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Contents

FEDERALIST. No. 1.................................................................................................................................................................... 6


FEDERALIST No. 2 .................................................................................................................................................................... 9
FEDERALIST No. 3 .................................................................................................................................................................. 13
FEDERALIST No. 4 .................................................................................................................................................................. 16
FEDERALIST No. 5 .................................................................................................................................................................. 20
FEDERALIST No. 6 .................................................................................................................................................................. 23
FEDERALIST. No. 7.................................................................................................................................................................. 27
FEDERALIST No. 8 .................................................................................................................................................................. 32
FEDERALIST No. 9 .................................................................................................................................................................. 37
FEDERALIST No. 10 ................................................................................................................................................................ 41
FEDERALIST No. 11 ................................................................................................................................................................ 47
FEDERALIST No. 12 ................................................................................................................................................................ 52
FEDERALIST No. 13 ................................................................................................................................................................ 56
FEDERALIST No. 14 ................................................................................................................................................................ 58
FEDERALIST No. 15 ................................................................................................................................................................ 63
FEDERALIST No. 16 ................................................................................................................................................................ 69
FEDERALIST No. 17 ................................................................................................................................................................ 73
FEDERALIST No. 18 ................................................................................................................................................................ 77
FEDERALIST No. 19 ................................................................................................................................................................ 81
FEDERALIST No. 20 ................................................................................................................................................................ 86
FEDERALIST No. 21 ................................................................................................................................................................ 89
FEDERALIST No. 22 ................................................................................................................................................................ 93
FEDERALIST No. 23 .............................................................................................................................................................. 100
FEDERALIST No. 24 .............................................................................................................................................................. 104
FEDERALIST No. 25 .............................................................................................................................................................. 108
FEDERALIST No. 26 .............................................................................................................................................................. 112
FEDERALIST No. 27 .............................................................................................................................................................. 117
FEDERALIST No. 28 .............................................................................................................................................................. 120
FEDERALIST No. 29 .............................................................................................................................................................. 124
FEDERALIST No. 30 .............................................................................................................................................................. 128
FEDERALIST No. 31 .............................................................................................................................................................. 132
FEDERALIST No. 32 .............................................................................................................................................................. 136
FEDERALIST No. 33 .............................................................................................................................................................. 139
FEDERALIST No. 34 .............................................................................................................................................................. 142
FEDERALIST No. 35 .............................................................................................................................................................. 147
FEDERALIST No. 36 .............................................................................................................................................................. 151
FEDERALIST No. 37 .............................................................................................................................................................. 157
FEDERALIST No. 38 .............................................................................................................................................................. 162
FEDERALIST No. 39 .............................................................................................................................................................. 169
FEDERALIST No. 40 .............................................................................................................................................................. 174
FEDERALIST No. 41 .............................................................................................................................................................. 180
FEDERALIST No. 42 .............................................................................................................................................................. 187
FEDERALIST No. 43 .............................................................................................................................................................. 192
FEDERALIST No. 44 .............................................................................................................................................................. 199
FEDERALIST No. 45 .............................................................................................................................................................. 205
FEDERALIST No. 46 .............................................................................................................................................................. 210
FEDERALIST No. 47 .............................................................................................................................................................. 215
FEDERALIST No. 48 .............................................................................................................................................................. 221
FEDERALIST No. 49 .............................................................................................................................................................. 225
FEDERALIST No. 50 .............................................................................................................................................................. 228
FEDERALIST No. 51 .............................................................................................................................................................. 231
FEDERALIST No. 52 .............................................................................................................................................................. 235
FEDERALIST No. 53 .............................................................................................................................................................. 239
FEDERALIST No. 54 .............................................................................................................................................................. 243
FEDERALIST No. 55 .............................................................................................................................................................. 247
FEDERALIST No. 56 .............................................................................................................................................................. 251
FEDERALIST No. 57 .............................................................................................................................................................. 255
FEDERALIST No. 58 .............................................................................................................................................................. 259
FEDERALIST No. 59 .............................................................................................................................................................. 264
FEDERALIST No. 60 .............................................................................................................................................................. 268
FEDERALIST No. 61 .............................................................................................................................................................. 272
FEDERALIST No. 62 .............................................................................................................................................................. 275
FEDERALIST. No. 63 ............................................................................................................................................................. 280
FEDERALIST No. 64 .............................................................................................................................................................. 286
FEDERALIST No. 65 .............................................................................................................................................................. 291
FEDERALIST No. 66 .............................................................................................................................................................. 295
FEDERALIST No. 67 .............................................................................................................................................................. 299
FEDERALIST No. 68 .............................................................................................................................................................. 303
FEDERALIST No. 69 .............................................................................................................................................................. 306
FEDERALIST No. 70 .............................................................................................................................................................. 312
FEDERALIST No. 70 .............................................................................................................................................................. 318
FEDERALIST No. 71 .............................................................................................................................................................. 325
FEDERALIST No. 72 .............................................................................................................................................................. 328
FEDERALIST No. 73 .............................................................................................................................................................. 332
FEDERALIST No. 74 .............................................................................................................................................................. 337
FEDERALIST No. 75 .............................................................................................................................................................. 340
FEDERALIST No. 76 .............................................................................................................................................................. 344
FEDERALIST No. 77 .............................................................................................................................................................. 348
FEDERALIST No. 78 .............................................................................................................................................................. 352
FEDERALIST No. 79 .............................................................................................................................................................. 358
FEDERALIST No. 80 .............................................................................................................................................................. 361
FEDERALIST. No. 81 ............................................................................................................................................................. 366
FEDERALIST No. 82 .............................................................................................................................................................. 373
EDERALIST No. 83 ................................................................................................................................................................. 376
FEDERALIST No. 84 .............................................................................................................................................................. 387
FEDERALIST No. 85 .............................................................................................................................................................. 395
The Federalist Papers
government from reflection and choice, or whether they are
The Federalist Papers forever destined to depend for their political constitutions on
accident and force. If there be any truth in the remark, the
crisis at which we are arrived may with propriety be regarded
FEDERALIST. No. 1 as the era in which that decision is to be made; and a wrong
election of the part we shall act may, in this view, deserve to
General Introduction be considered as the general misfortune of mankind. This
idea will add the inducements of philanthropy to those of
For the Independent Journal. patriotism, to heighten the solicitude which all considerate
and good men must feel for the event. Happy will it be if our
HAMILTON choice should be directed by a judicious estimate of our true
interests, unperplexed and unbiased by considerations not
connected with the public good. But this is a thing more
ardently to be wished than seriously to be expected. The plan
To the People of the State of New York: offered to our deliberations affects too many particular inter-
ests, innovates upon too many local institutions, not to in-
After an unequivocal experience of the inefficacy of the sub- volve in its discussion a variety of objects foreign to its mer-
sisting federal government, you are called upon to deliberate its, and of views, passions and prejudices little favorable to
on a new Constitution for the United States of America. The the discovery of truth.
subject speaks its own importance; comprehending in its con- Among the most formidable of the obstacles which the
sequences nothing less than the existence of the union, the new Constitution will have to encounter may readily be dis-
safety and welfare of the parts of which it is composed, the tinguished the obvious interest of a certain class of men in
fate of an empire in many respects the most interesting in the every State to resist all changes which may hazard a diminu-
world. It has been frequently remarked that it seems to have tion of the power, emolument, and consequence of the of-
been reserved to the people of this country, by their conduct fices they hold under the State establishments; and the per-
and example, to decide the important question, whether so- verted ambition of another class of men, who will either hope
cieties of men are really capable or not of establishing good to aggrandize themselves by the confusions of their country,
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The Federalist Papers
or will flatter themselves with fairer prospects of elevation of a question. Were there not even these inducements to
from the subdivision of the empire into several partial con- moderation, nothing could be more ill-judged than that in-
federacies than from its union under one government. tolerant spirit which has, at all times, characterized political
It is not, however, my design to dwell upon observations of parties. For in politics, as in religion, it is equally absurd to
this nature. I am well aware that it would be disingenuous to aim at making proselytes by fire and sword. Heresies in either
resolve indiscriminately the opposition of any set of men can rarely be cured by persecution.
(merely because their situations might subject them to suspi- And yet, however just these sentiments will be allowed to
cion) into interested or ambitious views. Candor will oblige be, we have already sufficient indications that it will happen
us to admit that even such men may be actuated by upright in this as in all former cases of great national discussion. A
intentions; and it cannot be doubted that much of the oppo- torrent of angry and malignant passions will be let loose. To
sition which has made its appearance, or may hereafter make judge from the conduct of the opposite parties, we shall be
its appearance, will spring from sources, blameless at least, if led to conclude that they will mutually hope to evince the
not respectable—the honest errors of minds led astray by pre- justness of their opinions, and to increase the number of their
conceived jealousies and fears. So numerous indeed and so converts by the loudness of their declamations and the bitter-
powerful are the causes which serve to give a false bias to the ness of their invectives. An enlightened zeal for the energy
judgment, that we, upon many occasions, see wise and good and efficiency of government will be stigmatized as the off-
men on the wrong as well as on the right side of questions of spring of a temper fond of despotic power and hostile to the
the first magnitude to society. This circumstance, if duly at- principles of liberty. An over-scrupulous jealousy of danger
tended to, would furnish a lesson of moderation to those to the rights of the people, which is more commonly the
who are ever so much persuaded of their being in the right in fault of the head than of the heart, will be represented as mere
any controversy. And a further reason for caution, in this re- pretense and artifice, the stale bait for popularity at the ex-
spect, might be drawn from the reflection that we are not pense of the public good. It will be forgotten, on the one
always sure that those who advocate the truth are influenced hand, that jealousy is the usual concomitant of love, and that
by purer principles than their antagonists. Ambition, avarice, the noble enthusiasm of liberty is apt to be infected with a
personal animosity, party opposition, and many other mo- spirit of narrow and illiberal distrust. On the other hand, it
tives not more laudable than these, are apt to operate as well will be equally forgotten that the vigor of government is es-
upon those who support as those who oppose the right side sential to the security of liberty; that, in the contemplation of
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a sound and well-informed judgment, their interest can never ness of good intentions disdains ambiguity. I shall not, how-
be separated; and that a dangerous ambition more often lurks ever, multiply professions on this head. My motives must
behind the specious mask of zeal for the rights of the people remain in the depository of my own breast. My arguments
than under the forbidden appearance of zeal for the firmness will be open to all, and may be judged of by all. They shall at
and efficiency of government. History will teach us that the least be offered in a spirit which will not disgrace the cause of
former has been found a much more certain road to the in- truth.
troduction of despotism than the latter, and that of those I propose, in a series of papers, to discuss the following
men who have overturned the liberties of republics, the great- interesting particulars:
est number have begun their career by paying an obsequious
court to the people; commencing demagogues, and ending The utility of the union to your political prosperity
tyrants. The insufficiency of the present confederation to preserve that
In the course of the preceding observations, I have had an union
eye, my fellow-citizens, to putting you upon your guard against The necessity of a government at least equally energetic with
all attempts, from whatever quarter, to influence your deci- the one proposed, to the attainment of this object
sion in a matter of the utmost moment to your welfare, by The conformity of the proposed constitution to the true prin-
any impressions other than those which may result from the ciples of republican government
evidence of truth. You will, no doubt, at the same time, have Its analogy to your own state constitution
collected from the general scope of them, that they proceed and lastly, The additional security which its adoption will af-
from a source not unfriendly to the new Constitution. Yes, ford to the preservation of that species of government, to liberty,
my countrymen, I own to you that, after having given it an and toproperty.
attentive consideration, I am clearly of opinion it is your in-
terest to adopt it. I am convinced that this is the safest course In the progress of this discussion I shall endeavor to give a
for your liberty, your dignity, and your happiness. I affect not satisfactory answer to all the objections which shall have made
reserves which I do not feel. I will not amuse you with an their appearance, that may seem to have any claim to your
appearance of deliberation when I have decided. I frankly ac- attention.
knowledge to you my convictions, and I will freely lay before It may perhaps be thought superfluous to offer arguments
you the reasons on which they are founded. The conscious- to prove the utility of the union, a point, no doubt, deeply
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engraved on the hearts of the great body of the people in FEDERALIST No. 2
every State, and one, which it may be imagined, has no adver-
saries. But the fact is, that we already hear it whispered in the Concerning Dangers from Foreign Force and Influence
private circles of those who oppose the new Constitution,
that the thirteen States are of too great extent for any general For the Independent Journal.
system, and that we must of necessity resort to separate con-
federacies of distinct portions of the whole.* This doctrine JAY
will, in all probability, be gradually propagated, till it has vo-
taries enough to countenance an open avowal of it. For noth- To the People of the State of New York:
ing can be more evident, to those who are able to take an
enlarged view of the subject, than the alternative of an adop- When the people of America reflect that they are now called
tion of the new Constitution or a dismemberment of the upon to decide a question, which, in its consequences, must
Union. It will therefore be of use to begin by examining the prove one of the most important that ever engaged their at-
advantages of that Union, the certain evils, and the probable tention, the propriety of their taking a very comprehensive,
dangers, to which every State will be exposed from its disso- as well as a very serious, view of it, will be evident.
lution. This shall accordingly constitute the subject of my Nothing is more certain than the indispensable necessity of
next address. government, and it is equally undeniable, that whenever and
however it is instituted, the people must cede to it some of
Publius. their natural rights in order to vest it with requisite powers. It
is well worthy of consideration therefore, whether it would
conduce more to the interest of the people of America that
they should, to all general purposes, be one nation, under one
federal government, or that they should divide themselves
into separate confederacies, and give to the head of each the
*The same idea, tracing the arguments to their consequences, same kind of powers which they are advised to place in one
is held out in several of the late publications against the new national government.
Constitution. It has until lately been a received and uncontradicted opin-
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ion that the prosperity of the people of America depended on With equal pleasure I have as often taken notice that Provi-
their continuing firmly united, and the wishes, prayers, and dence has been pleased to give this one connected country to
efforts of our best and wisest citizens have been constantly one united people—a people descended from the same ances-
directed to that object. But politicians now appear, who in- tors, speaking the same language, professing the same reli-
sist that this opinion is erroneous, and that instead of looking gion, attached to the same principles of government, very simi-
for safety and happiness in union, we ought to seek it in a lar in their manners and customs, and who, by their joint
division of the States into distinct confederacies or sovereign- counsels, arms, and efforts, fighting side by side throughout a
ties. However extraordinary this new doctrine may appear, it long and bloody war, have nobly established general liberty
nevertheless has its advocates; and certain characters who were and independence.
much opposed to it formerly, are at present of the number. This country and this people seem to have been made for
Whatever may be the arguments or inducements which have each other, and it appears as if it was the design of Providence,
wrought this change in the sentiments and declarations of that an inheritance so proper and convenient for a band of
these gentlemen, it certainly would not be wise in the people brethren, united to each other by the strongest ties, should
at large to adopt these new political tenets without being fully never be split into a number of unsocial, jealous, and alien
convinced that they are founded in truth and sound policy. sovereignties.
It has often given me pleasure to observe that independent Similar sentiments have hitherto prevailed among all or-
America was not composed of detached and distant territories, ders and denominations of men among us. To all general
but that one connected, fertile, widespreading country was the purposes we have uniformly been one people each individual
portion of our western sons of liberty. Providence has in a par- citizen everywhere enjoying the same national rights, privi-
ticular manner blessed it with a variety of soils and produc- leges, and protection. As a nation we have made peace and
tions, and watered it with innumerable streams, for the delight war; as a nation we have vanquished our common enemies; as
and accommodation of its inhabitants. A succession of navi- a nation we have formed alliances, and made treaties, and en-
gable waters forms a kind of chain round its borders, as if to tered into various compacts and conventions with foreign
bind it together; while the most noble rivers in the world, run- states.
ning at convenient distances, present them with highways for A strong sense of the value and blessings of union induced
the easy communication of friendly aids, and the mutual trans- the people, at a very early period, to institute a federal govern-
portation and exchange of their various commodities. ment to preserve and perpetuate it. They formed it almost as
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soon as they had a political existence; nay, at a time when mous councils.
their habitations were in flames, when many of their citizens Admit, for so is the fact, that this plan is only recommended,
were bleeding, and when the progress of hostility and desola- not imposed, yet let it be remembered that it is neither rec-
tion left little room for those calm and mature inquiries and ommended to blind approbation, nor to blind reprobation;
reflections which must ever precede the formation of a wise but to that sedate and candid consideration which the magni-
and wellbalanced government for a free people. It is not to be tude and importance of the subject demand, and which it
wondered at, that a government instituted in times so inaus- certainly ought to receive. But this (as was remarked in the
picious, should on experiment be found greatly deficient and foregoing number of this paper) is more to be wished than
inadequate to the purpose it was intended to answer. expected, that it may be so considered and examined. Experi-
This intelligent people perceived and regretted these defects. ence on a former occasion teaches us not to be too sanguine
Still continuing no less attached to union than enamored of in such hopes. It is not yet forgotten that well-grounded ap-
liberty, they observed the danger which immediately threat- prehensions of imminent danger induced the people of
ened the former and more remotely the latter; and being America to form the memorable Congress of 1774. That body
pursuaded that ample security for both could only be found recommended certain measures to their constituents, and the
in a national government more wisely framed, they as with event proved their wisdom; yet it is fresh in our memories
one voice, convened the late convention at Philadelphia, to how soon the press began to teem with pamphlets and weekly
take that important subject under consideration. papers against those very measures. Not only many of the
This convention composed of men who possessed the con- officers of government, who obeyed the dictates of personal
fidence of the people, and many of whom had become highly interest, but others, from a mistaken estimate of consequences,
distinguished by their patriotism, virtue and wisdom, in times or the undue influence of former attachments, or whose am-
which tried the minds and hearts of men, undertook the ar- bition aimed at objects which did not correspond with the
duous task. In the mild season of peace, with minds unoccu- public good, were indefatigable in their efforts to pursuade
pied by other subjects, they passed many months in cool, the people to reject the advice of that patriotic Congress. Many,
uninterrupted, and daily consultation; and finally, without indeed, were deceived and deluded, but the great majority of
having been awed by power, or influenced by any passions the people reasoned and decided judiciously; and happy they
except love for their country, they presented and recommended are in reflecting that they did so.
to the people the plan produced by their joint and very unani- They considered that the Congress was composed of many
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The Federalist Papers
wise and experienced men. That, being convened from dif- ity of America depended on its Union. To preserve and per-
ferent parts of the country, they brought with them and com- petuate it was the great object of the people in forming that
municated to each other a variety of useful information. That, convention, and it is also the great object of the plan which
in the course of the time they passed together in inquiring the convention has advised them to adopt. With what pro-
into and discussing the true interests of their country, they priety, therefore, or for what good purposes, are attempts at
must have acquired very accurate knowledge on that head. this particular period made by some men to depreciate the
That they were individually interested in the public liberty importance of the Union? Or why is it suggested that three
and prosperity, and therefore that it was not less their inclina- or four confederacies would be better than one? I am per-
tion than their duty to recommend only such measures as, suaded in my own mind that the people have always thought
after the most mature deliberation, they really thought pru- right on this subject, and that their universal and uniform
dent and advisable. attachment to the cause of the Union rests on great and weighty
These and similar considerations then induced the people reasons, which I shall endeavor to develop and explain in some
to rely greatly on the judgment and integrity of the Congress; ensuing papers. They who promote the idea of substituting a
and they took their advice, notwithstanding the various arts number of distinct confederacies in the room of the plan of
and endeavors used to deter them from it. But if the people the convention, seem clearly to foresee that the rejection of it
at large had reason to confide in the men of that Congress, would put the continuance of the Union in the utmost jeop-
few of whom had been fully tried or generally known, still ardy. That certainly would be the case, and I sincerely wish
greater reason have they now to respect the judgment and that it may be as clearly foreseen by every good citizen, that
advice of the convention, for it is well known that some of whenever the dissolution of the Union arrives, America will
the most distinguished members of that Congress, who have have reason to exclaim, in the words of the poet: “Farewell! A
been since tried and justly approved for patriotism and abili- long farewell to all my greatness.”
ties, and who have grown old in acquiring political informa-
tion, were also members of this convention, and carried into Publius.
it their accumulated knowledge and experience.
It is worthy of remark that not only the first, but every
succeeding Congress, as well as the late convention, have in-
variably joined with the people in thinking that the prosper-
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FEDERALIST No. 3 doubtless has relation to a great variety of circumstances and
considerations, and consequently affords great latitude to those
The Same Subject Continued who wish to define it precisely and comprehensively.
At present I mean only to consider it as it respects security
(Concerning Dangers From Foreign Force and Influence) for the preservation of peace and tranquillity, as well as against
dangers from foreign arms and influence, as from dangers of
For the Independent Journal. the like kind arising from domestic causes. As the former of
these comes first in order, it is proper it should be the first
JAY discussed. Let us therefore proceed to examine whether the
people are not right in their opinion that a cordial Union,
To the People of the State of New York: under an efficient national government, affords them the best
security that can be devised against hostilities from abroad.
It is not a new observation that the people of any country (if, The number of wars which have happened or will happen
like the Americans, intelligent and wellinformed) seldom in the world will always be found to be in proportion to the
adopt and steadily persevere for many years in an erroneous number and weight of the causes, whether real or pretended,
opinion respecting their interests. That consideration natu- which provoke or invite them. If this remark be just, it be-
rally tends to create great respect for the high opinion which comes useful to inquire whether so many just causes of war
the people of America have so long and uniformly entertained are likely to be given by united America as by disunited
of the importance of their continuing firmly united under America; for if it should turn out that United America will
one federal government, vested with sufficient powers for all probably give the fewest, then it will follow that in this re-
general and national purposes. spect the Union tends most to preserve the people in a state
The more attentively I consider and investigate the reasons of peace with other nations.
which appear to have given birth to this opinion, the more I The just causes of war, for the most part, arise either from
become convinced that they are cogent and conclusive. violation of treaties or from direct violence. America has al-
Among the many objects to which a wise and free people ready formed treaties with no less than six foreign nations,
find it necessary to direct their attention, that of providing and all of them, except Prussia, are maritime, and therefore
for their safety seems to be the first. The safety of the people able to annoy and injure us. She has also extensive commerce
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with Portugal, Spain, and Britain, and, with respect to the expounded in one sense and executed in the same manner,—
two latter, has, in addition, the circumstance of neighbor- whereas, adjudications on the same points and questions, in
hood to attend to. thirteen States, or in three or four confederacies, will not al-
It is of high importance to the peace of America that she ways accord or be consistent; and that, as well from the vari-
observe the laws of nations towards all these powers, and to ety of independent courts and judges appointed by different
me it appears evident that this will be more perfectly and and independent governments, as from the different local laws
punctually done by one national government than it could be and interests which may affect and influence them. The wis-
either by thirteen separate States or by three or four distinct dom of the convention, in committing such questions to the
confederacies. jurisdiction and judgment of courts appointed by and respon-
Because when once an efficient national government is es- sible only to one national government, cannot be too much
tablished, the best men in the country will not only consent commended.
to serve, but also will generally be appointed to manage it; Because the prospect of present loss or advantage may often
for, although town or country, or other contracted influence, tempt the governing party in one or two States to swerve
may place men in State assemblies, or senates, or courts of from good faith and justice; but those temptations, not reach-
justice, or executive departments, yet more general and exten- ing the other States, and consequently having little or no in-
sive reputation for talents and other qualifications will be nec- fluence on the national government, the temptation will be
essary to recommend men to offices under the national gov- fruitless, and good faith and justice be preserved. The case of
ernment,—especially as it will have the widest field for choice, the treaty of peace with Britain adds great weight to this rea-
and never experience that want of proper persons which is soning.
not uncommon in some of the States. Hence, it will result Because, even if the governing party in a State should be
that the administration, the political counsels, and the judi- disposed to resist such temptations, yet as such temptations
cial decisions of the national government will be more wise, may, and commonly do, result from circumstances peculiar
systematical, and judicious than those of individual States, to the State, and may affect a great number of the inhabit-
and consequently more satisfactory with respect to other na- ants, the governing party may not always be able, if willing,
tions, as well as more safe with respect to us. to prevent the injustice meditated, or to punish the aggres-
Because, under the national government, treaties and ar- sors. But the national government, not being affected by those
ticles of treaties, as well as the laws of nations, will always be local circumstances, will neither be induced to commit the
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wrong themselves, nor want power or inclination to prevent danger as a national government, whose wisdom and pru-
or punish its commission by others. dence will not be diminished by the passions which actuate
So far, therefore, as either designed or accidental violations the parties immediately interested.
of treaties and the laws of nations afford jsut causes of war, But not only fewer just causes of war will be given by the
they are less to be apprehended under one general govern- national government, but it will also be more in their power
ment than under several lesser ones, and in that respect the to accommodate and settle them amicably. They will be more
former most favors the safety of the people. temperate and cool, and in that respect, as well as in others,
As to those just causes of war which proceed from direct and will be more in capacity to act advisedly than the offending
unlawful violence, it appears equally clear to me that one good State. The pride of states, as well as of men, naturally disposes
national government affords vastly more security against dan- them to justify all their actions, and opposes their acknowl-
gers of that sort than can be derived from any other quarter. edging, correcting, or repairing their errors and offenses. The
Because such violences are more frequently caused by the national government, in such cases, will not be affected by
passions and interests of a part than of the whole; of one or this pride, but will proceed with moderation and candor to
two States than of the Union. Not a single Indian war has yet consider and decide on the means most proper to extricate
been occasioned by aggressions of the present federal govern- them from the difficulties which threaten them.
ment, feeble as it is; but there are several instances of Indian Besides, it is well known that acknowledgments, explana-
hostilities having been provoked by the improper conduct of tions, and compensations are often accepted as satisfactory
individual States, who, either unable or unwilling to restrain from a strong united nation, which would be rejected as un-
or punish offenses, have given occasion to the slaughter of satisfactory if offered by a State or confederacy of little con-
many innocent inhabitants. sideration or power.
The neighborhood of Spanish and British territories, bor- In the year 1685, the state of Genoa having offended Louis
dering on some States and not on others, naturally confines XIV., endeavored to appease him. He demanded that they
the causes of quarrel more immediately to the borderers. The should send their Doge, or chief magistrate, accompanied by
bordering States, if any, will be those who, under the impulse four of their senators, to France, to ask his pardon and receive
of sudden irritation, and a quick sense of apparent interest or his terms. They were obliged to submit to it for the sake of
injury, will be most likely, by direct violence, to excite war peace. Would he on any occasion either have demanded or
with these nations; and nothing can so effectually obviate that have received the like humiliation from Spain, or Britain, or
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any other powerful nation? FEDERALIST No. 4
Publius. The Same Subject Continued

(Concerning Dangers From Foreign Force and Influence)

For the Independent Journal.

