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Internal Combustion

Engine and
Turbomachinery
MCHE 562
Dr. Gongtao Wang

Policy and Outline
Class policy
Mandatory attendance unless specially approved
No late homework
No makeup test/exams
Test schedule
Floating within 2 weeks

Lecture Outline
1. Introduction to Internal Combustion Engine
2. Introduction to Gas Turbine Engine
Definition and Applications
Thermal Cycles
Applications
Illustrations
3. Introduction to Turbomachinery Terms
Definition and classifications
Coordination systems and velocity diagrams
Variables and geometry
Lecture Outline
4. Review of Aerodynamics and Fluidics
Conservation: Mass, energy and Momentum
Gas Dynamics: Compressible flow
5. Dimensionless Analysis
Off Design Performance and specific speed
Buckingham H-Theorem
Application in Turbomachinery
Lecture Outline
6. Energy transfer between fluid and a rotor
Eulers Equation
Energy Transfer and velocity diagram
Reaction Definition
Definition of total relative properties
7. Radial Equilibrium Theory
Derivation of Radial Equilibrium Equation
Free vertex
Problem
Lecture Outline
8. Axial flow turbine
Preliminary design of axial flow turbines
Detailed design
Final project
9. Axial flow compressor
10. Polytropic (small stage) efficiency
Introduction to Internal
Combustion Engine
Classification
Otto Cycle Four stroke
Clark Cycle Two Stroke
Diesel Cycle Compression Ignition
Wankel cycle Rotary Engine
Latest 2-Stroke Engine
Wankel Engine
Clerk/Otto/Diesel Cycle
Mechanism
Thermal Cycle
Design Issues
Reciprocating Mechanism
Piston Dynamics
Exact piston acceleration

Piston Dynamics
Approximate piston acceleration

Gas Force and Torque
Gas force


Gas torque

Inertia and Shaking force
Shaking = - inertia forces
Inertia and Shaking
Inertia and Shaking
Inertia and Shaking
Inertia and Shaking
Otto Cylce
Otto Cycle P-V & T-s Diagrams
Otto Cycle Derivation
Thermal Efficiency:

Air standard assumption (constant v + q)

Cold-air standard assumption (constant c)
Q
Q
- 1 =
Q
Q - Q
=
H
L
H
L H
th
q
T
C
m = Q
v
in
A
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
1 -
T
T
T
1 -
T
T
T
- 1 =
)
T
-
T
(
C
m
)
T
-
T
(
C
m
- 1 =
2
3
2
1
4
1
2 3 v
1 4 v
th
q
T
C
m = Q
v
A
Rej
For an isentropic compression (and expansion)
process:


where: = C
p
/C
v


Then, by transposing,

T
T
=
V
V
=
V
V
=
T
T
4
3
3
4
1 -
2
1
1 -
1
2
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

T
T
=
T
T
1
4
2
3
Otto Cycle Derivation
T
T
- 1 =
2
1
th
q
Leading to
The compression ratio (r
v
) is a volume ratio and
is equal to the expansion ratio in an otto cycle
engine.
Compression Ratio

V
V
=
V
V
=
r
3
4
2
1
v
1 +
v
v
=
r
v
v
+
v
=
volume Clearance
volume Total
=
r
cc
s
v
cc
cc s
v
where Compression ratio is defined as
Otto Cycle Derivation
Then by substitution,
)
r
(
1
- 1 = )
r
( - 1 =
1 -
v
- 1
v
th

q
)
r
( =
V
V
=
T
T
v
1
2
2
1 1
1

|
|
.
|

\
|

The air standard thermal efficiency of the Otto cycle


then becomes:
Otto Cycle Derivation
Summarizing
Q
Q
- 1 =
Q
Q - Q
=
H
L
H
L H
th
q T
C
m = Q
v
A
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
1 -
T
T
T
1 -
T
T
T
- 1 =
2
3
2
1
4
1
th
q
)
r
( =
V
V
=
T
T - 1
v
1
2
- 1
2
1

|
|
.
|

\
|
)
r
(
1
- 1 = )
r
( - 1 =
1 -
v
- 1
v
th

q
T
T
=
T
T
1
4
2
3
2
1
1
T
T

th
= q
where
and then
Isentropic
behavior
Otto Cycle Derivation
Determine the temperatures and pressures at each point in
the Otto cycle. k=1.4
Compression ratio = 9:1
T
1
temperature = 25
o
c = 298
o
k
Q
in
heat add in = 850 kj/kg
P
1
pressure = 101 kPa


T2 = 717 p2 = 2189kpa
T3 = 1690k p3 = 5160kpa cv=1.205
T4 = 701k p4 =238kpa
Otto Cycle P & T Prediction
Diesel Cycle P-V & T-s Diagrams
Diesel Cycle Derivation
Thermal Efficiency (Diesel):



