tech-
nology adoption.69
The most noteworthy progress has been achieved in the mobile phone
sector. While the landline diffusion is still growing it has been outpaced
by the rate of cellular phone spread. 70 In Africa mobile phone subscrip-
tion numbers leveled landline usage in 2001 (Figure 6). While this looks
promising on the first sight the diffusion is not even within Africa.71 In
2004 the teledensity in Sub-Saharan Africa (without South Africa) was
ten times lower than in North Africa. In addition 75% of the continent’s
landlines were found in 6 of the 55 countries. This situation can also be
regarded as an intra-continental digital divide.
68 UNCTAD (2004), page 11

69 bridges.org (2001), page 13
70 Sciadas (2003), page 17
71 International Telecommunication Unit (2006)
28
Figure 6: Telephone subscribers per 100 inhabitants,

Africa 1995-200472
3.4 ICT for development

The brief overview about the diffusion of ICT in less developed countries
raises the question if improvements can help to foster sustainable
growth and reduce poverty. This requires an analysis of the relationship
between ICT and the MDGs.
3.4.1 ICT and the MDGs
ICT is also often referred to as a general purpose technology (GPT) in

terms of the range of application scenarios in multiple sectors.73 It is
obvious that ICT directly supports the last target oft the MDG:
In cooperation with the private sector, make available the bene-

fits of new technologies, especially information and communi-
cations (target 18 of the MDG).
But as a general purpose technology ICT has the potential to support

many of the agreed targets of the MDG declaration.74 The first MDG, the
eradication of extreme poverty and hunger, can be affected in multiple
72 Source: International Telecommunication Unit (2006)

73 Indjikian/Siegel (2005), page 689
74 The following details are mainly based on United Nations ICT Task Force
(2003), pages 8 ff. and Tamimi (2005)
29
ways. Access to market information and reduction of transaction costs

may help poor farmers and traders. Firms in less developed countries
may also benefit from ICT by enhancing their efficiency, competitiveness
and market access.
Universal primary education, the second MDG, offers a variety of possi-

bilities for ICT application. Distant learning, ICT enhanced teaching
methodologies, continued education of teachers and improved availabil-
ity of quality educational material are examples for a promising usage of
ICT. Virtual schools and universities, networks for teachers and stu-
dents as well as supply of localized teaching materials are additional
areas of ICT application to support the enhancement of this goal.
As universal primary education supports gender equality and the em-

powerment of women the above mentioned ICT measures apply to the
third Millennium Goal as well. Additional usage of ICT includes applica-
tions which help to influence the public opinion on gender issues.
The reduction of child mortality, the improvement of maternal health

and the combat of HIV and other diseases (MDGs 4-5) are all best sup-
ported by ICT in the same way. Monitoring and information sharing can
also be increased by utilizing ICT systems. The provided material ought
to contain locally relevant information and be provided in local lan-
guages to maximize efficiency. The use of radio and television for the
diffusion of education on health and diseases is essential in areas with
low internet penetration or high illiteracy rates.
Environmental sustainability (MDG 7) can as well be supported by the

appropriate application of ICT. Information sharing is again an impor-
tant part but remote sensing and monitoring are also fundamental ar-
eas of ICT adoption.
The final MDG, development of a global partnership for development,

also offers a variety of use cases for the application of ICT. With respect
to the improvement of the situation for LDC, LLDC and SIDC similar
measures as for the reduction of poverty and hunger can be taken. It is
30
important to enable these countries to integrate their markets in the

global economy and to utilize potential comparative advantages. E-
government can help to increase efficiency and transparency of public
agencies which could result among others in an improvement of the in-
vestment climate.
Decent and productive work opportunities for the youth, another target
of this goal, are best supported by educational measures as described
above. Additional possibilities include the establishment of decentral-
ized working opportunities which rely on ICT. Examples for such possi-
bilities include call centers as well as data entry and processing ser-
vices.
3.4.2 ICT for growth and empowerment
Having outlined the possible benefits of ICT application for the MDGs it
stands to reason if and how ICT can support the strategy which has
been described above. Therefore possible contributions of ICT to growth
and empowerment have to be analyzed. While doing so “it is important
to be aware of the fact that sustainable poverty reduction is not
achieved by short-sighted miracle cures, such as country-wide Internet
access.”75 In order to implement sustainable ICT solutions the needs
have to be thoroughly identified and the many indirect benefits of ICT
for growth and empowerment have to be taken into account. Figure 7
illustrates the effect of ICT on growth and empowerment by influencing
the components of the two pillars. E.g. ICT may improve the infrastruc-
ture which in turn may result in higher growth and empowerment and
thus can help to promote poverty reduction.
The basic arguments and usage scenarios for the application of ICT for
growth and empowerment are similar to those listed above in relation to
the MDGs. Thus only additional benefits will be analyzed and a possible
impact assessment of ICT for growth and empowerment will be high-
lighted.
75 Gerster/Zimmermann (2003), page 14
31
ICT is used in different kinds of projects for different sectors as one tool
among others to improve performance and efficiency. This makes it dif-
ficult to identify or quantify the ICT share of such projects.
Infrastructure
Governance and
Institutions
Growth &
Empowerment Internal
Constraints
Macroeconomic
and trade
policies ICT
Individual
External Con- Capital
straints
Figure 7: Influence of ICT on development strategy components
One approach is to compare indicators for overall development and ICT

diffusion. An obvious indicator for growth would be the gross domestic
product (GDP). Another indicator is the Human Development Index
(HDI), which is a three dimensional figure. It is a compound from the
GDP, the life expectancy index and the education index. Thus the HDI
is more expressive in terms of empowerment and emphasizes the social
development. Figure 36 (Appendix D) shows the world map with the dis-
tribution of the HDI.
The degree of preparation and usage of ICT can be measured by the

Networked Readiness Index (NRI).76 As for the HDI it is a three dimen-
sional index which is defined as the sum of the environmental index,
the readiness index and the usage index. The environmental sub-index
is determined by a country’s or community’s market and regulatory en-
vironment and the infrastructure in place. The readiness sub-index re-
lates to the key stakeholders’ (individuals, businesses, and govern-
ments) ability to apply ICT. Finally the usage sub-index indicates the
actual application of ICT of these stakeholders.
32
Figure 8: NRI 2003–2004 vs GDP per Capita, Partial Log Regression77
Relating the GDP per capita and the NRI shows a wide spread
(Figure 8).78 E.g. Estonia and Venezuela both have a similar GDP per
capita but show very different results for the NRI index. Despite the
variances the plot allows to analyze the trends. Most notably the effect
of a rising GDP per capita has the highest impact on the NRI for low
values of GDP per capita. The increase of the NRI drops sharply at a
GDP per capita level around USD 6000 to 9000. For higher GDP per
capita values other factors are more important for the NRI.
A different situation can be observed by analyzing the relationship be-

tween the NRI and the HDI (Figure 9). The correlation between the two
indexes has a positive gradient, meaning that the NRI grows with larger
HDI values. Thus the NRI is positively correlated to the two sub-indexes
life expectancy and education which complement the GDP per capita
index within the HDI. While the influence of the GDP per capita is pre-
dominant for low NRI values, social factors become more important for
larger NRI indexes.
77 Source: Dutta et al. (2004), page 14

33
With this evidence for the positive impact of ICT on growth as well as on
social aspects the relationship between the components of the two pil-
lars of the outlined strategy will be highlighted.
Figure 9: NRI and HDI, 200379
ICT for growth
The determinants for growth had been outlined as “macroeconomic and

trade policies”, “infrastructure” and “governance and institutions” (refer
to Figure 4, page 23). Various scenarios are possible for the support of a
country’s macroeconomic and trade policies by the application of ICT. A
study of the economies of 15 states of the European Union and 10
states of Central Europe provides evidence that investment in ICT is an
important source of growth.80 There also seem to be higher returns for
investment in IT than for other traditional sectors. In general the pro-
motion of an ICT sector can have positive effects. E.g. Tanzania
launched a short-term campaign with an emphasis on ICT skills.81
Even if emerging businesses are not owned by the very poor they are
likely to provide new job opportunities. It has been stated though that
“the high costs of initial IT implementation, management buy-in and
79 Source: Dutta et al. (2004), page 63

81 Kelles-Viitanen (2003), page 86
34
commitment to change, and the ability of citizens to access this re-

source have hampered several e-government initiatives”.82 The example
of an improved land registration process on the other side highlights the
potential benefits. The new process is faster and bypasses corrupt bro-
kers.
To be able to participate in global trade as an equal partner it is impor-

tant to have appropriate infrastructure in place. The ability to get in-
formation about their markets is crucial also for small businesses. The
information infrastructure varies from mobile phones to integrated
internet applications. Typical examples include small scale businesses
selling their products online and programs connecting remote villages
by mobile phones and smart antennas.
Governance and institutions, the third element of the investment cli-

mate pillar, can be crucially supported by ICT as well. The measures go
in the same direction as for the support of macroeconomic and trade
policies. Stable institutions with transparent processes help to create a
favorable business environment and fight corruption.
ICT for empowerment
Besides the outlined benefits of ICT for the investment climate there is a
variety of potential applications to increase empowerment. The most
obvious applications for increasing the individual capital are again in
line with the measures described above. They especially include educa-
tion and health related programs. The shear availability of free informa-
tion can foster empowerment and enables minorities to get their voices
heard.83 Measures go from radio and television based projects to inter-
net based services. E.g. in Mexico the Zapatista minority was able to get
international public awareness utilizing an email based information net-
work.84 Poor urban women in Kenya use video technology to document
82 bridges.org (2001), page 58

83 Marker et al. (2002), page 8
84 Skuse (2001), page 4
35
their activities. The produced clips are being broadcasted and help to
raise the awareness in society and with policy makers.85
Enabling environment
In order to promote ICT application it is vital for a country that the gov-
ernment provides an enabling environment. This includes openness to
foreign direct investments (FDI) and deregulation of telecommunication
markets. Independent from ICT, foreign direct investments have proven
to be an important source of growth and often go along with openness
to international trade.86 “ICTs can help both improve the environment
for FDI and trade (both by enhancing the performance of domestic
firms, markets and governments and by improving vital infrastructure)
and increase the impact of FDI (by helping to disseminate and main-
stream the innovations that FDI brings), but ICTs cannot substitute for
the policy frameworks and the human, firm and institutional capacity
necessary to attract FDI.”87 Concentrating on openness to FDI China
can serve as a good example. It became a highly competitive producer of
ICT hard- and software. With its WTO membership China has become
an even more attractive location.88
Figure 10: Developments of Telecommunications in Peru89
85 Gerster/Zimmermann (2003), page 25

86 McNamara (2003), page 39
87 McNamara (2003), page 39
89 Source: GTZ (2002), page 13
36
In addition proper regulation of telecommunication markets is vital.

Evidence is available that competition and participation of the private
sector promote the diffusion of the new technologies. The example of the
privatization and later deregulation of the telecommunication market in
Peru indicates these positive effects (see also Figure 10).90
3.5 Examples of ICT in development cooperation

Weigel and Waldburger outline the possible range of information and
communication technologies and their respective relevance for develop-
ment (Figure 11).
While radio and television are without doubt important especially for
the very poor the significance of mobile phones seems to be underesti-
mated. Considering the situation in Africa as outlined above, mobile
phones have gained a tremendous diffusion among the poor and are an
important tool for development, also of the very poor.
The following case studies give an impression of ICT efforts in develop-

ment cooperation. The selection picks examples from the whole range of
technologies.
Figure 11: Range of technologies and users relevance91
3.5.1 Radio based service
CEMINA (Communication, Education and Information on Gender) is a

Brazilian non-government organization (NGO) which is working to
strengthen women’s leadership in community development. The project
90 GTZ (2002), page 13

91 Source: Weigel/Waldburger (2004), page 19
37
utilizes a combination of internet and radio technology.92 Radio pro-

grams are created locally and delivered online via broadband internet
links to regional radio stations. These have been integrated into a net-
work exchanging the locally produced content and transmitting the pro-
grams via internet and radio.
By 2003 eleven community radio stations were producing local pro-

grams with information on gender issues. 1500 women from all over
Brazil were trained to participate in the production of radio programs.
The main objective of CEMINA was to increase the education on gender
issues by enhancing the use of community radios by low income women
in Brazil. In addition the isolation of women has been tackled and social
integration enhanced.
3.5.2 Mobile phone based project
Tuberculosis is a widespread disease in Sub-Saharan Africa.93 In 2002

80% of the global tuberculosis infections occurred in three African
countries. The disease effects people’s lives and puts massive economic
and social burdens on those affected. Though South Africa, being
among the highly affected regions, provides free medication the compli-
ance of the patients leaves room for improvements. This is even more
important as unsteady intake of tuberculosis drugs results in patients
becoming “multi drug resistant”. The treatment of this kind of tubercu-
losis is approximately 50 times more expensive (USD 100/month vs.
USD 5000/month).
The company SIMpill in cooperation with the City of Cape Town ad-
dresses this issue of non-compliance. The provided service consists of a
pill box which, when opened, sends an electronic text message (SMS) to
a central server (Figure 12). Thus drug intake can be automatically ob-
served and when non-compliance is detected predefined measures can
be taken. Though the collected data from the pilot phase does not allow
deriving evidence for significant improvements the prospects for future
92 infoDev (2003), page 14

93 infoDev (2005), pages 11 ff.
38
growth is high, given the high number of incidences in the region. In

addition the social benefit of tackling tuberculosis may also exceed the
costs for infrastructure and maintenance of the service. This case study
is furthermore a good example for the innovative usage of existing and
proven technologies in the context of development cooperation.
Figure 12: Schematic diagram of SIMpill service delivery94
3.5.3 Individual computing
Besides community telecenters which provide internet access and

sometimes also additional services, efforts have been undertaken to
close the digital divide. One early approach was the development of a
simple, low-cost handheld computer by the Indian Institute of
Science.95 This simputer (Simple Inexpensive Mobile People’s Computer)
was intended to be used as a shared community or individual device.
The Simputer offers internet and email connections, support for local
languages and touch screen support. This, in conjunction with text to
speech facilities, also allows the usage by illiterate users. Pilot projects
94 Source: http://www.simpill.com
95 http://www.simputer.org
39
successfully used the Simputer to empower rural farmers by giving

them access to commodity market prices.96
Figure 13: Simputer and 100$ Laptop
A more recent effort aims at providing computers for education at

schools. The ‘One laptop per Child’ (OLPC) project at the MIT media lab
is working to provide cheap laptops for poor children. In November 2005
a working prototype was presented at the World Summit on Information
Society (Figure 13). The laptop is a very robust, inexpensive device
which was designed to have low power consumption. Even if power
supply is not available the laptop can also be powered with a hand
cranking. Another interesting feature is the ability to build ad-hoc peer-
to-peer networks with other laptops allowing them to communicate with
each other and share a single point of internet access.
The UNDP announced at the World Economic Forum in January 2006

their support for the OLPC program. In addition OLPC is privately sup-
ported by companies like Google, AMD or Red Hat.97 The next project
phase is to implement the program in seven large countries. Involved
governments are supposed to buy the laptops and to pass them to stu-
dents free of charge.
The production of the laptops, which will be done by Quanta Com-

puters, will start as soon as five million devices have been ordered and
96 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2003), page72