JAY

To the People of the State of New York:

My last paper assigned several reasons why the safety of the


people would be best secured by union against the danger it
may be exposed to by just causes of war given to other na-
tions; and those reasons show that such causes would not only
be more rarely given, but would also be more easily accom-
modated, by a national government than either by the State
governments or the proposed little confederacies.
But the safety of the people of America against dangers from
foreign force depends not only on their forbearing to give just
causes of war to other nations, but also on their placing and
continuing themselves in such a situation as not to invite hos-
tility or insult; for it need not be observed that there are pre-
tended as well as just causes of war.
It is too true, however disgraceful it may be to human na-
ture, that nations in general will make war whenever they
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have a prospect of getting anything by it; nay, absolute mon- thereby supply ourselves with commodities which we used
archs will often make war when their nations are to get noth- to purchase from them.
ing by it, but for the purposes and objects merely personal, The extension of our own commerce in our own vessels
such as thirst for military glory, revenge for personal affronts, cannot give pleasure to any nations who possess territories on
ambition, or private compacts to aggrandize or support their or near this continent, because the cheapness and excellence
particular families or partisans. These and a variety of other of our productions, added to the circumstance of vicinity,
motives, which affect only the mind of the sovereign, often and the enterprise and address of our merchants and naviga-
lead him to engage in wars not sanctified by justice or the tors, will give us a greater share in the advantages which those
voice and interests of his people. But, independent of these territories afford, than consists with the wishes or policy of
inducements to war, which are more prevalent in absolute their respective sovereigns.
monarchies, but which well deserve our attention, there are Spain thinks it convenient to shut the Mississippi against
others which affect nations as often as kings; and some of us on the one side, and Britain excludes us from the Saint
them will on examination be found to grow out of our rela- Lawrence on the other; nor will either of them permit the
tive situation and circumstances. other waters which are between them and us to become the
With France and with Britain we are rivals in the fisheries, means of mutual intercourse and traffic.
and can supply their markets cheaper than they can them- From these and such like considerations, which might, if
selves, notwithstanding any efforts to prevent it by bounties consistent with prudence, be more amplified and detailed, it
on their own or duties on foreign fish. is easy to see that jealousies and uneasinesses may gradually
With them and with most other European nations we are slide into the minds and cabinets of other nations, and that
rivals in navigation and the carrying trade; and we shall deceive we are not to expect that they should regard our advancement
ourselves if we suppose that any of them will rejoice to see it in union, in power and consequence by land and by sea, with
flourish; for, as our carrying trade cannot increase without in an eye of indifference and composure.
some degree diminishing theirs, it is more their interest, and The people of America are aware that inducements to war
will be more their policy, to restrain than to promote it. may arise out of these circumstances, as well as from others
In the trade to China and India, we interfere with more not so obvious at present, and that whenever such induce-
than one nation, inasmuch as it enables us to partake in ad- ments may find fit time and opportunity for operation, pre-
vantages which they had in a manner monopolized, and as we tenses to color and justify them will not be wanting. Wisely,
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therefore, do they consider union and a good national gov- three or four distinct independent companies.
ernment as necessary to put and keep them in such a situation What would the militia of Britain be if the English militia
as, instead of inviting war, will tend to repress and discourage obeyed the government of England, if the Scotch militia
it. That situation consists in the best possible state of defense, obeyed the government of Scotland, and if the Welsh militia
and necessarily depends on the government, the arms, and obeyed the government of Wales? Suppose an invasion; would
the resources of the country. those three governments (if they agreed at all) be able, with
As the safety of the whole is the interest of the whole, and all their respective forces, to operate against the enemy so ef-
cannot be provided for without government, either one or fectually as the single government of Great Britain would?
more or many, let us inquire whether one good government We have heard much of the fleets of Britain, and the time
is not, relative to the object in question, more competent may come, if we are wise, when the fleets of America may
than any other given number whatever. engage attention. But if one national government, had not so
One government can collect and avail itself of the talents regulated the navigation of Britain as to make it a nursery for
and experience of the ablest men, in whatever part of the Union seamen—if one national government had not called forth all
they may be found. It can move on uniform principles of the national means and materials for forming fleets, their prow-
policy. It can harmonize, assimilate, and protect the several ess and their thunder would never have been celebrated. Let
parts and members, and extend the benefit of its foresight England have its navigation and fleet—let Scotland have its
and precautions to each. In the formation of treaties, it will navigation and fleet—let Wales have its navigation and fleet—
regard the interest of the whole, and the particular interests of let Ireland have its navigation and fleet—let those four of the
the parts as connected with that of the whole. It can apply the constituent parts of the British empire be be under four inde-
resources and power of the whole to the defense of any par- pendent governments, and it is easy to perceive how soon
ticular part, and that more easily and expeditiously than State they would each dwindle into comparative insignificance.
governments or separate confederacies can possibly do, for Apply these facts to our own case. Leave America divided
want of concert and unity of system. It can place the militia into thirteen or, if you please, into three or four independent
under one plan of discipline, and, by putting their officers in governments—what armies could they raise and pay—what
a proper line of subordination to the Chief Magistrate, will, fleets could they ever hope to have? If one was attacked, would
as it were, consolidate them into one corps, and thereby ren- the others fly to its succor, and spend their blood and money
der them more efficient than if divided into thirteen or into in its defense? Would there be no danger of their being flat-
18
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tered into neutrality by its specious promises, or seduced by a administered, our trade prudently regulated, our militia prop-
too great fondness for peace to decline hazarding their tran- erly organized and disciplined, our resources and finances dis-
quillity and present safety for the sake of neighbors, of whom creetly managed, our credit re-established, our people free,
perhaps they have been jealous, and whose importance they contented, and united, they will be much more disposed to
are content to see diminished? Although such conduct would cultivate our friendship than provoke our resentment. If, on
not be wise, it would, nevertheless, be natural. The history of the other hand, they find us either destitute of an effectual
the states of Greece, and of other countries, abounds with government (each State doing right or wrong, as to its rulers
such instances, and it is not improbable that what has so of- may seem convenient), or split into three or four indepen-
ten happened would, under similar circumstances, happen dent and probably discordant republics or confederacies, one
again. inclining to Britain, another to France, and a third to Spain,
But admit that they might be willing to help the invaded and perhaps played off against each other by the three, what a
State or confederacy. How, and when, and in what propor- poor, pitiful figure will America make in their eyes! How
tion shall aids of men and money be afforded? Who shall liable would she become not only to their contempt but to
command the allied armies, and from which of them shall he their outrage, and how soon would dear-bought experience
receive his orders? Who shall settle the terms of peace, and in proclaim that when a people or family so divide, it never fails
case of disputes what umpire shall decide between them and to be against themselves.
compel acquiescence? Various difficulties and inconveniences
would be inseparable from such a situation; whereas one gov- Publius.
ernment, watching over the general and common interests,
and combining and directing the powers and resources of the
whole, would be free from all these embarrassments, and con-
duce far more to the safety of the people.
But whatever may be our situation, whether firmly united
under one national government, or split into a number of
confederacies, certain it is, that foreign nations will know and
view it exactly as it is; and they will act toward us accordingly.
If they see that our national government is efficient and well
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FEDERALIST No. 5 happiness, and disappoint the designs of our and your en-
emies, who will doubtless, on this occasion, use their utmost
The Same Subject Continued endeavors to prevent or delay this union.’’
It was remarked in the preceding paper, that weakness and
(Concerning Dangers From Foreign Force and Influence) divisions at home would invite dangers from abroad; and that
nothing would tend more to secure us from them than union,
For the Independent Journal. strength, and good government within ourselves. This sub-
ject is copious and cannot easily be exhausted.
JAY The history of Great Britain is the one with which we are
in general the best acquainted, and it gives us many useful
To the People of the State of New York: lessons. We may profit by their experience without paying
the price which it cost them. Although it seems obvious to
Queen Anne, in her letter of the 1st July, 1706, to the Scotch common sense that the people of such an island should be
Parliament, makes some observations on the importance of but one nation, yet we find that they were for ages divided
the union then forming between England and Scotland, which into three, and that those three were almost constantly em-
merit our attention. I shall present the public with one or broiled in quarrels and wars with one another. Notwithstand-
two extracts from it: “An entire and perfect union will be the ing their true interest with respect to the continental nations
solid foundation of lasting peace: It will secure your religion, was really the same, yet by the arts and policy and practices of
liberty, and property; remove the animosities amongst your- those nations, their mutual jealousies were perpetually kept
selves, and the jealousies and differences betwixt our two king- inflamed, and for a long series of years they were far more
doms. It must increase your strength, riches, and trade; and inconvenient and troublesome than they were useful and as-
by this union the whole island, being joined in affection and sisting to each other.
free from all apprehensions of different interest, will be en- Should the people of America divide themselves into three
abled to resist all its enemies.’’ “We most earnestly recommend or four nations, would not the same thing happen? Would
to you calmness and unanimity in this great and weighty af- not similar jealousies arise, and be in like manner cherished?
fair, that the union may be brought to a happy conclusion, Instead of their being “joined in affection” and free from all
being the only effectual way to secure our present and future apprehension of different “interests,” envy and jealousy would
20
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soon extinguish confidence and affection, and the partial in- whatever might promise to diminish her importance; and
terests of each confederacy, instead of the general interests of would also restrain them from measures calculated to advance
all America, would be the only objects of their policy and or even to secure her prosperity. Much time would not be
pursuits. Hence, like most other bordering nations, they would necessary to enable her to discern these unfriendly disposi-
always be either involved in disputes and war, or live in the tions. She would soon begin, not only to lose confidence in
constant apprehension of them. her neighbors, but also to feel a disposition equally unfavor-
The most sanguine advocates for three or four confedera- able to them. Distrust naturally creates distrust, and by noth-
cies cannot reasonably suppose that they would long remain ing is good-will and kind conduct more speedily changed than
exactly on an equal footing in point of strength, even if it was by invidious jealousies and uncandid imputations, whether
possible to form them so at first; but, admitting that to be expressed or implied.
practicable, yet what human contrivance can secure the con- The North is generally the region of strength, and many
tinuance of such equality? Independent of those local circum- local circumstances render it probable that the most North-
stances which tend to beget and increase power in one part ern of the proposed confederacies would, at a period not very
and to impede its progress in another, we must advert to the distant, be unquestionably more formidable than any of the
effects of that superior policy and good management which others. No sooner would this become evident than the north-
would probably distinguish the government of one above the ern hive would excite the same ideas and sensations in the
rest, and by which their relative equality in strength and more southern parts of America which it formerly did in the
consideration would be destroyed. For it cannot be presumed southern parts of Europe. Nor does it appear to be a rash
that the same degree of sound policy, prudence, and foresight conjecture that its young swarms might often be tempted to
would uniformly be observed by each of these confederacies gather honey in the more blooming fields and milder air of
for a long succession of years. their luxurious and more delicate neighbors.
Whenever, and from whatever causes, it might happen, and They who well consider the history of similar divisions and
happen it would, that any one of these nations or confedera- confederacies will find abundant reason to apprehend that
cies should rise on the scale of political importance much those in contemplation would in no other sense be neighbors
above the degree of her neighbors, that moment would those than as they would be borderers; that they would neither love
neighbors behold her with envy and with fear. Both those nor trust one another, but on the contrary would be a prey to
passions would lead them to countenance, if not to promote, discord, jealousy, and mutual injuries; in short, that they would
21
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place us exactly in the situations in which some nations doubt- neighboring nations, acting under the impulse of opposite
less wish to see us, viz., formidable only to each other. interests and unfriendly passions, would frequently be found
From these considerations it appears that those gentlemen taking different sides. Considering our distance from Europe,
are greatly mistaken who suppose that alliances offensive and it would be more natural for these confederacies to appre-
defensive might be formed between these confederacies, and hend danger from one another than from distant nations, and
would produce that combination and union of wills of arms therefore that each of them should be more desirous to guard
and of resources, which would be necessary to put and keep against the others by the aid of foreign alliances, than to guard
them in a formidable state of defense against foreign enemies. against foreign dangers by alliances between themselves. And
When did the independent states, into which Britain and here let us not forget how much more easy it is to receive
Spain were formerly divided, combine in such alliance, or foreign fleets into our ports, and foreign armies into our coun-
unite their forces against a foreign enemy? The proposed con- try, than it is to persuade or compel them to depart. How
federacies will be distinct nations. Each of them would have many conquests did the Romans and others make in the char-
its commerce with foreigners to regulate by distinct treaties; acters of allies, and what innovations did they under the same
and as their productions and commodities are different and character introduce into the governments of those whom they
proper for different markets, so would those treaties be essen- pretended to protect.
tially different. Let candid men judge, then, whether the division of America
Different commercial concerns must create different inter- into any given number of independent sovereignties would
ests, and of course different degrees of political attachment to tend to secure us against the hostilities and improper interfer-
and connection with different foreign nations. Hence it might ence of foreign nations.
and probably would happen that the foreign nation with
whom the southern confederacy might be at war would be Publius.
the one with whom the northern confederacy would be the
most desirous of preserving peace and friendship. An alliance
so contrary to their immediate interest would not therefore
be easy to form, nor, if formed, would it be observed and
fulfilled with perfect good faith.
Nay, it is far more probable that in America, as in Europe,
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FEDERALIST No. 6 tive, and rapacious. To look for a continuation of harmony
between a number of independent, unconnected sovereign-
Concerning Dangers from Dissensions Between the ties in the same neighborhood, would be to disregard the uni-
States form course of human events, and to set at defiance the accu-
mulated experience of ages.
For the Independent Journal. The causes of hostility among nations are innumerable.
There are some which have a general and almost constant
HAMILTON operation upon the collective bodies of society. Of this de-
scription are the love of power or the desire of pre-eminence
To the People of the State of New York: and dominion—the jealousy of power, or the desire of equal-
ity and safety. There are others which have a more circum-
The three last numbers of this paper have been dedicated to an scribed though an equally operative influence within their
enumeration of the dangers to which we should be exposed, in spheres. Such are the rivalships and competitions of commerce
a state of disunion, from the arms and arts of foreign nations. I between commercial nations. And there are others, not less
shall now proceed to delineate dangers of a different and, per- numerous than either of the former, which take their origin
haps, still more alarming kind—those which will in all prob- entirely in private passions; in the attachments, enmities, in-
ability flow from dissensions between the States themselves, terests, hopes, and fears of leading individuals in the commu-
and from domestic factions and convulsions. These have been nities of which they are members. Men of this class, whether
already in some instances slightly anticipated; but they deserve the favorites of a king or of a people, have in too many in-
a more particular and more full investigation. stances abused the confidence they possessed; and assuming
A man must be far gone in Utopian speculations who can the pretext of some public motive, have not scrupled to sacri-
seriously doubt that, if these States should either be wholly fice the national tranquillity to personal advantage or personal
disunited, or only united in partial confederacies, the subdi- gratification.
visions into which they might be thrown would have fre- The celebrated Pericles, in compliance with the resentment
quent and violent contests with each other. To presume a want of a prostitute,* at the expense of much of the blood and
of motives for such contests as an argument against their ex- treasure of his countrymen, attacked, vanquished, and de-
istence, would be to forget that men are ambitious, vindic- *Aspasia, vide “Plutarch’s Life of Pericles.”
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stroyed the city of the Samnians. The same man, stimulated For if there ever was a sovereign who bid fair to realize the
by private pique against the Megarensians,* another nation of project of universal monarchy, it was the Emperor Charles
Greece, or to avoid a prosecution with which he was threat- V., of whose intrigues Wolsey was at once the instrument and
ened as an accomplice of a supposed theft of the statuary the dupe.
Phidias,** or to get rid of the accusations prepared to be The influence which the bigotry of one female,* the petu-
brought against him for dissipating the funds of the state in lance of another,** and the cabals of a third,*** had in the
the purchase of popularity,*** or from a combination of all contemporary policy, ferments, and pacifications, of a con-
these causes, was the primitive author of that famous and siderable part of Europe, are topics that have been too often
fatal war, distinguished in the Grecian annals by the name of descanted upon not to be generally known.
the Peloponnesian war; which, after various vicissitudes, inter- To multiply examples of the agency of personal consider-
missions, and renewals, terminated in the ruin of the Athe- ations in the production of great national events, either for-
nian commonwealth. eign or domestic, according to their direction, would be an
The ambitious cardinal, who was prime minister to Henry unnecessary waste of time. Those who have but a superficial
VIII., permitting his vanity to aspire to the triple crown,**** acquaintance with the sources from which they are to be
entertained hopes of succeeding in the acquisition of that splen- drawn, will themselves recollect a variety of instances; and
did prize by the influence of the Emperor Charles V. To se- those who have a tolerable knowledge of human nature will
cure the favor and interest of this enterprising and powerful not stand in need of such lights to form their opinion either
monarch, he precipitated England into a war with France, of the reality or extent of that agency. Perhaps, however, a
contrary to the plainest dictates of policy, and at the hazard of reference, tending to illustrate the general principle, may with
the safety and independence, as well of the kingdom over propriety be made to a case which has lately happened among
which he presided by his counsels, as of Europe in general. ourselves. If Shays had not been a desperate debtor, it is much
* Ibid. to be doubted whether Massachusetts would have been
** Ibid. plunged into a civil war.
***Ibid. Phidias was supposed to have stolen some public gold, But notwithstanding the concurring testimony of experi-
with the connivance of Pericles, for the embellishment of the * Madame de Maintenon.
statue of Minerva. ** Duchess of Marlborough.
**** P Worn by the popes. *** Madame de Pompadour.
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ence, in this particular, there are still to be found visionary or be tinctured by the passions and views of those individuals?
designing men, who stand ready to advocate the paradox of Has commerce hitherto done anything more than change the
perpetual peace between the States, though dismembered and objects of war? Is not the love of wealth as domineering and
alienated from each other. The genius of republics (say they) enterprising a passion as that of power or glory? Have there
is pacific; the spirit of commerce has a tendency to soften the not been as many wars founded upon commercial motives
manners of men, and to extinguish those inflammable hu- since that has become the prevailing system of nations, as were
mors which have so often kindled into wars. Commercial before occasioned by the cupidity of territory or dominion?
republics, like ours, will never be disposed to waste them- Has not the spirit of commerce, in many instances, adminis-
selves in ruinous contentions with each other. They will be tered new incentives to the appetite, both for the one and for
governed by mutual interest, and will cultivate a spirit of the other? Let experience, the least fallible guide of human
mutual amity and concord. opinions, be appealed to for an answer to these inquiries.
Is it not (we may ask these projectors in politics) the true Sparta, Athens, Rome, and Carthage were all republics; two
interest of all nations to cultivate the same benevolent and of them, Athens and Carthage, of the commercial kind. Yet
philosophic spirit? If this be their true interest, have they in were they as often engaged in wars, offensive and defensive, as
fact pursued it? Has it not, on the contrary, invariably been the neighboring monarchies of the same times. Sparta was
found that momentary passions, and immediate interest, have little better than a wellregulated camp; and Rome was never
a more active and imperious control over human conduct sated of carnage and conquest.
than general or remote considerations of policy, utility or jus- Carthage, though a commercial republic, was the aggressor
tice? Have republics in practice been less addicted to war than in the very war that ended in her destruction. Hannibal had
monarchies? Are not the former administered by men as well carried her arms into the heart of Italy and to the gates of
as the latter? Are there not aversions, predilections, rivalships, Rome, before Scipio, in turn, gave him an overthrow in the
and desires of unjust acquisitions, that affect nations as well territories of Carthage, and made a conquest of the common-
as kings? Are not popular assemblies frequently subject to the wealth.
impulses of rage, resentment, jealousy, avarice, and of other Venice, in later times, figured more than once in wars of
irregular and violent propensities? Is it not well known that ambition, till, becoming an object to the other Italian states,
their determinations are often governed by a few individuals Pope Julius II. found means to accomplish that formidable
in whom they place confidence, and are, of course, liable to
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league,* which gave a deadly blow to the power and pride of tracted the war beyond the limits marked out by sound policy,
this haughty republic. and for a considerable time in opposition to the views of the
The provinces of Holland, till they were overwhelmed in court.
debts and taxes, took a leading and conspicuous part in the The wars of these two last-mentioned nations have in a
wars of Europe. great measure grown out of commercial considerations,—the
They had furious contests with England for the dominion desire of supplanting and the fear of being supplanted, either
of the sea, and were among the most persevering and most in particular branches of traffic or in the general advantages of
implacable of the opponents of Louis XIV. trade and navigation.
In the government of Britain the representatives of the people From this summary of what has taken place in other coun-
compose one branch of the national legislature. Commerce tries, whose situations have borne the nearest resemblance to
has been for ages the predominant pursuit of that country. our own, what reason can we have to confide in those reveries
Few nations, nevertheless, have been more frequently engaged which would seduce us into an expectation of peace and cor-
in war; and the wars in which that kingdom has been engaged diality between the members of the present confederacy, in a
have, in numerous instances, proceeded from the people. state of separation? Have we not already seen enough of the
There have been, if I may so express it, almost as many fallacy and extravagance of those idle theories which have
popular as royal wars. The cries of the nation and the impor- amused us with promises of an exemption from the imper-
tunities of their representatives have, upon various occasions, fections, weaknesses and evils incident to society in every shape?
dragged their monarchs into war, or continued them in it, Is it not time to awake from the deceitful dream of a golden
contrary to their inclinations, and sometimes contrary to the age, and to adopt as a practical maxim for the direction of our
real interests of the State. In that memorable struggle for su- political conduct that we, as well as the other inhabitants of
periority between the rival houses of Austria and Bourbon, the globe, are yet remote from the happy empire of perfect
which so long kept Europe in a flame, it is well known that wisdom and perfect virtue?
the antipathies of the English against the French, seconding Let the point of extreme depression to which our national
the ambition, or rather the avarice, of a favorite leader,** pro- dignity and credit have sunk, let the inconveniences felt ev-
*The League of Cambray, comprehending the Emperor, the
erywhere from a lax and ill administration of government, let
King of France, the King of Aragon, and most of the Italian
princes and states. the revolt of a part of the State of North Carolina, the late
** The Duke of Marlborough. menacing disturbances in Pennsylvania, and the actual insur-
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rections and rebellions in Massachusetts, declare—! FEDERALIST. No. 7
So far is the general sense of mankind from corresponding
with the tenets of those who endeavor to lull asleep our ap- The Same Subject Continued
prehensions of discord and hostility between the States, in
the event of disunion, that it has from long observation of (Concerning Dangers from Dissensions Between the States)
the progress of society become a sort of axiom in politics,
that vicinity or nearness of situation, constitutes nations natural For the Independent Journal.
enemies. An intelligent writer expresses himself on this sub-
ject to this effect: “Neighboring nations (says he) are naturally HAMILTON
enemies of each other unless their common weakness forces
them to league in a confederate republic, and their constitu- To the People of the State of New York:
tion prevents the differences that neighborhood occasions,
extinguishing that secret jealousy which disposes all states to It is sometimes asked, with an air of seeming triumph, what
aggrandize themselves at the expense of their neighbors.’’* This inducements could the States have, if disunited, to make war
passage, at the same time, points out the evil and suggests the upon each other? It would be a full answer to this question to
remedy. say—precisely the same inducements which have, at different
times, deluged in blood all the nations in the world. But,
Publius. unfortunately for us, the question admits of a more particu-
lar answer. There are causes of differences within our imme-
diate contemplation, of the tendency of which, even under
the restraints of a federal constitution, we have had sufficient
experience to enable us to form a judgment of what might be
expected if those restraints were removed.
Territorial disputes have at all times been found one of the
most fertile sources of hostility among nations. Perhaps the
greatest proportion of wars that have desolated the earth have
*Vide “Principes des Negociations” par 1’Abbe de Mably. sprung from this origin. This cause would exist among us in
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full force. We have a vast tract of unsettled territory within If that were at an end, the States which made the cession, on
the boundaries of the United States. There still are discordant a principle of federal compromise, would be apt when the
and undecided claims between several of them, and the disso- motive of the grant had ceased, to reclaim the lands as a rever-
lution of the Union would lay a foundation for similar claims sion. The other States would no doubt insist on a propor-
between them all. It is well known that they have heretofore tion, by right of representation. Their argument would be,
had serious and animated discussion concerning the rights to that a grant, once made, could not be revoked; and that the
the lands which were ungranted at the time of the Revolu- justice of participating in territory acquired or secured by the
tion, and which usually went under the name of crown lands. joint efforts of the Confederacy, remained undiminished. If,
The States within the limits of whose colonial governments contrary to probability, it should be admitted by all the States,
they were comprised have claimed them as their property, the that each had a right to a share of this common stock, there
others have contended that the rights of the crown in this would still be a difficulty to be surmounted, as to a proper
article devolved upon the Union; especially as to all that part rule of apportionment. Different principles would be set up
of the Western territory which, either by actual possession, or by different States for this purpose; and as they would affect
through the submission of the Indian proprietors, was sub- the opposite interests of the parties, they might not easily be
jected to the jurisdiction of the king of Great Britain, till it susceptible of a pacific adjustment.
was relinquished in the treaty of peace. This, it has been said, In the wide field of Western territory, therefore, we perceive
was at all events an acquisition to the Confederacy by com- an ample theatre for hostile pretensions, without any umpire
pact with a foreign power. It has been the prudent policy of or common judge to interpose between the contending par-
Congress to appease this controversy, by prevailing upon the ties. To reason from the past to the future, we shall have good
States to make cessions to the United States for the benefit of ground to apprehend, that the sword would sometimes be
the whole. This has been so far accomplished as, under a con- appealed to as the arbiter of their differences. The circum-
tinuation of the Union, to afford a decided prospect of an stances of the dispute between Connecticut and Pennsylva-
amicable termination of the dispute. A dismemberment of nia, respecting the land at Wyoming, admonish us not to be
the Confederacy, however, would revive this dispute, and sanguine in expecting an easy accommodation of such differ-
would create others on the same subject. At present, a large ences. The articles of confederation obliged the parties to sub-
part of the vacant Western territory is, by cession at least, if mit the matter to the decision of a federal court. The submis-
not by any anterior right, the common property of the Union. sion was made, and the court decided in favor of Pennsylvania.
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But Connecticut gave strong indications of dissatisfaction with nection between Canada and that State, entered deeply into
that determination; nor did she appear to be entirely resigned the same views. These being small States, saw with an un-
to it, till, by negotiation and management, something like an friendly eye the perspective of our growing greatness. In a
equivalent was found for the loss she supposed herself to have review of these transactions we may trace some of the causes
sustained. Nothing here said is intended to convey the slight- which would be likely to embroil the States with each other,
est censure on the conduct of that State. She no doubt sin- if it should be their unpropitious destiny to become disunited.
cerely believed herself to have been injured by the decision; The competitions of commerce would be another fruitful
and States, like individuals, acquiesce with great reluctance in source of contention. The States less favorably circumstanced
determinations to their disadvantage. would be desirous of escaping from the disadvantages of local
Those who had an opportunity of seeing the inside of the situation, and of sharing in the advantages of their more for-
transactions which attended the progress of the controversy tunate neighbors. Each State, or separate confederacy, would
between this State and the district of Vermont, can vouch the pursue a system of commercial policy peculiar to itself. This
opposition we experienced, as well from States not interested would occasion distinctions, preferences, and exclusions, which
as from those which were interested in the claim; and can would beget discontent. The habits of intercourse, on the
attest the danger to which the peace of the Confederacy might basis of equal privileges, to which we have been accustomed
have been exposed, had this State attempted to assert its rights since the earliest settlement of the country, would give a keener
by force. Two motives preponderated in that opposition: one, edge to those causes of discontent than they would naturally
a jealousy entertained of our future power; and the other, the have independent of this circumstance. We should be ready to
interest of certain individuals of influence in the neighboring denominate injuries those things which were in reality the jus-
States, who had obtained grants of lands under the actual tifiable acts of independent sovereignties consulting a distinct
government of that district. Even the States which brought interest. The spirit of enterprise, which characterizes the com-
forward claims, in contradiction to ours, seemed more solici- mercial part of America, has left no occasion of displaying
tous to dismember this State, than to establish their own pre- itself unimproved. It is not at all probable that this unbridled
tensions. These were New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and spirit would pay much respect to those regulations of trade
Connecticut. New Jersey and Rhode Island, upon all occa- by which particular States might endeavor to secure exclusive
sions, discovered a warm zeal for the independence of Ver- benefits to their own citizens. The infractions of these regula-
mont; and Maryland, till alarmed by the appearance of a con- tions, on one side, the efforts to prevent and repel them, on
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the other, would naturally lead to outrages, and these to re- apportionment, in the first instance, and the progressive ex-
prisals and wars. tinguishment afterward, would be alike productive of ill-hu-
The opportunities which some States would have of ren- mor and animosity. How would it be possible to agree upon
dering others tributary to them by commercial regulations a rule of apportionment satisfactory to all? There is scarcely
would be impatiently submitted to by the tributary States. any that can be proposed which is entirely free from real ob-
The relative situation of New York, Connecticut, and New jections. These, as usual, would be exaggerated by the adverse
Jersey would afford an example of this kind. New York, from interest of the parties. There are even dissimilar views among
the necessities of revenue, must lay duties on her importa- the States as to the general principle of discharging the public
tions. A great part of these duties must be paid by the inhab- debt. Some of them, either less impressed with the impor-
itants of the two other States in the capacity of consumers of tance of national credit, or because their citizens have little, if
what we import. New York would neither be willing nor able any, immediate interest in the question, feel an indifference,
to forego this advantage. Her citizens would not consent that if not a repugnance, to the payment of the domestic debt at
a duty paid by them should be remitted in favor of the citi- any rate. These would be inclined to magnify the difficulties
zens of her neighbors; nor would it be practicable, if there of a distribution. Others of them, a numerous body of whose
were not this impediment in the way, to distinguish the cus- citizens are creditors to the public beyond proportion of the
tomers in our own markets. Would Connecticut and New State in the total amount of the national debt, would be strenu-
Jersey long submit to be taxed by New York for her exclusive ous for some equitable and effective provision. The procrasti-
benefit? Should we be long permitted to remain in the quiet nations of the former would excite the resentments of the
and undisturbed enjoyment of a metropolis, from the pos- latter. The settlement of a rule would, in the meantime, be
session of which we derived an advantage so odious to our postponed by real differences of opinion and affected delays.
neighbors, and, in their opinion, so oppressive? Should we be The citizens of the States interested would clamour; foreign
able to preserve it against the incumbent weight of Connecti- powers would urge for the satisfaction of their just demands,
cut on the one side, and the co-operating pressure of New and the peace of the States would be hazarded to the double
Jersey on the other? These are questions that temerity alone contingency of external invasion and internal contention.
will answer in the affirmative. Suppose the difficulties of agreeing upon a rule surmounted,
The public debt of the Union would be a further cause of and the apportionment made. Still there is great room to sup-
collision between the separate States or confederacies. The pose that the rule agreed upon would, upon experiment, be
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found to bear harder upon some States than upon others. Laws in violation of private contracts, as they amount to
Those which were sufferers by it would naturally seek for a aggressions on the rights of those States whose citizens are
mitigation of the burden. The others would as naturally be injured by them, may be considered as another probable source
disinclined to a revision, which was likely to end in an in- of hostility. We are not authorized to expect that a more lib-
crease of their own incumbrances. Their refusal would be too eral or more equitable spirit would preside over the legisla-
plausible a pretext to the complaining States to withhold their tions of the individual States hereafter, if unrestrained by any
contributions, not to be embraced with avidity; and the non- additional checks, than we have heretofore seen in too many
compliance of these States with their engagements would be instances disgracing their several codes. We have observed the
a ground of bitter discussion and altercation. If even the rule disposition to retaliation excited in Connecticut in conse-
adopted should in practice justify the equality of its principle, quence of the enormities perpetrated by the Legislature of
still delinquencies in payments on the part of some of the Rhode Island; and we reasonably infer that, in similar cases,
States would result from a diversity of other causes—the real under other circumstances, a war, not of parchment, but of
deficiency of resources; the mismanagement of their finances; the sword, would chastise such atrocious breaches of moral
accidental disorders in the management of the government; obligation and social justice.
and, in addition to the rest, the reluctance with which men The probability of incompatible alliances between the dif-
commonly part with money for purposes that have outlived ferent States or confederacies and different foreign nations,
the exigencies which produced them, and interfere with the and the effects of this situation upon the peace of the whole,
supply of immediate wants. Delinquencies, from whatever have been sufficiently unfolded in some preceding papers.
causes, would be productive of complaints, recriminations, From the view they have exhibited of this part of the subject,
and quarrels. There is, perhaps, nothing more likely to dis- this conclusion is to be drawn, that America, if not connected
turb the tranquillity of nations than their being bound to at all, or only by the feeble tie of a simple league, offensive
mutual contributions for any common object that does not and defensive, would, by the operation of such jarring alli-
yield an equal and coincident benefit. For it is an observation, ances, be gradually entangled in all the pernicious labyrinths
as true as it is trite, that there is nothing men differ so readily of European politics and wars; and by the destructive conten-
about as the payment of money. tions of the parts into which she was divided, would be likely

