Apparent Power: Components and Physical Interpretation

Alexander E. Emanuel Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA 01609

Abstract T h i s study explains the basic attributes II. If the load voltage is kept constant, the variable as well as the physical properties of the apparent pow= power loss in the feeder is proportional with the S. The apparent power is divided in active and nonactive apparent power squared. powers. It is shown that all forms of nonactivepower have a common form of manifestation, parasitic oscillations of I energy among electrical components and electromecaniThe universally accepted resolution of the apparent cal, electrochemical, or electrothermal systems. The m a i n power in active power P and reactive power Q = V I sin B conclusion of this paper is summarized i n a recommenda- yields: tion to incorporate all the nonactive powers, except the fundamental one, in one entity. S 2 = P2+Q2 (3)
Key Words - Power Definitions. Harmonics. Power n o m (2) and (3) results: Quality. AP = r-(1+ Q2 (4) V2 This expression shows that minimum feeder losses are o b tained when the load reactive power Q = 0. An other 1 . INTRODUCTION fundamental fact learned from (4) is that when the load voltage V and the current I are kept constant the load Single-phase sinusoidal circuit theory gives for the active power P is m a x i m i z e d when Q = 0. Mathematinstantaneous power of a load characterized by the ac- ically this can be readily observed if we rewrite (2)and tive power P = VIcusB and leading power factor PF = (3)differently: cos B = P / S , the well known expression:

F)

p =P

- s 4 2 w t - e)

(1)

V2AP p=-r

Q2

The power loss dissipated in the feeder dedicated to the and above load is:

S The fact that V and I are kept constant means the same thing as keeping AP and S constants. All these observaTwo basic properties of the apparent power S are revealed tions lead to a third important property of S: by the equations (1) and (2) :

1
I. In single-phase and sinusoidal situations the apparent power is the amplitude of the instantaneous power oscillations.

The frequency of these oscillations is w/1c = 2f, i.e. twice the power systems frequency.

III. The apparent power of a load or cluster of loads supplied by a wmmon feeder, is the maximum active power that can be transmitted through the feeder, while keeping the load voltage and the feeder losses constant. T h i s definition can be extended to a voltage or current source: The apparent power of a souire is the mazimum active poweithat can be supplied b y the source while keeping ita output voltage and internal losses constant.

0-7803-5105-3/98/$10.00 0 1998 IEEE

It is this definition of S that leads to the notion of Secondly, the very definition of S in threephase systems, utilization factor or, as it is better known, the power f a e is still controversial(l,2,3]and a universal agreement will depend on the acceptance of nonactive powers definitions. tor:

PF = PIS

(5)

There are four elementary forms of nonactive powers:

Substituting in (5) the mean values of P and S taken for a time interval T,results:

I. Displacement Angle

T h i s phenomenon was explained and named in 1888 by

the ac circuit pioneers "displacement of current phase" [4,5}. Assuming a single-phase load with sinusoidal voltage and current waves:
v

This expression gives a clearer meaning to PF, the power factor quantifies feeder utilization; W p is the actual energy delivered to the load and W s is the maximum possible energy that could be delivered to the load, during the time T , while keeping the energy lost in the feeder constant, i.e:

= JZVsinwt

(8)

i = f i I s i n ( w t + e)
the resulting instantaneous power is

(9)

= vi = vIase vicos(2wt e) (10) Properties I1 and 111, as well as the PF interpretation hold true for any type of load, linear or nonlinear, and for any If the load is a resistance, B = 0, and the instantaneous type of circuit topology, including polyphase balanced or power p, and energy zu are: unbalanced. p = VI(1- cos 2wt)
When a load transformer is included in the circuit (Fig.l), the total losses are:
W=

Aw =

[r ~ d= t constant

sin 2wt

< kn, k = 1,2,3 , the energy flows from the load to the source. The instantaneous power (10) can be divided 2. NONACTIVE POWER ORIGINS in two terms: P =PP+PQ In single-phase sinusoidal systems, the reactive power Q is the nonactive component of S as defined in (3). It is a where physical quantity linked to energy oscillation to and from p p = P - Pak32wt (11) the load, however, these oscillations do not contribute to transfer of net energy, hence Q is a nonactive power. is the active intrinsical power, p p 2 0, associated with DSerent types of loads or network topologies produce d- the unidirectional f l o w of energy and ifferent types of nonactive powers. A clear understanding of the physical mechanisms &batdominate the generation PQ = Q sin 2wt (12) of the energy oscillations responsible for the nonactive powers is twofold important: First, it helps to reach 80 describes the nonactive energy rate of flow, an energy o s ceptable definitions for the nonactive components of S. cillating back and fro between the source and load. n o m
wt