Q
Q
- 1 =
Q
Q - Q
=
H
L
H
L H
th
q
T
C
m = Q
p
A
For a constant pressure heat
addition process;
For a constant volume heat
rejection process;
T
C
m = Q
v
A
Assuming constant specific heat:
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
1 -
T
T
T
1 -
T
T
T
- 1 =
)
T
-
T
(
C
m
)
T
-
T
(
C
m
- 1 =
2
3
2
1
4
1
2 3 p
1 4 v
th

q where: = C
p
/C
v

For an isentropic compression (and expansion) process:


However, in a Diesel


The compression ratio (r
v
) is a volume ratio and, in a diesel, is
equal to the product of the constant pressure expansion and
the expansion from cut-off.
T
T
=
V
V

V
V
=
T
T
4
3
3
4
1 -
2
1
1 -
1
2
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|

V
V
V
V

V
=
V
3
4
2
1
4 1
=
Diesel Cycle Derivation
Compression Ratio


Then by substitution,
V
V
V
V
=
r
3
4
2
1
v
c
=
v
V
V
V
=
r r
=
r
4
3
3
2
e cp
v
c
- -
( )
(
(

1) -
r
(
1 -
r
)
r
(
1
- 1 =
cp
cp
1 -
v
th

)
r
( =
V
V
=
T
T - 1
v
1
2
- 1
2
1

|
|
.
|

\
|
Diesel Cycle Derivation
Determine the temperatures and pressures
at each point in the Diesel Cycle
Compression Ratio = 20:1
Cut off ratio = 2:1
T
1
temperature = 25
o
C = 298
o
K
Qin Heat added = 1300 kJ/kg
P
1
pressure = 100 kPa
Diesel Cycle P & T Prediction
Otto-Diesel Cycle Comparison
Dual Cycle P-V Diagrams:
Dual Cycle Thermal Efficiency
5 . 2
3
V
V
P
P
=
2
3
= | o
)
T
-
T
(
C
m + )
T
-
T
(
C
m = Q
2.5 3 p 2 2.5 v
in
(

|
.
|

\
|
1) - ( + 1) - (
1 -

CR
1
- 1 =
1) - (
| o o
| o
q

Dual Cycle Efficiency


where: = C
p
/C
v

( )
1 4 Rej
T T
C
m = Q
v

Critical Relationships in the process include
)
r
( =
V
V
=
T
T - 1
v
1
2
- 1
2
1

|
|
.
|

\
|
Q
A
F

m
=
cycle
Q
fuel
a
( )
r
=
V
V
=
P
P
v
2
1
1
2

|
|
.
|

\
|
Diesel Cycle Derivation
T
C
m = Q
p
A T
C
m = Q
v
A
( )
(
(

1) -
r
(
1 -
r
)
r
(
1
- 1 =
cp
cp
1 -
v
th

Design Issue
Improve efficiency
Higher compression ratio
Combustion control
Ignition timing
Exhaust recuperate
Minimize shaking force/torque
Lubrication
Pollution control
Cost deduction short stroke engine
MCHE 569 Project 1
Given a single cylinder internal combustion engine,
r=2.6, l=10.4, m2=0.060 blob,
rG2=0.4r, m3=0.12, rG3=0.36l,
m4=0.16blob. Piston dia. is 5.18.
The crank rotates at 1850 rpm.
Compression ratio is 8:1.
Thermal condition:
T1 = 20 deg. C, P1 = 101kpa, Qin = 810 kJ/kg

Calculate in Excel:
Thermal condition of all 4 stroke
Thermal efficiency
Gas force
Gas torque
When theta = 0, 90, 180, 270, 720 calculate shaking force and torque
Gas-fuel mixture mass flow rate
If mass ratio of the mixture is 4 part air vs. 1 part fuel, calculate fuel consumption rate, and volumetric air
flow rate.
Gas Turbines - Definition
Definitions
Thermal energy conversion device
Fuel -> mechanical/electrical power
Fuel -> Propulsion
Difference from ICE
Absence of Reciprocating and Rubbing
Members
Power/Weight ration
Gas Turbine Components
Frame
Casing
Front / main
Gas generator
Compressor rotor/stator
Combustor
Power conversion
Turbine rotor /stator/ exhaust
Gas Turbine / ICE
Higher Efficiency,
High power/weight
Robust Combustion/Insensitive to fuel
condition
Minimum Power output
Complexity/Maintenance
Higher Cost
Application of Turbine
Power Generation
Lycoming TF-35
Garretts GTCP660 Auxiliary Power Unit
Propulsion
Turbojet: GE J85-21 (F-5E/F) ; CJ610
Turbofan: Garatte F-109 (T-46 Twin-Shaft)
Turboprop Garrets TPE331-14
Turbine Configuration
Shaft arrangement
Single: Fix speed and load
Twin/Triple shafting
HPT drives compressor and LPT not need for gear
reducer
High efficiency at variable speed
High reliability at variable power
Multiple coaxial shaftes
Complex control, high efficiency with more flexibility
Ch 2. Terminology of Turbomachinery
Critical, challenging and special design
problem for turbomachinery is with blades.
Definition of turbomachines
Energy conversion device
Continues flow
Dynamics acting
Rotating blade rows
Classification of Turbomachine
By function
Work absorber - Compressors, fans and pumps
Worker - Turbines
By fluid
Compressible
Incompressible
By meridional flow path
Axial
Radial
Stage
Definition -- Stator and rotor pair
Stator
Convert fluid thermal to fluid kinetic energy
No energy transfer to or from blade
Rotor
Energy transfer from or to the fluid -- fluid total
energy change
Coordinate System and Velocity Diagram
Coordination system
Polar cylindrical system
Radial r, tangential , axial z
Velocity diagram
Total (absolute) velocity -- V
Relative (fluid flow vs. blade) -- W
Blade velocity due to rotation U
1 inlet, 2 -- exit
V=W+U
Blade VD
Stator
U = 0
V = W
Rotor
V=W+U
Impeller
Compressor and turbine VD are reversed
Subscription convention Vr1 ,
Axial Flow Turbine
Sign convention
Positive if along the rotation
How to determine fluid acting surface
Turbine Fluid acting on the convex side of
blade airfoil
Compressor Concave side