31
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to become a prey to the artifices and machinations of powers FEDERALIST No. 8
equally the enemies of them all. Divide et impera* must be
the motto of every nation that either hates or fears us.** The Consequences of Hostilities Between the States

Publius. From the New York Packet.

Tuesday, November 20, 1787.

HAMILTON

To the People of the State of New York:

Assuming it therefore as an established truth that the several


States, in case of disunion, or such combinations of them as
might happen to be formed out of the wreck of the general
Confederacy, would be subject to those vicissitudes of peace
and war, of friendship and enmity, with each other, which
have fallen to the lot of all neighboring nations not united
under one government, let us enter into a concise detail of
some of the consequences that would attend such a situation.
War between the States, in the first period of their separate
*Divide and command. existence, would be accompanied with much greater distresses
**In order that the whole subject of these papers may as soon than it commonly is in those countries where regular military
as possible be laid before the public, it is proposed to publish establishments have long obtained. The disciplined armies
them four times a week—on Tuesday in the New York Packet always kept on foot on the continent of Europe, though they
and on Thursday in the Daily Advertiser. bear a malignant aspect to liberty and economy, have, not-
withstanding, been productive of the signal advantage of ren-
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dering sudden conquests impracticable, and of preventing that in the train of irregulars. The calamities of individuals would
rapid desolation which used to mark the progress of war prior make the principal figure in the events which would charac-
to their introduction. The art of fortification has contributed terize our military exploits.
to the same ends. The nations of Europe are encircled with This picture is not too highly wrought; though, I confess,
chains of fortified places, which mutually obstruct invasion. it would not long remain a just one. Safety from external
Campaigns are wasted in reducing two or three frontier garri- danger is the most powerful director of national conduct. Even
sons, to gain admittance into an enemy’s country. Similar the ardent love of liberty will, after a time, give way to its
impediments occur at every step, to exhaust the strength and dictates. The violent destruction of life and property incident
delay the progress of an invader. Formerly, an invading army to war, the continual effort and alarm attendant on a state of
would penetrate into the heart of a neighboring country al- continual danger, will compel nations the most attached to
most as soon as intelligence of its approach could be received; liberty to resort for repose and security to institutions which
but now a comparatively small force of disciplined troops, have a tendency to destroy their civil and political rights. To
acting on the defensive, with the aid of posts, is able to im- be more safe, they at length become willing to run the risk of
pede, and finally to frustrate, the enterprises of one much being less free.
more considerable. The history of war, in that quarter of the The institutions chiefly alluded to are standing armies and
globe, is no longer a history of nations subdued and empires the correspondent appendages of military establishments.
overturned, but of towns taken and retaken; of battles that Standing armies, it is said, are not provided against in the new
decide nothing; of retreats more beneficial than victories; of Constitution; and it is therefore inferred that they may exist
much effort and little acquisition. under it.* Their existence, however, from the very terms of
In this country the scene would be altogether reversed. The the proposition, is, at most, problematical and uncertain. But
jealousy of military establishments would postpone them as standing armies, it may be replied, must inevitably result from
long as possible. The want of fortifications, leaving the fron- *This objection will be fully examined in its proper place,
tiers of one state open to another, would facilitate inroads. and it will be shown that the only natural precaution which
The populous States would, with little difficulty, overrun their could have been taken on this subject has been taken; and a
less populous neighbors. Conquests would be as easy to be much better one than is to be found in any constitution that
made as difficult to be retained. War, therefore, would be has been heretofore framed in America, most of which con-
desultory and predatory. Plunder and devastation ever march tain no guard at all on this subject.
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a dissolution of the Confederacy. Frequent war and constant scourge of the Old World. This, at least, would be the natural
apprehension, which require a state of as constant prepara- course of things; and our reasonings will be the more likely to
tion, will infallibly produce them. The weaker States or con- be just, in proportion as they are accommodated to this stan-
federacies would first have recourse to them, to put them- dard.
selves upon an equality with their more potent neighbors. These are not vague inferences drawn from supposed or
They would endeavor to supply the inferiority of population speculative defects in a Constitution, the whole power of
and resources by a more regular and effective system of de- which is lodged in the hands of a people, or their representa-
fense, by disciplined troops, and by fortifications. They would, tives and delegates, but they are solid conclusions, drawn from
at the same time, be necessitated to strengthen the executive the natural and necessary progress of human affairs.
arm of government, in doing which their constitutions would It may, perhaps, be asked, by way of objection to this, why
acquire a progressive direction toward monarchy. It is of the did not standing armies spring up out of the contentions which
nature of war to increase the executive at the expense of the so often distracted the ancient republics of Greece? Different
legislative authority. answers, equally satisfactory, may be given to this question.
The expedients which have been mentioned would soon The industrious habits of the people of the present day, ab-
give the States or confederacies that made use of them a supe- sorbed in the pursuits of gain, and devoted to the improve-
riority over their neighbors. Small states, or states of less natural ments of agriculture and commerce, are incompatible with
strength, under vigorous governments, and with the assistance the condition of a nation of soldiers, which was the true con-
of disciplined armies, have often triumphed over large states, dition of the people of those republics. The means of rev-
or states of greater natural strength, which have been destitute enue, which have been so greatly multiplied by the increase of
of these advantages. gold and silver and of the arts of industry, and the science of
Neither the pride nor the safety of the more important States finance, which is the offspring of modern times, concurring
or confederacies would permit them long to submit to this with the habits of nations, have produced an entire revolu-
mortifying and adventitious superiority. They would quickly tion in the system of war, and have rendered disciplined armies,
resort to means similar to those by which it had been effected, distinct from the body of the citizens, the inseparable com-
to reinstate themselves in their lost pre-eminence. Thus, we panions of frequent hostility.
should, in a little time, see established in every part of this There is a wide difference, also, between military establish-
country the same engines of despotism which have been the ments in a country seldom exposed by its situation to inter-
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nal invasions, and in one which is often subject to them, and soldier, and proportionably degrades the condition of the citi-
always apprehensive of them. The rulers of the former can zen. The military state becomes elevated above the civil. The
have a good pretext, if they are even so inclined, to keep on inhabitants of territories, often the theatre of war, are unavoid-
foot armies so numerous as must of necessity be maintained ably subjected to frequent infringements on their rights, which
in the latter. These armies being, in the first case, rarely, if at serve to weaken their sense of those rights; and by degrees the
all, called into activity for interior defense, the people are in people are brought to consider the soldiery not only as their
no danger of being broken to military subordination. The protectors, but as their superiors. The transition from this
laws are not accustomed to relaxations, in favor of military disposition to that of considering them masters, is neither
exigencies; the civil state remains in full vigor, neither cor- remote nor difficult; but it is very difficult to prevail upon a
rupted, nor confounded with the principles or propensities people under such impressions, to make a bold or effectual
of the other state. The smallness of the army renders the natural resistance to usurpations supported by the military power.
strength of the community an over-match for it; and the citi- The kingdom of Great Britain falls within the first descrip-
zens, not habituated to look up to the military power for tion. An insular situation, and a powerful marine, guarding it
protection, or to submit to its oppressions, neither love nor in a great measure against the possibility of foreign invasion,
fear the soldiery; they view them with a spirit of jealous ac- supersede the necessity of a numerous army within the king-
quiescence in a necessary evil, and stand ready to resist a power dom. A sufficient force to make head against a sudden de-
which they suppose may be exerted to the prejudice of their scent, till the militia could have time to rally and embody, is
rights. The army under such circumstances may usefully aid all that has been deemed requisite. No motive of national
the magistrate to suppress a small faction, or an occasional policy has demanded, nor would public opinion have toler-
mob, or insurrection; but it will be unable to enforce en- ated, a larger number of troops upon its domestic establish-
croachments against the united efforts of the great body of ment. There has been, for a long time past, little room for
the people. the operation of the other causes, which have been enumer-
In a country in the predicament last described, the contrary ated as the consequences of internal war. This peculiar felicity
of all this happens. The perpetual menacings of danger oblige of situation has, in a great degree, contributed to preserve the
the government to be always prepared to repel it; its armies liberty which that country to this day enjoys, in spite of the
must be numerous enough for instant defense. The continual prevalent venality and corruption. If, on the contrary, Britain
necessity for their services enhances the importance of the had been situated on the continent, and had been compelled,
35
The Federalist Papers
as she would have been, by that situation, to make her mili- quences, they will not hesitate to part with trivial objections
tary establishments at home coextensive with those of the to a Constitution, the rejection of which would in all prob-
other great powers of Europe, she, like them, would in all ability put a final period to the Union. The airy phantoms
probability be, at this day, a victim to the absolute power of a that flit before the distempered imaginations of some of its
single man. ‘T is possible, though not easy, that the people of adversaries would quickly give place to the more substantial
that island may be enslaved from other causes; but it cannot forms of dangers, real, certain, and formidable.
be by the prowess of an army so inconsiderable as that which
has been usually kept up within the kingdom. Publius.
If we are wise enough to preserve the Union we may for
ages enjoy an advantage similar to that of an insulated situa-
tion. Europe is at a great distance from us. Her colonies in
our vicinity will be likely to continue too much
disproportioned in strength to be able to give us any danger-
ous annoyance. Extensive military establishments cannot, in
this position, be necessary to our security. But if we should be
disunited, and the integral parts should either remain sepa-
rated, or, which is most probable, should be thrown together
into two or three confederacies, we should be, in a short course
of time, in the predicament of the continental powers of Eu-
rope —our liberties would be a prey to the means of defend-
ing ourselves against the ambition and jealousy of each other.
This is an idea not superficial or futile, but solid and weighty.
It deserves the most serious and mature consideration of ev-
ery prudent and honest man of whatever party. If such men
will make a firm and solemn pause, and meditate dispassion-
ately on the importance of this interesting idea; if they will
contemplate it in all its attitudes, and trace it to all its conse-
36
The Federalist Papers
FEDERALIST No. 9 monish us to lament that the vices of government should
pervert the direction and tarnish the lustre of those bright
The Union as a Safeguard Against Domestic Faction talents and exalted endowments for which the favored soils
and Insurrection that produced them have been so justly celebrated.
From the disorders that disfigure the annals of those repub-
For the Independent Journal. lics the advocates of despotism have drawn arguments, not
only against the forms of republican government, but against
HAMILTON the very principles of civil liberty. They have decried all free
government as inconsistent with the order of society, and have
To the People of the State of New York: indulged themselves in malicious exultation over its friends
and partisans. Happily for mankind, stupendous fabrics reared
A firm Union will be of the utmost moment to the peace on the basis of liberty, which have flourished for ages, have,
and liberty of the States, as a barrier against domestic faction in a few glorious instances, refuted their gloomy sophisms.
and insurrection. It is impossible to read the history of the And, I trust, America will be the broad and solid foundation
petty republics of Greece and Italy without feeling sensations of other edifices, not less magnificent, which will be equally
of horror and disgust at the distractions with which they were permanent monuments of their errors.
continually agitated, and at the rapid succession of revolu- But it is not to be denied that the portraits they have sketched
tions by which they were kept in a state of perpetual vibra- of republican government were too just copies of the origi-
tion between the extremes of tyranny and anarchy. If they nals from which they were taken. If it had been found im-
exhibit occasional calms, these only serve as short-lived con- practicable to have devised models of a more perfect struc-
trast to the furious storms that are to succeed. If now and ture, the enlightened friends to liberty would have been obliged
then intervals of felicity open to view, we behold them with a to abandon the cause of that species of government as inde-
mixture of regret, arising from the reflection that the pleasing fensible. The science of politics, however, like most other sci-
scenes before us are soon to be overwhelmed by the tempes- ences, has received great improvement. The efficacy of vari-
tuous waves of sedition and party rage. If momentary rays of ous principles is now well understood, which were either not
glory break forth from the gloom, while they dazzle us with known at all, or imperfectly known to the ancients. The regular
a transient and fleeting brilliancy, they at the same time ad- distribution of power into distinct departments; the intro-
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duction of legislative balances and checks; the institution of Montesquieu on the necessity of a contracted territory for a
courts composed of judges holding their offices during good republican government. But they seem not to have been ap-
behavior; the representation of the people in the legislature prised of the sentiments of that great man expressed in an-
by deputies of their own election: these are wholly new dis- other part of his work, nor to have adverted to the conse-
coveries, or have made their principal progress towards per- quences of the principle to which they subscribe with such
fection in modern times. They are means, and powerful means, ready acquiescence.
by which the excellences of republican government may be When Montesquieu recommends a small extent for repub-
retained and its imperfections lessened or avoided. To this lics, the standards he had in view were of dimensions far short
catalogue of circumstances that tend to the amelioration of of the limits of almost every one of these States. Neither Vir-
popular systems of civil government, I shall venture, however ginia, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, New York, North Caro-
novel it may appear to some, to add one more, on a principle lina, nor Georgia can by any means be compared with the
which has been made the foundation of an objection to the models from which he reasoned and to which the terms of his
new Constitution; I mean the enlargement of the orbit within description apply. If we therefore take his ideas on this point as
which such systems are to revolve, either in respect to the the criterion of truth, we shall be driven to the alternative ei-
dimensions of a single State or to the consolidation of several ther of taking refuge at once in the arms of monarchy, or of
smaller States into one great Confederacy. The latter is that splitting ourselves into an infinity of little, jealous, clashing,
which immediately concerns the object under consideration. tumultuous commonwealths, the wretched nurseries of un-
It will, however, be of use to examine the principle in its ap- ceasing discord, and the miserable objects of universal pity or
plication to a single State, which shall be attended to in an- contempt. Some of the writers who have come forward on the
other place. other side of the question seem to have been aware of the di-
The utility of a Confederacy, as well to suppress faction lemma; and have even been bold enough to hint at the division
and to guard the internal tranquillity of States, as to increase of the larger States as a desirable thing. Such an infatuated policy,
their external force and security, is in reality not a new idea. It such a desperate expedient, might, by the multiplication of petty
has been practiced upon in different countries and ages, and offices, answer the views of men who possess not qualifica-
has received the sanction of the most approved writers on the tions to extend their influence beyond the narrow circles of
subject of politics. The opponents of the plan proposed have, personal intrigue, but it could never promote the greatness or
with great assiduity, cited and circulated the observations of happiness of the people of America.
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Referring the examination of the principle itself to another “A republic of this kind, able to withstand an external force,
place, as has been already mentioned, it will be sufficient to may support itself without any internal corruptions. The form
remark here that, in the sense of the author who has been of this society prevents all manner of inconveniences.
most emphatically quoted upon the occasion, it would only “If a single member should attempt to usurp the supreme au-
dictate a reduction of the size of the more considerable mem- thority, he could not be supposed to have an equal authority and
bers of the Union, but would not militate against their being credit in all the confederate states. Were he to have too great
all comprehended in one confederate government. And this influence over one, this would alarm the rest. Were he to subdue
is the true question, in the discussion of which we are at present a part, that which would still remain free might oppose him
interested. with forces independent of those which he had usurped and over-
So far are the suggestions of Montesquieu from standing in power him before he could be settled in his usurpation.
opposition to a general Union of the States, that he explicitly “Should a popular insurrection happen in one of the con-
treats of a confederate republic as the expedient for extending federate states the others are able to quell it. Should abuses
the sphere of popular government, and reconciling the ad- creep into one part, they are reformed by those that remain
vantages of monarchy with those of republicanism. sound. The state may be destroyed on one side, and not on
“It is very probable,” (says he*) “that mankind would have the other; the confederacy may be dissolved, and the confed-
been obliged at length to live constantly under the govern- erates preserve their sovereignty.
ment of a single person, had they not contrived a kind of “As this government is composed of small republics, it en-
constitution that has all the internal advantages of a republi- joys the internal happiness of each; and with respect to its
can, together with the external force of a monarchical govern- external situation, it is possessed, by means of the association,
ment. I mean a confederate republic. of all the advantages of large monarchies.’’
“This form of government is a convention by which several I have thought it proper to quote at length these interesting
smaller states agree to become members of a larger one, which passages, because they contain a luminous abridgment of the
they intend to form. It is a kind of assemblage of societies principal arguments in favor of the Union, and must effectu-
that constitute a new one, capable of increasing, by means of ally remove the false impressions which a misapplication of
new associations, till they arrive to such a degree of power as other parts of the work was calculated to make. They have, at
to be able to provide for the security of the united body. the same time, an intimate connection with the more imme-
*Spirit of Lawa, vol. i., book ix., chap. i. diate design of this paper; which is, to illustrate the tendency
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The Federalist Papers
of the Union to repress domestic faction and insurrection. local purposes; though it should be in perfect subordination
A distinction, more subtle than accurate, has been raised to the general authority of the union, it would still be, in fact
between a confederacy and a consolidation of the States. The and in theory, an association of states, or a confederacy. The
essential characteristic of the first is said to be, the restriction proposed Constitution, so far from implying an abolition of
of its authority to the members in their collective capacities, the State governments, makes them constituent parts of the
without reaching to the individuals of whom they are com- national sovereignty, by allowing them a direct representation
posed. It is contended that the national council ought to have in the Senate, and leaves in their possession certain exclusive
no concern with any object of internal administration. An and very important portions of sovereign power. This fully
exact equality of suffrage between the members has also been corresponds, in every rational import of the terms, with the
insisted upon as a leading feature of a confederate govern- idea of a federal government.
ment. These positions are, in the main, arbitrary; they are In the Lycian confederacy, which consisted of twenty-three
supported neither by principle nor precedent. It has indeed cities or republics, the largest were entitled to three votes in
happened, that governments of this kind have generally oper- the common council, those of the middle class to two, and the
ated in the manner which the distinction taken notice of, sup- smallest to one. The common council had the appointment of
poses to be inherent in their nature; but there have been in all the judges and magistrates of the respective cities. This was
most of them extensive exceptions to the practice, which serve certainly the most, delicate species of interference in their in-
to prove, as far as example will go, that there is no absolute ternal administration; for if there be any thing that seems ex-
rule on the subject. And it will be clearly shown in the course clusively appropriated to the local jurisdictions, it is the ap-
of this investigation that as far as the principle contended for pointment of their own officers. Yet Montesquieu, speaking
has prevailed, it has been the cause of incurable disorder and of this association, says: “Were I to give a model of an excel-
imbecility in the government. lent Confederate Republic, it would be that of Lycia.’’ Thus
The definition of a confederate republic seems simply to be we perceive that the distinctions insisted upon were not within
“an assemblage of societies,’’ or an association of two or more the contemplation of this enlightened civilian; and we shall
states into one state. The extent, modifications, and objects be led to conclude, that they are the novel refinements of an
of the federal authority are mere matters of discretion. So erroneous theory.
long as the separate organization of the members be not abol-
ished; so long as it exists, by a constitutional necessity, for Publius.
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FEDERALIST No. 10 and fruitful topics from which the adversaries to liberty de-
rive their most specious declamations. The valuable improve-
The Same Subject Continued ments made by the American constitutions on the popular
models, both ancient and modern, cannot certainly be too
(The Union as a Safeguard Against Domestic Faction much admired; but it would be an unwarrantable partiality,
and Insurrection) to contend that they have as effectually obviated the danger
on this side, as was wished and expected. Complaints are ev-
From the New York Packet. erywhere heard from our most considerate and virtuous citi-
zens, equally the friends of public and private faith, and of
Friday, November 23, 1787. public and personal liberty, that our governments are too
unstable, that the public good is disregarded in the conflicts
MADISON of rival parties, and that measures are too often decided, not
according to the rules of justice and the rights of the minor
To the People of the State of New York: party, but by the superior force of an interested and overbear-
ing majority. However anxiously we may wish that these com-
Among the numerous advantages promised by a plaints had no foundation, the evidence, of known facts will
wellconstructed Union, none deserves to be more accurately not permit us to deny that they are in some degree true. It
developed than its tendency to break and control the violence will be found, indeed, on a candid review of our situation,
of faction. The friend of popular governments never finds that some of the distresses under which we labor have been
himself so much alarmed for their character and fate, as when erroneously charged on the operation of our governments;
he contemplates their propensity to this dangerous vice. He but it will be found, at the same time, that other causes will
will not fail, therefore, to set a due value on any plan which, not alone account for many of our heaviest misfortunes; and,
without violating the principles to which he is attached, pro- particularly, for that prevailing and increasing distrust of pub-
vides a proper cure for it. The instability, injustice, and con- lic engagements, and alarm for private rights, which are ech-
fusion introduced into the public councils, have, in truth, oed from one end of the continent to the other. These must
been the mortal diseases under which popular governments be chiefly, if not wholly, effects of the unsteadiness and injus-
have everywhere perished; as they continue to be the favorite tice with which a factious spirit has tainted our public admin-
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istrations. sity in the faculties of men, from which the rights of property
By a faction, I understand a number of citizens, whether originate, is not less an insuperable obstacle to a uniformity
amounting to a majority or a minority of the whole, who are of interests. The protection of these faculties is the first ob-
united and actuated by some common impulse of passion, or ject of government. From the protection of different and
of interest, adversed to the rights of other citizens, or to the unequal faculties of acquiring property, the possession of dif-
permanent and aggregate interests of the community. ferent degrees and kinds of property immediately results; and
There are two methods of curing the mischiefs of faction: from the influence of these on the sentiments and views of
the one, by removing its causes; the other, by controlling its the respective proprietors, ensues a division of the society into
effects. different interests and parties.
There are again two methods of removing the causes of The latent causes of faction are thus sown in the nature of
faction: the one, by destroying the liberty which is essential man; and we see them everywhere brought into different de-
to its existence; the other, by giving to every citizen the same grees of activity, according to the different circumstances of
opinions, the same passions, and the same interests. civil society. A zeal for different opinions concerning religion,
It could never be more truly said than of the first remedy, concerning government, and many other points, as well of
that it was worse than the disease. Liberty is to faction what speculation as of practice; an attachment to different leaders
air is to fire, an aliment without which it instantly expires. ambitiously contending for pre-eminence and power; or to
But it could not be less folly to abolish liberty, which is essen- persons of other descriptions whose fortunes have been inter-
tial to political life, because it nourishes faction, than it would esting to the human passions, have, in turn, divided mankind
be to wish the annihilation of air, which is essential to animal into parties, inflamed them with mutual animosity, and ren-
life, because it imparts to fire its destructive agency. dered them much more disposed to vex and oppress each other
The second expedient is as impracticable as the first would than to co-operate for their common good. So strong is this
be unwise. As long as the reason of man continues fallible, propensity of mankind to fall into mutual animosities, that