97 UNDP (2006) and http://laptop.media.mit.edu
40
paid for. Currently shipment of the first laptops is estimated for early
2007.
After failing to reach an agreement with Microsoft to include Windows

on the computers, the laptop will utilize Open-Source-Software with
Linux as the operating system.98 Microsoft’s reaction was to publish
plans to develop an alternative computing system based on a mobile
phone which can be connected to a TV and a keyboard. It is question-
able however if such an approach meets the requirements of many less
developed regions, where TVs a rare and power supply is often not avail-
able.
98 The Financial Times (2006)
41
FLOSS WITHIN DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION
4 FLOSS within development cooperation

It was demonstrated that ICT is an important part of today’s set of tools
in development cooperation. But looking at Open-Source-Software takes
the arguments provided above one step further. The following chapters
are analyzing the case of FLOSS within development cooperation in
more detail. Differences to ICT in development cooperation in general
and the current status will be outlined before the implications for the
actors of development cooperation will be discussed.
4.1 Special aspects of Open-Source-Software in

development cooperation
The topic of FLOSS as an instrument in development cooperation was
brought up by various organizations. The most prominent are the
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development and UNDP.99
As for ICT in general Open-Source-Software has to support the outlined

goals and strategy. Furthermore it has to provide additional advantages
compared to proprietary software to justify its application. In this dis-
cussion the emphasis is not only on growth but on the pursuit of the
MDGs in general.
Obviously the same arguments apply to FLOSS as for ICT in general. In

addition core values of the Open-Source-Definition are in line with the
MDGs. Namely these are freedom (to modify and distribute the soft-
ware), equality (same access to the software for all) and solidarity (shar-
ing of software). Instead of analyzing the MDGs individually regarding
possible impacts of FLOSS, the main arguments raised in the literature
will be picked up.
Weerawarana et al. state that “if open source is to make sense for devel-
oping countries, it must constitute a key part or prong of the country’s
99 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2003) and “International

Open Source Network”, http://www.iosn.net/foss
42
IT strategy which creates value or wealth in the economy”.100 They iden-

tify three areas for this value creation: enhanced business opportunities
in the ICT sector, reduced ICT costs for private firms and the govern-
ment and finally improved effectiveness and efficiency of the govern-
ment. Figure 14 illustrates the initiatives serving the described value
creating objectives.
Create Value in the

Economy through IT
Reduce the Cost of IT Create Business

Investment in the Economy Opportunities in IT
Improve Efficiency and

Effectiveness of
Government through IT
IT Policy Framework
Private Sector OS
Building Brand Equity in initiatives and business
Software Development models
Building Capacity and Advocacy and Educa-

Skills in IT tion
E-Government
Figure 14: IT-Strategy Map for Developing Countries101
The benefits for private firms as well as for the governments have been
discussed by other authors as well.102 The following summarizes the
main arguments raised in the discussion about Open-Source-Software
application in developing countries.
100 Weerawarana et al. (2004), page 32

101 Source: Weerawarana et al. (2004), page 33
102 E.g. United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2003), Dravis (2004) or
Weber (2003)
43
4.1.1 ICT sustainability and autonomy
The most cited arguments for Open-Source-Software are missing license

fees and cost issues in general. Though the total cost of ownership de-
pends on the specific situation this argument is usually raised at first.
In the case of a developing country the question is not whether FLOSS
has a slight cost advantage over a proprietary solution. The main point
is that ICT investments in support and training for FLOSS allow flexible
contracts also to local providers. This in turn results in national money
circuits fostering economic growth not only in the primary field of ICT
investment.
At the same time the money spent on training and support increases
the local human capital. A good example for this scenario is the Lanka
Software Foundation. It is an “illustration of pragmatic strategy in
building the brand equity of individual developers and the countries in
which they reside through participation in OS development projects
(E.g. committers to Apache Foundation)”.103 This in turn can lead to an
increased attractiveness for foreign investments as well as to increased
exports of local ICT services or products.
Another important point raised by Dravis is the increased competition

in the software sector due to Open-Source-Software.104 New FLOSS pro-
jects are emerging every day addressing requirements of users either in
a narrow local environment or with a global scope. While the latter form
a market which is attractive to many proprietary software vendors the
niche markets of small communities are often underserved. FLOSS is
one approach to satisfy these markets as the examples of localized ver-
sions of OpenOffice demonstrate.105 The reduced barriers of entry in the
case of FLOSS also increase the competition in the ICT service and

104 Dravis (2004), page 20
105 E.g. see http://translate.org.za for a project translating OpenOffice into South-
African languages. Chapter 4.2.3 on page 54 introduces translate.org.za shortly.
44
training sector. In turn efficiency and effectiveness are likely to increase

and thus lead to lower prices and higher quality.106
Closely related to the argument of increased competition is the avoid-

ance of vendor lock-in situations and aspiration of technological self re-
liance.107 The reduced number of market participants for some ICT
product categories (e.g. operating systems or word processing software)
can result in substantial dependencies. The release of new versions and
discontinued support for older ones forces users to participate in up-
grade cycles implicating new license fees and potential upgrades of
computer hardware.
Another important issue looking at a country’s autonomy regards open

standards. A good example is the proprietary document format of Mi-
crosoft Office Suite files. Even after switching to a more generic docu-
ment format based on XML, the format is not open in terms of free
availability. Microsoft reserves the right to charge a fee for the usage of
its XML108 schemata as the company indicates with the example of
MPEG4109 as an open document format.110 So in fact the format is
known but as with MPEG4 the usage is (or might be in the future) sub-
ject to royalties. In addition to differences in the definition of “open
standard” Open-Source projects are more likely to adopt these. In con-
trast to proprietary vendors, who might seek technical barriers and
lock-in effects, FLOSS projects gain network effects from existing pro-
grams which are able to process these open formats as well.
Finally Dravis raises the important point that Open-Source-Software is

not an “all or nothing” approach.111 Many FLOSS products work on pro-
prietary operating systems and there are a couple of solutions (e.g.
106 United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2003), page 110
107 Dravis (2004), page 21
108 XML is a general purpose markup language, capable of describing many different
kinds of data. See also http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xml
109 MPEG4 is a group of audio and video coding standards. See also
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MPEG4
110 Microsoft (2004), page 8
111 Dravis (2004), page 23
45
Wine112 or vmware113) which allow running Windows programs on a

Linux operated machine.
4.1.2 Security
Today cyber-crime and cyber-spaying are growing threats. Therefore the

security of public data has to be a concern of governments. “At a mini-
mum, introducing diversity into the base of functioning software code
reduces the possibility of catastrophic failures […].”114 FLOSS provides
the advantage that interested parties can verify data integrity and secu-
rity by analyzing the source code. But the integrity does not only apply
to data processing. In today’s interconnected world secure network
connections are a crucial part of any ICT infrastructure. The German
Federal Foreign Office switched to Linux as their server operating sys-
tem.115 The usage of a hardened Linux System allows a highly secure
connection between German embassies. The American National security
Agency is even working on an own version of a security enhanced ver-
sion of Linux.116
The usage of open standards is also related to security issues. Again the
document format of Microsoft Word serves as a good example. Docu-
ment history information is saved along with personal data in Excel and
Word files. Though this issue was documented in books as well as in
technical articles published by Microsoft many users are not aware of
this feature.117 In the meantime tools to remove private information
from the documents have been offered.
These examples emphasize the relevance of computer security for a

country and FLOSS as a secure alternative to proprietary systems.
112 http://www.winehq.com
113 http://www.vmware.com
114 Weber (2003), page 18
115 Andresen/Wolf (2003)
116 http://www.nsa.gov/selinux
117 E.g. “Microsoft Word bytes Tony Blair in the butt”,
http://www.oreillynet.com/pub/wlg/3449?wlg=yes
46
4.1.3 Intellectual property rights
With an increasing integration into the global economy the pursuit of

intellectual property rights (IPR) enforcement becomes more impor-
tant.118 In many countries computer hardware is sold with pirated pro-
prietary software preinstalled. FLOSS provides a legal alternative. In
addition it is often difficult to establish a local software industry when
the revenue is based on license fees. If the business model relies on
FLOSS it can be sustainable even in environments dominated by soft-
ware piracy. It has to be noted though that the absence of intellectual
property right law enforcement can also lead to a devaluation of Soft-
ware in general. “The economic benefit of OSS products will not be felt
until intellectual property is properly protected.”119
From a development perspective the provision of FLOSS can also be re-

garded as a transfer of wealth.120 Free software combined with cheap
labor has the potential to create comparative advantages on local and
global markets. The provision of a freely available software environment
can have positive effects on development and growth. This is similar to
the effect of lowered barriers of entry in response to Open-Source-
Software in the late 1990’s which allowed the enormous internet hype.
Recapitulating, FLOSS provides an opportunity to enable less developed

countries to become producers of software solutions themselves.121 In
contrast to proprietary software which usually creates more users than
producers FLOSS has the potential to enhance the local capacity in
business and IT. This capacity development enables less developed
countries to produce the software needed for local conditions and meet
development objectives. FLOSS allows countries to pursue their own
development path and gives them the ability to participate actively in
the design of their future.
120 Weber, Steven (2003), page 20
121 Weigel/Waldburger (2004), page 45 f.
47
4.2 The Status of FLOSS in development cooperation
With these potential benefits in mind the current situation of FLOSS as

an instrument in development cooperation has to be analyzed. In addi-
tion to policy options it has to be discussed if and how governments
should intervene in the software market.
4.2.1 Country ICT policies options
If Open-Source-Software preferences are supported by a government the

question about the legitimacy of this market interference has to be
raised. Many countries, among them many member states of the Euro-
pean Union, already support Open-Source-Software.122 But it can also
be argued that governments should be neutral as only the market can
satisfy market needs.123
Government intervention in principle
In their study on economic aspects of FLOSS Kooths et al. justify public

market intervention. The prerequisites on the one hand are an existing
market failure and the possibility of the provision of an efficient solution
for the failure. On the other hand the benefits of the intervention have
to exceed the costs.124 The problem with this approach though is the
definition of market failures and benefits.
Some authors neglect any existence of market failures in the software

industry and refuse as a consequence any government interference with
the market.125 E.g. Evans argues that if strong network effects are im-
portant to the user it might be more sufficient to have a single pro-
vider.126 The example given is the Windows operating system from Mi-
crosoft which is in his opinion that popular because consumers place a
high value on the strong network effect.
122 http://europa.eu.int/idabc/en/chapter/194
123 Hahn (2002), page 85
124 Kooths et al. (2003), page 90
125 E.g. Bessen, Evans and Smith in Hahn (2002), page 9, Kooths et. al., page 90 ff.
126 Evans in Hahn (2002), page 45 f.
48
These views are objected by others.127 Their main point is that the soft-
ware market is not a perfect market. Information is not shared symmet-
rically and competition is limited due to strong network effects.128 These
may result in a monopoly and in turn would allow government interven-
tion.
Finally Lessig argues that these considerations are deprecated.129 As

long as governments carefully address all interests they will arrive at
the conclusion that FLOSS is favorable to proprietary software. Instead
of questioning the case for Open-Source-Software Lessig argues against
software patents, which can be seen as a governmental interference as
well. Bessen also notes that “open source extends the software market
by addressing market failures associated with incomplete contracts and
asymmetric information”.130
While these two parties relate their arguments to markets in more de-
veloped countries the arguments are different for developing countries.
In the best case less developed countries are moving towards competi-
tive markets. Within this process the question is not only whether to
foster free trade but also how to realize a fair integration into the global
market. The imbalance between more and less developed countries
alone justifies interference from the government.
This argument also applies to the second criteria for a market interven-
tion. Expected benefits have to be carefully calculated with social as-
pects taken into consideration. By adding future prospects, e.g. a
strengthened local software industry, governmental market interference
becomes more reasonable.
Another important aspect in this discussion refers to exclusivity. The

idea is not to avoid a software industry based on license fees. As men-
tioned earlier Open-Source-Software and proprietary solutions can co-
127 E.g. Pasche/von Engelhardt (2004), page 15, Ghosh (2005) page 24 and Lessig in
Hahn (2002), page 9
128 Pasche/von Engelhardt (2004), page 15
129 Lessig in Hahn (2002), page 67 f.
130 Bessen in Hahn (2002), page 7
49
exist and may support each other by providing competition and choice
for the consumer.
FLOSS adoption can be supported in various ways. Weber and others

identify three sets of options for policy implementation by governments:
formality, level of involvement and mode of development.131
Formality
Formal approaches include legislation and strategic papers by a coun-

try. They face informal approaches which allow FLOSS to evolve without
the support of the government. A couple of African and Latin American
governments issued formal approaches to pursue the adoption of Open-
Source-Software.
Weber describes the advantages of the formal approaches.132 He names

the possibilities to consider any technological shortcomings and to co-
operate with donors in order to address these. On the other side infor-
mal approaches may allow the FLOSS phenomenon to develop by itself
and thus enhance organizational benefits and end user innovation ef-
fects.
Level of involvement
Especially in less developed countries governments are an important

consumer of ICT. Therefore their participation is important for success-
ful Open-Source-Software approaches.133 Weerawarana and Weeratun-
ga identify three important areas of involvement:134
1. Government software procurement policy
2. Encouragement of good private sector software procurement poli-

cies
3. Keep the internet free of tariffs and licensing
131 Weber (2003), pages 22 ff., United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
(2003), pages 114 ff., Wong (2004) pages 17 ff.
132 Weber (2003), page 23
50
The importance of the government as a consumer makes procurement

policies essential for a successful consideration of FLOSS in developing
and less developed countries. This policy can also serve as an example
to demonstrate the business value of Open-Source-Software. But highly
critical for the success of FLOSS is internet access. Thus deregulation of
the telecommunication industry and the reduction of tariffs and li-
censes is another vital aspect to support FLOSS diffusion.
Mode of development
The mode refers to the degree of interaction. Measures go from local

awareness building, to procurement, to funding of research and devel-
opment and to international cooperation. The Free Software and Open
Source Foundation for Africa (FOSSFA) is one example for an organiza-
tion, which is promoting the application of FLOSS in Africa. They also
provide a recommendation for the mode of application of FLOSS:135
1. The neutral approach
• Ensure that the choice is supported and discrimination against

FLOSS is eliminated.
• Adopt policies to ensure that FLOSS is carefully considered in IT
procurement processes. Implement criteria for evaluating Open-
Source-Software products and procedures to adopt and maintain
open standards.
• Allow Open-Source-Software to compete on an equal basis with
proprietary alternatives.
• Initiate communication to enhance knowledge and understanding
of FLOSS.
2. The enabling approach
• Establish policies which gear towards the creation of the capacity

to implement and maintain FLOSS.
• Develop the capability to give guidance on selecting and imple-
menting it.
135 FOSSFA (2003), page 4 f.
51
• Promote education and training in FLOSS products.