This is the case of PF = 1, at any moment p 1 0, i.e. the (7) energy rate of flow can not be negative. This is a remarkable property, since in spite of the alternating voltage and where r = rF f p r s ~ and R i s the mamething branch currentw8ves,the energy flow toresistance. The relation AP versus 9 remains nearly lin- w(vdthe load. ear. The error caused by rs, 1s is not significant, more over, the traIISformer (the fixed lose)^ remain In the (lo), when 8 # 0, during each near'y constant when varies. In (7) it wM a half- cycle p is positive and negative, hence the energy w lineto-line voltage V and a balanced threephase load. flows in both ktions. For example, duringk x - <
APe 3 d 2 + - e r - +
R

vz

s2

vz R

+ +

....

(12) it is learned that the reactive power Q is the instantaneous nonactive power amplitude. In F i g . 2 are presented the waveforms characteristic to a load with 8 = 60. The energy waves, Fig.%, confirm the above observations. The total energy;
t

UT=

pdt=uP+wQ

in a unidirectional way, and the parasitic instantaneous power P M , caused by modulation. A set of characteris tic waveforms is given in Fig.3. The chosen values are V = lOOV, I = 50A, mi = 0.8 and nf = 10. The active power is P = 5 kW. Similar to the previous CW, the total energy has also two terms, one useful and the (13) other nonactive, just as in (13):
U@=WP+WM

=P t - -sin2wt (14) the nonactive component becomes: 20 is the energy whose rate of f l o w equals the active instanW M % -taneous power pp, and n - cosRt)
wp

The active component wp is given in (14). When R < w

is the energy tied with PQ. It has a peak value Q/w. This is exactly the maximum energy that is stored and r e turned during each half-cycle by a capacitance, i.e. V C , (or for an inductance ILL).

The net transfer of energy due to PQ is nil, this fact leads to the conclusion that ps is a nonactive power and its amplitude, the reactive power Q helps quantify the parasitic energy component W Q , that causes additional energy loss in the supplying conductors (4).

It can be observed that initially the energy WM flows h m tbe modulated conductance G toward the source. An average amount of energy miVI/Rl remains stored in the source v. The explanation for this situation is as follows: The conductance G described by (16), can be viewed a s consisting of two parallel components: a constant resistance 1/Go, and a time variable resistance, -l/miGo sin Rt. When the variable resistor is negative it generates electric energy. Since the system energization starts with a first half-cycle of the modulation when the variable resistor is negative, the energy < W M < 0. If the negative sign in (16) is reversed to positive, the W M fluctuations will vary between the limits 0 < W M <

,v

-2miVI

11. Modulation
The simplest case of modulation can be described with the help of a circuit where the sinusoidal voltage v E fisinwt supplies a parametric conductance:

$ 2 .

The rms current supplied to this load is:

G = Co[l- mi sin(f2t)) ; mi < 1

The current, Fig.&, has a modulated waveonn:
i =C w = fiz[1misin(srt)Jsin(wt)

(16) and the apparent power

s-VI

4 7
1+-

where I E GoV, 0 = w/mf and mf = 0/52 tion ratio. The instantaneous power:

The mean or active power is found from (17) to be P =

> 1 is the modula- VI, hence the power factor is:

p = vi = 2VI(sin Wt)2[1- misin(*)] = VI(1COSW)

- 2miVZ(l- arr%t)8in(S2t)
= PP + P M
(17)

and the modulation nonactive power is:

We observe again the amtribuiting intrinsical active POW- There is a strong similarity between the modulation and er term, p p = VZ(1- cos2wt) that "carries" the energy displacement nonactive energy flow: In one the energy

oscillates between an energy storing component such as an inductance or capacitance (or as shown later a moving mass) and a source or another energy storing component. In the other the energy is pumped by a parametric component, a modulated R, L or C , or a more complex circuit that contains several components. The main difference between the two cases is the fact that modulation nonactive power can be obtained also in the hypothetical situation when a network has only purely resistive elements, providing that at least one resistance is parametric. 111. Unbalanced Polyphase Systems The circuit chosen to represent this case is an unbalanced wye connected load supplied by a four-wire sinusoidal three-phase system. The line-to neutral rms voltage is V and the l i e current phasors are: = PZLOO, 4 = Zf - 1200, = Zf1200, where j3 > 0 controls the load unbalance. In this case!the instantaneous power is:

When the load is unbalanced, P # 1, an oscillating term pu is created, Figd, and in the transferred energy equation two terms appear:
wT

=W p

WU

where w p = Pt is the useful energy and

is the nonactive term caused by the load unbalance. In this case no energy is stored in the load. It can be proved that an unbalanced load converts part of the energy delivered by the positive sequence components in negative energy carried by negative and zero sequence powers. The interaction between the alternator positive sequence voltages and the nonpositive sequence currents, generated by the unbalanced load, i s causing the nonactive energy oscillations. The unbalanced loads have a PF < 1, even if the load has no L or C components. This fact can be explained a s follows: Let us assume an equivalent three-phase system, perfectly balanced and with PF=1, that delivers the same active power 3VZ, as the initial unbalanced system, while ' " (18) results: maintaining the same load voltage V. F

=PP+Pu

(18) where

P = (2 + p ) v z = 3vze
I, = 2 + P z 3 is the equivalent current flowing in the lines supplying the equivalent load. The line power loss in the equivalent lines is: AP, = 3 t ~ = z 3rz2(-)' 2+P
3

where p p = (2 p)VZ is the instantaneous active power component and

pu = (1 P)VZcos2wt
is the unbalanced instantaneous power.
W e n P = 1, the load is balanced and p = p p = 3VZ. In this cthe instantanems power is is constant, no s the most m overall energy oscillations occurs. This i table property of polyphase systems, it translates into a constant electromagnetic motor torque and a nil neutral current. It is true that for unity power factor each line caries the intrinsical power VZ[l--cos(2wt--p,,~)], (where P 0 . k = 0, -1200, tl%P), as shown in Fig.4. The oscillating terms of these three instantaneous powers cancel each other, i.e. at a certain moment on one line the. oscillating power flows from the source to the load and returns via w o lies. In each phase, however, the intrinsithe other t cal active powers are positive and the total instantaneous power is constant.

In the unbalanced system flows a neutral current with the

rms value:

z,

= (1 - p)z

and assuming that the neutral and the line conductors have the same resistance t , results that the power loss in the unbalanced system is:

AP = r[2z2 + P'I'

+ (I - P)'z2] = (3 + 2 ~ ' 2~)r~'

O n e can easily ascertain that AP > A P , . Calculations yield: 5 AP - A P ' = -(1- /3)2rZ2 3 This result demonstrates that for an unbalanced load, even purely resistive, PF < 1.

The reader should also receive the concept that the polyphase system is viewed by the utility engineer as one entity, a single electromagnetic waveguide meant to tr? fer the electric energy to the polyphase load. This claim relies on the fact that best system utilization takes place when the efficiency is maximized. IV. Current/Voltage Distortion

In this case the nonactive powers caused by the voltage distortion will have the expression D V h = zvh. In practice both current and voltage waveforms are distorted. In this case the instantaneous power has four terms:
~=~~+PDI+PDV+PH =vlil+vliH+
VHil+VHiH

The terms poi and given in (20) and

~ D V are

nonactive powers

, pol

is

In networks with sinusoidal voltage sources nonlinear sin(wt e i l ) sin(hwt eul) pDv = loads cause the direet distortion of currents and the indihfl rect distortion of the voltage impressed across the loads. The flow of harmonic currents causes additional losses in where D V h = &Vh. The instantaneous power p~ is due to interaction among harmonic currents and voltages: conductors, reducing feeders utilization. The nonactive powers associated with the flow of harmonics can be d e pH =xph{ 1-cos[2(hwt+0,h)l) +xQhsin 2(ut+oUh) scribed assuming a sinusoidal voltage, v = d V s i n u t , h#1 h#1 supplying a nonlinear load simulated by an array of harmonic currents: s i n ( w t em) sin(nwt @in)