Comparison Between Axial and Radial
Flow Turbine
Signal stage efficiency
Radial is higher
Loss between stages
Radial is higher
Way to improve efficiency
Radial make the diameter of the rotor larger
Axial add stages
Compressor Stall, Surge
Stall
In axial compressors, gas density/pressure, sometime even
temperature, may change sharply in certain stage
Low-speed, low-flow, high stagger, stall is imperceptible,
and recoverable
Surge
Domino stalls occur from last stage in high speed
compressor
Non-recoverable, cause temperature rise, significantly
reduce the performance of the compressor, and often end
up with blade damage
Turbine Choke / Blade Cooling
Choke / shock
Relative velocity become supersonic
Blade
High temperature alloy
Intensive cooling
Current technology turbine temperature can be
25% high than the melting point of the blade
Variable Geometry in Compressor
and Turbine
Power = pressure * volume flow rate
Recover from surge in compressor
Startup ignition surge
Squeeze stall out
Different turbine work at different design point
Keep pressure the same, reduce flow channel cross-
section area reduces volume flow rate reduce power
and mass flow rate to maintain the pressure and less
mass flow burn less fuel
Ch3. Aerodynamics of Flow Processes
General flow governing equation
Total properties
Ideal gas isentropic properties
Sonic speed and mach numbers
Mach number expressed relations
Isentropic relation in term of local mach
Critical velocity and critical properties
Isentropic relation in term of critical mach
Continue
Compressible flow in isentropic nozzle
Varying-area equation
DeLaval nozzle - CD nozzle
Unfavorable back pressure gradient
Other important relations for nozzle
Choking flow
Shock equations

Continue Outline
Definition of turbomachinery isentropic
efficiency
Total-total efficiency
Compressor
Turbine
Total-static efficiency
Total condition of an incompressible flow
Limitation of Bernoulli's equation
General Flow Governing Equation
Continuity equation

Linear momentum equation

Energy equation


)] ( ) ( ) [(
) ( ) ( ) (
1 2
2
1
2
2 2
1
1 2
1 2
2
1
2
2
2
1
1 2
Z Z g V V h h m W Q
Z Z g V V h h w q
Shaft
shaft
+ + = +
+ + = +


) ( ) (
1 2 1 2 y y y x x x
V V m F V V m F = =

const A V A V m = = =
2 2 2 1 1 1

Total Properties
Isentropically convert all energy into enthalpy
Total/Stagnational, local/static


t t
p t p t
t
P P
T c h T c h
gZ V h h
= =
+ + =
2
2
1
) (
Ideal gas isentropic relations
State
equation and
Constants

Entropy
change of a
process

Isentropic
process
turbine f or
compressor f or
R RT p
K kg
J
33 . 1
4 . 1
287
=
=
= =



) ln( ) ln(
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
P
P
T
T
P
v P
R c s
R c R c
= A
= =

1
1
2
1
2
1
2

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\
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=
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

T
T
P
P
Ideal Gas Adiabatic Relations
Adiabatic means T
t
= const.