and he is at liberty to exercise it, different opinions will be where no substantial occasion presents itself, the most frivo-
formed. As long as the connection subsists between his rea- lous and fanciful distinctions have been sufficient to kindle
son and his self-love, his opinions and his passions will have a their unfriendly passions and excite their most violent con-
reciprocal influence on each other; and the former will be flicts. But the most common and durable source of factions
objects to which the latter will attach themselves. The diver- has been the various and unequal distribution of property.
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Those who hold and those who are without property have in what degree, by restrictions on foreign manufactures? are
ever formed distinct interests in society.Those who are credi- questions which would be differently decided by the landed
tors, and those who are debtors, fall under a like discrimina- and the manufacturing classes, and probably by neither with
tion. A landed interest, a manufacturing interest, a mercantile a sole regard to justice and the public good. The apportion-
interest, a moneyed interest, with many lesser interests, grow ment of taxes on the various descriptions of property is an act
up of necessity in civilized nations, and divide them into dif- which seems to require the most exact impartiality; yet there
ferent classes, actuated by different sentiments and views. The is, perhaps, no legislative act in which greater opportunity
regulation of these various and interfering interests forms the and temptation are given to a predominant party to trample
principal task of modern legislation, and involves the spirit of on the rules of justice. Every shilling with which they over-
party and faction in the necessary and ordinary operations of burden the inferior number, is a shilling saved to their own
the government. pockets.
No man is allowed to be a judge in his own cause, because It is in vain to say that enlightened statesmen will be able to
his interest would certainly bias his judgment, and, not im- adjust these clashing interests, and render them all subservient
probably, corrupt his integrity. With equal, nay with greater to the public good. Enlightened statesmen will not always be
reason, a body of men are unfit to be both judges and parties at the helm. Nor, in many cases, can such an adjustment be
at the same time; yet what are many of the most important made at all without taking into view indirect and remote con-
acts of legislation, but so many judicial determinations, not siderations, which will rarely prevail over the immediate in-
indeed concerning the rights of single persons, but concern- terest which one party may find in disregarding the rights of
ing the rights of large bodies of citizens? And what are the another or the good of the whole.
different classes of legislators but advocates and parties to the The inference to which we are brought is, that the causes of
causes which they determine? Is a law proposed concerning faction cannot be removed, and that relief is only to be sought
private debts? It is a question to which the creditors are par- in the means of controlling its effects.
ties on one side and the debtors on the other. Justice ought to If a faction consists of less than a majority, relief is supplied
hold the balance between them. Yet the parties are, and must by the republican principle, which enables the majority to
be, themselves the judges; and the most numerous party, or, defeat its sinister views by regular vote. It may clog the ad-
in other words, the most powerful faction must be expected ministration, it may convulse the society; but it will be un-
to prevail. Shall domestic manufactures be encouraged, and able to execute and mask its violence under the forms of the
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Constitution. When a majority is included in a faction, the government in person, can admit of no cure for the mischiefs
form of popular government, on the other hand, enables it of faction. A common passion or interest will, in almost ev-
to sacrifice to its ruling passion or interest both the public ery case, be felt by a majority of the whole; a communication
good and the rights of other citizens. To secure the public and concert result from the form of government itself; and
good and private rights against the danger of such a faction, there is nothing to check the inducements to sacrifice the
and at the same time to preserve the spirit and the form of weaker party or an obnoxious individual. Hence it is that such
popular government, is then the great object to which our democracies have ever been spectacles of turbulence and con-
inquiries are directed. Let me add that it is the great tention; have ever been found incompatible with personal
desideratum by which this form of government can be res- security or the rights of property; and have in general been as
cued from the opprobrium under which it has so long la- short in their lives as they have been violent in their deaths.
bored, and be recommended to the esteem and adoption of Theoretic politicians, who have patronized this species of
mankind. government, have erroneously supposed that by reducing
By what means is this object attainable? Evidently by one mankind to a perfect equality in their political rights, they
of two only. Either the existence of the same passion or inter- would, at the same time, be perfectly equalized and assimi-
est in a majority at the same time must be prevented, or the lated in their possessions, their opinions, and their passions.
majority, having such coexistent passion or interest, must be A republic, by which I mean a government in which the
rendered, by their number and local situation, unable to con- scheme of representation takes place, opens a different pros-
cert and carry into effect schemes of oppression. If the im- pect, and promises the cure for which we are seeking. Let us
pulse and the opportunity be suffered to coincide, we well examine the points in which it varies from pure democracy,
know that neither moral nor religious motives can be relied and we shall comprehend both the nature of the cure and the
on as an adequate control. They are not found to be such on efficacy which it must derive from the Union.
the injustice and violence of individuals, and lose their effi- The two great points of difference between a democracy
cacy in proportion to the number combined together, that is, and a republic are: first, the delegation of the government, in
in proportion as their efficacy becomes needful. the latter, to a small number of citizens elected by the rest;
From this view of the subject it may be concluded that a secondly, the greater number of citizens, and greater sphere of
pure democracy, by which I mean a society consisting of a country, over which the latter may be extended.
small number of citizens, who assemble and administer the The effect of the first difference is, on the one hand, to
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refine and enlarge the public views, by passing them through In the next place, as each representative will be chosen by a
the medium of a chosen body of citizens, whose wisdom may greater number of citizens in the large than in the small re-
best discern the true interest of their country, and whose pa- public, it will be more difficult for unworthy candidates to
triotism and love of justice will be least likely to sacrifice it to practice with success the vicious arts by which elections are
temporary or partial considerations. Under such a regulation, too often carried; and the suffrages of the people being more
it may well happen that the public voice, pronounced by the free, will be more likely to centre in men who possess the
representatives of the people, will be more consonant to the most attractive merit and the most diffusive and established
public good than if pronounced by the people themselves, characters.
convened for the purpose. On the other hand, the effect may It must be confessed that in this, as in most other cases,
be inverted. Men of factious tempers, of local prejudices, or there is a mean, on both sides of which inconveniences will
of sinister designs, may, by intrigue, by corruption, or by other be found to lie. By enlarging too much the number of elec-
means, first obtain the suffrages, and then betray the inter- tors, you render the representatives too little acquainted with
ests, of the people. The question resulting is, whether small all their local circumstances and lesser interests; as by reducing
or extensive republics are more favorable to the election of it too much, you render him unduly attached to these, and
proper guardians of the public weal; and it is clearly decided too little fit to comprehend and pursue great and national
in favor of the latter by two obvious considerations: objects. The federal Constitution forms a happy combina-
In the first place, it is to be remarked that, however small tion in this respect; the great and aggregate interests being
the republic may be, the representatives must be raised to a referred to the national, the local and particular to the State
certain number, in order to guard against the cabals of a few; legislatures.
and that, however large it may be, they must be limited to a The other point of difference is, the greater number of citi-
certain number, in order to guard against the confusion of a zens and extent of territory which may be brought within the
multitude. Hence, the number of representatives in the two compass of republican than of democratic government; and
cases not being in proportion to that of the two constituents, it is this circumstance principally which renders factious com-
and being proportionally greater in the small republic, it fol- binations less to be dreaded in the former than in the latter.
lows that, if the proportion of fit characters be not less in the The smaller the society, the fewer probably will be the dis-
large than in the small republic, the former will present a greater tinct parties and interests composing it; the fewer the distinct
option, and consequently a greater probability of a fit choice. parties and interests, the more frequently will a majority be
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found of the same party; and the smaller the number of indi- it, in fine, consist in the greater obstacles opposed to the con-
viduals composing a majority, and the smaller the compass cert and accomplishment of the secret wishes of an unjust
within which they are placed, the more easily will they con- and interested majority? Here, again, the extent of the Union
cert and execute their plans of oppression. Extend the sphere, gives it the most palpable advantage.
and you take in a greater variety of parties and interests; you The influence of factious leaders may kindle a flame within
make it less probable that a majority of the whole will have a their particular States, but will be unable to spread a general
common motive to invade the rights of other citizens; or if conflagration through the other States. A religious sect may
such a common motive exists, it will be more difficult for all degenerate into a political faction in a part of the Confed-
who feel it to discover their own strength, and to act in uni- eracy; but the variety of sects dispersed over the entire face of
son with each other. Besides other impediments, it may be it must secure the national councils against any danger from
remarked that, where there is a consciousness of unjust or that source. A rage for paper money, for an abolition of debts,
dishonorable purposes, communication is always checked by for an equal division of property, or for any other improper
distrust in proportion to the number whose concurrence is or wicked project, will be less apt to pervade the whole body
necessary. of the Union than a particular member of it; in the same
Hence, it clearly appears, that the same advantage which a proportion as such a malady is more likely to taint a particu-
republic has over a democracy, in controlling the effects of lar county or district, than an entire State.
faction, is enjoyed by a large over a small republic,—is en- In the extent and proper structure of the Union, therefore,
joyed by the Union over the States composing it. Does the we behold a republican remedy for the diseases most incident
advantage consist in the substitution of representatives whose to republican government. And according to the degree of
enlightened views and virtuous sentiments render them supe- pleasure and pride we feel in being republicans, ought to be
rior to local prejudices and schemes of injustice? It will not be our zeal in cherishing the spirit and supporting the character
denied that the representation of the Union will be most likely of Federalists.
to possess these requisite endowments. Does it consist in the
greater security afforded by a greater variety of parties, against Publius.
the event of any one party being able to outnumber and op-
press the rest? In an equal degree does the increased variety of
parties comprised within the Union, increase this security. Does
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FEDERALIST No. 11 hood of States, which have all the dispositions, and would
possess all the means, requisite to the creation of a powerful
The Utility of the Union in Respect to Commercial marine. Impressions of this kind will naturally indicate the
Relations and a Navy policy of fostering divisions among us, and of depriving us,
as far as possible, of an active commerce in our own bottoms.
For the Independent Journal. This would answer the threefold purpose of preventing our
interference in their navigation, of monopolizing the profits
HAMILTON of our trade, and of clipping the wings by which we might
soar to a dangerous greatness. Did not prudence forbid the
To the People of the State of New York: detail, it would not be difficult to trace, by facts, the work-
ings of this policy to the cabinets of ministers.
The importance of the Union, in a commercial light, is one If we continue united, we may counteract a policy so un-
of those points about which there is least room to entertain a friendly to our prosperity in a variety of ways. By prohibitory
difference of opinion, and which has, in fact, commanded regulations, extending, at the same time, throughout the States,
the most general assent of men who have any acquaintance we may oblige foreign countries to bid against each other, for
with the subject. This applies as well to our intercourse with the privileges of our markets. This assertion will not appear
foreign countries as with each other. chimerical to those who are able to appreciate the importance
There are appearances to authorize a supposition that the of the markets of three millions of people—increasing in rapid
adventurous spirit, which distinguishes the commercial char- progression, for the most part exclusively addicted to agricul-
acter of America, has already excited uneasy sensations in sev- ture, and likely from local circumstances to remain so—to
eral of the maritime powers of Europe. They seem to be ap- any manufacturing nation; and the immense difference there
prehensive of our too great interference in that carrying trade, would be to the trade and navigation of such a nation, be-
which is the support of their navigation and the foundation tween a direct communication in its own ships, and an indi-
of their naval strength. Those of them which have colonies in rect conveyance of its products and returns, to and from
America look forward to what this country is capable of be- America, in the ships of another country. Suppose, for in-
coming, with painful solicitude. They foresee the dangers that stance, we had a government in America, capable of exclud-
may threaten their American dominions from the neighbor- ing Great Britain (with whom we have at present no treaty of
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commerce) from all our ports; what would be the probable lands, would produce a relaxation in her present system, and
operation of this step upon her politics? Would it not enable would let us into the enjoyment of privileges in the markets
us to negotiate, with the fairest prospect of success, for com- of those islands elsewhere, from which our trade would de-
mercial privileges of the most valuable and extensive kind, in rive the most substantial benefits. Such a point gained from
the dominions of that kingdom? When these questions have the British government, and which could not be expected
been asked, upon other occasions, they have received a plau- without an equivalent in exemptions and immunities in our
sible, but not a solid or satisfactory answer. It has been said markets, would be likely to have a correspondent effect on
that prohibitions on our part would produce no change in the conduct of other nations, who would not be inclined to
the system of Britain, because she could prosecute her trade see themselves altogether supplanted in our trade.
with us through the medium of the Dutch, who would be A further resource for influencing the conduct of European
her immediate customers and paymasters for those articles nations toward us, in this respect, would arise from the estab-
which were wanted for the supply of our markets. But would lishment of a federal navy. There can be no doubt that the
not her navigation be materially injured by the loss of the continuance of the Union under an efficient government
important advantage of being her own carrier in that trade? would put it in our power, at a period not very distant, to
Would not the principal part of its profits be intercepted by create a navy which, if it could not vie with those of the great
the Dutch, as a compensation for their agency and risk? Would maritime powers, would at least be of respectable weight if
not the mere circumstance of freight occasion a considerable thrown into the scale of either of two contending parties.
deduction? Would not so circuitous an intercourse facilitate This would be more peculiarly the case in relation to opera-
the competitions of other nations, by enhancing the price of tions in the West Indies. A few ships of the line, sent oppor-
British commodities in our markets, and by transferring to tunely to the reinforcement of either side, would often be
other hands the management of this interesting branch of the sufficient to decide the fate of a campaign, on the event of
British commerce? which interests of the greatest magnitude were suspended. Our
A mature consideration of the objects suggested by these position is, in this respect, a most commanding one. And if
questions will justify a belief that the real disadvantages to to this consideration we add that of the usefulness of supplies
Britain from such a state of things, conspiring with the pre- from this country, in the prosecution of military operations
possessions of a great part of the nation in favor of the Ameri- in the West Indies, it will readily be perceived that a situation
can trade, and with the importunities of the West India is- so favorable would enable us to bargain with great advantage
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for commercial privileges. A price would be set not only upon able course of nature.
our friendship, but upon our neutrality. By a steady adher- But in a state of disunion, these combinations might exist
ence to the Union we may hope, erelong, to become the arbi- and might operate with success. It would be in the power of
ter of Europe in America, and to be able to incline the balance the maritime nations, availing themselves of our universal im-
of European competitions in this part of the world as our potence, to prescribe the conditions of our political existence;
interest may dictate. and as they have a common interest in being our carriers, and
But in the reverse of this eligible situation, we shall discover still more in preventing our becoming theirs, they would in
hat the rivalships of the parts would make them checks upon all probability combine to embarrass our navigation in such a
each other, and would frustrate all the tempting advantages manner as would in effect destroy it, and confine us to a pas-
which nature has kindly placed within our reach. In a state so sive commerce. We should then be compelled to content our-
insignificant our commerce would be a prey to the wanton selves with the first price of our commodities, and to see the
intermeddlings of all nations at war with each other; who, profits of our trade snatched from us to enrich our enemies
having nothing to fear from us, would with little scruple or and p rsecutors. That unequaled spirit of enterprise, which
remorse, supply their wants by depredations on our property signalizes the genius of the American merchants and naviga-
as often as it fell in their way. The rights of neutrality will tors, and which is in itself an inexhaustible mine of national
only be respected when they are defended by an adequate wealth, would be stifled and lost, and poverty and disgrace
power. A nation, despicable by its weakness, forfeits even the would overspread a country which, with wisdom, might make
privilege of being neutral. herself the admiration and envy of the world.
Under a vigorous national government, the natural strength There are rights of great moment to the trade of America
and resources of the country, directed to a common interest, which are rights of the Union—I allude to the fisheries, to
would baffle all the combinations of European jealousy to the navigation of the Western lakes, and to that of the Missis-
restrain our growth. This situation would even take away the sippi. The dissolution of the Confederacy would give room
motive to such combinations, by inducing an impracticabil- for delicate questions concerning the future existence of these
ity of success. An active commerce, an extensive navigation, rights; which the interest of more powerful partners would
and a flourishing marine would then be the offspring of moral hardly fail to solve to our disadvantage. The disposition of
and physical necessity. We might defy the little arts of the Spain with regard to the Mississippi needs no comment. France
little politicians to control or vary the irresistible and unchange- and Britain are concerned with us in the fisheries, and view
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them as of the utmost moment to their navigation. They, of also of a more solid and lasting texture. The difference in the
course, would hardly remain long indifferent to that decided duration of the ships of which the navy might be composed,
mastery, of which experience has shown us to be possessed in if chiefly constructed of Southern wood, would be of signal
this valuable branch of traffic, and by which we are able to importance, either in the view of naval strength or of national
undersell those nations in their own markets. What more economy. Some of the Southern and of the Middle States
natural than that they should be disposed to exclude from the yield a greater plenty of iron, and of better quality. Seamen
lists such dangerous competitors? must chiefly be drawn from the Northern hive. The necessity
This branch of trade ought not to be considered as a partial of naval protection to external or maritime commerce does
benefit. All the navigating States may, in different degrees, not require a particular elucidation, no more than the condu-
advantageously participate in it, and under circumstances of a civeness of that species of commerce to the prosperity of a
greater extension of mercantile capital, would not be unlikely navy.
to do it. As a nursery of seamen, it now is, or when time shall An unrestrained intercourse between the States themselves
have more nearly assimilated the principles of navigation in will advance the trade of each by an interchange of their re-
the several States, will become, a universal resource. To the spective productions, not only for the supply of reciprocal
establishment of a navy, it must be indispensable. wants at home, but for exportation to foreign markets. The
To this great national object, a navy, union will contribute veins of commerce in every part will be replenished, and will
in various ways. Every institution will grow and flourish in acquire additional motion and vigor from a free circulation
proportion to the quantity and extent of the means concentred of the commodities of every part. Commercial enterprise will
towards its formation and support. A navy of the United have much greater scope, from the diversity in the produc-
States, as it would embrace the resources of all, is an object far tions of different States. When the staple of one fails from a
less remote than a navy of any single State or partial confed- bad harvest or unproductive crop, it can call to its aid the
eracy, which would only embrace the resources of a single staple of another. The variety, not less than the value, of prod-
part. It happens, indeed, that different portions of confeder- ucts for exportation contributes to the activity of foreign com-
ated America possess each some peculiar advantage for this merce. It can be conducted upon much better terms with a
essential establishment. The more southern States furnish in large number of materials of a given value than with a small
greater abundance certain kinds of naval stores—tar, pitch, number of materials of the same value; arising from the com-
and turpentine. Their wood for the construction of ships is petitions of trade and from the fluctations of markets. Par-
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ticular articles may be in great demand at certain periods, and her negotiations, by force and by fraud, has, in different de-
unsalable at others; but if there be a variety of articles, it can grees, extended her dominion over them all. Africa, Asia, and
scarcely happen that they should all be at one time in the America, have successively felt her domination. The superi-
latter predicament, and on this account the operations of the ority she has long maintained has tempted her to plume her-
merchant would be less liable to any considerable obstruc- self as the Mistress of the World, and to consider the rest of
tion or stagnation. The speculative trader will at once per- mankind as created for her benefit. Men admired as profound
ceive the force of these observations, and will acknowledge philosophers have, in direct terms, attributed to her inhabit-
that the aggregate balance of the commerce of the United ants a physical superiority, and have gravely asserted that all
States would bid fair to be much more favorable than that of animals, and with them the human species, degenerate in
the thirteen States without union or with partial unions. America—that even dogs cease to bark after having breathed
It may perhaps be replied to this, that whether the States are awhile in our atmosphere.1 Facts have too long supported
united or disunited, there would still be an intimate inter- these arrogant pretensions of the Europeans. It belongs to us
course between them which would answer the same ends; to vindicate the honor of the human race, and to teach that
this intercourse would be fettered, interrupted, and narrowed assuming brother, moderation. Union will enable us to do it.
by a multiplicity of causes, which in the course of these pa- Disunion will will add another victim to his triumphs. Let
pers have been amply detailed. A unity of commercial, as well Americans disdain to be the instruments of European great-
as political, interests, can only result from a unity of govern- ness! Let the thirteen States, bound together in a strict and
ment. indissoluble Union, concur in erecting one great American
There are other points of view in which this subject might system, superior to the control of all transatlantic force or
be placed, of a striking and animating kind. But they would influence, and able to dictate the terms of the connection
lead us too far into the regions of futurity, and would involve between the old and the new world!
topics not proper for a newspaper discussion. I shall briefly
observe, that our situation invites and our interests prompt Publius.
us to aim at an ascendant in the system of American affairs.
The world may politically, as well as geographically, be di- “Recherches philosophiques sur les Americains.”
vided into four parts, each having a distinct set of interests.
Unhappily for the other three, Europe, by her arms and by
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FEDERALIST No. 12 forward with eager expectation and growing alacrity to this
pleasing reward of their toils. The often-agitated question
The Utility of the Union In Respect to Revenue between agriculture and commerce has, from indubitable ex-
perience, received a decision which has silenced the rivalship
From the New York Packet. that once subsisted between them, and has proved, to the
satisfaction of their friends, that their interests are intimately
Tuesday, November 27, 1787. blended and interwoven. It has been found in various coun-
tries that, in proportion as commerce has flourished, land has
HAMILTON risen in value. And how could it have happened otherwise?
Could that which procures a freer vent for the products of
To the People of the State of New York: the earth, which furnishes new incitements to the cultivation
of land, which is the most powerful instrument in increasing
The effects of Union upon the commercial prosperity of the the quantity of money in a state—could that, in fine, which
States have been sufficiently delineated. Its tendency to pro- is the faithful handmaid of labor and industry, in every shape,
mote the interests of revenue will be the subject of our present fail to augment that article, which is the prolific parent of far
inquiry. the greatest part of the objects upon which they are exerted?
The prosperity of commerce is now perceived and acknowl- It is astonishing that so simple a truth should ever have had
edged by all enlightened statesmen to be the most useful as an adversary; and it is one, among a multitude of proofs, how
well as the most productive source of national wealth, and apt a spirit of ill-informed jealousy, or of too great abstrac-
has accordingly become a primary object of their political tion and refinement, is to lead men astray from the plainest
cares. By multipying the means of gratification, by promot- truths of reason and conviction.
ing the introduction and circulation of the precious metals, The ability of a country to pay taxes must always be pro-
those darling objects of human avarice and enterprise, it serves portioned, in a great degree, to the quantity of money in cir-
to vivify and invigorate the channels of industry, and to make culation, and to the celerity with which it circulates. Com-