+ E~V~Z. +
m.n
m#n

For this case we observe the harmonic active and reThe harmonic order h is an integer or a noninteger number. The instantaneous power has two terms: P = P m +PDJ where pp1 is the fundamental instantaneous power:
pp1

active powers of order h:

ph

= v h l h ca(&heth)

= PI PIcos2wt

+ Q1 sin2wt

= v h z h sin(&h&h) , = VmZ, caused by the cross products of and terms D current and voltage harmonics of different orders. The apparent power of this load is:
Qh

s = %"&" We recognize a fundamental active power PI = VI1 c o s 8 i l and a fundamental reactive power Q1 = VZ1 sin Oil The second term of the instantaneous power i s due to The only active powers are the fundamental PIand the harmonic currents and has the expression: total harmonic active power PH =&,.Ph. All others terms are nonactive powers, and each elementary term is p D I = XDIh sin u t sin(hwt aih) (20) tied to an oscillation of energy without net transfer to the hfl bad. The power factor for this situation is: where D l h = VZ,. The instantaneous power caused by each harmonic current and the sinusoidal voltage v is a double oscillation at the frequencies (hfl)f, that will not transfer energy. In Fig.6 are presented typical waveforms Evidently this analysis has proved the existence of a host characteristic to the interaction of a 60 Hz voltage with of elementary nonactive powers. Now two question should a 300 Hz harmonic current. The energy oscillogram, in be addressed: First; Does the physical mechanism, that spite of its unusual waveform, has the expected nil mean governs nonactive energies oscillations differ from one type value. of nonactive ascillation to the other? Second; Are there any reasons to group separately some nonactive powers The nonactive powers caused by distortion are only fiom others, when the purpose of monitoring the nonacthe terms D I h . Similar conclusions will be =ached when tive powers is for commercial use? Specifically, when the one considers a current source i = 4 Z s i n w t supplying goals are limited to electric energy measurement, evaluan array of harmonic voltage sources connected in series, ation of power quality and the fair recovery of invested (an other hypothetical representation of a nonlinear load). capital in mitigating equipment.

3. NONACTIVE ENERGY OSCILLATIONS:

The remaining linear loads have an active current:

in = JZZnsinwt; In = VIR In practical power networks the four modes of n o n w tive energy generation are intertwined. The interactions and the reactive current: between the four modes may lead to an enormous numix = f i ~ x coswt; IX = V/X ber of elementary nonactive powers. For example if a nonlinear load i s mnnected in parallel with a modulat- The total current is: ed load, then the subharmonics caused by the modulated load will cause oscillation of energy with the harmonics i = &Isin(wt e); I = (zX a d and vice-versa. J n voltage produced by the nonlinear b order to reach solutions that allow a pragmatic approach Tbe alternator voltage is: to the nonactive power quantification, it is crucial to obvc = A v C sin(wt e) tain a better insight into the physical mechanisms that control the flow of nonactive energy. where from Fig.% results:

PHYSICAL NATURE

&+ +
+

IM>*

An electromechanical system that will help to fathom some physical aspects related t o the nonactive energies h i i single-phase circuit generation is depicted in Fig.7a. T is supplied by an ideal alternator that produces the s i nusoidal voltage vc. The load consists of a resistance R, a reactance X = ( I / w C ) w L and a separately excited dc motor. The motor is assumed ideal, i.e it is lossless and linear, its back EMF e = KIFRM. The motor drives a frictionless flywheel with the moment of inertia J M . The connection alternator load has the resistance r and a negligible impedance. The load voltage, U = fiVsinwt is chosen as reference for the phasor diagram given in Fig.7b. Following are the equations that govern the motor behavior:

V :

v2+ ( T Z ) + ~ 2r1 COS@

(23)

The instantaneous power delivered by the alternator is: p = vci = P - Scos(2wt where

+ y)
=6

(24)

P = vGz cos 6; 6 = e and S = VcI.