• Support the establishment of partnerships and developer com-
munities.
3. The aggressive approach
• Actively encourage the development of FLOSS under appropriate

conditions through legislation and policy.
• Encourage active involvement of governments in supporting
FLOSS developer communities and development projects.
• Adopt strategies to increase commitment to Open-Source-
Software products.
• Establish regular auditing of the impact of FLOSS on service de-
livery.
• Participate actively in programs that can minimize risks associ-
ated with FLOSS.
• Demand application of FLOSS where analysis shows it to be the
best alternative.
These suggested policies are not only aiming at the diffusion of Open-
Source-Software but also on solutions created by Africans for Africans.
Another aspect important for FOSSFA is the capacity building compo-
nent of Open-Source-Software. “The vision for the future is one of a re-
gional technical revolution of sorts, in which Governments and the pri-
vate sector embrace FOSS and can rely on regionally developed software
and expertise.”136
52
4.2.2 Examples of FLOSS ICT policies
The following list provides examples of policies for Open-Source-

Software adoption taken from South-America, Africa and Asia.137
Brazil
The Brazilian province of Pernambuco was the first to make the applica-
tion of FLOSS mandatory by law in March 2000. In 2003 the govern-
ment decided to migrate 80% of all computers in state institutions from
Windows to Linux.138 The main rationale were license costs. “In its 2002
balance of payments report, Brazil actually spent more money on royal-
ties and licenses than it did on computer and information.”139
Argentina
In the bill of Free Software from March 2002 Argentina demands the
use of free software for all companies and organizations in which the
National State is a major stakeholder.140 Exceptions are possible but
have to be justified and possible risks of the application of proprietary
software have to be published.
One rationale for the aggressive approach of FLOSS adoption was a na-
tional campaign against software piracy.
China
China indirectly developed Red Flag Linux, a Chinese-language Linux

distribution. The support was established via the China Academy of Sci-
ence together with the government owned Shanghai New Margin Ven-
ture Capital. The Beijing municipal government established the Beijing
Software Industry Productivity Center and initiated a project to improve
the performance of local Linux distributions.
137 If not otherwise noted, examples are taken from United Nations Conference on
Trade and Development (2003), page 117 ff. and bridges.org (2005a)
138 PCLinuxOnline (2003)
139 Wong (2004), page 5
140 http://proposicion.org.ar/proyecto/leyes/5613-D-00/doc-asesores-3.html
53
China also hosts many corporate FLOSS developers, e.g. Turbo Linux,
Red Hat and IBM.
Malaysia
In November 2001 the Malaysian Government decided to use Open-

Source-Software in key public agencies like treasury and in dedicated
areas like e-procurement.
The Malaysian Prime Minister launched a joint project in 2002 with the
private sector to build an affordable, Open-Source-Software based com-
puter for home usage.141 The government owned research company Mi-
mos has a special focus on Open-Source-Software.142
In addition Malaysia established FLOSS competence centers in order to

support the development of relevant skills in the country.143
South Africa
The South African proceeding to FLOSS adoption is an example of the

enabling approach.144 The government set up the National Advisory
Council on Innovation (NACI) which proposed a strategy in 2003 pro-
moting the application of FLOSS. Though no legislation has been estab-
lished the recommendations have widely been accepted and they are
being implemented by government departments.
South Africa plays a very important role in regional collaborations, in

particular in the Open-Source-Software Foundation for Africa.
4.2.3 Case studies of FLOSS in development cooperation
A list of exemplary case studies of Open-Source-Software in develop-

ment cooperation will complement the policy examples. The provided
examples were selected to include various development regions and dif-
ferent prospects of FLOSS application in development cooperation.
141 http://www.komnas.com
142 http://opensource.mimos.my
143 Wong (2004), page 22
144 Wong (2004), page 18
54
Localization
The provision of an ICT information structure is not sufficient if the

software has not been translated into local languages. Translate.org.za
is a non profit organization which provides free software in different Af-
rican languages.145 The main focus is on the translation of Linux, of the
OpenOffice suite and of the FireFox internet browser. Among the sup-
ported languages so far are Xhosa, Zulu, Northern Sotho and Afrikaans.
Health
In Mali the privately organized project IKON provides radiological diag-

nostic services to patients in rural areas.146 Patients are X-rayed in re-
gional centers and the images are sent to a central hospital in Bamako,
for further diagnosis. At the time the project was initiated there were 11
radiology specialists living in the country, ten of them in Bamako, the
capital of Mali.
The entire project uses FLOSS which has been tailored to the needs of
IKON. The software handles the encryption of the images and confiden-
tial patient data, transmission and billing of the provided service. The
one year pilot phase was completed successfully indicating sufficient
demand for a sustainable operation. While being revenue-positive from
the early beginning the project now serves as a nucleus for further
medical services.
Sustainable Livelihoods
In Laos remote villages are connected to the internet using standard

wireless technologies (802.11b standard) and smart antennas.147 Addi-
tional solar powered access points supplement the infrastructure. Vil-
lagers are using power efficient embedded computers which run local-
ized versions of Linux and KDE, a graphical window system.
145 http://translate.org.za
146 infoDev (2005), pages 8 ff.
147 Dravis (2004), pages 17 ff.
55
The services provided include local calls, internet access document

processing and spreadsheet capabilities. It is an essential infrastructure
for the community which is 25 km away from the next village with
phone lines and allows sustainable income improvements.
4.2.4 Experiences and "Lessons Learned"
The approach of FLOSS as an instrument in development cooperation is

still relatively new and it is too early for final conclusions. But the pro-
jects implemented so far allow learning from experiences.
Financial constraints are a major barrier for the application of ICT in

general in most African countries (which is probably true for all less de-
veloped or developing countries).148 This applies to FLOSS as well as to
proprietary software projects. Funds are often crucially limited which
prohibits the procurement of appropriate hardware and the training of
local staff.
Thus in many scenarios the license fees are a strong argument for the
application of FLOSS. But not paying royalties does not imply that a
solution is free of any costs. A prominent example is a Mexican project
to equip schools with computers and internet access.149 The basic moti-
vation for the usage of FLOSS in the "Red Escolar Libre" (Free School
Network) project was the amount of money saved for license fees. The
plan would probably have worked out if the project had been properly
structured. The only effort invested was the shipment of CDs with Linux
and other software to the schools. So without surprise the project was
not successful. A major lesson to be learned from this incident is that
each project has to be carefully planned and stakeholders have to be
trained to fulfill expected tasks. And with the risk of weakening the cost
advantage argument of Open-Source-Software it is essential that money
is spent for such projects – if not for licenses at least for consultancy
services, proper planning and training.
148 bridges.org (2005b), page 88

149 Rajani et al. (2003), page 61
56
Dravis offers additional lessons learned from projects utilizing FLOSS in

development cooperation.150 On the one hand his experiences are refer-
ring to development cooperation in general. They include participatory
approaches, local responsibilities for sustainability and good project
management. On the other hand his main conclusions are that the ap-
plication of free software in the projects was easier than expected. Espe-
cially Linux turned out to be more user friendly than it is widely per-
ceived. Furthermore the considered case studies do not offer any evi-
dence that support for FLOSS was more difficult to obtain. Contrarily
the Remote Village IT System project in Laos allows the assumption that
the involvement of the end users helps to build responsibility and own-
ership.151
150 Dravis (2004), page 13 ff.

151 Dravis (2004), page 19
57
IMPLICATIONS OF FLOSS STRATEGIES FOR DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION
5 Implications of FLOSS strategies for

development cooperation
The outlined benefits of FLOSS along with the ICT policies of many de-
veloping countries make FLOSS an important subject for actors of de-
velopment cooperation. Mechanisms of Open-Source-Software commu-
nities and development have to be understood and transferred to less
developed regions. It is also one important task to support the creation
of enabling environments for Open-Source-Software. Furthermore re-
adiness and awareness of actors of development cooperation for FLOSS
has to be created and fostered.
5.1 Creating an enabling environment for FLOSS

If a FLOSS strategy is pursued it is important to understand the neces-
sary environmental conditions to realize the expected benefits. Therefore
it is necessary that the FLOSS policy is embedded in an appropriate,
enabling environment. Weerawarana et al. point out that “it cannot be
over emphasized that the enabling environment is critical to the success
of such efforts”.152 This environment can be divided into a general ICT
enabling and a more specific FLOSS enabling environment.
Of course it is a prerequisite for any FLOSS strategy to foster ICT diffu-

sion in general. Especially the physical infrastructure is crucial for the
success of Open-Source-Software efforts. Refer to chapter “ICT for
growth and empowerment” (page 36 f.) for the discussion of the general
enabling environment.
In addition to the promotion of general ICTs it is important to create an

enabling environment for maximizing the benefits of Open-Source-
Software. The main issues are “open source advocacy, the availability of
IT skills in the use and localization of OSS, the presence of a local pri-
vate sector adopting OSS based business models are some of the key
enablers or drivers of an environment in which OSS becomes a real op-
58
tion in the IT investment equation.”153 These points can also be grouped

into advocacy and education as well as creation of a market demand for
FLOSS software products and services.
5.1.1 FLOSS advocacy and education
To back the Open-Source-Software policy framework it is important to

support it by initiatives and programs in advocacy, awareness building
and education.154 The awareness “at all levels, ranging from policy-
makers (in order to launch reform processes) to local communities and
entrepreneurs (to help them identify new opportunities)” is crucial for
the implementation of the selected policy.155 FLOSS and proprietary
software, legal or illegal copies, commonly co-exist in markets of devel-
oping countries. In order to influence stakeholders in favor of FLOSS
advocacy groups, educational courses and material targeted at the po-
tential users and stakeholders have to be provided. Linux user groups
are just one example for a community providing advocacy for FLOSS. A
more formal model is provided by the “Malaysian Public Sector Open
Source Software Initiative” which supports the Malaysian ICT policy by
encouraging the application of FLOSS.156
An example for a multi national advocacy program is the International

Open Source Network (IOSN), which is an initiative of the United Na-
tions Development Programme’s (UNDP) Asia Pacific Development In-
formation Programme (APDIP). The network is a center of excellence in
the Asia-Pacific Region and is “tasked specifically to facilitate and net-
work FOSS advocates and human resources in the region”.157 Rapid,
sustained economic and social development is the vision of IOSN.
5.1.2 Market demand
For a sustainable ICT strategy it is crucial that the market demands

FLOSS products and services. Only with a sustainable demand a local

156 http://opensource.mampu.gov.my
157 http://www.iosn.net
59
software industry can be established. In the initial phase the govern-

ment and other public organizations, which are often the largest cus-
tomers for ICT in developing countries, can help to create this market
demand. In a following phase e-government initiatives and programs
can be used not only to enhance governance but to foster adoption of
FLOSS even further. The e-government efforts, which are also a signal-
ing device for the private sector, can help to increase the amount of us-
ers to a critical mass and thus can help to enable positive network ef-
fects.158
5.2 Readiness and awareness of actors in development

cooperation
The realization of this enabling environment is primarily a government
issue. But donor organizations and consultancies in development coop-
eration need to be able to give theoretical and practical support. Thus
they have to be “ready”, in terms of capable as well as aware for Open-
Source-Software in development cooperation.
5.2.1 Readiness
Readiness for FLOSS in development cooperation is not aiming at spe-

cialized ICT capabilities like programming. Instead the potentials and
mechanism of Open-Source-Software have to be understood. At the
same time the focus of donor organizations and consultancies has to be
differentiated.
As Weerawarana et al. point out the role of donor agencies is mainly to

act as catalyst.159 The situation of the developing country determines
the amount of assistance that is required, especially to reach a critical
mass in FLOSS diffusion. Large organizations, i.e. the United Nations
and its child organizations, are already aware of Open-Source-Software
as an instrument in development cooperation. Therefore the main issue
remains to streamline activities in these large organizations and en-
hance communication efforts.

159 Weerawarana et al., page 45
60
The situation for consultancies is similar but these actors do not have
the possibility to influence and support ICT policies by promoting ap-
propriate projects. Their influence is restricted to policy consultation
and support within projects, e.g. by providing training in FLOSS related
issues. Thus there are to new responsibilities to be considered by con-
sultancies. They would have to adapt to the new situation in order to
prepare themselves to be able to assist others in utilizing the benefits of
ICT and Open-Source-Software respectively.
Both requirements are closely related to traditional activities in devel-

opment cooperation. The principal willingness to change cannot be as-
sessed on an individual level. But altogether the topics and contents of
international development cooperation have changed in the last 50
years from mainly agricultural support to a more complex approach in-
cluding many developments of economic theory and marketing.
One of the latest trends in development cooperation is the analysis of

value chains in developing countries which includes business process
analysis and redesign.160 The target is to help to include and empower
small farms or companies in regional and international product chains.
The objective is to enable them to participate more actively and with
equal rights in trade.
The analysis and design of business processes is also at the center of

the appropriate application of ICT. To prevent that the suggested solu-
tions are an end in itself, business processes have to be considered and
business cases have to be calculated.161 It is important for this calcula-
tion to consider primary and secondary targets as well as additional
benefits.
This development constitutes good prerequisites for actors of develop-

ment cooperation to adopt ICT and Open-Source-Software. But while
160 The topic of the international conference "Tropentag 2005“ in Stuttgart was “Inter-
national Research on Food Security, Natural Resource Management and Rural De-
velopment”. This is taken as evidence for “value chains” being a current trend in
development cooperation.
161 Müller/von Thienen (2001), pages 153. ff.
61
the ‘intellectual’ basis can be considered as sufficiently available, the

‘soul’ of the consultancy organizations might not be ready for the
change.
The same is often true for the socio-economic project environment. Peo-
ple have to be convinced of the benefits of Open-Source-Software or
maybe of ICT in general. Both scenarios require an appropriate change
management.
The importance of internal change management (often also regarded to

as innovation management) has already been widely discussed in eco-
nomic theory. In the center of these considerations are the members of
staff and their possible resistance to change. The focus of innovation
management is on the barriers preventing the individual to accept the
new situation of objects and means as advantageous.162 In the case of
consultancies resistance to information technology can be anticipated.
With a traditional background of agriculture the perception of FLOSS
strategies by consultants has to be carefully observed. One additional
benefit of a successful change management is a streamlined organiza-
tion, which also enables more innovation initiatives from the inside.163
For external project partners in development cooperation Yusoff and