Adiabatic process is a better assumption for all
stationary turbo components
|
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\
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|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
= A
|
|
.
|

\
|
=

|
|
.
|

\
| A

1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
/
ln /
T
T
P
P
e q
P
P
R s
T
T
P
P
P
P
P
c
s
t
t
t
t

Sonic Speed and Mach Number


Sonic speed


Mach Number
RT
d
dp
a

= =
a
V
M =
Isentropic Relations in Term of Mach
Total to local
1
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1

|
.
|

\
|

+ =
|
.
|

\
|

+ =
|
.
|

\
|

+ =

M
M
P
P
M
T
T
t
t
t
Critical Property
The local condition at
unity mach


Critical mach
t cr cr t cr
T
R
a V T T
+
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=
1
2
1
2

)
2
1
1 (
1
2
1
2
2
M
M
T
R
V
M
t
cr

+
+
=

+
=



Isentropic Flow in Critical Mach
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

cr t
cr t
cr t
M
M P P
M T T
Isentropic Flow in Varying Nozzle
To increase the speed of fluid
Converging the subsonic flow
Diverging the supersonic flow
) 1 ( 2
1
2
` 1
2
2
1
*
1 1

+
+

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
=

M
M A
A
Nozzles in turbomachinery
The most important feature
Diffuser must be carefully designed so that
the flow remains attached to the wall
Unfavorable pressure gradient makes the
design curve of diffuser
Other Important Features
Choking flow


Normal Shocks-1
Control Volume
Normal Shocks-2
Basic Equations for a Normal Shock
Normal Shocks-3
Intersection of Fanno & Rayleigh Lines
Normal Shocks-4
Normal Shock Relations
Normal Shocks-5
Normal Shock Relations (Continued)
Supersonic Channel Flow
with Shocks
Flow in a Converging-Diverging Nozzle
Isentropic Flow of an Ideal Gas
Area Variation
Isentropic flow in a
converging-diverging nozzle
Example 3-1
Example 3-2
Example 3-3
Definition of Turbomachinery Efficiency
Total-to-total
efficiency
Compressor


Turbine
1
1
) (
) (
1
2
1
1
2

|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
=
A
A
=

t
t
t
t
actual t
ideal t
t t
T
T
P
P
h
h

q
1
1
) (
) (
1
1
2
1
2

|
.
|

\
|

|
.
|

\
|
=
A
A
=

q
t
t
t
t
ideal t
actual t
t t
P
P
T
T
h
h
Turbine Efficiency
Total-to-static
Efficiency
use in
applications
where exhaust
is counted as
waste, such as
power plant
( )
1
2
2 1
1
2
2
2 2
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
,
1
) 1 (
1
) (
1

=
+
=
(
(

|
.
|

\
|

A
=

q
cr t
t
t
t P
actual t
turbine s t
M P
M
P
P
P
P
T c
h
Compressibility and Bernoulli
Equation
Error of Bernoulli when used in compressible flow






M<= 0.3 incompressible
...
1600 40 4
1
1
2
1
1
1
6 4 2
1
2
2
2
2
+ + + + =
(
(

|
.
|

\
|

+ =


M M M
M
M
P P
V
t

Chapter 4
Dimensional analysis
Buckingham -Theorem
Off-design performance of gas turbine
Dimensional analysis in turbomachinery
Specific speed
Dimensional Analysis
Buckingham -theorem
Select all related as a set of n variables
Determine k (either MLT 3, or MLTt 4)
Select k most important variables as the central
group
Multiply each of the rest n-k variables to solve for
n-k s
Set up the system of equation
Arbitrarily set one variables exponential as unity
Solve the rest exponentials
Application to Turbomachinery
Geometric similarity
Dimensional proportional
Dynamical similarity
Geometrical similar machines with each velocity
vector parallel
Similarity principle
Geometrically similar
Non-dimensional term/number identical
Performance Characteristic
Head coefficient

Head efficiency

Power coefficient

|
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.
|

\
|
= = =
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =

2
3
2
3
2
3 2
,

,
,
ND
ND
Q
f
P
P
P
ND
ND
Q
f
gH
gH
ND
ND
Q
f
U
gH
i
o
P
ideal
act
H
Compressible-flow Turbomachine
1.33 Turbine
1.4 Compressor
mixture gas the of heat specific of ratio :
constant Gas : R
re temperatu l inlet tota vs. change re temperatu Total :
efficiency total to - Total :
ratio Pressure Total - to - Total : Pr
Re, , , , Pr,
,
,
,
2
,
,
=
=
A
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
A

q
q
in t
t
t t
in t
in t
in t
in t
t
t t
T
T
RT
ND
P D
RT m
f
T
T

Another Function and More Terms
kPa 101 pressure, atmosphere Standard :
298K i.e. re, temperatu atmosphere Standard :
, , Pr,
,
,
,
,
STP
STP
STP
t
STP
t
in t
in t
in t
in t
t
t t
P
T
P
P
T
T
T
N
P
T m
f
T
T
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
A

o u
q

Map and Characteristics
Turbine or compressor map the plot
Characteristic the curves in the plot
Design point of compressor is close to surge
Design point for turbine is close to choke

Specific Speed Incompressible
4
3
) (gH
Q N
Ns =
It was experimentally verified that certain
type of turbomachinery (axial, radial,
mixture) gives highest possible performance
(efficiency) over certain range of specific
speed value
Specific Speed - Compressible
Qex is the volumetric flow rate at stage exit, which is
not the same as that at the inlet due compressible
flow
is the idea specific work extracted from or to
the turbomachine
4
3
) (
,ideal t
ex
h
Q N
Ns
A
=
ideal t
h
,
A
Ch5. Eulers Equation
Energy transfer between fluid and rotors
Force/torque generated through momentum
change
Energy transfer happens while these force/torque
do works