them flow with greater activity and copiousness. The assidu- merce, contributing to both these objects, must of necessity
ous merchant, the laborious husbandman, the active mechanic, render the payment of taxes easier, and facilitate the requisite
and the industrious manufacturer,—all orders of men, look supplies to the treasury. The hereditary dominions of the
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Emperor of Germany contain a great extent of fertile, culti- will be surprised at this circumstance. In so opulent a nation as
vated, and populous territory, a large proportion of which is that of Britain, where direct taxes from superior wealth must
situated in mild and luxuriant climates. In some parts of this be much more tolerable, and, from the vigor of the govern-
territory are to be found the best gold and silver mines in ment, much more practicable, than in America, far the greatest
Europe. And yet, from the want of the fostering influence of part of the national revenue is derived from taxes of the indi-
commerce, that monarch can boast but slender revenues. He rect kind, from imposts, and from excises. Duties on imported
has several times been compelled to owe obligations to the articles form a large branch of this latter description.
pecuniary succors of other nations for the preservation of his In America, it is evident that we must a long time depend
essential interests, and is unable, upon the strength of his own for the means of revenue chiefly on such duties. In most parts
resources, to sustain a long or continued war. of it, excises must be confined within a narrow compass. The
But it is not in this aspect of the subject alone that Union genius of the people will ill brook the inquisitive and pe-
will be seen to conduce to the purpose of revenue. There are remptory spirit of excise laws. The pockets of the farmers, on
other points of view, in which its influence will appear more the other hand, will reluctantly yield but scanty supplies, in
immediate and decisive. It is evident from the state of the the unwelcome shape of impositions on their houses and lands;
country, from the habits of the people, from the experience and personal property is too precarious and invisible a fund
we have had on the point itself, that it is impracticable to to be laid hold of in any other way than by the inperceptible
raise any very considerable sums by direct taxation. Tax laws agency of taxes on consumption.
have in vain been multiplied; new methods to enforce the If these remarks have any foundation, that state of things
collection have in vain been tried; the public expectation has which will best enable us to improve and extend so valuable a
been uniformly disappointed, and the treasuries of the States resource must be best adapted to our political welfare. And it
have remained empty. The popular system of administration cannot admit of a serious doubt, that this state of things must
inherent in the nature of popular government, coinciding with rest on the basis of a general Union. As far as this would be
the real scarcity of money incident to a languid and mutilated conducive to the interests of commerce, so far it must tend to
state of trade, has hitherto defeated every experiment for ex- the extension of the revenue to be drawn from that source. As
tensive collections, and has at length taught the different leg- far as it would contribute to rendering regulations for the
islatures the folly of attempting them. collection of the duties more simple and efficacious, so far it
No person acquainted with what happens in other countries must serve to answer the purposes of making the same rate of
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duties more productive, and of putting it into the power of respect to each other, resembling that of France with respect
the government to increase the rate without prejudice to trade. to her neighbors. The arbitrary and vexatious powers with
The relative situation of these States; the number of rivers which the patrols are necessarily armed, would be intolerable
with which they are intersected, and of bays that wash there in a free country.
shores; the facility of communication in every direction; the If, on the contrary, there be but one government pervading
affinity of language and manners; the familiar habits of inter- all the States, there will be, as to the principal part of our
course; —all these are circumstances that would conspire to commerce, but one side to guard—the Atlantic coast. Vessels
render an illicit trade between them a matter of little diffi- arriving directly from foreign countries, laden with valuable
culty, and would insure frequent evasions of the commercial cargoes, would rarely choose to hazard themselves to the com-
regulations of each other. The separate States or confederacies plicated and critical perils which would attend attempts to
would be necessitated by mutual jealousy to avoid the temp- unlade prior to their coming into port. They would have to
tations to that kind of trade by the lowness of their duties. dread both the dangers of the coast, and of detection, as well
The temper of our governments, for a long time to come, after as before their arrival at the places of their final destina-
would not permit those rigorous precautions by which the tion. An ordinary degree of vigilance would be competent to
European nations guard the avenues into their respective coun- the prevention of any material infractions upon the rights of
tries, as well by land as by water; and which, even there, are the revenue. A few armed vessels, judiciously stationed at the
found insufficient obstacles to the adventurous stratagems of entrances of our ports, might at a small expense be made use-
avarice. ful sentinels of the laws. And the government having the same
In France, there is an army of patrols (as they are called) interest to provide against violations everywhere, the co-op-
constantly employed to secure their fiscal regulations against eration of its measures in each State would have a powerful
the inroads of the dealers in contraband trade. Mr. Neckar tendency to render them effectual. Here also we should pre-
computes the number of these patrols at upwards of twenty serve by Union, an advantage which nature holds out to us,
thousand. This shows the immense difficulty in preventing and which would be relinquished by separation. The United
that species of traffic, where there is an inland communica- States lie at a great distance from Europe, and at a consider-
tion, and places in a strong light the disadvantages with which able distance from all other places with which they would
the collection of duties in this country would be encumbered, have extensive connections of foreign trade. The passage from
if by disunion the States should be placed in a situation, with them to us, in a few hours, or in a single night, as between the
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coasts of France and Britain, and of other neighboring na- tend to diminish the consumption of it, such an effect would
tions, would be impracticable. This is a prodigious security be equally favorable to the agriculture, to the economy, to
against a direct contraband with foreign countries; but a cir- the morals, and to the health of the society. There is, perhaps,
cuitous contraband to one State, through the medium of an- nothing so much a subject of national extravagance as these
other, would be both easy and safe. The difference between a spirits.
direct importation from abroad, and an indirect importation What will be the consequence, if we are not able to avail
through the channel of a neighboring State, in small parcels, ourselves of the resource in question in its full extent? A na-
according to time and opportunity, with the additional facili- tion cannot long exist without revenues. Destitute of this es-
ties of inland communication, must be palpable to every man sential support, it must resign its independence, and sink into
of discernment. the degraded condition of a province. This is an extremity to
It is therefore evident, that one national government would which no government will of choice accede. Revenue, there-
be able, at much less expense, to extend the duties on im- fore, must be had at all events. In this country, if the principal
ports, beyond comparison, further than would be practicable part be not drawn from commerce, it must fall with oppres-
to the States separately, or to any partial confederacies. Hith- sive weight upon land. It has been already intimated that ex-
erto, I believe, it may safely be asserted, that these duties have cises, in their true signification, are too little in unison with
not upon an average exceeded in any State three per cent. In the feelings of the people, to admit of great use being made
France they are estimated to be about fifteen per cent., and in of that mode of taxation; nor, indeed, in the States where
Britain they exceed this proportion.* There seems to be noth- almost the sole employment is agriculture, are the objects
ing to hinder their being increased in this country to at least proper for excise sufficiently numerous to permit very ample
treble their present amount. The single article of ardent spir- collections in that way. Personal estate (as has been before
its, under federal regulation, might be made to furnish a con- remarked), from the difficulty in tracing it, cannot be sub-
siderable revenue. Upon a ratio to the importation into this jected to large contributions, by any other means than by taxes
State, the whole quantity imported into the United States on consumption. In populous cities, it may be enough the
may be estimated at four millions of gallons; which, at a shil- subject of conjecture, to occasion the oppression of individu-
ling per gallon, would produce two hundred thousand pounds. als, without much aggregate benefit to the State; but beyond
That article would well bear this rate of duty; and if it should these circles, it must, in a great measure, escape the eye and
*If my memory be right they amount to twenty per cent. the hand of the tax-gatherer. As the necessities of the State,
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nevertheless, must be satisfied in some mode or other, the FEDERALIST No. 13
defect of other resources must throw the principal weight of
public burdens on the possessors of land. And as, on the other Advantage of the Union in Respect to Economy in
hand, the wants of the government can never obtain an ad- Government
equate supply, unless all the sources of revenue are open to its
demands, the finances of the community, under such embar- For the Independent Journal.
rassments, cannot be put into a situation consistent with its
respectability or its security. Thus we shall not even have the HAMILTON
consolations of a full treasury, to atone for the oppression of
that valuable class of the citizens who are employed in the To the People of the State of New York:
cultivation of the soil. But public and private distress will
keep pace with each other in gloomy concert; and unite in As connected with the subject of revenue, we may with propri-
deploring the infatuation of those counsels which led to dis- ety consider that of economy. The money saved from one ob-
union. ject may be usefully applied to another, and there will be so
much the less to be drawn from the pockets of the people. If
Publius. the States are united under one government, there will be but
one national civil list to support; if they are divided into several
confederacies, there will be as many different national civil lists
to be provided for—and each of them, as to the principal de-
partments, coextensive with that which would be necessary for
a government of the whole. The entire separation of the States
into thirteen unconnected sovereignties is a project too extrava-
gant and too replete with danger to have many advocates. The
ideas of men who speculate upon the dismemberment of the
empire seem generally turned toward three confederacies—one
consisting of the four Northern, another of the four Middle,
and a third of the five Southern States. There is little probabil-
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ity that there would be a greater number. According to this dis- presents us with three confederacies as the alternative to a gen-
tribution, each confederacy would comprise an extent of terri- eral Union. If we attend carefully to geographical and com-
tory larger than that of the kingdom of Great Britain. No well- mercial considerations, in conjunction with the habits and
informed man will suppose that the affairs of such a confederacy prejudices of the different States, we shall be led to conclude
can be properly regulated by a government less comprehensive in that in case of disunion they will most naturally league them-
its organs or institutions than that which has been proposed by selves under two governments. The four Eastern States, from
the convention. When the dimensions of a State attain to a cer- all the causes that form the links of national sympathy and
tain magnitude, it requires the same energy of government and connection, may with certainty be expected to unite. New
the same forms of administration which are requisite in one of York, situated as she is, would never be unwise enough to
much greater extent. This idea admits not of precise demonstra- oppose a feeble and unsupported flank to the weight of that
tion, because there is no rule by which we can measure the mo- confederacy. There are other obvious reasons that would fa-
mentum of civil power necessary to the government of any given cilitate her accession to it. New Jersey is too small a State to
number of individuals; but when we consider that the island of think of being a frontier, in opposition to this still more pow-
Britain, nearly commensurate with each of the supposed confed- erful combination; nor do there appear to be any obstacles to
eracies, contains about eight millions of people, and when we her admission into it. Even Pennsylvania would have strong
reflect upon the degree of authority required to direct the pas- inducements to join the Northern league. An active foreign
sions of so large a society to the public good, we shall see no commerce, on the basis of her own navigation, is her true
reason to doubt that the like portion of power would be suffi- policy, and coincides with the opinions and dispositions of
cient to perform the same task in a society far more numerous. her citizens. The more Southern States, from various circum-
Civil power, properly organized and exerted, is capable of diffus- stances, may not think themselves much interested in the en-
ing its force to a very great extent; and can, in a manner, repro- couragement of navigation. They may prefer a system which
duce itself in every part of a great empire by a judicious arrange- would give unlimited scope to all nations to be the carriers as
ment of subordinate institutions. well as the purchasers of their commodities. Pennsylvania may
The supposition that each confederacy into which the States not choose to confound her interests in a connection so ad-
would be likely to be divided would require a government verse to her policy. As she must at all events be a frontier, she
not less comprehensive than the one proposed, will be strength- may deem it most consistent with her safety to have her ex-
ened by another supposition, more probable than that which posed side turned towards the weaker power of the Southern,
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rather than towards the stronger power of the Northern, Con- FEDERALIST No. 14
federacy. This would give her the fairest chance to avoid be-
ing the Flanders of America. Whatever may be the determi- Objections to the Proposed Constitution From Extent of
nation of Pennsylvania, if the Northern Confederacy includes Territory Answered
New Jersey, there is no likelihood of more than one confed-
eracy to the south of that State. From the New York Packet.
Nothing can be more evident than that the thirteen States
will be able to support a national government better than one Friday, November 30, 1787.
half, or one third, or any number less than the whole. This
reflection must have great weight in obviating that objection MADISON
to the proposed plan, which is founded on the principle of
expense; an objection, however, which, when we come to take To the People of the State of New York:
a nearer view of it, will appear in every light to stand on mis-
taken ground. We have seen the necessity of the Union, as our bulwark against
If, in addition to the consideration of a plurality of civil lists, foreign danger, as the conservator of peace among ourselves,
we take into view the number of persons who must necessarily as the guardian of our commerce and other common inter-
be employed to guard the inland communication between the ests, as the only substitute for those military establishments
different confederacies against illicit trade, and who in time which have subverted the liberties of the Old World, and as
will infallibly spring up out of the necessities of revenue; and if the proper antidote for the diseases of faction, which have
we also take into view the military establishments which it has proved fatal to other popular governments, and of which
been shown would unavoidably result from the jealousies and alarming symptoms have been betrayed by our own. All that
conflicts of the several nations into which the States would be remains, within this branch of our inquiries, is to take notice
divided, we shall clearly discover that a separation would be of an objection that may be drawn from the great extent of
not less injurious to the economy, than to the tranquillity, com- country which the Union embraces. A few observations on
merce, revenue, and liberty of every part. this subject will be the more proper, as it is perceived that the
adversaries of the new Constitution are availing themselves of
Publius. the prevailing prejudice with regard to the practicable sphere
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of republican administration, in order to supply, by imagi- Such a fallacy may have been the less perceived, as most of
nary difficulties, the want of those solid objections which the popular governments of antiquity were of the democratic
they endeavor in vain to find. species; and even in modern Europe, to which we owe the
The error which limits republican government to a narrow great principle of representation, no example is seen of a gov-
district has been unfolded and refuted in preceding papers. I ernment wholly popular, and founded, at the same time,
remark here only that it seems to owe its rise and prevalence wholly on that principle. If Europe has the merit of discover-
chiefly to the confounding of a republic with a democracy, ing this great mechanical power in government, by the simple
applying to the former reasonings drawn from the nature of agency of which the will of the largest political body may be
the latter. The true distinction between these forms was also concentred, and its force directed to any object which the
adverted to on a former occasion. It is, that in a democracy, the public good requires, America can claim the merit of making
people meet and exercise the government in person; in a repub- the discovery the basis of unmixed and extensive republics. It
lic, they assemble and administer it by their representatives and is only to be lamented that any of her citizens should wish to
agents. A democracy, consequently, will be confined to a small deprive her of the additional merit of displaying its full effi-
spot. A republic may be extended over a large region. cacy in the establishment of the comprehensive system now
To this accidental source of the error may be added the arti- under her consideration.
fice of some celebrated authors, whose writings have had a As the natural limit of a democracy is that distance from
great share in forming the modern standard of political opin- the central point which will just permit the most remote citi-
ions. Being subjects either of an absolute or limited monar- zens to assemble as often as their public functions demand,
chy, they have endeavored to heighten the advantages, or pal- and will include no greater number than can join in those
liate the evils of those forms, by placing in comparison the functions; so the natural limit of a republic is that distance
vices and defects of the republican, and by citing as specimens from the centre which will barely allow the representatives to
of the latter the turbulent democracies of ancient Greece and meet as often as may be necessary for the administration of
modern Italy. Under the confusion of names, it has been an public affairs. Can it be said that the limits of the United
easy task to transfer to a republic observations applicable to a States exceed this distance? It will not be said by those who
democracy only; and among others, the observation that it recollect that the Atlantic coast is the longest side of the Union,
can never be established but among a small number of people, that during the term of thirteen years, the representatives of
living within a small compass of territory. the States have been almost continually assembled, and that
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the members from the most distant States are not chargeable extremity of the island have as far to travel to the national
with greater intermissions of attendance than those from the council as will be required of those of the most remote parts
States in the neighborhood of Congress. of the Union.
That we may form a juster estimate with regard to this Favorable as this view of the subject may be, some observa-
interesting subject, let us resort to the actual dimensions of tions remain which will place it in a light still more satisfactory.
the Union. The limits, as fixed by the treaty of peace, are: on In the first place it is to be remembered that the general gov-
the east the Atlantic, on the south the latitude of thirty-one ernment is not to be charged with the whole power of making
degrees, on the west the Mississippi, and on the north an ir- and administering laws. Its jurisdiction is limited to certain
regular line running in some instances beyond the forty-fifth enumerated objects, which concern all the members of the re-
degree, in others falling as low as the forty-second. The south- public, but which are not to be attained by the separate provi-
ern shore of Lake Erie lies below that latitude. Computing sions of any. The subordinate governments, which can extend
the distance between the thirty-first and forty-fifth degrees, it their care to all those other subjects which can be separately
amounts to nine hundred and seventy-three common miles; provided for, will retain their due authority and activity. Were
computing it from thirty-one to forty-two degrees, to seven it proposed by the plan of the convention to abolish the gov-
hundred and sixty-four miles and a half. Taking the mean for ernments of the particular States, its adversaries would have
the distance, the amount will be eight hundred and sixty- some ground for their objection; though it would not be diffi-
eight miles and three-fourths. The mean distance from the cult to show that if they were abolished the general govern-
Atlantic to the Mississippi does not probably exceed seven ment would be compelled, by the principle of self-preserva-
hundred and fifty miles. On a comparison of this extent with tion, to reinstate them in their proper jurisdiction.
that of several countries in Europe, the practicability of ren- A second observation to be made is that the immediate
dering our system commensurate to it appears to be demon- object of the federal Constitution is to secure the union of
strable. It is not a great deal larger than Germany, where a diet the thirteen primitive States, which we know to be practi-
representing the whole empire is continually assembled; or cable; and to add to them such other States as may arise in
than Poland before the late dismemberment, where another their own bosoms, or in their neighborhoods, which we can-
national diet was the depositary of the supreme power. Pass- not doubt to be equally practicable. The arrangements that
ing by France and Spain, we find that in Great Britain, infe- may be necessary for those angles and fractions of our terri-
rior as it may be in size, the representatives of the northern tory which lie on our northwestern frontier, must be left to
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those whom further discoveries and experience will render enemy, or even to support alone the whole expense of those
more equal to the task. precautions which may be dictated by the neighborhood of
Let it be remarked, in the third place, that the intercourse continual danger. If they should derive less benefit, therefore,
throughout the Union will be facilitated by new improve- from the Union in some respects than the less distant States,
ments. Roads will everywhere be shortened, and kept in bet- they will derive greater benefit from it in other respects, and
ter order; accommodations for travelers will be multiplied thus the proper equilibrium will be maintained throughout.
and meliorated; an interior navigation on our eastern side will I submit to you, my fellow-citizens, these considerations,
be opened throughout, or nearly throughout, the whole ex- in full confidence that the good sense which has so often
tent of the thirteen States. The communication between the marked your decisions will allow them their due weight and
Western and Atlantic districts, and between different parts of effect; and that you will never suffer difficulties, however for-
each, will be rendered more and more easy by those numer- midable in appearance, or however fashionable the error on
ous canals with which the beneficence of nature has inter- which they may be founded, to drive you into the gloomy
sected our country, and which art finds it so little difficult to and perilous scene into which the advocates for disunion would
connect and complete. conduct you. Hearken not to the unnatural voice which tells
A fourth and still more important consideration is, that as you that the people of America, knit together as they are by
almost every State will, on one side or other, be a frontier, so many cords of affection, can no longer live together as
and will thus find, in regard to its safety, an inducement to members of the same family; can no longer continue the
make some sacrifices for the sake of the general protection; so mutual guardians of their mutual happiness; can no longer be
the States which lie at the greatest distance from the heart of fellowcitizens of one great, respectable, and flourishing em-
the Union, and which, of course, may partake least of the pire. Hearken not to the voice which petulantly tells you that
ordinary circulation of its benefits, will be at the same time the form of government recommended for your adoption is
immediately contiguous to foreign nations, and will conse- a novelty in the political world; that it has never yet had a
quently stand, on particular occasions, in greatest need of its place in the theories of the wildest projectors; that it rashly
strength and resources. It may be inconvenient for Georgia, attempts what it is impossible to accomplish. No, my coun-
or the States forming our western or northeastern borders, to trymen, shut your ears against this unhallowed language. Shut
send their representatives to the seat of government; but they your hearts against the poison which it conveys; the kindred
would find it more so to struggle alone against an invading blood which flows in the veins of American citizens, the
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mingled blood which they have shed in defense of their sa- noble course. They accomplished a revolution which has no
cred rights, consecrate their Union, and excite horror at the parallel in the annals of human society. They reared the fab-
idea of their becoming aliens, rivals, enemies. And if novelties rics of governments which have no model on the face of the
are to be shunned, believe me, the most alarming of all nov- globe. They formed the design of a great Confederacy, which
elties, the most wild of all projects, the most rash of all at- it is incumbent on their successors to improve and perpetu-
tempts, is that of rendering us in pieces, in order to preserve ate. If their works betray imperfections, we wonder at the
our liberties and promote our happiness. But why is the ex- fewness of them. If they erred most in the structure of the
periment of an extended republic to be rejected, merely be- Union, this was the work most difficult to be executed; this
cause it may comprise what is new? Is it not the glory of the is the work which has been new modelled by the act of your
people of America, that, whilst they have paid a decent regard convention, and it is that act on which you are now to delib-
to the opinions of former times and other nations, they have erate and to decide.
not suffered a blind veneration for antiquity, for custom, or
for names, to overrule the suggestions of their own good sense, Publius.
the knowledge of their own situation, and the lessons of their
own experience? To this manly spirit, posterity will be in-
debted for the possession, and the world for the example, of
the numerous innovations displayed on the American the-
atre, in favor of private rights and public happiness. Had no
important step been taken by the leaders of the Revolution
for which a precedent could not be discovered, no govern-
ment established of which an exact model did not present
itself, the people of the United States might, at this moment
have been numbered among the melancholy victims of mis-
guided councils, must at best have been laboring under the
weight of some of those forms which have crushed the liber-
ties of the rest of mankind. Happily for America, happily, we
trust, for the whole human race, they pursued a new and more
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FEDERALIST No. 15 of the journey have been unnecessarily increased by the mazes
with which sophistry has beset the way. It will be my aim to
The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to remove the obstacles from your progress in as compendious a
Preserve the Union manner as it can be done, without sacrificing utility to des-
patch.
For the Independent Journal. In pursuance of the plan which I have laid down for the
discussion of the subject, the point next in order to be exam-
HAMILTON ined is the “insufficiency of the present Confederation to the
preservation of the Union.’’ It may perhaps be asked what