Sharon underline the importance of innovation management for the ex-
ample of e-government. Bruggink supports this view and adds for the
case of FLOSS that without “adequate thought given to the implications
for each computer-user in an organization, sweeping changes to ICT
infrastructure are less likely to succeed.”164
5.2.2 Awareness
But even if organizations in development cooperation are ready for

FLOSS and have comprehensive innovation management instruments
in place, they might not be aware of Open-Source-Software. On the one
hand there is evidence that awareness for Open-Source-Software seems
162 Hauschildt (1993), page 24

163 Hauschildt (1993), page 164
164 Bruggink (2003), page 35
62
to be rising. This can be derived from a growing number of publications

in the academic world as well as from international organizations like
the United Nations.
On the other hand there is also evidence drawn from projects that not
all actors are aware of Open-Source-Software. Obviously the usage of
proprietary software can have multiple reasons and does not allow de-
riving clear conclusions. But without going into details for the particular
reasons it remains that FLOSS is not being used consistently in devel-
opment cooperation.
Instead it can be observed that even within organizations that promote

the application of Open-Source-Software (e.g. UNDP) some projects util-
ize closed source software. At a minimum this allows to derive the indi-
cation that the level of awareness varies within the development coop-
eration community. A list of examples will underpin this thesis.
5.2.3 Examples of projects in development cooperation which are

not using and promoting FLOSS
Business Information System Services promoting Trade of Informa-

tion165
The business information systems (BIS) consist of BIS-Centers in dif-

ferent locations which cover value chains with potentials for eco-
nomic growth, e.g. agriculture, agro-based industries, etc.
According to an interview with a project consultant only proprietary

software is used in this project.166
Rural Community Telecentre Project, Sri Lanka167
Sarvodaya (a nationwide popular movement that has been develop-

ing economic and social welfare infrastructure in Sri Lanka) created
in cooperation with Microsoft rural empowerment through bringing
165 http://www.bis-asia.net
166 Gärtner (2005)
167 http://www.sarvodaya.org/users/situ/Contents/Projects.htm
63
the benefits of information and communications technology to more

villages of the island.
FAO-GTZ MicroBanking System168
The MicroBanking System is a banking software designed and devel-

oped for a wide range of banks and financial intermediaries.
The project utilized proprietary software mainly from Microsoft and

Borland.
The Colombian Local Information Service Project169
The local information service matches local supply with household

demand for information.
The project utilized proprietary software mainly from Microsoft.
E-commerce in Ejura, Ghana170
This project from Ghana shows how ICTs can support small and me-
dium farmers to increase their revenues and improve their farming
practices by enabling them to access information on regional market
developments and international agricultural know-how.
The project utilized proprietary software from Microsoft and Oracle.
A new PC for every home initiative, Egypt171
The Egyptian Minister of Communications and Information Technol-

ogy announced with the President of Microsoft International the
launch of a new low-cost and easy-to-use personal computer ad-
dressing new users from all age groups. The PC will be shipped with
the new Windows XP starter edition.
168 http://www.mbwin.net
169 http://www.ftpiicd.org/files/research/reports/report4.pdf, pages 9 ff.
170 http://www.ftpiicd.org/files/research/reports/report4.pdf, pages 41 ff.
171 http://www.mcit.gov.eg/display_press.asp?id=1102
64
UNDP and Microsoft form a technology partnership to combat poverty in

developing nations172
In January 2004 UNDP and Microsoft announced the formation of a

technical partnership. The objective is to create and implement in-
formation and communications technology projects that will help de-
veloping countries to achieve the Millennium Development Goals.
172 http://www.undp.org/dpa/pressrelease/releases/2004/january/23jan04.pdf
65
AWARENESS OF ACTORS OF DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION FOR FLOSS
6 Awareness of actors of development

cooperation for FLOSS
Having discussed the applicability of FLOSS in development cooperation
in the previous chapters the awareness and perception of Open-Source-
Software has to be further analyzed. It was shown that despite the sug-
gested benefits, FLOSS is not used as consistently as expected.
6.1 Survey Design

Considering the anticipated advantages of FLOSS application it is nec-
essary for actors of international development cooperation to have an
appropriate awareness of Open-Source-Software. In order to shed light
on the question about the awareness and perception of FLOSS in devel-
opment cooperation an expert survey using standardized questionnaires
was conducted.
The goal of the survey was to provide further insight whether the appli-
cation of FLOSS and the related advantages are perceived as described
in the previous chapters.
6.1.1 Methodology
In order to get a profile of the awareness and perception among actors

in international development cooperation a written, questionnaire based
survey was conducted. The self administered questionnaire was pro-
vided as a paper based version and as an online form which can be
used via the internet.
The target group of the survey consisted of actors in international de-

velopment cooperation with a theoretical or a practical background. In
order to get closer to the profile of opinions of these experts, a special
expertise in information technologies was not necessary. The focus was
on the awareness and perception of experts in international develop-
ment cooperation and not on specialized IT experts.
66
The main reason for the choice of a self administered questionnaire was
the possibility to include a larger number of experts in the survey. The
world wide distribution of experts makes it difficult to include a large
number of participants using personalized interview methodologies. In
addition the requirements for human and financial resources are sig-
nificantly lower.
The main downside of the methodology, especially of online surveys, is

the question of representativeness.173 The population of actors of devel-
opment cooperation with theoretical or practical background itself is
hard to assess. Furthermore it is not evident if the additional constraint
of internet access has an impact on the results of the survey. It could be
assumed though that the requirement of internet access is not a barrier
anymore in this type of profession.
As a consequence the survey was carried out as expert interviews. This

allows to determine a snapshot of the awareness and perception and to
derive hints of the opinion about Open-Source-Software in development
cooperation.
6.1.2 Questionnaire Design
A fundamental step for the development of an empirical questionnaire is

the operationalization of the research questions.174 The main focus of
this survey is on the awareness and perception of actors in development
cooperation for Open-Source-Software. Therefore not only the percep-
tion of FLOSS but of software in general has to be analyzed to allow dif-
ferentiated statements. The hypotheses of the survey are:
The majority of actors in development cooperation are aware of

the existence of FLOSS.
The majority of actors are aware of the suggested benefits of

FLOSS in development cooperation.
173 Atteslander (2003), page 187

174 Kromrey (2006), page 118
67
Actors of development cooperation share the same ideas regard-

ing the application of FLOSS in development cooperation.
In the context of this research the term ‘majority’ refers to the simple
majority of the participating experts whereas ‘same ideas’ can be under-
stood as a common image or vision about the application of Open-
Source-Software in development cooperation. The detailed definitions of
the remaining terms in the hypotheses result in the definition of the
needed indicators for the questionnaire.175
Awareness and
perception of software
Prospects of software Risks of software
Integrate rural areas Applied as an end in

itself
Competitive advantages Missing experience
Of actors Of local partners
Term Variable Indicator
Figure 15: Operationalization of ‘awareness and perception of

software’176
As stated earlier the awareness and perception of software in general

has to be analyzed in addition to FLOSS in order to allow conclusions.
The deduction of the indicators for the term ‘awareness and perception
of software’ which is used to distinguish between the attitude to FLOSS
is exemplarily given in Figure 15.
175 Atteslander (2003), pages 40 ff. and Kromrey (2006), pages 175 ff.
176 Own illustration following Atteslander (2003), pages 52 f.
68
Prospects and risks of software in general are used to determine the

awareness and perception by actors of development cooperation. Indica-
tors for these variables are the possibilities of enhanced rural integra-
tion and improved competitive advantages on the one hand as well as
missing experience and the risk of application as an end in itself on the
other. The indicators represented in end notes are included into the
questionnaire.
Awareness and
perception of FLOSS
Prospects of FLOSS Risks of FLOSS
Cost reduction Find staff
Provide different ser- Find local partners

vices
FLOSS is an alternative Get support
Increases local human

capital
Has to be embedded in
local ICT policy
Fosters participation
Figure 16: Operationalization of ‘awareness and perception of FLOSS’177
In the same way variables and indicators are derived from the terms
‘awareness and perception of FLOSS’ and ‘actors in development coop-
eration’.
69
Actors of development
cooperation
Personal data Professional Experience
Age Years experience in de-

velopment cooperation
Gender Experience in the appli-

cation of software
Country of Origin Consider the use of

software useful
Occupation Know of FLOSS
Employer Used FLOSS in the past
Worked in a project that

utilized FLOSS
Figure 17: Operationalization of ‘actors in development cooperation ‘178
The design of the questionnaire is following the common basic princi-

ples as exemplarily compiled by Mayer.179 The questions are grouped
into five categories: Prospects of software, risks of software, prospects of
FLOSS, risks of FLOSS and personal data. Indicators regarding the pro-
fessional experience of the participants are distributed over these five
categories.
All indicators which refer to knowledge or experience of the participants

are measured using closed questions and scales with an even number

179 Mayer (2006), page 89
70
of categories. This forces the participants to make a decision for or

against the given statement.
For all experience and opinion related questions a “don’t know” category
is provided. This allows designing the questionnaire without filter ques-
tions which makes the layout clearer and simplifies the process of an-
swering the form.
The first four blocks of the questionnaire which cover the prospects and
risks of software and FLOSS are concluded by an open question about
additional topics which have not been covered by that block. The fourth
block is also followed by an open question about totally uncovered is-
sues regarding the application of FLOSS in development cooperation.
These open questions are especially relevant for the analysis of the third
hypothesis, whether common ideas about software and FLOSS applica-
tion are shared amongst actors in development cooperation.
A pretest of the developed questionnaire was conducted with the help of

students of the seminar “Development and Project Planning” in June
2005. Appendix C gives the layout of the final paper version of the ques-
tionnaire.
6.2 Survey realization

As laid out in the previous chapter the target group for the expert sur-
vey are actors of international development cooperation with a theoreti-
cal or practical background.
With the kind support of the organization committee, the Conference on

Tropical and Subtropical Agricultural and Natural Resource Manage-
ment 2005 (Deutscher Tropentag 2005) held in Stuttgart-Hohenheim
was used to start the survey.180 The conference is regularly jointly or-
ganized by the universities of Berlin, Göttingen, Stuttgart-Hohenheim,
Bonn and Kassel-Witzenhausen as well as by the Council for Tropical
and Subtropical Research (ATSAF e.V) in cooperation with
180 http://www.tropentag.de/2005/
71
BEAF/GTZ.181 The target group consists of academic researchers, poli-

ticians, decision makers as well as practitioners. This made the Tropen-
tag a good starting point for the survey.
Based on the feedback obtained in Stuttgart-Hohenheim the question-

naire was transformed into an online-version.182 Potential participants
were invited using mailing lists and personal recommendations. The
most important sources were the mailing lists operated by ATSAF183
and the Centre for Advanced Training in Rural Development of the
Humboldt University of Berlin (SLE)184. In addition the participants
from the Tropentag who provided their email address were approached
to pass the survey on to colleagues.
ATSAF is a scientific network from Germany working in the field of

tropical and subtropical agricultural research. Most of the members are
scientist or experts of international development cooperation in the ar-
eas of agriculture, ecology, veterinary medicine, nutrition science, for-
estry and fishery. Information and communication technologies are not
the main focus of interest. ATSAF’s regular emails are distributed to
about 2000 addresses.
The SLE provides a supplementary training program for university

graduates, mostly from European Union countries, with a master’s de-
gree in social science, economics or agricultural science who are inter-
ested in a long-term position in the field of international cooperation.
Other areas of work include consultancy and research as well as semi-
nars and workshops on special topics of international cooperation. The
mailing list operated by SLE contains all current and former students
who graduated within the last 20 years.
The response rates were at a notably low level. At the Tropentag only
4% of the about 600 registered participants filled out and returned a
181 BEAF/GTZ: Advisory service on agricultural research for development by GTZ

182 http://survey.osford.org
183 http://www.atsaf.de
184 http://www.agrar.hu-berlin.de/sle
72
copy of the questionnaire. This was the case even though the question-
naire was distributed with the conference material and numerous boxes
for returning the forms were provided. The rates for the online version
after personal invitation using the described mailing lists have been at a
similar low level.
6.3 Data analysis

In this chapter the collected data will be analyzed. A short overview
about the experts who participated in the survey will be followed by a
quantitative and a qualitative analysis of the data.
6.3.1 Data overview
The survey started with the Tropentag on October 11th 2005 and lasted
until May 31st 2006. Within this period 162 experts have completed the
questionnaire. Figure 18 describes the response over time.
150
ATSAF
100
nr
Tropentag - follow up
50
SLE
Tropentag
0
1.11.2005 1.12.2005 1.1.2006 1.2.2006 1.3.2006 1.4.2006 1.5.2006
date
Figure 18: Response over time of the FLOSS survey
A distinct increase in responses can be observed after the personal invi-

tations were distributed. Noteworthy is the slower but more durable rise
73
after the Tropentag follow up email. It is likely that the recipients

passed the link to the questionnaire over a longer period of time to
known colleagues. In contrast to that phenomenon the high increase
after the invitation to subscribers of the two mailing lists was soon fol-
lowed by a decrease of the new number of participants.
30
25
20
Frequency
15
10
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Age
Figure 19: Age distribution of participants
The age of the experts (one participant did not provide information
about his or her age) is in the range from 21 to 72 years with a distribu-
tion as depicted in Figure 19. The median is 42 years. In this as well as
in further analysis the median was used instead of the mean value. The
asymmetrical distributions make the median preferable.
The distribution of the number of years of experience in development

cooperation is given in Figure 20. Interestingly the median value is at
10 years. Given that half of the participants are 42 or older it could
have been expected to find more participants with a longer history in
development cooperation. One suggestion could be that a couple of ex-
perts either enjoyed a very long education or started a second career in
74
development cooperation. The correlation between the two variables is