+ 2 = e +

tan6 = (~ZsinB)/(V+rIcos8)

v = KIFRM

To understand the flow of instantaneous powers one must know the expressions of each components power. The instantaneous electrical power produced by the al(21) ternator equals the mechanical power received:

where K is the motor constant and T is the electromagnetic torque. Substitution of (22) in (21) gives:

The mechanical power has a constant term P,, supplied by the prime mover and a time variable term caused by variation in the angular velocity Rc. Assuming a two-pole alternator, its steady-state angular velocity is:

fiv sin w t = KIF J S

i M d=

JM

JiMd C M

flc=w+Aq

The termAwt Q w and it is a periodic fluctuation with a where CM= J M / ( K I F ) ~ is an equivalent capacitance that minute peak-ta-peak value. The mean value of Rc is: can replace the motor - JM system. If JM is replaced by a torsion bar, then an inductance becomes the equivalent component. A combination of torsional bar and flywheel is equivalent with a p a r d e l LM, CMcircuit. Substitution of (24) in (25)gives: For steady-state conditions the motor current is:
i M = &IMcoswt;

IM = VWCM

This equation gives:

P=P,
and

The instantaneous powers caused by the remaining components are readily found:

Jc&mZ,

== S~os(2wt

+ 7)dt

(26)

Integration of (26) yields

is the power supplied to the combined reactance

X,

PR=Pn-PRw2wt; where Ki is the integration constant equal with the averf < >= w2, hence age value o

PR=-=r12

V2

is the power flowing through the resistance

PA = r12 - t12 cos(2wt

R and

+ 26)

= w2 + -sin(%t S w Jc
= (W Fkom here results

+ AwJ2

W'

+7 ) +~ w ( A w ~ )

is the power flowing through r. The total instantaneous power is:

P = P A + P R + P X +PW
= PR r12 (PR r12cos 26) cos 2wt

+ - + +(QM + Qx + rl'sin
=P

2e) sin 2wt

The kinetic energy stored in JG is:

1 5 Jcfl;

- scos(2wt + e + E )

= -Jew: 2

S +sin(2wt + 7 ) 2w

The apparent power S computed from these equations is: (27)

S2 = (PR

stant one and a fluctuating one. The significance of the Since PR = VI cos e and Q M + Qx = VI sin 0, results: second term becomes clear if when the energy delivered s2= VI)^ (r1212 2 r ~ COS 1 ~ e by the voltage source vc is calculated. Rom (24) is found:

As expected, the kinetic energy has two terms: A con-

+ r12cos 2e)2+ (QM + QX + r12sin 2e)2 +

+

This expression is identical with the apparent power o b

Comparing (27) and (28) it becomes evident that all the oscillations of energy, active and nonactive, are supported by the reservoir of energy stored in JG. It is slso clear that in the system sketched in Fig.?a the apparent power S, delivered by the alternator, has a clear physical meaning; S is indeed the amplitude of the oscillations of power, be it mechanical or electrical. The motor angular velocity is: tained from 9 = ( V I C ) using ~ equation (23). This result confirms the validity of the model used and summarized in Fig.8 where the actual energy paths are depicted. The solid arrows indicate the unidirectional flow of useful energy. The mechanical energy delivered by the prime mover i s converted in electric energy and delivered to r and R. The dashed arrows show the flow of intrinsical oscillating energy between the active components r and R and JG. The dotted arrows trace the flow of nonactive energy that oscillates between the inertive components C,L, JM and
JC.

The same method can be extended to a nonlinear network, Fig.9s. The voltage Ud across the diode d, Fig.Sd, and the power delivered by the motor is: has two components:

where
U&

=sin wt
2

JZV

The source delivers the active power P = V2/(2R). Half goes to v& and half to R. The active power delivered to z)dl i s converted in harmonic active power that includes a dc component 2V2/n2R and the term The analysis of the circuit becomes simpler if the diode is replaced by the two fictitious voltage sources v& and V H , Fig.9b. The current i has also two distinctive components: i = i1+ i H The fundamental current i l is governed by the equation:
v =U&

4 v

1
+

h=x4,..