Momentum Change at All Directions
Axial velocity change
Axial load on to the shaft no works
Radial velocity change
Radial load bending moment vibration
Destructive works
Both of above should be minimized
Tangential direction effective works
Eulers Equation
Torque
Power
Specific work
1 1 2 2
1 1 2 2
1 1 2 2
) (
) (
u u
u u
u u
te
t
V U V U p
V U V U m P
V r V r m
=
= =
=

Component of Energy Transfer


Typical velocity
diagram
Vz1 = Vz2 = const
2
) ( ) ( ) (
2
) 2 (
) (
) (
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
2 2 1 1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
2 2 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
1 1
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
1
W W U U V V
V U V U
W U V
V U
V V V U V U W
V V U V W
V V V U W
V V
z z
+ +
=
+
=
= +
=
=
=
u u
u
u u u
u u
u u
Heads
Dynamic Head (Absolute V)
Total kinetic energy lost/gain in fluid flow
Effective shaft works
Convective Head (U)
Annual expansion/shrinkage
Small
Static Head (relative W)
Action of fluid flow to stages
Enthalpy Across A Stage
Absolute

Relative

Rothalpy

Rothalpy UV h I
total relative T c h
total absolute T c h
e temperatur Static Local Ts
M M T T
M M T T
t
r t p r t
t p t
a
W
r s r t
a
V
s t
r
=
=
=
= + =
= + =

, ,
2
2
1
,
2
2
1
) ( :
) 1 (
) 1 (
Reaction
Definition
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) (
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
W W U U V V
W W U U
R
W W U U V V
W W U U
R
Compressor
Turbine
+ +
+
=
+ +
+
=
Stage Blade Design vs. Reaction
Inlet and exit angles for stator
0, 1
Inlet and exit angles for rotor
0, 1
Deviation angle
difference of flow and metal
Swirl angle
local absolute angles
Axial Turbomachine
Zero-reaction stage Impulse stage
W1=W2, 1= -2
50% reaction (symmetric) turbine stage
V1=W2, V2=W1
1= -2, 2 = - 1
50% reaction (symmetric) compressor stage
V1=W2, V2=W1
1= -2, 2 = - 1
Incidence and Deviation Angles
Incidence angle
Flow angle to leading edge metal angle
Always exists like attacking angle
Positive or negative
Deviation angle
Insufficient flow momentum change
A very important controlled feature in compressor
A measure to adverse/unfavorable pressure gradient
Real-life Flow path in Axial Turbo
Explain with isentropic and / (-1)>>1
Total pressure drop much faster than temperature
Total density decrease across rotor
If Mach change over rotor is neglected,
Static density decreases across the rotor
To keep Vz constant, the annular cross area
Decreasing for compressor
Increasing for turbine
Flow passage over stator, due to significant M increase
Converging for compressor
Diverging for Turbine
Definition of Total Relative Properties in
the Rotor Sub-domain
Relative properties can be modeled as flow through nozzle
at speed W across
1
1
1
1
,
1 1
,
,
1
2
) 1 ( ) 1 (
) 1 ( ) 1 (
) 1 ( ) 1 (
2
2
1
1 2
1
1
2
1
1 2
1
1
2
1
1 2
1
1
,
,
2


+
+

= =
= =
= =
= =
= + =

M M
M P M P P
M T M T T
M
rotor across const T
c
W
T T
t tr
t tr
t tr
RT
W
W
W
cr r
r t
p
s tr
cr r
cr r
cr r
tr
cr
Continue
General term

Isentropic Total
relative pressure is
constant across rotor

Other process total
relative pressure
decrease
( )
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
2 1

=
=

t
t
t
t
T
T
P
P
tr
tr
tr tr
P
P
T T
Graphic Shown
For Turbine
P2 < Pt2 <P1< Ptr2 <=Ptr1<Pt1<=Pt0

For Compressor
Po<P1<Pto <= Pt1 < P2<Ptr1<=Ptr2<Pt2
Ch6 Radial Equilibrium Theory
Background
Study for thermal properties as traverses a stage
Pitch line analysis
How properties (except U) vary at a given axial location
Assumption axi-symmetric flow
Note Wake at gap is negligible
The Problem
Find the relationship among fluid properties, annual
geometry, and velocity
Derivation
Pressure force, and
mass of the differential
control elements
| | u
t
u
t t
u
u
u
u
rdrd
d
r dr r m
d dp r F F F F
r p F
prd F
d dr r dp p F
side under top p
d dr
dp
side
under
top
= + =
= + + =
+ + =
=
+ + =
2
) (
) sin( ) )( ( 2
) )( (
2 2
2 2 2
Acceleration
Centrifigal