also analyzed in Table 1. The crosstabulation suggest that age and ex-
perience in development cooperation are significantly related.
25
20
Frequency
15
10
0
0 20 40
years experience
Figure 20: Distribution of experience of participants
Age Total
<= 36 37 - 47 >=48
years <= 10 Count 40 20 3 63
experience % within Age 93,0% 57,1% 8,1% 54,8%
>= 11 Count 3 15 34 52
% within Age 7,0% 42,9% 91,9% 45,2%
Total Count 43 35 37 115
% within Age 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0%
Table 1: Crosstabulation of “Years experience” and “Age”
About one third of the experts are female. 70% are from Germany while
the remaining 30% origin from a large variety of countries worldwide.
Figure 21 shows the frequencies for the gender and the country of ori-
gin distribution.
75
80% 80%
70% 70%
60% 60%
68%
50% 50%
70%
40% 40%
30% 30%
32%
20% 20%
30%
10% 10%
0% 0%
female male DEU World
Gender counry of origin
Figure 21: Distribution of gender and origin of participants
6.3.2 Quantitative analysis
For the quantitative analysis the scales of most variables were recoded
to provide sufficiently populated categories. This allows more meaning-
ful conclusions especially when using methods like crosstabulation. The
scales with six categories were reduced to two: ‘true’ and ‘false’. The
‘don’t know’ category was left unchanged.
0
ETH
IND
JPN
TUN
AUT
THA
BEN
CAN
GBR
KEN
MAR
NLD
VNM
BEL
AUS
BRA
CHE
EGY
ESP
FRA
GHA
LKA
PAK
UK
USA
ZWE
Figure 22: Histogram for ‘country of origin’ for participants not coming
from Germany185
In addition to the discrete scales aspects of the sociological data was

recoded. As already used in Figure 21 the country of origin was summa-
185 Country codes are ISO 3166,

see http://www.iso.org/iso/en/prods-services/iso3166ma/index.html
76
rized to participants from Germany and from any other country. The
distribution of non German participants is depicted in Figure 22. The
number of 26 countries for the 49 non German participants suggests
the combined category ‘World’.
In addition the variables ‘age’ and ‘years experience’ were recoded to

provide reasonable populated categories. As no external or natural cate-
gory boundaries are given the groups are constituted to have about
equal populations. The resulting distributions of the variables are given
in Figure 23.
40 % 60 %
35 %
50 %
30 % 54 %
40 %
25 % 34 % 32 % 34 % 46 %
20 % 30 %
15 %
20 %
10 %
10 %
5%
0% 0%
<= 36 37 - 47 >=48 <= 10 >= 11
Age years experience
Figure 23: Recoding of variables ‘Age’ and ‘Years experience’
Question Valid true false don’t know
Experience with Software 162 121 75% 38 23% 3 2%
Consider useful 162 140 86% 18 11% 4 3%
Help integrating rural areas 162 134 83% 25 15% 3 2%
Software is underestimated 161 98 61% 47 29% 16 10%
Competitive advantages 162 125 77% 28 17% 9 6%
Actors miss experience 162 130 80% 24 15% 8 5%
Local partner miss experience 162 144 89% 14 8% 4 3%
Applied as an end in itself 162 94 58% 45 28% 23 14%
Table 2: Frequencies for prospects and risks of software
77
100%
90%
80%
70%
60% true
50% false
40% don't know
30%
20%
10%
0%
es
ul
as
e
ed
f
e
e
el
ar
nc
ef
ag
nc
re
at
its
f tw
us
ie
ie
t im
nt
la
in
er
er
So
va
r
ra
e
xp
d
p
d
id
re
ru
en
ex
th
e
ns
de
g
wi
ive
an
s
in
Co
is
un
is
e
at
m
tit
as
nc
gr
is
pe
er
rs
rie
te
d
e
tn
to
ie
ar
in
pe
Co
ar
Ac
pl
ftw
lp
Ex
lp
Ap
He
So
ca
Lo
Figure 24: Frequencies for prospects and risks of software
As discussed in chapter 6.1.2 the first two blocks of the questionnaire

cover the awareness and perception of software application in general in
development cooperation. The frequencies are given in Table 2 and
Figure 24 respectively.
The first noteworthy aspect is that a majority (75%) of the participating

experts have practical experience with the application of software in de-
velopment cooperation. But for all remaining questions more than those
with experience give a qualified statement, i.e. they do not answer ‘don’t
know’. Therefore there is a distinct profile of opinions for some ques-
tions:
• 86% consider the use of software useful to reach development

objectives
• 83% believe in a better integration of rural and remote areas
78
• 80% state that organizations of development cooperation may

not have the necessary experience in the realization of software
projects.
• 89% share the concern that local partners may not have the
necessary experience in the application of software.
Only the two questions about the underestimation of software and

whether software is applied as an end in itself are not answered that
consistently. It is remarkable that these topics show the highest num-
bers of participants without an opinion about the subject. This indeci-
siveness is the same for participants with and without experience in
software application as the numbers do not change significantly if only
those with experience are considered (Table 3).
Valid true false don't know
software is underestimated 40 21 51 % 14 34 % 5 12 %
applied as an end in itself 41 26 63 % 7 17 % 8 20 %
Table 3: Frequencies for selected questions, only for participants

without experience with software in development cooperation
The frequencies for the answers of the questions dealing with the pros-
pects and risks of Open-Source-Software are given in Table 4 and
Figure 25. It is noteworthy that 70% of the participants state to know
Open-Source-Software. This is almost the same number as stated to
have experience with software in general within development coopera-
tion. But the level of the quality regarding the knowledge about FLOSS
decreases sharply. While 70% know about it only 49% have practical
experience and just 31% applied it within a project in development co-
operation.
79
Question Valid true false don’t know
Know FLOSS 162 113 70% 49 30% -/- -/-
Used FLOSS 162 80 49% 76 47% 6 4%
Worked in a project utilizing 162 50 31% 102 63% 10 6%

FLOSS
FLOSS reduces costs 162 89 55% 22 14% 51 31%
Provide different services 162 67 41% 37 23% 58 36%
FLOSS is an alternative 161 80 49% 26 16% 55 34%
Increases human capital 162 85 53% 26 16% 51 31%
Embedded in ICT policy 162 60 37% 50 31% 52 32%
Fosters participation 161 74 46% 36 22% 51 32%
Find staff 162 114 70% 12 7% 36 23%
Find local partners 162 116 71% 9 6% 37 23%
Get support 162 84 52% 30 18% 48 30%
Table 4: Frequencies for prospects and risks of FLOSS
80%
70%
60%
50% true
40% false
30% don't know
20%
10%
0%
ff
s
rt
SS
SS
s
y
n
e
a
s
ice
it a
po
er
lic
io
SS
t iv
st
st
O
tn
at
p
rv
po
co
p
na
nd
FL
ca
O
FL
su
ar
ip
se
FL
r
s
Fi
c
lp
te
an
ce
ow
et
ed
rti
IC
nt
al
ca
ng
G
pa
m
du
re
Us
Kn
in
an
lo
zi
hu
f fe
re
s
ed
t ili
er
nd
is
di
es
SS
tu
dd
st
Fi
SS
e
as
Fo
be
ec
id
e
O
FL
ov
oj
Em
cr
FL
pr
Pr
In
a
in
d
ke
or
W
Figure 25: Frequencies for prospects and risks of FLOSS
80
Relating to the prospects of FLOSS the participants are much more

skeptical as compared to software in general. In the later case around
80% agreed with the prospects and risks while for the prospects of
Open-Source-Software the number drops to about 50%. Especially low
is the agreement to the questions about the possible provision of differ-
ent services, the necessity of embedding FLOSS in ICT policies and the
prospect of increased participation.
In addition it is noteworthy that about one third of the experts do not

have an opinion about the suggested prospects. However an analysis of
the 49 participants who do not know Open-Source-Software (30%) re-
veals that these groups are not completely congruent. 20%-50% of the
experts without knowledge of FLOSS do make concrete statements re-
garding the prospects and risks.
Question Valid true false don't know
Worked in a project utilizing FLOSS 80 43 54 % 35 44 % 2 3%
FLOSS reduces costs 80 66 83 % 9 11 % 5 6%
Provide different services 80 45 56 % 22 28 % 13 16 %
FLOSS is an alternative 79 55 70 % 16 20 % 8 10 %
Increases human capital 80 54 68 % 15 19 % 11 14 %
Embedded in ICT policy 80 33 41 % 36 45 % 11 14 %
Fosters participation 79 45 57 % 23 29 % 11 14 %
Find staff 80 64 80 % 8 10 % 8 10 %
Find local partners 80 66 83 % 5 6% 9 11 %
Get support 80 51 64 % 22 28 % 7 9%
Table 5: Frequencies for prospects and risks of FLOSS, only for

participants who used FLOSS
The situation for the assessment of the risks of Open-Source-Software

is similar in terms of high rates of experts without a definite opinion.
Especially concerning the acquisition of staff and local partners a clear
majority of 70% agrees to these risks. Again for the case of FLOSS the
81
agreement is not as high as for software in general, although the as-

pects of missing experience of actors and partners is comparable to dif-
ficulties of finding staff and local partners.
The situation changes when the analysis is reduced to those partici-

pants who have used FLOSS in the past (Table 5 and Figure 26). In
general FLOSS is perceived more positively by those with a practical
background and the rate of participants with an indifferent attitude is
about cut in half. Especially the cost aspect, FLOSS as an alternative
and the increase of the human capital are much higher valued.
On the other hand the skeptical attitude towards recruitment of staff

and local partners is even higher. The same is true for the perception of
support provision for Open-Source-Software.
90 %
80 %
70 %
60 %
true
50 %
false
40 %
don't know
30 %
20 %
10 %
0%
ff
s
t
s
y
or
e
a
s
i ce
it a
er
io
lic
tiv
SS
st
st
pp
tn
at
p
po
rv
co
na
nd
O
ca
su
ar
ip
se
FL
r
s
Fi
c
lp
te
an
ce
et
rti
IC
nt
al
ca
ng
G
pa
m
du
re
in
an
lo
zi
hu
f fe
re
s
ed
t ili
er
nd
is
di
es
SS
tu
dd
st
Fi
SS
e
as
Fo
be
ec
id
e
FL
ov
oj
Em
cr
FL
pr
Pr
In
a
in
d
ke
or
W
Figure 26: Frequencies for prospects and risks of FLOSS, only for
participants who used FLOSS
In order to determine hints for coherences selected crosstabulations

were calculated. Three tabulations are exemplarily provided which for
82
one suggest to support or contradict the hypotheses and additionally

provide noteworthy results.
Age
<= 36 37 - 47 >=48 Total
Used true Count 35 22 22 79
FLOSS % within Age 64,8% 46,8% 40,7% 51,0%
false Count 19 25 32 76
% within Age 35,2% 53,2% 59,3% 49,0%
% within Age 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0%
Table 6: Crosstabulation of “Used FLOSS” and “Age”
Age
<= 36
37 - 47
60,0%
>=48
Percent
40,0%
65%
59%
53%
47%
20,0% 41%
35%
0,0%
true false
used FLOSS
Figure 27: Crosstabulation of ‘Used FLOSS’ and age
The first crosstabulation combines the two variables “Used FLOSS” and
“Age” (see also Table 6 and Figure 27). The table suggests that within the
sample of analyzed experts the hypothesis
“Used FLOSS” is independent from “Age”
can be rejected. It is remarkable though that the group of younger ex-

perts used Open-Source-Software well above average. About two thirds
of these participants have practical experience with FLOSS. This rate
83
declines to 47% within the middle group and to 41% in the group aged
48 or older.
The analysis above suggests that the perception of the prospects and
risks of FLOSS is related to the level of knowledge about Open-Source-
Software. Therefore this crosstabulation suggests that within the ana-
lyzed sample the awareness and perception is not even among the par-
ticipants.
years experience
<= 10 >= 11 Total
FLOSS true Count 45 18 63
reduces % within years experience 71,4% 34,0% 54,3%
costs false Count 4 10 14
% within years experience 6,3% 18,9% 12,1%
don’t Count 14 25 39
know % within years experience 22,2% 47,2% 33,6%
Total Count 63 53 116
% within years experience 100,0% 100,0% 100,0%
Table 7: Crosstabulation of “FLOSS reduces costs” and “Years

experience”
The perception of the prospect of reduced project cost in relation to the

number of years experience in development cooperation of the expert is
analyzed by the second crosstabulation (see also Table 7 and Figure
28). Again the table suggests that the hypothesis
“FLOSS reduces costs” is independent from “Years experience”
can be neglected. Within the group of experts who participated in the

survey a significant relationship exists between the two variables. It is
noteworthy that the experts with fewer years experience regard the cost
effects more positively than their colleagues with more than a ten years
history in development cooperation.
A variety of possible explanations exists for this effect. It could be that

the experts with more experience have a more holistic view of the cost
structure reducing the possible effects of potential cost benefits due to
84
Open-Source-Software. On the other hand it could be again the lack of

experience of the experts belonging to the older group.
years experience
80,0%
<= 10
>= 11
60,0%
Percent
40,0%
71%
47%
20,0%
34%
22%
19%
6%
0,0%
true false don`t know
FLOSS reduces costs
Figure 28: Crosstabulation of ‘FLOSS reduces costs’ and ‘years

experience’
fosters participation
true false don’t Total
know
increases true Count 63 13 8 84
human % within fosters participation 85,1% 36,1% 15,7% 52,2%
capital false Count 6 19 1 26
% within fosters participation 8,1% 52,8% 2,0% 16,1%
don’t Count 5 4 42 51
know % within fosters participation 6,8% 11,1% 82,4% 31,7%
% within fosters participation 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0%
Table 8: Crosstabulation of “Increases human capital” and “Fosters

participation”
Finally the relationship for the perceptions of two different prospects of

Open-Source-Software is analyzed in the crosstabulation given in Table
8 and Figure 29. The analysis of the table suggests again that the hy-
potheses
85
“increases human capital” is independent from “fosters partici-

pation“
can be rejected for the investigated group of experts. It can be derived

that there is a relationship between the two prospects “Increases hu-
man capital” and “Fosters participation” within this sample. Approxi-
mately three quarters of the participants provide the same answer for
both aspects. This suggests that the perception does not heavily rely on
the concrete prospect.
fosters participation
100,0%
true
false
don`t know
80,0%
60,0%
Percent
85,1%
82,4%
40,0%
52,8%
20,0% 36,1%
15,7% 2,0%
11,1%
8,1% 6,8%
0,0%
true false don`t know
increases human capital
Figure 29: Crosstabulation of ‘increases human capital’ and ‘fosters

participation’
The statements derived from the data so far have all completely been
based on the principles for an expert survey. As discussed above the
response rates were at a low level. Additionally the population is hard to
assess. This makes it difficult to realize a selection of potential partici-
pants purely on probability. Therefore the representativeness of the
considered sample can be questioned. Under the supposition of a ran-
dom selection of the experts who participated in the survey, more quali-
fied statements are possible.
86
Crosstab Asymp. Sig. Cramer's V

