Running head: ESCHERICHIA COLI O157:H2

Escherichia coli O157:H2 Jennifer Lieberman Microbiology 212 June 23rd, 2013

Running head: ESCHERICHIA COLI O157:H2 Abstract Escherichia coli, abbreviated E. coli, is a gram-negative, facultative anaerobic, rod shaped bacterium. It is commonly found in the lower intestines of endotherms, or warm blooded organisms. There are multiple strains of E. coli that are harmless; however some serotypes can cause serious food poisoning and gastrointestinal distress. These bacterium are common culprits of food contamination and thusly product recalls. Conversely, the harmless strains of E. coli can actually benefit hosts by producing vitamin K and the prevention of pathogenic bacteria establishment. The fecal-oral route is the mode of transmission and these cells are able to survive outside of a host for extended periods of time (Tortora, Funke, & Case, 2013). Food borne illness is the

emerging global public health concern. In 2011, there were reported 48 million illnesses that included roughly 325,000 hospitalizations and 5,000 deaths annually in the United States (Olatoye, Amosun, & Ogundipe, 2012). This article describes the history of E. coli, means of eradication, prevention and the future of the bacteria. History Born on the 29th of November, 1857, a German pediatrician by the name of Theodor Escherich devoted his efforts toward the improvement of child care, infant hygiene and nutrition. He was convinced that bacteriology could solve or illuminate a multitude of pediatric problems. In 1886, after access to a plethora of laboratory equipment and technology in Munich, Escherich published a monograph regarding the relationship of intestinal bacteria and the physiologic digestion of the infant. This work led him to be the leading bacteriologist in the field of pediatrics and director of the

Running head: ESCHERICHIA COLI O157:H2 childrens clinic in Graz. In 1903, Escherich was determined to reduce Viennas infant mortality rate. This drive and determination led ultimately to the development of the

Imperial Institute for Maternal and Infant Care. Through his work in the lab and with the pediatric population, Escherichia coli was discovered and thusly named after him (Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography, 2008). Escherichia coli O157:H7 One particular strain of shiga producing toxin E. coli that is particularly detrimental is the O157:H7 enterohemorrhagic strain. This strain of E. coli is a cause of illness through food and can lead to hemorrhagic diarrhea and even kidney failure. The O in the name refers to the somatic antigen number and the H refers to the flagella antigen. There are other serotypes that can cause illness but are less severe in nature. The first time this strain of E. coli was recognized was in 1982 as an outbreak of unusual gastrointestinal disease. The outbreak was traced back to contaminated hamburger meat. Only once before had this serotype been isolated and that was in 1975 form a single sick patient. The problem therein lies in the fact that this serotype can naturally be found in the intestinal contents of some cattle. Cattle lack the shiga toxin receptor Globotriaosylceramide and become asymptomatic carriers (Granger & Kaminstein, 2006). Cattle play a vital role in the infection to humans since the bacteria is shed in the feces and improper techniques can spread the disease to food purchased by the consumer (Osaili, Alaboudi, & Rahahlah, 2013). The enteric habitat of this serotype in cattle makes is easy to access and end up downstream in the food production process (Olatoye, Amosun, & Ogundipe, 2012).

Running head: ESCHERICHIA COLI O157:H2

Prevalence of Shiga Producing Toxin in Cattle Between November of 2007 and March of 2008, rectal content grab samples were collected from 2436 beef cattle that were reared on 406 beef farms in Japan. Shiga toxin producing E. coli (STEC) strains O157 were isolated from 110 farms. This indicates that STEC O157 strains are widespread on beef farms nationwide. The prevalence of STEC strain O157 in dairy cattle coincides with the finding of the presence in beef cattle. Samples were also obtained from slaughterhouses and the strain was also identified there; however originating farms could not be identified in this method of testing (Sasaki, Tsujiyama, Kusukawa, Murakami, Katayama, & Yamada, 2011). Antimicrobial Resistance Antimicrobials are commonly utilized for the prevention of disease and growth but unfortunately there are signals that indicate that the antimicrobial resistance of E. coli O157:H7 is on the rise. E. coli O157:H7 isolates were all resistant to erythromycin, doxycycline, vancomycin and neomycin in studies done regarding resistance. The reason of antimicrobial resistance can arise form either spontaneous mutation or by antimicrobial misuse and even the overuse of antibiotics in feed for beef cattle by farmers (Osaili, Alaboudi, & Rahahlah, 2013). For at least 50 years, resistance to tetracycline has been noted in multiple strains of E. coli. The continued use of antibiotics in cattle may actually potentiate the release of the Shiga toxin (Olatoye, Amosun, & Ogundipe, 2012). Government Intervention