To the People of the State of New York. need there is of reasoning or proof to illustrate a position
which is not either controverted or doubted, to which the
In the course of the preceding papers, I have endeavored, my understandings and feelings of all classes of men assent, and
fellow-citizens, to place before you, in a clear and convincing which in substance is admitted by the opponents as well as by
light, the importance of Union to your political safety and the friends of the new Constitution. It must in truth be ac-
happiness. I have unfolded to you a complication of dangers knowledged that, however these may differ in other respects,
to which you would be exposed, should you permit that sa- they in general appear to harmonize in this sentiment, at least,
cred knot which binds the people of America together be sev- that there are material imperfections in our national system,
ered or dissolved by ambition or by avarice, by jealousy or by and that something is necessary to be done to rescue us from
misrepresentation. In the sequel of the inquiry through which impending anarchy. The facts that support this opinion are
I propose to accompany you, the truths intended to be incul- no longer objects of speculation. They have forced themselves
cated will receive further confirmation from facts and argu- upon the sensibility of the people at large, and have at length
ments hitherto unnoticed. If the road over which you will extorted from those, whose mistaken policy has had the prin-
still have to pass should in some places appear to you tedious cipal share in precipitating the extremity at which we are ar-
or irksome, you will recollect that you are in quest of infor- rived, a reluctant confession of the reality of those defects in
mation on a subject the most momentous which can engage the scheme of our federal government, which have been long
the attention of a free people, that the field through which pointed out and regretted by the intelligent friends of the
you have to travel is in itself spacious, and that the difficulties Union.
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We may indeed with propriety be said to have reached al- imbecility of our government even forbids them to treat with
most the last stage of national humiliation. There is scarcely us. Our ambassadors abroad are the mere pageants of mimic
anything that can wound the pride or degrade the character of sovereignty. Is a violent and unnatural decrease in the value of
an independent nation which we do not experience. Are there land a symptom of national distress? The price of improved
engagements to the performance of which we are held by ev- land in most parts of the country is much lower than can be
ery tie respectable among men? These are the subjects of con- accounted for by the quantity of waste land at market, and can
stant and unblushing violation. Do we owe debts to foreign- only be fully explained by that want of private and public con-
ers and to our own citizens contracted in a time of imminent fidence, which are so alarmingly prevalent among all ranks, and
peril for the preservation of our political existence? These re- which have a direct tendency to depreciate property of every
main without any proper or satisfactory provision for their kind. Is private credit the friend and patron of industry? That
discharge. Have we valuable territories and important posts most useful kind which relates to borrowing and lending is
in the possession of a foreign power which, by express stipu- reduced within the narrowest limits, and this still more from
lations, ought long since to have been surrendered? These are an opinion of insecurity than from the scarcity of money. To
still retained, to the prejudice of our interests, not less than of shorten an enumeration of particulars which can afford neither
our rights. Are we in a condition to resent or to repel the pleasure nor instruction, it may in general be demanded, what
aggression? We have neither troops, nor treasury, nor govern- indication is there of national disorder, poverty, and insignifi-
ment.* Are we even in a condition to remonstrate with dig- cance that could befall a community so peculiarly blessed with
nity? The just imputations on our own faith, in respect to the natural advantages as we are, which does not form a part of the
same treaty, ought first to be removed. Are we entitled by dark catalogue of our public misfortunes?
nature and compact to a free participation in the navigation This is the melancholy situation to which we have been
of the Mississippi? Spain excludes us from it. Is public credit brought by those very maxims and councils which would
an indispensable resource in time of public danger? We seem now deter us from adopting the proposed Constitution; and
to have abandoned its cause as desperate and irretrievable. Is which, not content with having conducted us to the brink of
commerce of importance to national wealth? Ours is at the a precipice, seem resolved to plunge us into the abyss that
lowest point of declension. Is respectability in the eyes of for- awaits us below. Here, my countrymen, impelled by every
eign powers a safeguard against foreign encroachments? The motive that ought to influence an enlightened people, let us
*“I mean for the Union.” make a firm stand for our safety, our tranquillity, our dignity,
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our reputation. Let us at last break the fatal charm which has Though this principle does not run through all the powers
too long seduced us from the paths of felicity and prosperity. delegated to the Union, yet it pervades and governs those on
It is true, as has been before observed that facts, too stub- which the efficacy of the rest depends. Except as to the rule of
born to be resisted, have produced a species of general assent appointment, the United States has an indefinite discretion
to the abstract proposition that there exist material defects in to make requisitions for men and money; but they have no
our national system; but the usefulness of the concession, on authority to raise either, by regulations extending to the indi-
the part of the old adversaries of federal measures, is destroyed vidual citizens of America. The consequence of this is, that
by a strenuous opposition to a remedy, upon the only prin- though in theory their resolutions concerning those objects
ciples that can give it a chance of success. While they admit are laws, constitutionally binding on the members of the
that the government of the United States is destitute of en- Union, yet in practice they are mere recommendations which
ergy, they contend against conferring upon it those powers the States observe or disregard at their option.
which are requisite to supply that energy. They seem still to It is a singular instance of the capriciousness of the human
aim at things repugnant and irreconcilable; at an augmenta- mind, that after all the admonitions we have had from expe-
tion of federal authority, without a diminution of State au- rience on this head, there should still be found men who ob-
thority; at sovereignty in the Union, and complete indepen- ject to the new Constitution, for deviating from a principle
dence in the members. They still, in fine, seem to cherish which has been found the bane of the old, and which is in
with blind devotion the political monster of an imperium in itself evidently incompatible with the idea of government; a
imperio. This renders a full display of the principal defects of principle, in short, which, if it is to be executed at all, must
the Confederation necessary, in order to show that the evils substitute the violent and sanguinary agency of the sword to
we experience do not proceed from minute or partial imper- the mild influence of the magistracy.
fections, but from fundamental errors in the structure of the There is nothing absurd or impracticable in the idea of a
building, which cannot be amended otherwise than by an league or alliance between independent nations for certain
alteration in the first principles and main pillars of the fabric. defined purposes precisely stated in a treaty regulating all the
The great and radical vice in the construction of the existing details of time, place, circumstance, and quantity; leaving noth-
Confederation is in the principle of legislation for states or gov- ing to future discretion; and depending for its execution on the
ernments, in their corporate or collective capacities, and as good faith of the parties. Compacts of this kind exist among
contradistinguished from the individuals of which they consist. all civilized nations, subject to the usual vicissitudes of peace
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and war, of observance and non-observance, as the interests or tion; if we still will adhere to the design of a national govern-
passions of the contracting powers dictate. In the early part of ment, or, which is the same thing, of a superintending power,
the present century there was an epidemical rage in Europe for under the direction of a common council, we must resolve to
this species of compacts, from which the politicians of the times incorporate into our plan those ingredients which may be
fondly hoped for benefits which were never realized. With a considered as forming the characteristic difference between a
view to establishing the equilibrium of power and the peace of league and a government; we must extend the authority of
that part of the world, all the resources of negotiation were the Union to the persons of the citizens, —the only proper
exhausted, and triple and quadruple alliances were formed; but objects of government.
they were scarcely formed before they were broken, giving an Government implies the power of making laws. It is essen-
instructive but afflicting lesson to mankind, how little depen- tial to the idea of a law, that it be attended with a sanction; or,
dence is to be placed on treaties which have no other sanction in other words, a penalty or punishment for disobedience. If
than the obligations of good faith, and which oppose general there be no penalty annexed to disobedience, the resolutions
considerations of peace and justice to the impulse of any im- or commands which pretend to be laws will, in fact, amount
mediate interest or passion. to nothing more than advice or recommendation. This pen-
If the particular States in this country are disposed to stand alty, whatever it may be, can only be inflicted in two ways: by
in a similar relation to each other, and to drop the project of the agency of the courts and ministers of justice, or by mili-
a general discretionary superintendence, the scheme would in- tary force; by the coercion of the magistracy, or by the coercion
deed be pernicious, and would entail upon us all the mis- of arms. The first kind can evidently apply only to men; the
chiefs which have been enumerated under the first head; but last kind must of necessity, be employed against bodies poli-
it would have the merit of being, at least, consistent and prac- tic, or communities, or States. It is evident that there is no
ticable Abandoning all views towards a confederate govern- process of a court by which the observance of the laws can, in
ment, this would bring us to a simple alliance offensive and the last resort, be enforced. Sentences may be denounced
defensive; and would place us in a situation to be alternate against them for violations of their duty; but these sentences
friends and enemies of each other, as our mutual jealousies can only be carried into execution by the sword. In an associa-
and rivalships, nourished by the intrigues of foreign nations, tion where the general authority is confined to the collective
should prescribe to us. bodies of the communities, that compose it, every breach of
But if we are unwilling to be placed in this perilous situa- the laws must involve a state of war; and military execution
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must become the only instrument of civil obedience. Such a are composed into improprieties and excesses, for which they
state of things can certainly not deserve the name of govern- would blush in a private capacity.
ment, nor would any prudent man choose to commit his In addition to all this, there is, in the nature of sovereign
happiness to it. power, an impatience of control, that disposes those who are
There was a time when we were told that breaches, by the invested with the exercise of it, to look with an evil eye upon
States, of the regulations of the federal authority were not to all external attempts to restrain or direct its operations. From
be expected; that a sense of common interest would preside this spirit it happens, that in every political association which
over the conduct of the respective members, and would beget is formed upon the principle of uniting in a common interest
a full compliance with all the constitutional requisitions of a number of lesser sovereignties, there will be found a kind of
the Union. This language, at the present day, would appear as eccentric tendency in the subordinate or inferior orbs, by the
wild as a great part of what we now hear from the same quar- operation of which there will be a perpetual effort in each to
ter will be thought, when we shall have received further les- fly off from the common centre. This tendency is not diffi-
sons from that best oracle of wisdom, experience. It at all cult to be accounted for. It has its origin in the love of power.
times betrayed an ignorance of the true springs by which hu- Power controlled or abridged is almost always the rival and
man conduct is actuated, and belied the original inducements enemy of that power by which it is controlled or abridged.
to the establishment of civil power. Why has government been This simple proposition will teach us how little reason there
instituted at all? Because the passions of men will not con- is to expect, that the persons intrusted with the administra-
form to the dictates of reason and justice, without constraint. tion of the affairs of the particular members of a confederacy
Has it been found that bodies of men act with more rectitude will at all times be ready, with perfect good-humor, and an
or greater disinterestedness than individuals? The contrary of unbiased regard to the public weal, to execute the resolutions
this has been inferred by all accurate observers of the conduct or decrees of the general authority. The reverse of this results
of mankind; and the inference is founded upon obvious rea- from the constitution of human nature.
sons. Regard to reputation has a less active influence, when If, therefore, the measures of the Confederacy cannot be
the infamy of a bad action is to be divided among a number executed without the intervention of the particular adminis-
than when it is to fall singly upon one. A spirit of faction, trations, there will be little prospect of their being executed at
which is apt to mingle its poison in the deliberations of all all. The rulers of the respective members, whether they have a
bodies of men, will often hurry the persons of whom they constitutional right to do it or not, will undertake to judge
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of the propriety of the measures themselves. They will con- to an extreme, which has, at length, arrested all the wheels of
sider the conformity of the thing proposed or required to the national government, and brought them to an awful stand.
their immediate interests or aims; the momentary conveniences Congress at this time scarcely possess the means of keeping
or inconveniences that would attend its adoption. All this up the forms of administration, till the States can have time
will be done; and in a spirit of interested and suspicious scru- to agree upon a more substantial substitute for the present
tiny, without that knowledge of national circumstances and shadow of a federal government. Things did not come to this
reasons of state, which is essential to a right judgment, and desperate extremity at once. The causes which have been speci-
with that strong predilection in favor of local objects, which fied produced at first only unequal and disproportionate de-
can hardly fail to mislead the decision. The same process must grees of compliance with the requisitions of the Union. The
be repeated in every member of which the body is consti- greater deficiencies of some States furnished the pretext of
tuted; and the execution of the plans, framed by the councils example and the temptation of interest to the complying, or
of the whole, will always fluctuate on the discretion of the ill- to the least delinquent States. Why should we do more in
informed and prejudiced opinion of every part. Those who proportion than those who are embarked with us in the same
have been conversant in the proceedings of popular assem- political voyage? Why should we consent to bear more than
blies; who have seen how difficult it often is, where there is our proper share of the common burden? These were sugges-
no exterior pressure of circumstances, to bring them to har- tions which human selfishness could not withstand, and which
monious resolutions on important points, will readily con- even speculative men, who looked forward to remote conse-
ceive how impossible it must be to induce a number of such quences, could not, without hesitation, combat. Each State,
assemblies, deliberating at a distance from each other, at dif- yielding to the persuasive voice of immediate interest or con-
ferent times, and under different impressions, long to co-op- venience, has successively withdrawn its support, till the frail
erate in the same views and pursuits. and tottering edifice seems ready to fall upon our heads, and
In our case, the concurrence of thirteen distinct sovereign to crush us beneath its ruins.
wills is requisite, under the Confederation, to the complete
execution of every important measure that proceeds from the Publius.
Union. It has happened as was to have been foreseen. The
measures of the Union have not been executed; the delin-
quencies of the States have, step by step, matured themselves
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FEDERALIST No. 16 ingly those which have best deserved, and have most liberally
received, the applauding suffrages of political writers.
The Same Subject Continued This exceptionable principle may, as truly as emphatically,
be styled the parent of anarchy: It has been seen that delin-
(The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to quencies in the members of the Union are its natural and
Preserve the Union) necessary offspring; and that whenever they happen, the only
constitutional remedy is force, and the immediate effect of
From the New York Packet. the use of it, civil war.
It remains to inquire how far so odious an engine of gov-
Tuesday, December 4, 1787. ernment, in its application to us, would even be capable of
answering its end. If there should not be a large army con-
HAMILTON stantly at the disposal of the national government it would
either not be able to employ force at all, or, when this could
To the People of the State of New York: be done, it would amount to a war between parts of the Con-
federacy concerning the infractions of a league, in which the
The tendency of the principle of legislation for States, or com- strongest combination would be most likely to prevail,
munities, in their political capacities, as it has been exempli- whether it consisted of those who supported or of those who
fied by the experiment we have made of it, is equally attested resisted the general authority. It would rarely happen that the
by the events which have befallen all other governments of delinquency to be redressed would be confined to a single
the confederate kind, of which we have any account, in exact member, and if there were more than one who had neglected
proportion to its prevalence in those systems. The confirma- their duty, similarity of situation would induce them to unite
tions of this fact will be worthy of a distinct and particular for common defense. Independent of this motive of sympa-
examination. I shall content myself with barely observing here, thy, if a large and influential State should happen to be the
that of all the confederacies of antiquity, which history has aggressing member, it would commonly have weight enough
handed down to us, the Lycian and Achaean leagues, as far as with its neighbors to win over some of them as associates to
there remain vestiges of them, appear to have been most free its cause. Specious arguments of danger to the common lib-
from the fetters of that mistaken principle, and were accord- erty could easily be contrived; plausible excuses for the defi-
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The Federalist Papers
ciencies of the party could, without difficulty, be invented to the Union by engaging in a war against the non-complying
alarm the apprehensions, inflame the passions, and conciliate States. They would always be more ready to pursue the milder
the good-will, even of those States which were not chargeable course of putting themselves upon an equal footing with the
with any violation or omission of duty. This would be the delinquent members by an imitation of their example. And
more likely to take place, as the delinquencies of the larger the guilt of all would thus become the security of all. Our
members might be expected sometimes to proceed from an past experience has exhibited the operation of this spirit in its
ambitious premeditation in their rulers, with a view to get- full light. There would, in fact, be an insuperable difficulty in
ting rid of all external control upon their designs of personal ascertaining when force could with propriety be employed.
aggrandizement; the better to effect which it is presumable In the article of pecuniary contribution, which would be the
they would tamper beforehand with leading individuals in most usual source of delinquency, it would often be impos-
the adjacent States. If associates could not be found at home, sible to decide whether it had proceeded from disinclination
recourse would be had to the aid of foreign powers, who would or inability. The pretense of the latter would always be at
seldom be disinclined to encouraging the dissensions of a hand. And the case must be very flagrant in which its fallacy
Confederacy, from the firm union of which they had so much could be detected with sufficient certainty to justify the harsh
to fear. When the sword is once drawn, the passions of men expedient of compulsion. It is easy to see that this problem
observe no bounds of moderation. The suggestions of alone, as often as it should occur, would open a wide field
wounded pride, the instigations of irritated resentment, would for the exercise of factious views, of partiality, and of oppres-
be apt to carry the States against which the arms of the Union sion, in the majority that happened to prevail in the national
were exerted, to any extremes necessary to avenge the affront council.
or to avoid the disgrace of submission. The first war of this It seems to require no pains to prove that the States ought
kind would probably terminate in a dissolution of the Union. not to prefer a national Constitution which could only be
This may be considered as the violent death of the Confed- kept in motion by the instrumentality of a large army con-
eracy. Its more natural death is what we now seem to be on tinually on foot to execute the ordinary requisitions or de-
the point of experiencing, if the federal system be not speed- crees of the government. And yet this is the plain alternative
ily renovated in a more substantial form. It is not probable, involved by those who wish to deny it the power of extend-
considering the genius of this country, that the complying ing its operations to individuals. Such a scheme, if practicable
States would often be inclined to support the authority of at all, would instantly degenerate into a military despotism;
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but it will be found in every light impracticable. The resources cerns and preserving the general tranquillity, it must be
of the Union would not be equal to the maintenance of an founded, as to the objects committed to its care, upon the
army considerable enough to confine the larger States within reverse of the principle contended for by the opponents of
the limits of their duty; nor would the means ever be fur- the proposed Constitution. It must carry its agency to the
nished of forming such an army in the first instance. Who- persons of the citizens. It must stand in need of no intermedi-
ever considers the populousness and strength of several of these ate legislations; but must itself be empowered to employ the
States singly at the present juncture, and looks forward to arm of the ordinary magistrate to execute its own resolutions.
what they will become, even at the distance of half a century, The majesty of the national authority must be manifested
will at once dismiss as idle and visionary any scheme which through the medium of the courts of justice. The govern-
aims at regulating their movements by laws to operate upon ment of the Union, like that of each State, must be able to
them in their collective capacities, and to be executed by a address itself immediately to the hopes and fears of individu-
coercion applicable to them in the same capacities. A project als; and to attract to its support those passions which have the
of this kind is little less romantic than the monster-taming strongest influence upon the human heart. It must, in short,
spirit which is attributed to the fabulous heroes and demi- possess all the means, and have aright to resort to all the meth-
gods of antiquity. ods, of executing the powers with which it is intrusted, that
Even in those confederacies which have been composed of are possessed and exercised by the government of the particu-
members smaller than many of our counties, the principle of lar States.
legislation for sovereign States, supported by military coer- To this reasoning it may perhaps be objected, that if any
cion, has never been found effectual. It has rarely been at- State should be disaffected to the authority of the Union, it
tempted to be employed, but against the weaker members; could at any time obstruct the execution of its laws, and bring
and in most instances attempts to coerce the refractory and the matter to the same issue of force, with the necessity of
disobedient have been the signals of bloody wars, in which which the opposite scheme is reproached.
one half of the confederacy has displayed its banners against The pausibility of this objection will vanish the moment
the other half. we advert to the essential difference between a mere non-com-
The result of these observations to an intelligent mind must pliance and a direct and active resistance. If the interposition
be clearly this, that if it be possible at any rate to construct a of the State legislatures be necessary to give effect to a mea-
federal government capable of regulating the common con- sure of the Union, they have only not to act, or to act evasovely,
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and the measure is defeated. This neglect of duty may be dis- ians of the Constitution, would throw their weight into the
guised under affected but unsubstantial provisions, so as not national scale and give it a decided preponderancy in the con-
to appear, and of course not to excite any alarm in the people test. Attempts of this kind would not often be made with
for the safety of the Constitution. The State leaders may levity or rashness, because they could seldom be made with-
even make a merit of their surreptitious invasions of it on the out danger to the authors, unless in cases of a tyrannical exer-
ground of some temporary convenience, exemption, or ad- cise of the federal authority.
vantage. If opposition to the national government should arise from
But if the execution of the laws of the national government the disorderly conduct of refractory or seditious individuals,
should not require the intervention of the State legislatures, if it could be overcome by the same means which are daily em-
they were to pass into immediate operation upon the citizens ployed against the same evil under the State governments.
themselves, the particular governments could not interrupt The magistracy, being equally the ministers of the law of the
their progress without an open and violent exertion of an land, from whatever source it might emanate, would doubt-
unconstitutional power. No omissions nor evasions would less be as ready to guard the national as the local regulations
answer the end. They would be obliged to act, and in such a from the inroads of private licentiousness. As to those partial
manner as would leave no doubt that they had encroached on commotions and insurrections, which sometimes disquiet
the national rights. An experiment of this nature would al- society, from the intrigues of an inconsiderable faction, or
ways be hazardous in the face of a constitution in any degree from sudden or occasional illhumors that do not infect the
competent to its own defense, and of a people enlightened great body of the community the general government could
enough to distinguish between a legal exercise and an illegal command more extensive resources for the suppression of
usurpation of authority. The success of it would require not disturbances of that kind than would be in the power of any
merely a factious majority in the legislature, but the concur- single member. And as to those mortal feuds which, in cer-
rence of the courts of justice and of the body of the people. If tain conjunctures, spread a conflagration through a whole
the judges were not embarked in a conspiracy with the legis- nation, or through a very large proportion of it, proceeding
lature, they would pronounce the resolutions of such a ma- either from weighty causes of discontent given by the govern-
jority to be contrary to the supreme law of the land, uncon- ment or from the contagion of some violent popular parox-
stitutional, and void. If the people were not tainted with the ysm, they do not fall within any ordinary rules of calculation.
spirit of their State representatives, they, as the natural guard- When they happen, they commonly amount to revolutions
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and dismemberments of empire. No form of government FEDERALIST No. 17
can always either avoid or control them. It is in vain to hope
to guard against events too mighty for human foresight or The Same Subject Continued
precaution, and it would be idle to object to a government
because it could not perform impossibilities. (The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to
Preserve the Union)
Publius.
For the Independent Journal.