Meridional curvature


Convective
) sin(
) cos(
2
2
m m convective
m
m
m
l centrifiga meridional
l Centrifiga
V a
r
V
a
r
V
a
o
o
u

=
=
=

Radial Equilibrium Theory


F=ma
) ( ) sin( ) cos(
1
) ( ) sin( ) cos(
1
) sin( ) cos(
2 2
2 2
2 2
Converging V
r
V
r
V
dr
dp
diverging V
r
V
r
V
dr
dp
V
r
V
r
V
rdrd
d dp r
a a a
dm
F
m m m
m
m
m m m
m
m
m m m
m
m
convective l centrifiga meridional l Centrifiga
o o

o o

o o
u
u
u
u
u

+ + =
=
=

+ + =

Simplified cases
Vm = const
Vr=0
Invoke total
enthalpy

r
V
dr
dp
2
1
u

=
r
V
dr
dV
dr
dV
z dr
dh
dr
dp
p
p
dr
dp
dr
dV
dr
dV
z dr
dh
dr
dp
p dr
d
dr
d
dr
dp p
dr
d p
dr
dp
dr
dV
dr
dV
z dr
dh
convective l centrifiga meridional
p
z z p
V
t
V V
V V
const
V V
a
V V V V T c h h
z t
z t
z t
2
2
2
2
) (
0
) (
) ( ) (
1
1
1
1
1
1
2 2
2
1
2 2
2
1
2
u u
u

u
u

u u
+ + =
+ + =
= = =
+ + =
+
+ + = + + = + =

Continue Simplification
dVz / dr = 0 dht / dr = 0
Free Vertex
Nature fluid flow
Flow vorticity flow particles spinning around
its own axis
Least vorticity in free vortex flow
Free vortex blade design is most desired in
aerodynamics, but unrealistic
Disadvantage in structural design and
manufacturing
Boundary layer and tip leakage cancel the idea
effect of free-vortex
const rV
V
r
V
dr
dV
r
V
dr
dV
= =
+ + =
u
u
u u
u u
2
0 0
Chapter 7 Axial Flow Turbine
Steam Turbine
Superheated Region
Wet Mixture Region
Gas Turbine
Similar to superheat steam turbine
High temperature alloy
Basic gas turbine design process
Stage Definition
Stator followed by rotor
Stator airfoil cascades vanes
Rotor airfoil cascades blades
Design process
Preliminary phases
Compressor/combustor exit, inlet path/nozzle,
Stage 1,2,3,4, Casing, pitch line, interstage axial gap
Detailed phases
Blade geometry design
Real flow effects
Empirical equation
Stacking vanes and blade sections
CAD Approach to axial turbine
Preliminary Design of Axial-Flow Turbines
Given conditions
Turbine inlet conditions (p, t,,)
Rotary speed
min. tip clearance,
max tip Mach
Envelope radial constrains (casing), max axial
length, max diverging angle
Interstage Tt, max exit flow rate (A*N^2), Mach
Other, (such as overall efficiency, etc.)
Preliminary Design -- Find
Meridional flow path
Flow condition along pitch line
Hub and tip velocity diagram (assuming free-
vortex stages)

Design Processes
Step 1 -- Justify axial turbine type
Ns = N*Q^0.5/(ht)^0.75 > = 0.775
ht is enthalpy change over a single stage, you change the number of stages
to make the Ns to be optimum (usually 1)
Step 2 Split work across turbine individual stages (ht1, ht2),
according to experience
Efficiency
Off-design, and operation conditions usually 60:40, 55:45,50:50
Step 3 According to the experienced work split, and efficiency, determine
interstage total condition
Too small axial gap triggers strong and dangerous flow interaction
Too large axial gap increases end-wall friction loss
Stator/rotor gap is more critical that interstage because large swirl velocity
Formulating an Simplified Approach
Calculate specific speed
Find optimum number of stage
Estimate turbine efficiency
Define a stage work coefficient


Define Flow coefficient
) tan (tan
2 1
) ) (
2 1 2 1
2
2 1
2 2
| |

u u u u u u
=
= = = = =

A
U
V
U
W W
U
V V
U
V V U
U
T c
U
W
z
t p
s
) tan (tan
2 1
| | |
|
=
=
U
V
z
Coefficient Design-1
) tan (tan
2
) tan (tan
2
tan tan
2 ) ( 2 ) ( 2
2 1 2 1
2
2
1
1
2 1
2 1
2
1
2
2
2 1
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
2
2 2
1
2 2
2
2
1
2
2
2 1 2 1
| |
|
| |
| |
u u
u u
u u
u u
u u
u u u u
u u u u
+ = + =
= = =
+
=

=
= + =
= =
U
V
R
V W
W W
U
W W
W W U
W W
V V U
W W
R
W W W W W W W W
U W W V V
z
z z
Z Z

Coefficient Design-2
|
| o
|
| o

|
|

|
|
| | |
| |
|
1
tan tan
1
tan tan
) 2 (
2
1
tan
) 2 (
2
1
tan
) tan (tan
) tan (tan
2
1 1
2 2
2
1
2 1
2 1
+ =
+ =