Running head: ESCHERICHIA COLI O157:H2 As of this past January, fir the first time in 70 years, the FDA (Food and Drug

Administration) has released two major food safety requirements to protect the consumer. These new rules are the first in prevention of disease rather than simply reacting to food borne illness. The first reform which is specific to meat is to address gaps in food production and the manufacturing process that leaves an estimated 48 million Americans sick on an annual basis. Despite the origin of the food source, whether it is domestic or international, formal plans must be developed to prevent contamination of products and an implementation process should any problems arise. Continued efforts through the FDA are monitoring programs for pathogens, natural toxins, contaminants and pesticides through routine testing and the assessment of potential exposure and risk of consumers (Food and Drug Administration, 2013). In addition to the FDA, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) announced new performance standards in May of 2010. These new standards include stepping up the meat facility inspections that have already been in place. Additional testing of components of ground beef and new instructions will ask inspectors to verify that the plants inspected actual follow the sanitary practices in the beef carcass process. Chief medical officers are now being appointed to coordinate human health issues and heighten food safety awareness (United States Department of Agriculture, 2010). Prevention and Eradication In a commercial feedlot located in Nebraska, individual cattle were eligible to be vaccinated using a siderophore receptor and porin protein based vaccine along with Lactobacillus acidophilus based direct feed microbial agents. This was done to prevent the shedding of E. coli by the cattle. A total of 4800 samples were collected from 17,148

Running head: ESCHERICHIA COLI O157:H2 steers involved in the study. From the 4800 samples, 1522 (31.7%) were positive for E. coli O157:H7 and 169 (3.5%) were considered high shedder of E. coli. The result of the

study was that a 50 percent decrease in the shedding occurred and a whopping 75 percent decrease in high shedders. The results also showed that the efficacy of the vaccine was increased due to the direct fed microbial (Cull, Paddock, Nagaraja, Bello, Babcock, & Renter, 2012). In another study, Shiga toxin (stx) genes were treated with high temperatures and UV (ultra violet) radiation. Stx genes have been transferred to bacteria as in the case of E. coli O157:H7. Since both E. coli O157:H7 and nonpathogenic E. coli are highly enriched in cattle feedlots, the idea was that high temperatures in combination with UV radiation would accelerate stx gene transfer into nonpathogenic E. coli in feedlots. The E. coli O157:H2 was subjected to various UV radiation combinations and diverse temperatures in order to activate lambdoid prophages in the genome of the O157:H2 strain. Data demonstrated that stx2 phages were in fact activated under the UV radiation and enhanced by the temperature. This combination accelerated the spread of the stx genes through enhancing stx prophage induction and mediated gene transfer. This allows for the conversion to nonpathogenic E. coli (Yue, Du, & Zhu, 2012). Spread of E. coli As previously mentioned, E. coli can be spread through the ingestion of contaminated meat. Bacteria can get into ground beef prior to packaging and eating undercooked meat can spread the bacteria despite the meat looking and smelling normal. The bacteria can also live on cows udders and get into milk that does not undergo proper pasteurization.

Running head: ESCHERICHIA COLI O157:H2 Other means of becoming exposed to the bacteria include raw vegetables, fruits and sprouts that are grown in or washed by dirty water that contain the E. coli O157:H2 serotype. E. coli can also be spread by toddlers and children who are not toilet trained and do not follow proper hygiene etiquette. Adults can contribute to the spread due to improper hand hygiene as well. Symptoms of E. coli Infection The most common signs of E. coli O157:H2 is bloody diarrhea and intense stomach pains. People usually do not have fevers or only present with a slight fever. Fatalities most commonly occur in children under the age of 5 and those that are elderly

or immunocompromised. The infection begins to damage red blood cells and kidneys. A positive stool sample can confirm the disease however the origin may not be as easy to determine. The illness can last up to 5-10 days without any subsequent problems. Simple Methods of Prevention To protect yourself against E. coli, ensure that all ground beef is cooked thoroughly to a temperature of 160 degrees F. Easting ground beef that is still pink in the center increases the chance of acquiring the disease. Keep raw foods away from other foods while in the kitchen and wash hands and any other equipment that comes in contact with raw meat with soap and hot water. Never allow for recontamination by placing cooked meat on a plate or area that previously held the raw meat without prior washing. Another means to prevent the spread of disease is to never drink milk that is unpasteurized.