cos(2hwt) (h2 - 1)2

+Ri,

Tbe identity
1
a2

and the nonfundamental curreat i~ by

UH

= RiH
helped to obtain (29). T h i s very equation (29) shows that f r o m U H , i.e the diode d that acts like a frequency converter, it receives power at fundamental frequency and converts it in dc an even harmonics. The flow paths for the active energies is shown in Fig.9e. The nonactiveoscillations of energy are shown in Fig.9f. They take place between the diode and the source U ,however, part of it involves resistance R. The nonactive power oscillations supported by the source are:

v supplies:

p = vi = v ( i l + i ~=) w&il+ v&iH

+ Ri2+ RiliH

The voltage source U& provides:

p& = V&i = V & i 1 + W & i H

The nonfundamental voltage soufce UH injects:

p~ = VHi = VHil+ V
Power entering resistor R is:
pn = R(il

H ~ H

+ iH)2= fi: + R i i + 2 R i l i ~ = RG + V H ~ H +2v~i1.

= -[sinwt 3v2

2 sinh2 wt cos hwt

k2.4..

iTR

There are three intrinsical components carrying the BG- Just like in the previous example all the oscillations of tive energy: Instantaneous active power supplied by the energy are sustained by the kinetic energy stored in Jc. source U: The studied system has the active power: vz pA=%2+v&il = - ( 1 - m 2 d ) 2R P = V2/2R= VI12 power entering U&: the apparent power: = v&il = -(I and power delivered by UH:

V*

4R

-cos&)

s = Jzand the power factor is:

/ -

6:+ 0 1 4 PM = VHiH =
R

PF = P / S = l / f i
The studied circuit has no inertive components, the load (29) is purely resistive, however, the insertion of the diode, a frequency converter, i.e. a harmonic generator, causes

--

oscillations of nonactive energy and as a result, PFc1. A last example to be analyzed is the threephase system shown in Fig.10. The alternator supplies two loads: First load is a purely inductive and balanced unit s u p plied by a reactive component ZL. The second load is purely resistive but unbalanced just like the load used to demonstrate the flow of unbalanced instantaneous power. The line currents are:

4. CONCLUSIONS

-Jz~~wswt $6 = fizsin(wt - 1200)- f i ~ L c o s ( u t 1200) ic = &Z sin(wt + 1200) - &i~Lcos(wt + 1200)

i , =
sin wt causing the instantaneous power:
P=Po+%)b+Pc'

This study proves that all forms of nonactive powers stem from energy manifestations that have a common mark: Energy oscillations between different sources, sources and loads or loads and loads. The net energy transfer linked with all the nonactive powers is nil. Due to the unique significanceof the fundamental powers, SI , PI and Q1, that comes from the basic fact that electric energy is a product expected to be generated, delivered and bought in the form of a 60 or 50 Hz electromagnetic field, it is useful to separate[6,7,8] the apparent power S in fundamental SI and the nonfundamental SN apparent powers:

s2= s: + s;

PVZ(1- cos 2wt) +VZ[1- cos(2wt +VI[1- cos(%t

+ 120)] - ~ V Zsin(2ut L + 120') - lZO')] - 2 v Z sin(2wt ~ - 120')

- 2VZL sin 2wt

As it was shown in the previous section when P=O, p = 3VZ. If P#O results:
p = (2+P)VZ- (1 -p)Vzcw2wt In both cases ZL has no impact on the instantaneous power expression. The feeder losses, however axe are affected by ZL. The three inductances L, cause reactive power flow, however, the oscillations of energy that take place between each three- phase source and the corm sponding L,are 120' out of phase. This is causing nonactive energy to flow from the alternator to the inductive load on one phase and to return via the other two phases. Moreover, the sum of the three instantaneous non= s nil as long as the load is balanced. This tive powers i nonactive power, caused by displacement angle can not cause mechanical oscillations. The same conclusions are true for the oscillations associated with the flow of a0 tive power. The instantaneous power oscillation due to pu = (p 1)VZcos2wt will be sustained by the kinetic energy stored in Jc. The flow of the instantaneous energies is summarized in Fig.lOb to 10e.