HAMILTON

To the People of the State of New York:

An objection, of a nature different from that which has been


stated and answered, in my last address, may perhaps be like-
wise urged against the principle of legislation for the indi-
vidual citizens of America. It may be said that it would tend
to render the government of the Union too powerful, and to
enable it to absorb those residuary authorities, which it might
be judged proper to leave with the States for local purposes.
Allowing the utmost latitude to the love of power which any
reasonable man can require, I confess I am at a loss to discover
what temptation the persons intrusted with the administra-
tion of the general government could ever feel to divest the
States of the authorities of that description. The regulation of
the mere domestic police of a State appears to me to hold out
slender allurements to ambition. Commerce, finance, nego-
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tiation, and war seem to comprehend all the objects which cumstance which at the same time teaches us that there is an
have charms for minds governed by that passion; and all the inherent and intrinsic weakness in all federal constitutions;
powers necessary to those objects ought, in the first instance, and that too much pains cannot be taken in their organiza-
to be lodged in the national depository. The administration tion, to give them all the force which is compatible with the
of private justice between the citizens of the same State, the principles of liberty.
supervision of agriculture and of other concerns of a similar The superiority of influence in favor of the particular gov-
nature, all those things, in short, which are proper to be pro- ernments would result partly from the diffusive construction
vided for by local legislation, can never be desirable cares of a of the national government, but chiefly from the nature of
general jurisdiction. It is therefore improbable that there should the objects to which the attention of the State administra-
exist a disposition in the federal councils to usurp the powers tions would be directed.
with which they are connected; because the attempt to exer- It is a known fact in human nature, that its affections are
cise those powers would be as troublesome as it would be commonly weak in proportion to the distance or diffusive-
nugatory; and the possession of them, for that reason, would ness of the object. Upon the same principle that a man is
contribute nothing to the dignity, to the importance, or to more attached to his family than to his neighborhood, to his
the splendor of the national government. neighborhood than to the community at large, the people of
But let it be admitted, for argument’s sake, that mere wan- each State would be apt to feel a stronger bias towards their
tonness and lust of domination would be sufficient to beget local governments than towards the government of the Union;
that disposition; still it may be safely affirmed, that the sense unless the force of that principle should be destroyed by a
of the constituent body of the national representatives, or, in much better administration of the latter.
other words, the people of the several States, would control This strong propensity of the human heart would find pow-
the indulgence of so extravagant an appetite. It will always be erful auxiliaries in the objects of State regulation.
far more easy for the State governments to encroach upon the The variety of more minute interests, which will necessar-
national authorities than for the national government to en- ily fall under the superintendence of the local administrations,
croach upon the State authorities. The proof of this proposi- and which will form so many rivulets of influence, running
tion turns upon the greater degree of influence which the State through every part of the society, cannot be particularized,
governments if they administer their affairs with uprightness without involving a detail too tedious and uninteresting to
and prudence, will generally possess over the people; a cir- compensate for the instruction it might afford.
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There is one transcendant advantage belonging to the prov- ment of attachment.
ince of the State governments, which alone suffices to place The reasoning on this head has been abundantly exempli-
the matter in a clear and satisfactory light,—I mean the ordi- fied by the experience of all federal constitutions with which
nary administration of criminal and civil justice. This, of all we are acquainted, and of all others which have borne the
others, is the most powerful, most universal, and most at- least analogy to them.
tractive source of popular obedience and attachment. It is that Though the ancient feudal systems were not, strictly speak-
which, being the immediate and visible guardian of life and ing, confederacies, yet they partook of the nature of that spe-
property, having its benefits and its terrors in constant activ- cies of association. There was a common head, chieftain, or
ity before the public eye, regulating all those personal inter- sovereign, whose authority extended over the whole nation;
ests and familiar concerns to which the sensibility of indi- and a number of subordinate vassals, or feudatories, who had
viduals is more immediately awake, contributes, more than large portions of land allotted to them, and numerous trains
any other circumstance, to impressing upon the minds of the of inferior vassals or retainers, who occupied and cultivated
people, affection, esteem, and reverence towards the govern- that land upon the tenure of fealty or obedience, to the per-
ment. This great cement of society, which will diffuse itself sons of whom they held it. Each principal vassal was a kind of
almost wholly through the channels of the particular govern- sovereign, within his particular demesnes. The consequences
ments, independent of all other causes of influence, would of this situation were a continual opposition to authority of
insure them so decided an empire over their respective citi- the sovereign, and frequent wars between the great barons or
zens as to render them at all times a complete counterpoise, chief feudatories themselves. The power of the head of the
and, not unfrequently, dangerous rivals to the power of the nation was commonly too weak, either to preserve the public
Union. peace, or to protect the people against the oppressions of their
The operations of the national government, on the other immediate lords. This period of European affairs is emphati-
hand, falling less immediately under the observation of the cally styled by historians, the times of feudal anarchy.
mass of the citizens, the benefits derived from it will chiefly When the sovereign happened to be a man of vigorous and
be perceived and attended to by speculative men. Relating to warlike temper and of superior abilities, he would acquire a
more general interests, they will be less apt to come home to personal weight and influence, which answered, for the time,
the feelings of the people; and, in proportion, less likely to the purpose of a more regular authority. But in general, the
inspire an habitual sense of obligation, and an active senti- power of the barons triumphed over that of the prince; and
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in many instances his dominion was entirely thrown off, and their favor, that from the reasons already explained, they will
the great fiefs were erected into independent principalities or generally possess the confidence and good-will of the people,
States. In those instances in which the monarch finally pre- and with so important a support, will be able effectually to
vailed over his vassals, his success was chiefly owing to the oppose all encroachments of the national government. It will
tyranny of those vassals over their dependents. The barons, or be well if they are not able to counteract its legitimate and
nobles, equally the enemies of the sovereign and the oppres- necessary authority. The points of similitude consist in the
sors of the common people, were dreaded and detested by rivalship of power, applicable to both, and in the concentra-
both; till mutual danger and mutual interest effected a union tion of large portions of the strength of the community into
between them fatal to the power of the aristocracy. Had the particular deposits, in one case at the disposal of individuals,
nobles, by a conduct of clemency and justice, preserved the in the other case at the disposal of political bodies.
fidelity and devotion of their retainers and followers, the con- A concise review of the events that have attended confeder-
tests between them and the prince must almost always have ate governments will further illustrate this important doc-
ended in their favor, and in the abridgment or subversion of trine; an inattention to which has been the great source of our
the royal authority. political mistakes, and has given our jealousy a direction to
This is not an assertion founded merely in speculation or the wrong side. This review shall form the subject of some
conjecture. Among other illustrations of its truth which might ensuing papers.
be cited, Scotland will furnish a cogent example. The spirit
of clanship which was, at an early day, introduced into that Publius.
kingdom, uniting the nobles and their dependants by ties
equivalent to those of kindred, rendered the aristocracy a con-
stant overmatch for the power of the monarch, till the incor-
poration with England subdued its fierce and ungovernable
spirit, and reduced it within those rules of subordination which
a more rational and more energetic system of civil polity had
previously established in the latter kingdom.
The separate governments in a confederacy may aptly be
compared with the feudal baronies; with this advantage in
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FEDERALIST No. 18 mense riches belonging to the temple of Delphos, where they
had the right of jurisdiction in controversies between the in-
The Same Subject Continued habitants and those who came to consult the oracle. As a fur-
ther provision for the efficacy of the federal powers, they took
(The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to an oath mutually to defend and protect the united cities, to
Preserve the Union) punish the violators of this oath, and to inflict vengeance on
sacrilegious despoilers of the temple.
For the Independent Journal. In theory, and upon paper, this apparatus of powers seems
amply sufficient for all general purposes. In several material
HAMILTON AND MADISON instances, they exceed the powers enumerated in the articles
of confederation. The Amphictyons had in their hands the
To the People of the State of New York: superstition of the times, one of the principal engines by which
government was then maintained; they had a declared author-
Among the confederacies of antiquity, the most considerable ity to use coercion against refractory cities, and were bound
was that of the Grecian republics, associated under the by oath to exert this authority on the necessary occasions.
Amphictyonic council. From the best accounts transmitted Very different, nevertheless, was the experiment from the
of this celebrated institution, it bore a very instructive anal- theory. The powers, like those of the present Congress, were
ogy to the present Confederation of the American States. administered by deputies appointed wholly by the cities in
The members retained the character of independent and their political capacities; and exercised over them in the same
sovereign states, and had equal votes in the federal council. capacities. Hence the weakness, the disorders, and finally the
This council had a general authority to propose and resolve destruction of the confederacy. The more powerful members,
whatever it judged necessary for the common welfare of instead of being kept in awe and subordination, tyrannized
Greece; to declare and carry on war; to decide, in the last re- successively over all the rest. Athens, as we learn from
sort, all controversies between the members; to fine the Demosthenes, was the arbiter of Greece seventy-three years.
aggressing party; to employ the whole force of the confed- The Lacedaemonians next governed it twenty-nine years; at a
eracy against the disobedient; to admit new members. The subsequent period, after the battle of Leuctra, the Thebans
Amphictyons were the guardians of religion, and of the im- had their turn of domination.
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It happened but too often, according to Plutarch, that the this obvious policy, Athens and Sparta, inflated with the vic-
deputies of the strongest cities awed and corrupted those of tories and the glory they had acquired, became first rivals and
the weaker; and that judgment went in favor of the most then enemies; and did each other infinitely more mischief
powerful party. than they had suffered from Xerxes. Their mutual jealousies,
Even in the midst of defensive and dangerous wars with Per- fears, hatreds, and injuries ended in the celebrated
sia and Macedon, the members never acted in concert, and were, Peloponnesian war; which itself ended in the ruin and slavery
more or fewer of them, eternally the dupes or the hirelings of of the Athenians who had begun it.
the common enemy. The intervals of foreign war were filled As a weak government, when not at war, is ever agitated by
up by domestic vicissitudes convulsions, and carnage. internal dissentions, so these never fail to bring on fresh calami-
After the conclusion of the war with Xerxes, it appears that ties from abroad. The Phocians having ploughed up some con-
the Lacedaemonians required that a number of the cities should secrated ground belonging to the temple of Apollo, the
be turned out of the confederacy for the unfaithful part they Amphictyonic council, according to the superstition of the age,
had acted. The Athenians, finding that the Lacedaemonians imposed a fine on the sacrilegious offenders. The Phocians,
would lose fewer partisans by such a measure than themselves, being abetted by Athens and Sparta, refused to submit to the
and would become masters of the public deliberations, vigor- decree. The Thebans, with others of the cities, undertook to
ously opposed and defeated the attempt. This piece of his- maintain the authority of the Amphictyons, and to avenge the
tory proves at once the inefficiency of the union, the ambi- violated god. The latter, being the weaker party, invited the
tion and jealousy of its most powerful members, and the de- assistance of Philip of Macedon, who had secretly fostered the
pendent and degraded condition of the rest. The smaller mem- contest. Philip gladly seized the opportunity of executing the
bers, though entitled by the theory of their system to revolve designs he had long planned against the liberties of Greece. By
in equal pride and majesty around the common center, had his intrigues and bribes he won over to his interests the popular
become, in fact, satellites of the orbs of primary magnitude. leaders of several cities; by their influence and votes, gained ad-
Had the Greeks, says the Abbe Milot, been as wise as they mission into the Amphictyonic council; and by his arts and his
were courageous, they would have been admonished by expe- arms, made himself master of the confederacy.
rience of the necessity of a closer union, and would have availed Such were the consequences of the fallacious principle on
themselves of the peace which followed their success against which this interesting establishment was founded. Had Greece,
the Persian arms, to establish such a reformation. Instead of says a judicious observer on her fate, been united by a stricter
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confederation, and persevered in her union, she would never usages. When Lacedaemon was brought into the league by
have worn the chains of Macedon; and might have proved a Philopoemen, it was attended with an abolition of the insti-
barrier to the vast projects of Rome. tutions and laws of Lycurgus, and an adoption of those of the
The Achaean league, as it is called, was another society of Achaeans. The Amphictyonic confederacy, of which she had
Grecian republics, which supplies us with valuable instruc- been a member, left her in the full exercise of her government
tion. and her legislation. This circumstance alone proves a very
The Union here was far more intimate, and its organiza- material difference in the genius of the two systems.
tion much wiser, than in the preceding instance. It will ac- It is much to be regretted that such imperfect monuments
cordingly appear, that though not exempt from a similar ca- remain of this curious political fabric. Could its interior struc-
tastrophe, it by no means equally deserved it. ture and regular operation be ascertained, it is probable that
The cities composing this league retained their municipal more light would be thrown by it on the science of federal
jurisdiction, appointed their own officers, and enjoyed a per- government, than by any of the like experiments with which
fect equality. The senate, in which they were represented, had we are acquainted.
the sole and exclusive right of peace and war; of sending and One important fact seems to be witnessed by all the histo-
receiving ambassadors; of entering into treaties and alliances; rians who take notice of Achaean affairs. It is, that as well
of appointing a chief magistrate or praetor, as he was called, after the renovation of the league by Aratus, as before its dis-
who commanded their armies, and who, with the advice and solution by the arts of Macedon, there was infinitely more of
consent of ten of the senators, not only administered the gov- moderation and justice in the administration of its govern-
ernment in the recess of the senate, but had a great share in its ment, and less of violence and sedition in the people, than
deliberations, when assembled. According to the primitive were to be found in any of the cities exercising singly all the
constitution, there were two praetors associated in the ad- prerogatives of sovereignty. The Abbe Mably, in his observa-
ministration; but on trial a single one was preferred. tions on Greece, says that the popular government, which
It appears that the cities had all the same laws and customs, was so tempestuous elsewhere, caused no disorders in the
the same weights and measures, and the same money. But members of the Achaean republic, because it was there tem-
how far this effect proceeded from the authority of the fed- pered by the general authority and laws of the confederacy.
eral council is left in uncertainty. It is said only that the cities We are not to conclude too hastily, however, that faction
were in a manner compelled to receive the same laws and did not, in a certain degree, agitate the particular cities; much
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less that a due subordination and harmony reigned in the gen- neighbors, the Achaeans, and who, as an enemy to Macedon,
eral system. The contrary is sufficiently displayed in the vi- had interest enough with the Egyptian and Syrian princes to
cissitudes and fate of the republic. effect a breach of their engagements with the league.
Whilst the Amphictyonic confederacy remained, that of the The Achaeans were now reduced to the dilemma of sub-
Achaeans, which comprehended the less important cities only, mitting to Cleomenes, or of supplicating the aid of Macedon,
made little figure on the theatre of Greece. When the former its former oppressor. The latter expedient was adopted. The
became a victim to Macedon, the latter was spared by the contests of the Greeks always afforded a pleasing opportunity
policy of Philip and Alexander. Under the successors of these to that powerful neighbor of intermeddling in their affairs. A
princes, however, a different policy prevailed. The arts of di- Macedonian army quickly appeared. Cleomenes was van-
vision were practiced among the Achaeans. Each city was se- quished. The Achaeans soon experienced, as often happens,
duced into a separate interest; the union was dissolved. Some that a victorious and powerful ally is but another name for a
of the cities fell under the tyranny of Macedonian garrisons; master. All that their most abject compliances could obtain
others under that of usurpers springing out of their own con- from him was a toleration of the exercise of their laws. Philip,
fusions. Shame and oppression erelong awaken their love of who was now on the throne of Macedon, soon provoked by
liberty. A few cities reunited. Their example was followed by his tyrannies, fresh combinations among the Greeks. The
others, as opportunities were found of cutting off their ty- Achaeans, though weakenened by internal dissensions and by
rants. The league soon embraced almost the whole the revolt of Messene, one of its members, being joined by
Peloponnesus. Macedon saw its progress; but was hindered the AEtolians and Athenians, erected the standard of opposi-
by internal dissensions from stopping it. All Greece caught tion. Finding themselves, though thus supported, unequal to
the enthusiasm and seemed ready to unite in one confederacy, the undertaking, they once more had recourse to the danger-
when the jealousy and envy in Sparta and Athens, of the ris- ous expedient of introducing the succor of foreign arms. The
ing glory of the Achaeans, threw a fatal damp on the enter- Romans, to whom the invitation was made, eagerly embraced
prise. The dread of the Macedonian power induced the league it. Philip was conquered; Macedon subdued. A new crisis
to court the alliance of the Kings of Egypt and Syria, who, as ensued to the league. Dissensions broke out among it mem-
successors of Alexander, were rivals of the king of Macedon. bers. These the Romans fostered. Callicrates and other popu-
This policy was defeated by Cleomenes, king of Sparta, who lar leaders became mercenary instruments for inveigling their
was led by his ambition to make an unprovoked attack on his countrymen. The more effectually to nourish discord and
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disorder the Romans had, to the astonishment of those who FEDERALIST No. 19
confided in their sincerity, already proclaimed universal lib-
erty* throughout Greece. With the same insidious views, they The Same Subject Continued
now seduced the members from the league, by representing
to their pride the violation it committed on their sovereignty. (The Insufficiency of the Present Confederation to
By these arts this union, the last hope of Greece, the last hope Preserve the Union)
of ancient liberty, was torn into pieces; and such imbecility
and distraction introduced, that the arms of Rome found little For the Independent Journal.
difficulty in completing the ruin which their arts had com-
menced. The Achaeans were cut to pieces, and Achaia loaded HAMILTON AND MADISON
with chains, under which it is groaning at this hour.
I have thought it not superfluous to give the outlines of To the People of the State of New York:
this important portion of history; both because it teaches more
than one lesson, and because, as a supplement to the outlines The examples of ancient confederacies, cited in my last paper,
of the Achaean constitution, it emphatically illustrates the have not exhausted the source of experimental instruction on
tendency of federal bodies rather to anarchy among the mem- this subject. There are existing institutions, founded on a simi-
bers, than to tyranny in the head. lar principle, which merit particular consideration. The first
which presents itself is the Germanic body.
Publius. In the early ages of Christianity, Germany was occupied by
seven distinct nations, who had no common chief. The Franks,
one of the number, having conquered the Gauls, established
the kingdom which has taken its name from them. In the
ninth century Charlemagne, its warlike monarch, carried his
victorious arms in every direction; and Germany became a
part of his vast dominions. On the dismemberment, which
*This was but another name more specious for the indepen- took place under his sons, this part was erected into a separate
dence of the members on the federal head. and independent empire. Charlemagne and his immediate
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descendants possessed the reality, as well as the ensigns and empire; of making war and peace; contracting alliances; as-
dignity of imperial power. But the principal vassals, whose sessing quotas of troops and money; constructing fortresses;
fiefs had become hereditary, and who composed the national regulating coin; admitting new members; and subjecting dis-
diets which Charlemagne had not abolished, gradually threw obedient members to the ban of the empire, by which the
off the yoke and advanced to sovereign jurisdiction and inde- party is degraded from his sovereign rights and his posses-
pendence. The force of imperial sovereignty was insufficient sions forfeited. The members of the confederacy are expressly
to restrain such powerful dependants; or to preserve the unity restricted from entering into compacts prejudicial to the em-
and tranquillity of the empire. The most furious private wars, pire; from imposing tolls and duties on their mutual inter-
accompanied with every species of calamity, were carried on course, without the consent of the emperor and diet; from
between the different princes and states. The imperial author- altering the value of money; from doing injustice to one an-
ity, unable to maintain the public order, declined by degrees other; or from affording assistance or retreat to disturbers of
till it was almost extinct in the anarchy, which agitated the the public peace. And the ban is denounced against such as
long interval between the death of the last emperor of the shall violate any of these restrictions. The members of the
Suabian, and the accession of the first emperor of the Aus- diet, as such, are subject in all cases to be judged by the em-
trian lines. In the eleventh century the emperors enjoyed full peror and diet, and in their private capacities by the aulic coun-
sovereignty: In the fifteenth they had little more than the sym- cil and imperial chamber.
bols and decorations of power. The prerogatives of the emperor are numerous. The most im-
Out of this feudal system, which has itself many of the portant of them are: his exclusive right to make propositions to
important features of a confederacy, has grown the federal the diet; to negative its resolutions; to name ambassadors; to
system which constitutes the Germanic empire. Its powers confer dignities and titles; to fill vacant electorates; to found uni-
are vested in a diet representing the component members of versities; to grant privileges not injurious to the states of the em-
the confederacy; in the emperor, who is the executive magis- pire; to receive and apply the public revenues; and generally to
trate, with a negative on the decrees of the diet; and in the watch over the public safety. In certain cases, the electors form a
imperial chamber and the aulic council, two judiciary tribu- council to him. In quality of emperor, he possesses no territory