+ =
=

=
+ =
R
R
R
Example 7-1
turbine stage one Find
K kg kJ
s m

= =
s
A
s
>
=
=
:
/ 287 R 1.333, Assume
5 . 1 )
U
h
( t coefficien work Stage
/ 340 speed blade Mean
rpm 15000 speed Rotational
1.873 ration Pressure Total
bars 4 pressure l Inlet tota
K 1100 re temperatu l Inlet tota
90% efficiency Stage
20kg/s m rate flow Mass
0 angle inlet Flow
: Given
gas
2
t
0

Solution
Calculate specific speed
As a rule of thumb, you may assume the density
of the fluid is 1kg/m^3
It may invoke too much error if calculate
isentropic process, why? -- rotor
This is just an initial calculation, so it is not wise
to spend too much time and effort to make your
result very accurate
Step 1.
From density; mass flow rate volumetric flow rate
From inlet total temperature; inlet/exit total pressure
ratio outlet temperature assuming isentropic
process
Inlet/exit temperature and Cp total enthalpy
change over the turbine stages
Calculate Ns using N*Qex^1/2 / (ht)^0.75
Increase number of stages to make Ns per each stage
to be > 0.775
Design the stages


f ine be may stage One
R Cp
s m given the use U
P
P
T
T
T
T
T T T T T T
U
T Cp
U
h
t
t
tt
t
t
t
t
t t t t t t
t t
=

=

|
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
= = = A
A
=
A
=

427 . 1
1
/ 340
1 1
) 1 (
1
1 ,
2 ,
1 ,
2 ,
1 ,
2 ,
1 , 2 , 1 , 2 , 0 ,
2 2


Use and 2 to set R close to 0.5





Try 2 = 0 R=?
and 2 =-15 R=?

+ =
+ =

+ =
=
|
| o

|
|
|
| o

|
|
1
tan tan
) 2 (
2
1
tan
1
tan tan
) 2 (
2
1
tan
2 2
2
1 1
1
R
or
R
Other parameters
U=340 m/s and N 1500rpm
rm = 0.216m
1= atan (tan1+1/)=?

Sketch the velocity diagram
Calculate V1, W1, V2, W2
Check Mcr
None of the Mach can be greater than 1
Blade Design at 0,1,2
Density
From mass flow rate
m
m hub
m
m tip
hub tip m
cr
t
r V
m
r r
r V
m
r r
r r r
V
m
A
V
V
VA m

=

+ =
= =
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|
.
|

\
|
+

= =

t t
t



2 2 2 2
) ( 2
1
1
1
1
1
2

Stage Configuration
Symmetric design (Config 1.)
Simplest for design calculation
Rotor rubbing
Descendent (Configuration 2)
No rotor and simple enough
Hub weakening
Optimized (Config. 3)
Theoretically optimum
Design for blade shape
Aspect ratio
Chord (the axial projective length of blade)
Cz_vane, Cz_blade
Gap between rotor and stator
Gap = 0.25*(Cz_vane+Cz_blade)/2
1/8 of the stage solidity length
Detail turbine airfoil cascades
Select an airfoil
Camber the center line to achieve the inlet and
exit flow
Consider other factors that affects the
efficiency of the flow
The detailed design procedure
Detail Design Procedure
With the velocity diagram
Design for the efficiency of flow deflection
Blade geometry parameters
Iterative process
Given inlet/exit condition
Find the most efficient shape of blade
Real flow considerations
Some CAD packages
Blade Geometry
Geometry to be determined -- page 120
Suction side (SS) and pressure side (PS)
Design Principle
Higher loaded larger P/V difference between SS
and PS
Real fluid consideration

Typical Blade Load
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
0 1 2 3 4 5
Force Applied To The Blade
Cascade x-y coordination r- - z
X Z (axial direction)
Y direction
S - pitch of blades
Circulation around each blade
in
exit
in x
z y exit in x
P
P
Rp S P Rp F
V F S P P F
V V S
blades no
r
S
= =
I = =
= I =
) 1 (
) (
) (
_ .
2
1 2