(2-sided)
“Used FLOSS” * Age 0,035 0,21
“FLOSS reduces costs” * “Years experience” 0,000 0,38
“Increases human capital” * “Fosters participation” 0,000 0,64
Table 9: Levels of significance and strengths of associations
Table 9 gives the levels of significance resulting from the chi-square

analysis as well as the strengths of the discussed associations
(Cramer’s V). The strength of the first relationship between the practical
background with Open-Source-Software and the age of the participants
is at a rather low level. For the second crosstabulation it is at a medium
level while it is strongest for the coherence of the two prospects of
FLOSS in the third analysis. These aspects are meant to underpin the
conclusions already drawn from the expert survey above.
Know FLOSS Used FLOSS
90 % 60 %
80 %
50 %
70 %
60 % 40 %
70 %
50 %
30 % 49 % 47 %
40 %
30 % 20 %
20 %
30 % 10 %
10 % 4%
0% 0%
true false true false don`t know
Know Frequency lower upper Used Frequency lower upper

Floss end end FLOSS end end
true 113 70 % 62 % 77 % true 80 49 % 41 % 57 %
false 76 47 % 39 % 55 %
false 49 30 % 23 % 38 %
don’t know 6 4% 1% 8%
Figure 30: Frequencies of ‘Know FLOSS’ and ‘Used FLOSS’ with 95%
confidence intervals
In addition two frequency tables are provided with 95% confidence in-
tervals (see also Figure 30). These exemplary diagrams reveal the mar-
87
gin of deviation of the frequencies if conclusions for the populations are

going to be made. The provided examples show that these variations are
about 15 percentage points. Especially when pros and cons are at simi-
lar levels conclusions have to consider these effects.
6.3.3 Qualitative analysis
The open questions in the questionnaire were not included in the quan-
titative analysis above. For one the questions were not compulsory, for
the other the nature of the questions was to obtain additional aspects
not covered by the closed questions. Altogether 292 answers to the five
open questions were given by 109 participants (67% of the total 162 re-
spondents). Just over 50% provided aspects to at least two topics.
Figure 31 gives the distribution of answered open questions.
35
30 29
25 25
25
Nuber of participants
20
16
15 14
10
0
1 2 3 4 5
Number of answers to open questions
Figure 31: Frequencies for provision of answers to open questions
For the further analysis the answers were grouped into two blocks. The
first contains aspects which indicate that the participant might have a
similar perception of ICT4D and FLOSS4D as suggested above. The sec-
ond group contains answers which give reason to suggest that the par-
ticipant is not familiar with the suggested application of ICT and Open-
Source-Software in development cooperation. The segmentation consid-
88
ered only the awareness and perception, i.e. it does not assume an
agreement with the subject. E.g. a participant knowing about the sug-
gested benefits of FLOSS application in development cooperation would
be classified as a member of the first group even if the suggested pros-
pects were denied.
Similar awareness and perception
The answers provided by the participants indicating a similar percep-

tion can predominantly be assigned to three topics: Technical infra-
structure for ICT in general, common issues regarding FLOSS in devel-
opment cooperation as well as prospects and risks of Open-Source-
Software application in development cooperation. Altogether the major-
ity of the answers raises concerns or mentions critical issues to be
taken care of when utilizing Open-Source-Software in development co-
operation.
Infrastructure issues for general application of ICT were often com-

monly raised as a general obstacle for ICT application in developing
countries. This is especially true when looking at remote and rural ar-
eas. Stable power supply, telephone and internet connection are the
main concerns. In addition the problem of stability and reliability of the
existing technical infrastructure was mentioned.
The main points which were brought forward in relation to Open-

Source-Software in development cooperation were documentation
(chapter 2.3), donor and decision maker awareness and pragmatic pro-
ject realization. Some participants feel that Open-Source-Software is not
promoted sufficiently. Therefore they argue that decision makers are not
aware of the advantages of FLOSS resulting in a lack of encouragement
amongst others from donor organizations. In addition some experts
question the general preference for FLOSS depending on a project’s ob-
jective and environment. They argue that it might be more useful to use
closed source software in special situations. Especially if intellectual
property rights are not respected or project schedules do not allow addi-
tional efforts for enhancement or training of FLOSS products.
89
Most comments were provided referring to the expected prospects and

risks of FLOSS application in development cooperation. In general miss-
ing case studies and examples of application as well as ambiguous poli-
cies about the usage of FLOSS were mentioned. Furthermore the pre-
requisites in terms of readiness were addressed, i.e. the necessity for
different approaches within countries with different levels of develop-
ment. The adoption of existing or development of new standardized ap-
proaches and methods like Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) was sug-
gested.186
A large number of experts provided additional aspects for the thematic

blocks participation, inclusion and empowerment. The importance of
considering the socio cultural environment was one subject brought
forward. This was underpinned particularly with the example of the role
of communities in decision making processes. In addition the relevance
of the proposed solutions for the community as well as the inclusion of
vulnerable and marginal groups were points of concern.
In order to tackle the digital divide and foster the e-inclusion process
the issue of training and education in general was raised. It was repeat-
edly demanded that the applied software solutions would have to be
adapted to the local conditions in terms of language and usability in
order to allow a maximum level of accessibility. Sustainability was a
major issue as well. Maintenance of installed solutions, valid business
cases and suited software for the objectives were the main points of
concern given in this context.
Different awareness and perception
About twice as much answers were provided leading to the assumption

of a different perception of FLOSS application in development coopera-
tion. They can also be split up into groups: Open-Source-Software is-
186 “PRA is a label given to a growing family of participatory approaches and methods
that emphasize local knowledge and enable local people to do their own appraisal,
analysis, and planning. […] The use of PRA enables development practitioners, gov-
ernment officials, and local people to work together on context-appropriate pro-
grams.”, World Bank (1996), page 183
90
sues, ICT in general and general prerequisites for successful application

of FLOSS. Again the majority of aspects relates to concerns about the
application of software and FLOSS.
Regarding to Open-Source-Software issues 3 main subjects were raised:

The individual perception of FLOSS, standards and data exchange as
well as FLOSS4D. Most aspects referring to the individual perception
handle the topics support, product maintenance and technical require-
ments. Some experts proclaimed that appropriate support for FLOSS
products is not available. In addition it was noted that existing support
services are predominantly available only on a commercial basis. While
support for closed source programs usually comes for a price it is men-
tioned as a disadvantage by some participants that the same is true for
Open-Source-Software. In addition some experts consider the availabil-
ity of internet connectivity as mandatory, as in their view FLOSS relies
on web technology. While it is true that a lot of internet based applica-
tions utilize Open-Source-Software a connection is not necessary to run
most FLOSS products.187 This misunderstanding might stem from the
fact that today the internet is the main distribution channel for most
FLOSS products. In the beginning of the 1990s, when broadband inter-
net connectivity was not that common as it is today, most Linux distri-
butions were sold on CD or DVD.
Another point is made regarding the consideration of standards and

data exchange with other software programs. Most experts making com-
ments on this subject feel that standards are better satisfied and fol-
lowed by closed source software and therefore FLOSS products cannot
exchange data with other programs easily. The risk of the development
of FLOSS island solutions was also raised. The perception might be a
result from the market dominance of the Microsoft Office program suite.
Though this program does not implement a standard for its data files it
is widely considered as a de facto standard. On the other hand an in-
187 One of the most prominent web applications based on FLOSS is the Google search
engine. Google operates one of the largest computer clusters running on Linux.
http://www.researchchannel.org/prog/displayevent.aspx?rID=2879
91
creasing number of public administrations in Europe and USA insist on

the usage of the “OpenDocument Format” standard.188 The imposed
pressure made Microsoft to develop software extensions that allow the
usage of the “OpenDocument Format”.189
Regarding to the application of FLOSS in development cooperation some

participants suggested to rely on closed source software. In particular it
was suggested to concentrate more on the application of Microsoft
products and work on discounted license schemes for developing coun-
tries. The provision of cheaper of HIV drugs was given as an example. In
addition it was argued that people know best what is good for them.
While self-determination is an essential part of participatory methods it
requires knowledge about the available choices.
ICT4D was also generally questioned by some experts. It was stated that
software is only a tool to transport information. In turn more value
should be set on the information itself according to the mentioned ar-
guments. This neglects one of the basic principles of software: data in-
put, data processing and data output. The processing of the data is an
integral part of software itself. But it is likely though that the partici-
pants wanted to raise the concern that too much emphasis is laid on
the software instead of the quality of the processed data.
A second major group of answers relating to ICT4D is about sustainabil-

ity. Some participants fear that a sustainable development is generally
at risk. This is underpinned by the argument that the target groups are
the least ones in need of hard- or software knowledge. This group of re-
spondents can be considered most of all to have a different awareness
and perception not only of Open-Source-Software but of software appli-
cation in general in development cooperation.
Finally many answers were given with respect to general prerequisites

for successful application of ICT and FLOSS in development coopera-
tion. Most of them deal with inconveniences of most actual software
188 OpenDocument Format Alliance: http://www.odfalliance.org

189 Heise Online (2006a)
92
products. It is asked for less virus and error prune software without the
need of frequent updates that provides an easy user interface. In addi-
tion the software should be available in many languages and operation
should be possible by untrained users. Furthermore the software itself
should assure free access to information. While all these are valid re-
quests they are common problems and challenges of software in gen-
eral. Furthermore aspects of access are more political than technologi-
cal by nature.
It has to be noted that the provided answers have to be interpreted very

carefully. Though many participants kindly provided their input the
number of opinions to the selected topics analyzed above is too small to
derive reliable results.
93
DISCUSSION
7 Discussion
Within this chapter the findings from the literature and the results from
the survey outlined above will be discussed. This analysis is performed
against the background of the initially posed research questions, about
the applicability of FLOSS in development cooperation on the one hand
and about the awareness and perception of actors of development coop-
eration of Open-Source-Software on the other. General conclusions and
future prospects round off this chapter and the thesis.
7.1 Literature
Within the literature research three distinct topics were analyzed to un-
derpin the applicability of FLOSS in development cooperation. FLOSS in
general was looked at from different perspectives. Further the applica-
tion of information and communication technologies in development co-
operation were analyzed. Finally the application of FLOSS in develop-
ment cooperation and resulting implications were examined. All consid-
erations took the special case of agriculture in development regions into
account.
7.1.1 FLOSS in general
The investments of big players in the software industry like IBM and HP
in Open-Source-Software development are just one indicator for its ris-
ing importance. The increasing distribution within public administra-
tions is another argument for the serious consideration of FLOSS in
software selection processes. In addition it was demonstrated that the
level of maturity of many FLOSS products allows a commercial applica-
tion. This is also reflected by a dominant or rising market share of some
FLOSS products like the Apache web server or the Linux operating sys-
tem.
With respect to the motivation for participation of individual program-

mers two main incentives were derived from the literature. On the one
hand career opportunities were mentioned, on the other the ego gratifi-
94
DISCUSSION
cation aspect was stated. Both incentives can be regarded as signaling

incentives.
It was laid out that these signaling incentives also play a major role
when looking at the motivation of commercial firms for participation in
FLOSS. In addition it was derived that Open-Source-Software involve-
ment might become necessary due to changed forces within the soft-
ware industry. It was shown that FLOSS changed the rules of the IT in-
dustry, e.g. by using standard economic models like Porter’s five forces.
Lowered market entry barriers and increased bargaining power of the
customers demand new strategies within this industry. It was demon-
strated that a derived strategy of FLOSS involvement is in line with eco-
nomic theory. The importance of an according business model reflecting
the nature of Open-Source-Software was highlighted. Therefore not only
cost issues but strategic aspects, e.g. long term perspectives or genera-
tion of market share, have to be taken into account when considering
releasing software as Open-Source-Software.
With respect to the user experience of FLOSS a summary of disadvan-

tages and advantages was provided. Apart from a poor documentation
of many FLOSS products the limited warranty, liability and support are
major downsides. While this drawback is an obstacle for many users it
is a business perspective to others. Providing professional documenta-
tion and support for FLOSS is a business model that has already been
implemented successfully (e.g. RedHat, Inc190).
Apart from the missing license fees the major benefits of FLOSS are the
openness and flexibility of the products. These characteristics allow the
independent error correction and the customization of the software to
local conditions. Thus users of FLOSS do not have to rely on the pro-
ducer of the software but are empowered to modify the programs to
their needs.
190 RedHat provides amongst others professional support and service for Linux and
dedicated other FLOSS products, www.redhat.com
95
DISCUSSION
7.1.2 ICT application in development cooperation
All considerations according to the assessment of ICT application are

performed against the background of current development objectives
and development strategies. At this the objectives are defined by the
Millennium Development Goals as they were resolved by the General
Assembly of the United Nations.
The eighth MDG states explicitly to make the benefits of ICT available in
co-operation with the private sector. In addition it was elaborated how
ICT might support the other seven goals as well. Selected examples and
case studies from the literature were applied to underpin the general
purpose nature of ICT. It was demonstrated how the range of topics
from participation, inclusion, empowerment of minorities and vulner-
able groups, over education to resource management can be supported
by an appropriate ICT application. At the same time this analysis points
out the challenges of ICT application in development regions. Low levels
of education and high rates of illiteracy as well as large distances com-
bined with an insufficient infrastructure often make the application of
ICT difficult.
The development strategy described by Stern et al. was used to validate

the ICT applicability in development regions.191 According to this strat-
egy the development of growth and empowerment relies on two main
pillars: Improvement of the investment climate and enhancement of the
individual empowerment (Figure 4, page 23). In this context empower-
ment is composed of the individual internal and external constraints as
well as the individual capital. It was outlined how ICT application can
support the creation of a better investment climate as well as the en-
hancement of the individual empowerment. The arguments were under-
pinned with case studies demonstrating the positive effects of ICT.
The current status of ICT application in development regions was cate-

gorized as uneven with major gaps between countries. This situation is
191 Stern et al. (2005)
96
DISCUSSION
also referred to as digital divide. Especially considering the situation of

agriculture in development regions it is important to realize that this
gap exists also within countries, i.e. between urban and rural areas.
7.1.3 FLOSS application in development cooperation
The case of Open-Source-Software application in development coopera-

tion was as well analyzed with the special case of agriculture in devel-
opment regions in mind. In addition to the aspects discussed with ICT
application in general the special aspects of FLOSS in development co-
operation were highlighted. It was outlined that Open-Source-Software
has the potential to support the core ideas of the MDGs. Primarily these
values are freedom (to modify and distribute the software), equality
(same access for all) and solidarity (by sharing of the software). The ma-
jor suggested benefits of FLOSS application in development regions
were elaborated and validated with examples. The prospects mentioned
are:
• ICT sustainability and autonomy