Running head: ESCHERICHIA COLI O157:H2

Scientific Breakthrough While the term E. coli is synonymous with food poisoning, a professor in Texas A&M Universitys chemical engineering department has a different vision for these bacteria. Thomas Wood has the view that by genetically modifying the bacteria and tweaking a strain of E. coli so that is produces a substantial amount of hydrogen, the bacteria can be used for reasons such as powering our homes and cars. Incredibly, Woods strain produces 140 times more hydrogen than is created naturally by the bacteria. While there is still more work to be done, hydrogen is a renewable, clean and efficient energy source. It is the key ingredient in fuel cell technology which can supply the power to everything from portable electronics such as phones and tablets to automobiles and even entire power plants. E. coli and Woods process could change the current methods of how hydrogen is separated from oxygen; a very expensive method that requires a vast amount of energy. Woods has selectively deleted six specific genes in E. colis DNA and thereby transformed the bacterium into a mini hydrogen producing factory all powered by sugar (Texas A&M University, 2008). Conclusion E. coli O157:H2 will continue to have attempt of eradication and prevention when it comes to ingestion and infection. In another realm, the bacterium will be used to benefit mankind. Awareness of this incredible and versatile bacteria will assist in its future, be it prevention of spread or as a renewable energy source.

Running head: ESCHERICHIA COLI O157:H2

References Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography. (2008). Escherich, Theodor. Retrieved June 20, 2013, from Encyclopedia: www.encyclopedia.com Cull, C. A., Paddock, Z. D., Nagaraja, T., Bello, N. M., Babcock, A. H., & Renter, D. G. (2012). Efficacy of a vaccine and a direct-fed microbial against fecal shedding of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in a randomized pen-level field trial of commercial feedlot cattle. Vaccine, 6210-6215. Food and Drug Administration. (2013). Food Borne Illness. Retrieved June 15, 2013, from Food and Drug Administration: www.fda.gov Granger, J., & Kaminstein, D. (2006). Escherichia Coli. Retrieved June 15, 2013, from Gale Encyclopedia of Medicine: www.encyclopedia.com Olatoye, I. O., Amosun, E. A., & Ogundipe, G. A. (2012). Multidrug Resistnat Escherichia coli O157 Contamination of Beef and Chicken in Municiple Abattoirs of Southwest Nigeria. Nature and Science, 125-132. Osaili, T. M., Alaboudi, A. R., & Rahahlah, M. (2013). Prevalence and antimicrobial susceptibility of Escherichia coli O157:H7 on beef cattle slaughtered in Amman abattoir. Meat Science, 463-468.

Running head: ESCHERICHIA COLI O157:H2

10

Sasaki, Y., Tsujiyama, Y., Kusukawa, M., Murakami, M., Katayama, S., & Yamada, Y. (2011). Prevalence and characterization of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O157 and O26 in beef farms. Veterinary Microbiology, 140-145. Texas A&M University. (2008, January). E. Coli Bacteria: A Future Source Of Energy? Retrieved June 15, 2013, from Texas A&M University: Thomas Wood: www.tamu.edu Tortora, G. J., Funke, B. R., & Case, C. L. (2013). Microbiology An Introduction. San Fransisco: Pearson Education Inc. United States Department of Agriculture. (2010, May 10). USDA Announces New Performance Standards. Retrieved June 18, 2013, from United States Department of Agriculture: www.usda.gov Yue, W.-F., Du, M., & Zhu, M.-J. (2012). High Temperature in Combination with UV Irradiation Enhances Horizontal Transfer of stx2 GEne from E. coli O157:H2 to NonPathogenic E. coli. Microbiology, 1-6.