t
u u
Real Fluid Effects
Pitch/axial chord ratio s/c
Aspect ratio h/c
Incidence
Tip clearance
Viscosity and friction
Pitch/axial chord ratio s/c
Definition of s and c
s: circular pitch of at given radius, usually the
meridional
c: tip to trail linear distance, not counting the
curvature of the blade
Figure 7.14 on Page 124
Conclusion: larger deflection smaller s/c
Aspect Ratio h/c
Definition
h: tip-hub distance (delta-R)
c: tip to hub distance of blade
Design perference - smaller the better
<<1.0 boundary layer affects performance
>6.0 vibration and bending stress
Old optimum value is 3.0 ~~ 4.0
Modern design is around 1.0
Incidence
Gas (attacking) angle and metal angle
Profile (pressure) loss coefficient Yp
Yp = ( Total pressure loss )
(exit total to local pressure Difference)
Reaction blade (momentum absorber both
velocity magnitude and direction change counts)
has lower Yp than Impulse blade (direction only)
Lead edge thickness reduces sensitivity of
incidence effect on Yp
Tip Clearance
Tip leakage
Direct leakage axial leakage
Indirect leakage tangential from pressure side
to suction side
Leakage prevention
Direct leakage prevention slot in casing
Indirect leakage prevention Full or partial
shroud
Reynolds Number - Viscosity
Similar to a plate
Re > 10^5 Ypconstant
Re > 10^5 Yp change rapidly
Guideline For Blade Design
Criterion for Acceptable Diffusion
Downstream turning angle of cambered airfoil
Location of front stagnation point
Trailing edge thickness
Effect of Endwall contouring

Criterion for Acceptable Diffusion
Diffusion expansion or de-compression
Velocity decline Diffusion aversive pressure
(with large deflection) boundary layer separation
large loss
Diffusion factor

25 . 0
1
) ( max
) ( max
s
|
|
.
|

|
|
.
|

|
|
.
|
=
Vcr
V
t
Vcr
V
t
exit
t
P
P
P
P
P
P

Downstream Turning Angle


Definition:
A build-in camber angle of airfoil centerline design for
camber curve of airfoil
Reasoning: straight portion of latter half camber line in
airfoil
The purpose is to control diffusion
With the angle build into blades squeeze the subsonic
flow path increase flow momentum decrease
diffusion
However, if too much Mach ~~ 1.0 supersonic
pocket shock abrupt total pressure drop
With M~~0.8, = [8.0, 12] deg
Location of Front Stagnation Point
Front Stagnation Point the point where
flow hit metal surface at 90deg
Actual stagnation point s can be far from the
theoretically point a
With high flow velocity separation
Correction
Negative incidence angle
leading edge radius, arc length
Trailing Edge Thickness
Trailing edge of airfoil
Flow from different blades mixed after
trailing edge sudden expansion duct flow
Thinner the better, but
Strength consideration
Coolant pass
Endwall Contouring
Contour of surface of either casing or hub
Purpose of the contouring -- to improve blade
aerodynamic loading
Form a nozzle to change the flow property
Accelerate the flow at rear portion of suction side
Force the boundary layer thinner
Gather/collect the scatter fluid
Useful Equations
Choice of stagger angle
Stagger angle between the connecting line airfoil front
tip to trailing edge and the axial direction



Note:
Stator design use instead of
One of the two angle is negative

5
2
tan tan
tan 95 . 0
1 1
1
+
(

|
.
|

\
|

=

| |
|
Optimum Spacing and Chord Ratio
Definition of Zweifels loading coefficient
Zweifels law
Optimum Zweifels coefficient is 0.8


) tan (tan cos 2 8 . 0
:
) tan (tan cos 2
2 1 2
2
2 1 2
2
| | | o
o
| | |
=
=

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
s
c
Ratio Solidity
c
s
z
z
T
Staking of 2D Sections
Blade design is first done by design sections at each
radius
Staking these 2d Sections to form a 3D blade
Experiment and and reworking
Problems: secondary flow flow crossed original design
path into other plane
Method of staking
Fix a staking axis
Rotate each design 2d airfoil to optimize
Chapter 8 Axial Flow Compressors
Introduction
Centrifugal compressor is first used
Axial flow compressor is much more efficnet
Axial turbine can be used as a compressor if
reversed, at price of significant efficiency loss
Axial compressor vs turbine
Turbine
Fluid flow from high pressure to low pressure
naturally
Accelerating though passage
Compressor
Fluid flow from low pressure to high pressure
Convert kinetic energy to pressure potential
Compression must be a slow decelerating flow
Multi-stage Compressors and Stage
Definition
Multi-staging is necessary
Pressure ratio vs performance
Compressor stages
Inlet Guide vane nozzle axial flow to
tangential flow
Rotor-stator for each stage
Subscription 1 rotor inlet; 2 rotor
outlet/stator inlet; 3vane outlet
V3=V1; 3=1
Compressor Blade
Simpler than turbine blade
Selected from standard
British C4 design from pressure distribution but
no definite form
Base profile and camber line
Standard parameter t/c 10% above appr. 40%
US NACA Series
Classified according to CL
The amount of cambers
4, 5, 6, 7 series
Most commonly used is 65xxx
Deflection angle
Solidity c/s

Real Flow Effect
Incident and deviation
Total pressure loss coefficient (PLC)
Pt/(V^2/2)
Deflection angle
Stalling
PLC is twice as minimum
Nominal e* is 0.8 of stalling es
Positive incident angle cause high loss
Reynolds Number
Lower than 2x10^5 leads to high profile loss
Higher than 3x10^5 does not change much
Critical Re is 3x10^5
This effect is partially affected by the
turbulence.

Effect of Mach

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