• Potential for the reduction of the digital divide
• Inclusion of vulnerable and marginal groups
• Participation
• Increase of the human capital
• Utilization of cheap labor to gain a comparative advantage in
software development
It was also derived from the literature that for the purpose of maximiz-
ing the benefits for a country’s economy, FLOSS has to be an integral
part of the national ICT policy or strategy. In addition it was also shown
that in order to unleash the full potentials of Open-Source-Software ap-
plication it might be helpful to work on the protection of intellectual
property rights. Especially the risk of a general devaluation of software
by the absence of IPR enforcements accompanied with missing incen-
tives to switch from pirated software to FLOSS products were given as
underpinning examples. In was laid out though that business models
97
DISCUSSION
relying on FLOSS are potentially more sustainable than proprietary

ones as they do not rely on IPR enforcements.
The benefits as described above are from a country’s perspective. They

can by large also be transferred to the individual or micro economic
level. Due to its open nature FLOSS offers business perspectives in
marginal markets which could not be served by foreign, proprietary
software providers. The adaptation to local languages and customs was
just one example provided. These characteristics of FLOSS can also
help to tackle the digital divide within countries but also within regions.
With regard to the outlined theoretical aspects the current status of

FLOSS application in development cooperation was elaborated. Empha-
sis was put on the analysis of the integration of Open-Source-Software
in national ICT policies and strategies. With this in mind the question of
government intervention in principle was raised and especially for the
case of developing countries justified. The arguments provided relate to
the mostly imperfect markets in less developed countries and the ex-
pected future benefits outweighing potential initial costs. Thus market
intervention strategies were outlined which in summary can be de-
scribed by three approaches: The neutral, the enabling and the aggres-
sive approach. Thereby the level of governmental involvement and
FLOSS application increases. Examples of these strategies were pro-
vided from Asia, South America and Africa.
With the integration of rural areas in mind these examples were com-
plemented with case studies of FLOSS application in development re-
gions. The topics covered were localization of software products to local
languages in Africa, improved health care services in rural areas in Mali
and the fostering of sustainable livelihoods of remote villages in Laos.
Three main conclusions from FLOSS application in development regions
were drawn. First, even though FLOSS application does not require any
investments in license fees, low or limited funds often deny the pro-
curement of appropriate hardware or training of staff. Second, the miss-
ing license fees lead to the risk of the false assumption that no money is
98
DISCUSSION
needed for FLOSS application. Finally it was derived that the involve-
ment of end users by the application of Open-Source-Software might
help to build responsibility and ownership within projects.
Having laid out the theoretical foundation for the application of FLOSS
in development regions the implications for actors of development coop-
eration were considered. The major identified topics are in line with the
described development strategy of growth and empowerment: It is im-
portant to create an enabling environment in the development regions
to foster FLOSS application on the one hand. On the other hand readi-
ness and awareness within the community of actors in development co-
operation have to be fostered to help to create that enabling environ-
ment and support local decision makers.
With regard to the enabling environment, programs for FLOSS advocacy

and creation of a sustainable market demand were named. Especially
programs to foster awareness and education were noted for FLOSS ad-
vocacy. Thereby formal and institutionalized actions (e.g. Malaysian
Public Sector Open Source Software Initiative) or informal measures like
local Linux user groups were described to realize FLOSS promotion. For
the realization of the sustainable market demand it was outlined that in
most less developed countries the government and public organizations
are often the largest customers for ICT products and services and there-
fore can help to build up the demand.
Concerning the aspect of the readiness of actors in development coop-

eration it was laid out that a lot of skills needed for the promotion of
FLOSS are already at the center of many development efforts. Business
analysis, process (re-)design, policy consultation and change manage-
ment are just the most obvious examples. Therefore the awareness for
Open-Source-Software application in development cooperation and for
the related prospects remains as a vital part. Examples of projects util-
izing closed source software provided evidence that the awareness for
FLOSS varies within the community of actors in development coopera-
tion.
99
DISCUSSION
Recapitulating the findings and conclusions from the literature it can be

stated that the theory underpins the application of FLOSS in develop-
ment cooperation. The validity as a tool with the potential to foster cur-
rent development objectives was derived. This is especially true for the
situation of agriculture with its main characteristics of rural and remote
settings, poor levels of population with a high degree of illiteracy and
low institutional support in mind. Obviously these conditions are also
major challenges for the application of FLOSS. Other challenges derived
from the literature are on the one hand to integrate FLOSS in national
policies and strategies to unleash the full potential. On the other hand
the importance of awareness of actors and consultants in development
cooperation was put forward.
7.2 Survey Results

For the further analysis of the awareness of actors in development co-
operation for Open-Source-Software application an expert survey was
conducted. A combination of paper and internet based questionnaires
was used to collect the opinions of experts in development cooperation.
Altogether 162 participants completed the form. The design of the ques-
tionnaire was based on three hypotheses derived from the theoretical
findings of the literature research: First, the majority of actors in devel-
opment cooperation are aware of the existence of FLOSS. Second, the
majority of actors are aware of the suggested benefits of FLOSS in de-
velopment cooperation and finally, actors of development cooperation
share the same ideas regarding the application of FLOSS in develop-
ment cooperation.
The data was collected over a period of approximately six months.

Thereby the median value for the age of participants is 42 years, for the
number of years experience in development cooperation the median is
10 years.
100
DISCUSSION
7.2.1 Quantitative results
About three quarters of the respondents stated to have experience with

the application of software in development cooperation. At the same
time more than those participants with experience provided qualified
statements about most of the potential prospects and risks. Relating to
the prospects of software application in development cooperation the
most definite statements were made for the general usefulness (86%)
and the potential for the integration of rural areas (83%). With respect
to the anticipated risks the missing levels of experience by actors (80%)
and local partners (89%) found favor with the majority of experts. The
underestimation of software and the risk of application as an end in it-
self reach a lower level of consensus within the group of experts. Sig-
nificantly different results were not observed for participants with or
without experience of software application in development cooperation.
With regard to the analysis of the perception of prospects and risks of

FLOSS application in development cooperation the level of the quality of
the knowledge about Open-Source-Software was inspected. While again
a majority of 70% of the participants stated to know FLOSS, only about
half of them had practical experience and just 31% had applied it in a
project in development cooperation before. Therefore it can be assumed
that the quality of experience and knowledge decreases within these
groups.
In total the experts were much more skeptical towards FLOSS applica-
tion compared to the application of software in general. Only half of the
experts agreed to the suggested prospects of FLOSS application in de-
velopment cooperation. In contrast to the findings from the literature a
notably low agreement was observed regarding the integration of FLOSS
in national ICT policies and regarding the potential enhancement of lo-
cal participation. In addition about one third of the participants did not
state an opinion regarding the suggested prospects. It was shown
though that this group of respondents is not congruent with the one
without any FLOSS knowledge. Further derivations have to consider
101
DISCUSSION
that some experts state specific opinions while they declare not to know
Open-Source-Software at the same time.
The described critical perception of FLOSS changes significantly when

only the answers of those experts is considered who declared to have
practical experience with Open-Source-Software. On the one hand
much more respondents agreed to the suggested prospects. On the
other the risks were assessed more critical as well. This relates espe-
cially to the difficulties of recruiting staff and finding local partners.
Supplementing these findings exemplary coherences supporting the hy-

potheses were analyzed. It was shown that the prior usage of FLOSS
and the age of the respondents are interdependent. Thereby the level of
experience declines with increasing age. This can also be viewed as de-
creasing knowledge about Open-Source-Software depending on the age
of the experts. A similar observation was made for the perception of
FLOSS as an instrument to reduce project costs in relation to the num-
ber of years experience in development cooperation. Again the two vari-
ables show a significant relationship. The experts with less than 10
years experience judge the potential for savings much higher than their
colleagues with more experience. The explanation could be the missing
experience with Open-Source-Software. On the other hand alternative
explanations like a more holistic view of a project’s cost structure are
possible. Finally the relationship between two prospects was analyzed.
The crosstabulation indicated a significant relationship between the
variables “increases human capital” and “fosters participation”. This
indicates that the perception of FLOSS can be carefully generalized, i.e.
respondents agreeing to one prospect tend to agree to another one as
well.
7.2.2 Qualitative results
About two thirds of the participants provided at least one additional as-
pect to one of the open questions. The supplied answers were divided
into two groups: The ones which suggest a similar perception of FLOSS
102
DISCUSSION
application in development regions as suggested and the ones with a

different one.
Within the group of answers suggesting a similar awareness and per-

ception the following main issues were raised. The first regards to infra-
structure for ICT in general. Especially when looking at remote and ru-
ral areas stable power supply, telephone and internet connection were
the main concerns. Furthermore common issues regarding FLOSS in
development cooperation were brought forward. In this context insuffi-
cient promotion of FLOSS in development cooperation combined with
missing awareness of donor and decision makers were mentioned. Fi-
nally aspects of FLOSS application in development cooperation were
pointed out. Some participants feel that Open-Source-Software is not
promoted sufficiently. In this regard missing case studies and success
stories as well as concrete policies for FLOSS application and usage
were demanded. With respect to participation, inclusion and empower-
ment the consideration of the role of communities and the importance
of education were stated.
About twice as much answers were provided stating aspects which al-
low the assumption of a different perception of FLOSS in development
cooperation. The majority of aspects relate to concerns about the appli-
cation of software and FLOSS and were split in groups as well. General
Open-Source-Software issues were at the center of many additionally
provided aspects. It was proclaimed that support for FLOSS is difficult
to obtain and if available comes often on purely commercial basis. Fur-
thermore internet connectivity was mistakenly considered as a manda-
tory prerequisite for the usage of FLOSS products. The role of standards
for data exchange was also mentioned by many experts. Most of them
did not put much importance on the free availability of the standards
but relied on de facto standards (e.g. data formats of Microsoft Office
applications). Finally the general applicability of ICT in general was
questioned. Some respondents raised the concern that sustainability in
general was put at risk by the application of software. It is very likely
that this group of participants does have a different perception of ICT4D
103
DISCUSSION
and FLOSS4D as laid out within the theoretical framework. In addition

many aspects were raised which, while important and valid, are com-
mon problems and challenges of software in general.
7.2.3 Common findings
Recapitulating the qualitative and quantitative findings it stands to rea-

son whether indications for the support or denial of the three hypothe-
ses can be derived. Doing so two error sources had to be considered.
For one the sample for the survey was not fully representative. For the
other the analysis of the open questions allowed the assumption that
some participants did not make a difference between software in general
and FLOSS while answering the first two blocks of questions. That
might have led to misleading results for the assessment of the prospects
and risks of software application in general in development cooperation.
Furthermore the questions relating to FLOSS might have been perceived
as recurrence. Therefore answers might have been provided less seri-
ously. However these considerations do not prohibit deriving results.
They just have to be taken into account when interpreting the derived
conclusions.
Three quarters of the participants state to have experience with the ap-
plication of software (Table 2) while 70% know of Open-Source-Software
(Table 4 and Figure 25). It was pointed out though that the quality of
knowledge is questionable. Half of the respondents have practical ex-
perience with Open-Source-Software and about one third used it in a
project in development cooperation before. However the ranges of the
confidence intervals as they are exemplarily provided in Figure 30 do
not allow statements regarding the hypothesis whether a majority of ac-
tors in development cooperation is aware of the existence of Open-
Source-Software. Only if the awareness is related to experience with
FLOSS in development cooperation the hypothesis can be supported by
the findings.
On the other hand it is noteworthy that 65% of the experts belonging to

the younger group of participants do have practical experience with
104
DISCUSSION
FLOSS. This suggests that following generations of actors of develop-

ment cooperation have a much higher rate of FLOSS knowledge, espe-
cially if compared to the 8% of experts being older than 48 and have
practical experience (Table 6 and Figure 27). Taking into account the
age of the respondents it can therefore be derived that the first hypothe-
sis can be supported for the younger group of experts while it has to be
denied for the ones being 48 and older.
Relating to the second hypothesis similar considerations were made. A

majority of experts considers software application in general useful
(86%) and attributes possible rural integration to it (83%, Table 2 and
Figure 24). In contrast to these findings the agreement to the prospects
of FLOSS is roughly at about 50% (Table 4 and Figure 25). Bearing in
mind the confidence intervals it is not possible to derive concrete state-
ments from these results.
But if the low response rate is taken into account the values can be
perceived differently. A couple of experts provided additional feedback
after the invitation to participate in the survey. They did not perceive
themselves as part of the target group of interest. Therefore they did not
consider filling out the questionnaire. Against this background it can
carefully be argued that the second hypothesis can be neglected. The
majority is not aware of the suggested benefits.
This carefully derived evidence is backed by the analysis of the cross-

tabulations. For one, the analysis of the crosstabulation “used FLOSS” *
“age” suggests that the perception of the prospects and risks of FLOSS
is related to age and therefore to the level of knowledge about Open-
Source-Software (Table 6 and Figure 27). In addition the participants
with less experience regard the cost effects more positively than their
colleagues with more than a ten years history in development coopera-
tion, as shown in crosstab “FLOSS reduces costs” * “years experience”
(Table 7 and Figure 28). Finally the crosstab “increases human capital”
* “fosters participation” suggests that prospects are not perceived in an
isolated way (Table 8 and Figure 29). E.g. if an expert agrees/disagrees
105
DISCUSSION
to one prospects or risk it is likely that he comes to the same opinion for
another prospect or risk.
Recapitulating the findings from the crosstabulations, additional evi-

dence for the denial of the second hypothesis is provided. The majority
of actors are not aware of the suggested benefits of FLOSS application
in development cooperation. This assessment has to be revised though
if the analysis is reduced to experts with practical experience with
FLOSS (Table 5 and Figure 26). These roughly 50% of all respondents
provide much higher levels of agreements regarding the prospects of
FLOSS in development cooperation. With the consideration of confi-
dence intervals, evidence is provided that the majority is aware of the
benefits of Open-Source-Software in development cooperation.
To allow conclusions regarding the third hypothesis the qualitative

analysis of the open questions has to be considered. The variety of per-
ceptions of software and FLOSS application in development cooperation
provides indications for a rejection of the third hypothesis: Actors of de-
velopment cooperation seem not to share the same ideas regarding the
application of FLOSS in development cooperation. The arguments pro-
vided by the participants suggest that a broad variety of ideas regarding
the application of FLOSS in development cooperation coexist.
The analysis also showed that ICT and software utilization in general
are often perceived as a complicated matter. This finding is also backed
by a recent study conducted by AT Communications Group.192 Accord-
ing to the results, executives of small businesses find buying new tech-
nology more stressful than buying a house or getting married. About
one quarter of the respondents even preferred to start a new business
than to start a new IT initiative. Thus it is important that all efforts for
software and FLOSS utilizations consider the broad range of percep-
tions of prospects and risks.
192 Simpson (2006)
106
CONCLUSIONS AND OUTLOOK
8 Conclusions and Outlook

Agriculture in development regions is characterized by a special situa-
tion. Rural and remote locations, high degrees of poverty, low levels of
education and high rates of illiteracy pose a challenge on development
in general. In this context one could assume at first sight that Open-
Source-Software application is not an instrument to foster individual
and economic development.
Triggered by the report of the United Nations Conference on Trade and