The term SN lumps all the nonactive powers, it contains also a minute amount of harmonic active power, PH. The harmonic active power rarely exceeds 0.005P1, and is most often wasted in motors and other equipment additional losses, hence it is a polluting component too. In a first approximation an industrial nonlinear load[8] can be evaluated from the measurements of PI, QIand SN. The further subdivision of SN in other components provides information on the required dynamic compensator or static filter capacity and level of current and voltage distortion.
5. REFERENCES

It is significant for this study to realize that if a Steinmetz compensator is connected in parallel with the unbalanced load, Fig.lOf, the unbalanced power pu is cancelled by the nonactive power caused by the inertive components Cs, Ls, CN and LN. This shows again that there are no differences between the physical natures of WQ and wu.

P . S .Filipski, ,"Apparent Power -A Misleading Quantity in the Non-Sinusoidal Power Theory", European 'bansactions on Electrical Power Engineering, ETEP V01.3,~No.1, Jan/Febr 1993 pp 21-26 P.S. Filipski, "Polyphase Apparent Power and Power Factor under Distorted Waveform Conditions", IEEE 'Itans. on Power Delivery, vo1.6, 1991, pp 1161-65 P.S. Filipski, R. Arseneau, "Definition and Measurement of Apparent Power Under Distorted Waveform Conditions", IEEE Tutorial Course 90 EH 0327-PWR, pp 37-42 and in the Proceedings of the 3rd Intnl. Conf. on Harmonics in Power Systems, ICHPS 111, Sept. 1988, Nashville, Indiana, pp 12731 O.B. Shallenberger, "The Energy of Alternating Currents", The Electrical World, March 3, 1888, p.114 W.Stanley, "Phenomena of Retardation in the Induction Coil", AIEE, Vol.V, No.4, Jan. 1888, p.97108

[ S I A.E. Emanuel, "on the Assessment of Harmonic

Pollution", IEEE 'Ifansactions on Power Delivery, V01.10, No.3, July 1995, pp.169898 [?'I IEEE Working Group on Nonsinusoidal Situations, "Practical Definitions for Power Systems with Nonsinusoidal Waveforms and Unbalanced Loads: A-Isov Discussion",IEEE aansactions on Power Delivery, D v(i) Vol.11, No.1, Jan. 1996, pp.79-101 [8] J.H.C. Pretorius, "Modelling of Distorted Electric a l Power and its Practical Compensation in Industrial Plant", D.Ing. T h e s i s ,Rand Afrikaans UniI versity, December 1997. (J.D van W y k and P.H. Swart supervisors)

vm

-+-L

(4

(b)
E

V(3)

so00

Fig.1 Feeder and Load; (a) One-Line Diagram; (b)Equident Single-phase Circuit.

Fig.3 Modulation; (a) Voltage and Current Waveforms;

(b) Instantaneous Power; (c) Energies.

i i ,
P

2VI

CVI

F i g . 2 SigIe-Phase Sinusoidal Conditions;

(a) Voltage and C u m n t Waveforms; (b) Instantaneous Power; (c) Energies.

Fig.4 Threephase System with Unity Power factor. Instantaneous Power. VI = 100 W.

10

200

Fig.S Unbalanced Thre-Phase System. VI = 100 W, p = 0.25; (a) Instantaneous Powers: po, pb, pc and the Total ~ n t h x h "Power p =pa pb Pc; (b) Active Power P,Total Instantaneous Power p and Instantaneous Nonactive Power pu.

+ +

Fig.6 Instantaneous Power Caused by a Harmonic Current and F'undamental Voltage; (a) Voltage and Current Waveforms; (b) Instantaneous Power p ; (c) Energy Waveform.

11

F i g . 7 Linear System with Electromechanical Loads; (a) Systems Schematic; (b) Phasor Diagram.

F i g . 8 Energy Flow in a Linear Electromechanical System.

Fig.9 Energy Flow in a Nonlinear Circuit; (a) Schematic; (b) Equivalent Circuit: (c) Waveforms; (d) Diode Voltage; (e) Flow of Active Energy (Unidirectional) ( f ) Flow of Nonactive Energy.

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F a . 1 0 Unbalanced Three-Phaae, Four-Wire System; ( a ) Circuit Diagram; (b) A c t i v e Energy Flow; (c) Active Energy Oscillations; (d) Nonactive Energy Oxillations due to t; (e) Nonactive Energy Oscillations due to Unbalance; (f) Steinmetz Compensator.

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