SEISMIC METHOD

General
The seismic method utilizes the propagation of waves through the earth. Propagation -> Elastic properties of the body The size and shape of solid body can be change by applying forces to the external surface of the body.

General
These external forces are opposed by internal forces that resist the change in size and shape..
As the result, the body tends to its original condition when the external forces are removed.

General
How about Fluid? A fluid resists changes in size (volume) but not change in shape..

The property of resisting changes in size or shape and of returning to the unreformed condition when the external forces are removed is called elasticity. The relations between the applied forces and the deformations are expressed in terms of the concepts, STRESS and STRAIN.

Stress
Stress is defined as force per unit area.. When a force is applied to a body, the stress is ratio of the force to the area on which the force is applied. If the force varies from point to point, the stress also varies.
The value at any point is found by taking an infinitesimally small element of area centered at the point and dividing the total force acting on the area by magnitude of the area.

Stress
If the force is perpendicular to the area, the stress is said to be a normal stress (or pressure). When the force is tangential to the element of area, the stress is a shear stress. The SI unit of stress is called a Pascal = one Newton (N) of force applied over a surface one meter square. 1 Pa = 1 N/m2

Strain
What is the effect of stress on an object? -> Deforms the object by changing its shape and size. When an elastic body is subjected to stress, changes in shape and dimensions occur. These changes are called strains. The different kind of strain that can be produced depend the strength and direction of the stress, and the nature of the substance being deformed..

Strain
Elastic strain. The strain is proportional to the applied stress, and it disappears when that stress ceases.. Plastic strain (plastic deformation). A dimensional change that does not disappear when the initiating stress is removed..

Bulk Modulus
Tests on elastic substances show that the changes in volume and density are proportional to the change in The strain is pressure. produced by the The constant of change in stress proportionality (k) is called the bulk modulus K = P/(V/V1)

Shear Modulus
The constant of proportionality (shear modulus) is = (shear stress)/(X/X) = (F/A)/(X/X) Fluid??

Youngs Modulus and Poissons Ratio

The constant of proportionality (Youngs modulus) is
E = (Compressional stress)/(l/l1) E = (F/A)/(l/l1)

Poissons ratio () = *(d/d1)/(l/l1)+

Seismic Waves

General
Waves that propagate through the earth as elastic waves are referred to as seismic waves. There are two broad categories of seismic waves: body waves and surface waves. Body waves - These are elastic waves that propagate through the Earth's interior. In reflection and refraction prospecting, body waves are the source of information used to image the Earth's interior. Like the ripples on the surface of the pond, body waves propagate away from the source in all directions. . If the speed at which body waves propagate through the Earth's interior is constant, then at any time, these waves form a sphere around the source whose radius is dependent on the time elapsed since the source generated the waves.

General

Quick Exercise: Calculate the wave velocity if the radius for t=150 ms is 225 m.

Seismic Body Waves

Seismic body waves can be subdivided into two classes of waves: P waves and S waves.

Seismic Body Waves

P-Wave: These are called 'P' for Primary Wave. They are the ones that travel fastest and thereby are usually "felt" first. They are basically sound waves that travel thru the earth from the focus of a source. Physics types know this as a longitudinal wave. It "shakes" things in the same direction it travels.

Undisturbed Material

Seismic Body Waves

P-Wave: In P waves, particles consistituting the medium are displaced in the same direction that the wave propagates, in this case, the radial direction. Material is being extended and compressed as P waves propagate through the medium. P waves are analogous to sound waves propagating through the air.

Undisturbed Material

Seismic Body Waves

S-Wave: These Secondary Waves are much slower and much more destructive than PWaves. They are transverse waves. This means they make the earth vibrate perpendicularly to the direction of the wave travel.

Undisturbed Material

Seismic Body Waves

S-Wave: In S waves, particles consistituting the medium are dispaced in a direction that is perpendicular to the direction that the wave is propagating. In this example, as the wave propagates radially, the medium is being deformed along spherical surfaces.

Undisturbed Material

Vp and Vs Velocity
Vp K (4 / 3)

Vs

Where K = incompressibility (bulk modulus), = rigidity (shear modulus), = density K = the pressure increase needed to effect a given relative decrease in volume. = resistance to change

Material Air Water Petroleum Steel Granite Basalt

P wave Velocity (m/s) 332 1500 1300 6100 5500-5900 6400

S wave Velocity (m/s) ~0 ~0 ~0 3500 2800-3000 3200

Sandstone
Limestone

1400-4300
5900-6100

700-2800
2800-3000

Seismic Surface Waves

Surface-Wave: a surface wave can refer to a mechanical wave that propagates along the interface between differing media Love waves (also named Q waves) are surface seismic waves that cause horizontal shifting of the earth during an earthquake Rayleigh waves moves across a surface. As it passes, a surface particle moves in a circle or ellipse in the direction of propagation
Undisturbed Material

Wavefronts and Raypaths

Raypaths are nothing more than lines that show the direction that the seismic wave is propagating. For any given wave, there are an infinite set of raypaths that could be used. A valid raypath could be any radial line drawn from the source..

Wavefronts and Raypaths

Wavefronts connect positions of the seismic wave that are doing the same thing at the same time. In principle and in practice, raypaths are equivalent to the directions of current flow, and wavefronts are equivalent to the equipotential lines described in the resistivity section. They are also equivalent to field direction and strength in magnetism.

Seismic wave propagation

Seismic waves can be considered as energy distributed along wave fronts, and as rays. In an isotropic (same velocity in all directions) and homogeneous medium the energy will propagate spherically from the source. The seismic wave along one wave front has always the same phase. At large distance from source the wave front is close to planar, and the wave is called a plane wave. The seismic ray point in the direction of propagation and is perpendicular to the wave front in isotropic media

Basic theory of seismic wave propagation

A wave front is a surface connecting all points of equal travel time from the source. Rays are the normals to the wavefronts, and they point in the direction of the wave propagation.

P and S-wave

Undisturbed Material

Seismic propagation
Snells Law => Incident and refraction angle Huygens principle =>Every point on wave front Fermats principle => Minimum travel time

Seismic propagation
Snells Law

Critical Refraction

Seismic propagation
Huygens principle Every point on a wave front is a source of new waves that travel away from it in all directions.
=> The important role in explaining of Diffraction effect (will be discussed in pitfall in interpretation).

Seismic propagation
Fermats principle The wave travel between two point along paths requiring the least time.