Development the theoretical framework for the application of FLOSS in
development cooperation was analyzed and elaborated. Within the lit-
erature research evidence for support of current development objectives
was provided. These mainly include: Improvement of ICT sustainability,
reduction of the digital divide, inclusion of vulnerable and marginal
groups, participation of local actors and increase of the human capital.
Case studies with first practical findings underpin the application of
FLOSS in development regions. Therefore evidence is provided to sup-
port the first research question of the thesis. Open-Source-Software can
be regarded as a valid tool in development cooperation supporting latest
development strategies and objectives.
The theoretical framework and the case studies also demonstrate that it
is possible to tackle the challenges caused by the special situation of
rural development regions. E.g. new technologies can provide solutions
to overcome long distances and the openness and adaptability of FLOSS
provides options for inclusion and empowerment. It is important though
that the full potential of estimated benefits of Open-Source-Software
application requires the integration in national ICT policies and strate-
gies.
Finally the importance of appropriate awareness and perception of

FLOSS was highlighted. This special challenge relates to the second ob-
jective of the thesis, the analysis of the awareness and perception of ac-
tors in development cooperation of Open-Source-Software. An expert
107
survey using paper based and online questionnaires was conducted to

allow further statements. The results provide evidence that especially
older actors in development cooperation by majority are not aware of
Open-Source-Software in general. In contrast younger experts are likely
to know FLOSS.
An additional result of the survey was the challenge that actors are not
appropriately aware of FLOSS application in development cooperation.
Furthermore hints for evidence were provided that for the case of exist-
ing awareness of FLOSS, experts seem not to share the same ideas re-
garding its application. Instead a broad variety of ideas regarding modes
of application, prospects and risks seem to be shared by actors of devel-
opment cooperation.
Summarizing the findings from the survey the awareness and percep-
tion of Open-Source-Software by actors in development cooperation can
be described as uneven. This relates to the level of knowledge about
FLOSS itself as well as to the perception of the suggested prospects and
risks.
But further research on the perception of ICT in general and FLOSS in

particular is necessary and could provide more interesting insights.
This research could additionally focus on the question whether aspects
are perceived realistically. E.g., within the conducted survey the major-
ity of experts assessed the provision of staff and local partners with ap-
propriate FLOSS knowledge as very critical. It stands to reason if this
evaluation reflects the current situation or if it is based on false as-
sumptions.
Furthermore it is important to consider that FLOSS is here to stay. E.g.

a recent study by Gartner provides a very promising outlook for Open-
Source-Software database applications.193 It is likely that this trend
from the corporate world can be extended to development cooperation
as well. This as well justifies further research on FLOSS in development
193 Heise Online (2006b)
108
cooperation to maximize the benefits from its application. It could also

prove useful to elaborate an impact assessment framework for Open-
Source-Software application in development cooperation. Combined
with case studies and best practice examples the utilization of this tool
could be improved.
Finally the uneven distribution of ideas within the community of actors

in development cooperation suggests investments in efforts to build a
shared vision of ICT4D and FLOSS4D. Just as branding strategies in
the business world provide the set of ideas of a company to all stake-
holders, a common mindset would help in the context of development
cooperation.
Despite these remaining questions and challenges it has been shown

that the application of FLOSS in development regions supports current
development goals. The validity as a tool in development cooperation
has been theoretically confirmed and supported by first practical find-
ings. It is likely that FLOSS will evolve to a common instrument in de-
velopment cooperation. As Open-Source-Software in general is continu-
ously gaining more momentum the awareness is likely to increase
within the community of actors and stakeholders.
109
MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS
APPENDIX
A Millennium Development Goals194
Goals Targets
1. Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of peo-

1. Eradicate extreme poverty ple whose income is less than one dollar a day
and hunger 2. Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of peo-
ple who suffer from hunger
3. Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boys and
2. Achieve universal primary
girls alike, will be able to complete a full course of pri-
education
mary schooling
4. Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary
3. Promote gender equality
education preferably by 2005 and to all levels of educa-
and empower women
tion no later than 2015
5. Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the
4. Reduce child mortality
under-five mortality rate
6. Reduce by three-quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the
5. Improve maternal health
maternal mortality ratio
7. Have halted by 2015, and 6. Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
begun to reverse, the 8. Have halted by 2015, and begun to reverse, the inci-
spread of HIV/AIDS dence of malaria and other major diseases
9. Integrate the principles of sustainable development into
country policies and programmes and reverse the loss
of environmental resources
7. Ensure environmental
10. Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sus-
sustainability
tainable access to safe drinking water
11. By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in
the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers
12. Develop further an open, rule-based, predictable, non-
discriminatory trading and financial system
13. Address the Special Needs of the Least Developed
Countries
14. Address the Special Needs of landlocked countries and
small island developing states
15. Deal comprehensively with the debt problems of devel-
oping countries through national and international
measures in order to make debt sustainable in the long
8. Develop a Global Partner-
ship for Development term
16. In co-operation with developing countries, develop and
implement strategies for decent and productive work
for youth
17. In co-operation with pharmaceutical companies, pro-
vide access to affordable, essential drugs in developing
countries
18. In co-operation with the private sector, make available
the benefits of new technologies, especially information
and communications
194 World Bank (2003), page 2
110
OPEN SOURCE DEFINITION
B Open Source Definition195

Introduction
Open source doesn't just mean access to the source code. The distribu-
tion terms of open-source software must comply with the following cri-
teria:
1. Free Redistribution
The license shall not restrict any party from selling or giving away the
software as a component of an aggregate software distribution contain-
ing programs from several different sources. The license shall not re-
quire a royalty or other fee for such sale.
2. Source Code
The program must include source code, and must allow distribution in
source code as well as compiled form. Where some form of a product is
not distributed with source code, there must be a well-publicized means
of obtaining the source code for no more than a reasonable reproduc-
tion cost preferably, downloading via the Internet without charge. The
source code must be the preferred form in which a programmer would
modify the program. Deliberately obfuscated source code is not allowed.
Intermediate forms such as the output of a preprocessor or translator
are not allowed.
3. Derived Works
The license must allow modifications and derived works, and must al-
low them to be distributed under the same terms as the license of the
original software.
4. Integrity of The Author's Source Code
The license may restrict source-code from being distributed in modified

form only if the license allows the distribution of "patch files" with the
source code for the purpose of modifying the program at build time. The
license must explicitly permit distribution of software built from modi-
195 Open-Source-Initiative (2005)
111
OPEN SOURCE DEFINITION
fied source code. The license may require derived works to carry a dif-
ferent name or version number from the original software.
5. No Discrimination Against Persons or Groups
The license must not discriminate against any person or group of per-
sons.
6. No Discrimination Against Fields of Endeavor
The license must not restrict anyone from making use of the program in
a specific field of endeavor. For example, it may not restrict the program
from being used in a business, or from being used for genetic research.
7. Distribution of License
The rights attached to the program must apply to all to whom the pro-
gram is redistributed without the need for execution of an additional
license by those parties.
8. License Must Not Be Specific to a Product
The rights attached to the program must not depend on the program's
being part of a particular software distribution. If the program is ex-
tracted from that distribution and used or distributed within the terms
of the program's license, all parties to whom the program is redistrib-
uted should have the same rights as those that are granted in conjunc-
tion with the original software distribution.
9. License Must Not Restrict Other Software
The license must not place restrictions on other software that is distrib-
uted along with the licensed software. For example, the license must
not insist that all other programs distributed on the same medium must
be open-source software.
10. License Must Be Technology-Neutral
No provision of the license may be predicated on any individual tech-

nology or style of interface.
112
QUESTIONNAIRE
C Questionnaire
Free/Libre and Open-Source-Software Strategies for Development
Cooperation
The department “Development Planning and Project Management” is carrying out a survey in
the context of the research project “Open-Source-Software Strategies for Development Coop-
eration”. We would appreciate it if you could support our research by filling out this question-
naire. If you would like to be informed about the results please provide your email address at
the end of this form. Thank you very much for your support.
The first two groups of questions deal with software in general for development cooperation
whereas the last two blocks relate to Open-Source-Software.
Prospects of the use of software in development cooperation

don’t
true false know
1 I have experience in the application of software in devel-
opment cooperation.
2 I consider the use of software useful to reach develop-
ment objectives.
3 The application of information technology can help to
integrate rural and remote regions.
4 The use of software to achieve development policy objec-
tives is underestimated.
5 Organisation and actors of development cooperation can
gain competitive advantages by the choice of their soft-
ware strategy.
6 I consider the following aspects especially important re-
garding the assessment of the prospects of software ap-
plication in development cooperation:
Risks of the application of software in development cooperation

don’t
true false know
7 Organisations of development cooperation may not have
the necessary experience in the realisation of software
projects.
8 Local partners may not have the necessary experience
in the application of software.
9 Information technology is often applied in projects of
development cooperation as an end in itself.
10 I consider the following aspects especially important
regarding the assessment of the risks of software appli-
cation in development cooperation:
Prospects of the use of Open-Source-Software in development cooperation

don’t
true false know
11 I know of Open-Source-Software.
12 I used Open-Source-Software in the past.
13 I worked in a project that utilized Open-Source-Software.
113
QUESTIONNAIRE
don’t
true false know
14 The use of Open-Source-Software results in the reduc-
tion of a project's total costs.
15 By means of Open-Source-Software it is possible for
actors and organisations of development cooperation to
provide services which allow them to differentiate them-
selves from competitors.
16 For most applications it is possible to use Open-Source-
Software alternatives.
17 The application of Open-Source-Software in develop-
ment cooperation increases local human capital.
18 The use of Open-Source-Software in development coop-
eration is only useful if it is embedded in the national ICT
policy.
19 Open-Source-Software in development cooperation fos-
ters participations of local actors and agents.
regarding the assessment of the prospects of Open-
Source-Software application in development cooperation:
Risks of the application of Open-Source-Software in development cooperation

don’t
true false know
21 It is difficult to find qualified members of staff with sound
knowledge of Open-Source-Software.
22 It is difficult to find qualified local partners with experi-
ence of Open-Source-Software.
23 It is difficult to get professional support for Open-Source-
Software applications.
regarding the assessment of the risks of Open-Source-
Software application in development cooperation:
25 I consider the following aspects which have not been
mentioned above especially important regarding the dis-
cussion of Open-Source-Software application in devel-
opment cooperation:
Personal Data
Age Gender ♀ ♂ Country of Origin
I have experience in development cooperation yes, Years No
Name of
Occupation
employer
Government or
Employer NGO University Student Other
para-statal institution
Email (please provide your email address if you would

like to be informed about the results of this survey)
114
MAPS
D Maps
Figure 32: Rural Population in Total Population (2004)196
196 http://www.fao.org/faostat/foodsecurity/FSMap/map12_en.htm
115
MAPS
Figure 33: World by Income - GDP per capita197
197 Jahnke (2003)
116
MAPS
Figure 34: Internet Users Worldwide
117
MAPS
Figure 35: Router and population density198
198 Soon-Hyung Yook et al., 2001,

http://www.pnas.org/content/vol99/issue21/images/large/pq2025013001.jpeg
118
MAPS
Figure 36: Human Development Index199
199 Graphics from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:HDImap_current.png
119
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significance of information and communication technologies for
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Eidesstattliche Erklärung
Hiermit erkläre ich an Eides statt, die vorliegende Promotion selbstän-
dig verfasst und keine anderen als die angegebenen Quellen und Hilfs-
mittel benutzt zu haben.
_____________ ________________________________
Datum Unterschrift
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Free/Libre Open-Source-Software in

Zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades

doctor rerum agriculturarum

(Dr. rer. agr.)

Dipl. Phys. Martin Voß, MBA

Präsident der Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin

Dekan der Landwirtschaftlich-Gärtnerischen Fakultät

Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 20.12.2006

5.2.1 Readiness ................................................................................ 60

Figure 35: Router and population density........................................ 118

It is elaborated that FLOSS supports current development objectives. In

Key words: Information technology, development regions, ICT strate-

Es wird aufgezeigt, dass mit Hilfe von FLOSS aktuelle Entwicklungszie-

Aus der Literaturrecherche wird als eine wesentliche Herausforderung

Schlagworte: Informationstechnologie, Entwicklungsregionen, IKT Stra-

Further I would like to express my gratitude towards all individuals and

Martin Voß November 2006

Alongside with the spread of the internet, Free/Libre Open-Source-

1.1 The Problem

munication technologies. This phenomenon of “haves” and “have-nots”

One special aspect of ICT for development cooperation (ICT4D) is the

In order to promote Open-Source-Software in development cooperation

3 Dutta et al. (2004), page 65

1.2 Objectives of the study

Figure 1: Population Trends in Developing Regions13

10 International Fund for Agricultural Development (2001)

The outlined population development underpins the importance of rural

Secondly this thesis aims to shed light on the question of awareness

The key questions to be answered in this study are:

1. Can FLOSS be regarded as a valid tool in development coopera-

2. What is the awareness and perception of actors in development

1.3 Approach and Methodology

Chapter 2 summarizes the development of the Open-Source-Software

The illustration of ICT in development cooperation in chapter 3 includes

Chapter 4 takes up the discussion about the application of FLOSS

The analysis in chapters 2 to 4 is mainly based on my master

14 Voss (2006) “Potential Analysis of Open-Source-Software as an Instrument in De-

Chapter 7 discusses the findings from the literature review as well as

Concluding remarks and future prospects round off the thesis.

2 Free/Libre and Open-Source-Software

Open-Source-Software has gained considerable importance within the

demic code sharing ceased. Coming from the collegial background at

Stallman and his fellow developers realized an important set of essential

E. Raymond: IBM supports

Figure 2: Brief history of FLOSS

Another milestone in the history of FLOSS was the publication of Eric

This pragmatic approach resulted in additional interest of the business

2.2 Open-Source-Software status

At the same time the FLOSS model is discussed controversially and

22 Linux Today (2000)

ternative system of values.25 For a more detailed discussion of FLOSS

In addition the FLOSS phenomenon became a subject of scientific re-

• Which business models for Open-Source based companies do

The high investments of private companies and public authorities make

25 “As a professional computer science educator, I see a danger in romanticizing the

participating in Open-Source-Software projects.28 The contribution of

2.2.1 Motivation for participation in FLOSS projects

The impressive success of FLOSS raises the question why programmers

2. FLOSS needs a critical mass of excellent programmers to become

3. An environment which is able to signal the capabilities of the in-

4. Even if wages are set strategically in a CSS system there is a

28 Baake/Wichmann (2004), page 3

An interesting argument provided is that mediocre programmers in CSS

In addition to these economic arguments von Hippel brings forward the