nals having supreme jurisdiction in controversies which con- within the empire, nor receives any revenue for his support. But
cern the empire, or which happen among its members. his revenue and dominions, in other qualities, constitute him
The diet possesses the general power of legislating for the one of the most powerful princes in Europe.
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From such a parade of constitutional powers, in the repre- members themselves have been so common, that the Ger-
sentatives and head of this confederacy, the natural supposi- man annals are crowded with the bloody pages which de-
tion would be, that it must form an exception to the general scribe them. Previous to the peace of Westphalia, Germany
character which belongs to its kindred systems. Nothing would was desolated by a war of thirty years, in which the emperor,
be further from the reality. The fundamental principle on with one half of the empire, was on one side, and Sweden,
which it rests, that the empire is a community of sovereigns, with the other half, on the opposite side. Peace was at length
that the diet is a representation of sovereigns and that the laws negotiated, and dictated by foreign powers; and the articles of
are addressed to sovereigns, renders the empire a nerveless body, it, to which foreign powers are parties, made a fundamental
incapable of regulating its own members, insecure against ex- part of the Germanic constitution.
ternal dangers, and agitated with unceasing fermentations in If the nation happens, on any emergency, to be more united
its own bowels. by the necessity of self-defense, its situation is still deplorable.
The history of Germany is a history of wars between the Military preparations must be preceded by so many tedious
emperor and the princes and states; of wars among the princes discussions, arising from the jealousies, pride, separate views,
and states themselves; of the licentiousness of the strong, and and clashing pretensions of sovereign bodies, that before the
the oppression of the weak; of foreign intrusions, and foreign diet can settle the arrangements, the enemy are in the field;
intrigues; of requisitions of men and money disregarded, or and before the federal troops are ready to take it, are retiring
partially complied with; of attempts to enforce them, alto- into winter quarters.
gether abortive, or attended with slaughter and desolation, The small body of national troops, which has been judged
involving the innocent with the guilty; of general inbecility, necessary in time of peace, is defectively kept up, badly paid,
confusion, and misery. infected with local prejudices, and supported by irregular and
In the sixteenth century, the emperor, with one part of the disproportionate contributions to the treasury.
empire on his side, was seen engaged against the other princes The impossibility of maintaining order and dispensing jus-
and states. In one of the conflicts, the emperor himself was tice among these sovereign subjects, produced the experiment
put to flight, and very near being made prisoner by the elec- of dividing the empire into nine or ten circles or districts; of
tor of Saxony. The late king of Prussia was more than once giving them an interior organization, and of charging them with
pitted against his imperial sovereign; and commonly proved the military execution of the laws against delinquent and con-
an overmatch for him. Controversies and wars among the tumacious members. This experiment has only served to dem-
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onstrate more fully the radical vice of the constitution. Each obvious: The weakness of most of the members, who are
circle is the miniature picture of the deformities of this political unwilling to expose themselves to the mercy of foreign pow-
monster. They either fail to execute their commissions, or they ers; the weakness of most of the principal members, com-
do it with all the devastation and carnage of civil war. Some- pared with the formidable powers all around them; the vast
times whole circles are defaulters; and then they increase the weight and influence which the emperor derives from his sepa-
mischief which they were instituted to remedy. rate and heriditary dominions; and the interest he feels in pre-
We may form some judgment of this scheme of military serving a system with which his family pride is connected,
coercion from a sample given by Thuanus. In Donawerth, a and which constitutes him the first prince in Europe;—these
free and imperial city of the circle of Suabia, the Abb 300 de causes support a feeble and precarious Union; whilst the re-
St. Croix enjoyed certain immunities which had been reserved pellant quality, incident to the nature of sovereignty, and which
to him. In the exercise of these, on some public occasions, time continually strengthens, prevents any reform whatever,
outrages were committed on him by the people of the city. founded on a proper consolidation. Nor is it to be imagined,
The consequence was that the city was put under the ban of if this obstacle could be surmounted, that the neighboring
the empire, and the Duke of Bavaria, though director of an- powers would suffer a revolution to take place which would
other circle, obtained an appointment to enforce it. He soon give to the empire the force and preeminence to which it is
appeared before the city with a corps of ten thousand troops, entitled. Foreign nations have long considered themselves as
and finding it a fit occasion, as he had secretly intended from interested in the changes made by events in this constitution;
the beginning, to revive an antiquated claim, on the pretext and have, on various occasions, betrayed their policy of per-
that his ancestors had suffered the place to be dismembered petuating its anarchy and weakness.
from his territory,* he took possession of it in his own name, If more direct examples were wanting, Poland, as a govern-
disarmed, and punished the inhabitants, and reannexed the ment over local sovereigns, might not improperly be taken
city to his domains. notice of. Nor could any proof more striking be given of the
It may be asked, perhaps, what has so long kept this dis- calamities flowing from such institutions. Equally unfit for
jointed machine from falling entirely to pieces? The answer is self-government and self-defense, it has long been at the mercy
*Pfeffel, Nouvel Abreg. Chronol. de l’Hist., etc., d’Allemagne, of its powerful neighbors; who have lately had the mercy to
says the pretext was to indemnify himself for the expense of disburden it of one third of its people and territories.
the expedition. The connection among the Swiss cantons scarcely amounts
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to a confederacy; though it is sometimes cited as an instance union may have had in ordinary cases, it appears that the
of the stability of such institutions. moment a cause of difference sprang up, capable of trying its
They have no common treasury; no common troops even strength, it failed. The controversies on the subject of reli-
in war; no common coin; no common judicatory; nor any gion, which in three instances have kindled violent and bloody
other common mark of sovereignty. contests, may be said, in fact, to have severed the league. The
They are kept together by the peculiarity of their topographi- Protestant and Catholic cantons have since had their separate
cal position; by their individual weakness and insignificancy; diets, where all the most important concerns are adjusted,
by the fear of powerful neighbors, to one of which they were and which have left the general diet little other business than
formerly subject; by the few sources of contention among a to take care of the common bailages.
people of such simple and homogeneous manners; by their That separation had another consequence, which merits at-
joint interest in their dependent possessions; by the mutual tention. It produced opposite alliances with foreign powers:
aid they stand in need of, for suppressing insurrections and of Berne, at the head of the Protestant association, with the
rebellions, an aid expressly stipulated and often required and United Provinces; and of Luzerne, at the head of the Catholic
afforded; and by the necessity of some regular and permanent association, with France.
provision for accomodating disputes among the cantons. The
provision is, that the parties at variance shall each choose four Publius.
judges out of the neutral cantons, who, in case of disagree-
ment, choose an umpire. This tribunal, under an oath of
impartiality, pronounces definitive sentence, which all the
cantons are bound to enforce. The competency of this regula-
tion may be estimated by a clause in their treaty of 1683,
with Victor Amadeus of Savoy; in which he obliges himself
to interpose as mediator in disputes between the cantons, and
to employ force, if necessary, against the contumacious party.
So far as the peculiarity of their case will admit of compari-
son with that of the United States, it serves to confirm the
principle intended to be established. Whatever efficacy the
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FEDERALIST No. 20 tinue in appointment during pleasure.
The States-General have authority to enter into treaties and
The Same Subject Continued alliances; to make war and peace; to raise armies and equip
fleets; to ascertain quotas and demand contributions. In all
(The Insufficiency fo the Present Confederation to these cases, however, unanimity and the sanction of their con-
Preserve the Union) stituents are requisite. They have authority to appoint and
receive ambassadors; to execute treaties and alliances already
From the New York Packet. formed; to provide for the collection of duties on imports
and exports; to regulate the mint, with a saving to the provin-
Tuesday, December 11, 1787. cial rights; to govern as sovereigns the dependent territories.
The provinces are restrained, unless with the general consent,
HAMILTON AND MADISON from entering into foreign treaties; from establishing imposts
injurious to others, or charging their neighbors with higher
To the People of the State of New York: duties than their own subjects. A council of state, a chamber
of accounts, with five colleges of admiralty, aid and fortify
The United Netherlands are a confederacy of republics, or the federal administration.
rather of aristocracies of a very remarkable texture, yet con- The executive magistrate of the union is the stadtholder,
firming all the lessons derived from those which we have al- who is now an hereditary prince. His principal weight and
ready reviewed. influence in the republic are derived from this independent
The union is composed of seven coequal and sovereign states, title; from his great patrimonial estates; from his family con-
and each state or province is a composition of equal and inde- nections with some of the chief potentates of Europe; and,
pendent cities. In all important cases, not only the provinces more than all, perhaps, from his being stadtholder in the sev-
but the cities must be unanimous. eral provinces, as well as for the union; in which provincial
The sovereignty of the Union is represented by the States- quality he has the appointment of town magistrates under
General, consisting usually of about fifty deputies appointed certain regulations, executes provincial decrees, presides when
by the provinces. They hold their seats, some for life, some he pleases in the provincial tribunals, and has throughout the
for six, three, and one years; from two provinces they con- power of pardon.
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As stadtholder of the union, he has, however, considerable from being ruined by the vices of their constitution.
prerogatives. The union of Utrecht, says another respectable writer, re-
In his political capacity he has authority to settle disputes poses an authority in the States-General, seemingly sufficient
between the provinces, when other methods fail; to assist at to secure harmony, but the jealousy in each province renders
the deliberations of the States-General, and at their particular the practice very different from the theory.
conferences; to give audiences to foreign ambassadors, and to The same instrument, says another, obliges each province
keep agents for his particular affairs at foreign courts. to levy certain contributions; but this article never could, and
In his military capacity he commands the federal troops, probably never will, be executed; because the inland prov-
provides for garrisons, and in general regulates military af- inces, who have little commerce, cannot pay an equal quota.
fairs; disposes of all appointments, from colonels to ensigns, In matters of contribution, it is the practice to waive the
and of the governments and posts of fortified towns. articles of the constitution. The danger of delay obliges the
In his marine capacity he is admiral-general, and superin- consenting provinces to furnish their quotas, without wait-
tends and directs every thing relative to naval forces and other ing for the others; and then to obtain reimbursement from
naval affairs; presides in the admiralties in person or by proxy; the others, by deputations, which are frequent, or otherwise,
appoints lieutenant-admirals and other officers; and establishes as they can. The great wealth and influence of the province of
councils of war, whose sentences are not executed till he ap- Holland enable her to effect both these purposes.
proves them. It has more than once happened, that the deficiencies had
His revenue, exclusive of his private income, amounts to to be ultimately collected at the point of the bayonet; a thing
three hundred thousand florins. The standing army which he practicable, though dreadful, in a confedracy where one of
commands consists of about forty thousand men. the members exceeds in force all the rest, and where several of
Such is the nature of the celebrated Belgic confederacy, as them are too small to meditate resistance; but utterly imprac-
delineated on parchment. What are the characters which prac- ticable in one composed of members, several of which are
tice has stamped upon it? Imbecility in the government; dis- equal to each other in strength and resources, and equal singly
cord among the provinces; foreign influence and indignities; a to a vigorous and persevering defense.
precarious existence in peace, and peculiar calamities from war. Foreign ministers, says Sir William Temple, who was him-
It was long ago remarked by Grotius, that nothing but the self a foreign minister, elude matters taken ad referendum, by
hatred of his countrymen to the house of Austria kept them tampering with the provinces and cities. In 1726, the treaty
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of Hanover was delayed by these means a whole year. Instances the stadtholder.’’ It is remarked by Sir William Temple, “that
of a like nature are numerous and notorious. in the intermissions of the stadtholdership, Holland, by her
In critical emergencies, the States-General are often com- riches and her authority, which drew the others into a sort of
pelled to overleap their constitutional bounds. In 1688, they dependence, supplied the place.’’
concluded a treaty of themselves at the risk of their heads. These are not the only circumstances which have controlled
The treaty of Westphalia, in 1648, by which their indepen- the tendency to anarchy and dissolution. The surrounding
dence was formerly and finally recognized, was concluded powers impose an absolute necessity of union to a certain
without the consent of Zealand. Even as recently as the last degree, at the same time that they nourish by their intrigues
treaty of peace with Great Britain, the constitutional prin- the constitutional vices which keep the republic in some de-
ciple of unanimity was departed from. A weak constitution gree always at their mercy.
must necessarily terminate in dissolution, for want of proper The true patriots have long bewailed the fatal tendency of
powers, or the usurpation of powers requisite for the public these vices, and have made no less than four regular experi-
safety. Whether the usurpation, when once begun, will stop ments by estraordinary assemblies, convened for the special
at the salutary point, or go forward to the dangerous extreme, purpose, to apply a remedy. As many times has their laudable
must depend on the contingencies of the moment. Tyranny zeal found it impossible to unite the public councils in reform-
has perhaps oftener grown out of the assumptions of power, ing the known, the acknowledged, the fatal evils of the exist-
called for, on pressing exigencies, by a defective constitution, ing constitution. Let us pause, my fellow-citizens, for one
than out of the full exercise of the largest constitutional au- moment, over this melancholy and monitory lesson of his-
thorities. tory; and with the tear that drops for the calamities brought
Notwithstanding the calamities produced by the on mankind by their adverse opinions and selfish passions, let
stadtholdership, it has been supposed that without his influ- our gratitude mingle an ejaculation to Heaven, for the propi-
ence in the individual provinces, the causes of anarchy mani- tious concord which has distinguished the consultations for
fest in the confederacy would long ago have dissolved it. “Un- our political happiness.
der such a government,” says the Abbe Mably, “the Union A design was also conceived of establishing a general tax to
could never have subsisted, if the provinces had not a spring be administered by the federal authority. This also had its
within themselves, capable of quickening their tardiness, and adversaries and failed.
compelling them to the same way of thinking. This spring is This unhappy people seem to be now suffering from popular
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convulsions, from dissensions among the states, and from the FEDERALIST No. 21
actual invasion of foreign arms, the crisis of their distiny. All
nations have their eyes fixed on the awful spectacle. The first Other Defects of the Present Confederation
wish prompted by humanity is, that this severe trial may is-
sue in such a revolution of their government as will establish For the Independent Journal.
their union, and render it the parent of tranquillity, freedom
and happiness: The next, that the asylum under which, we HAMILTON
trust, the enjoyment of these blessings will speedily be se-
cured in this country, may receive and console them for the To the People of the State of New York:
catastrophe of their own.
I make no apology for having dwelt so long on the con- Having in the three last numbers taken a summary review of
templation of these federal precedents. Experience is the oracle the principal circumstances and events which have depicted
of truth; and where its responses are unequivocal, they ought the genius and fate of other confederate governments, I shall
to be conclusive and sacred. The important truth, which it now proceed in the enumeration of the most important of
unequivocally pronounces in the present case, is that a sover- those defects which have hitherto disappointed our hopes from
eignty over sovereigns, a government over governments, a leg- the system established among ourselves. To form a safe and
islation for communities, as contradistinguished from indi- satisfactory judgment of the proper remedy, it is absolutely
viduals, as it is a solecism in theory, so in practice it is subver- necessary that we should be well acquainted with the extent
sive of the order and ends of civil polity, by substituting vio- and malignity of the disease.
lence in place of law, or the destructive coercion of the sword The next most palpable defect of the subsisting Confedera-
in place of the mild and salutary coercion of the magistracy. tion, is the total want of a sanction to its laws. The United
States, as now composed, have no powers to exact obedience,
Publius. or punish disobedience to their resolutions, either by pecuni-
ary mulcts, by a suspension or divestiture of privileges, or by
any other constitutional mode. There is no express delegation
of authority to them to use force against delinquent mem-
bers; and if such a right should be ascribed to the federal head,
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as resulting from the nature of the social compact between been mentioned, than to imply a tacit power of coercion from
the States, it must be by inference and construction, in the the like considerations. The want of a guaranty, though it
face of that part of the second article, by which it is declared, might in its consequences endanger the Union, does not so
“that each State shall retain every power, jurisdiction, and right, immediately attack its existence as the want of a constitu-
not expressly delegated to the United States in Congress as- tional sanction to its laws.
sembled.’’ There is, doubtless, a striking absurdity in suppos- Without a guaranty the assistance to be derived from the
ing that a right of this kind does not exist, but we are reduced Union in repelling those domestic dangers which may some-
to the dilemma either of embracing that supposition, prepos- times threaten the existence of the State constitutions, must
terous as it may seem, or of contravening or explaining away be renounced. Usurpation may rear its crest in each State, and
a provision, which has been of late a repeated theme of the trample upon the liberties of the people, while the national
eulogies of those who oppose the new Constitution; and the government could legally do nothing more than behold its
want of which, in that plan, has been the subject of much encroachments with indignation and regret. A successful fac-
plausible animadversion, and severe criticism. If we are un- tion may erect a tyranny on the ruins of order and law, while
willing to impair the force of this applauded provision, we no succor could constitutionally be afforded by the Union to
shall be obliged to conclude, that the United States afford the the friends and supporters of the government. The tempestu-
extraordinary spectacle of a government destitute even of the ous situation from which Massachusetts has scarcely emerged,
shadow of constitutional power to enforce the execution of evinces that dangers of this kind are not merely speculative.
its own laws. It will appear, from the specimens which have Who can determine what might have been the issue of her
been cited, that the American Confederacy, in this particular, late convulsions, if the malcontents had been headed by a
stands discriminated from every other institution of a similar Caesar or by a Cromwell? Who can predict what effect a des-
kind, and exhibits a new and unexampled phenomenon in potism, established in Massachusetts, would have upon the
the political world. liberties of New Hampshire or Rhode Island, of Connecticut
The want of a mutual guaranty of the State governments is or New York?
another capital imperfection in the federal plan. There is noth- The inordinate pride of State importance has suggested to
ing of this kind declared in the articles that compose it; and some minds an objection to the principle of a guaranty in the
to imply a tacit guaranty from considerations of utility, would federal government, as involving an officious interference in
be a still more flagrant departure from the clause which has the domestic concerns of the members. A scruple of this kind
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would deprive us of one of the principal advantages to be national wealth, must be satisfied that there is no common
expected from union, and can only flow from a misappre- standard or barometer by which the degrees of it can be ascer-
hension of the nature of the provision itself. It could be no tained. Neither the value of lands, nor the numbers of the
impediment to reforms of the State constitution by a major- people, which have been successively proposed as the rule of
ity of the people in a legal and peaceable mode. This right State contributions, has any pretension to being a just repre-
would remain undiminished. The guaranty could only oper- sentative. If we compare the wealth of the United Nether-
ate against changes to be effected by violence. Towards the lands with that of Russia or Germany, or even of France, and
preventions of calamities of this kind, too many checks can- if we at the same time compare the total value of the lands
not be provided. The peace of society and the stability of and the aggregate population of that contracted district with
government depend absolutely on the efficacy of the precau- the total value of the lands and the aggregate population of
tions adopted on this head. Where the whole power of the the immense regions of either of the three last-mentioned
government is in the hands of the people, there is the less countries, we shall at once discover that there is no compari-
pretense for the use of violent remedies in partial or occa- son between the proportion of either of these two objects
sional distempers of the State. The natural cure for an ill- and that of the relative wealth of those nations. If the like
administration, in a popular or representative constitution, is parallel were to be run between several of the American States,
a change of men. A guaranty by the national authority would it would furnish a like result. Let Virginia be contrasted with
be as much levelled against the usurpations of rulers as against North Carolina, Pennsylvania with Connecticut, or Mary-
the ferments and outrages of faction and sedition in the com- land with New Jersey, and we shall be convinced that the
munity. respective abilities of those States, in relation to revenue, bear
The principle of regulating the contributions of the States little or no analogy to their comparative stock in lands or to
to the common treasury by quotas is another fundamental their comparative population. The position may be equally
error in the Confederation. Its repugnancy to an adequate illustrated by a similar process between the counties of the
supply of the national exigencies has been already pointed out, same State. No man who is acquainted with the State of New
and has sufficiently appeared from the trial which has been York will doubt that the active wealth of King’s County bears
made of it. I speak of it now solely with a view to equality a much greater proportion to that of Montgomery than it
among the States. Those who have been accustomed to con- would appear to be if we should take either the total value of
template the circumstances which produce and constitute the lands or the total number of the people as a criterion!
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The wealth of nations depends upon an infinite variety of duties upon articles of consumption, may be compared to a
causes. Situation, soil, climate, the nature of the productions, fluid, which will, in time, find its level with the means of
the nature of the government, the genius of the citizens, the paying them. The amount to be contributed by each citizen
degree of information they possess, the state of commerce, of will in a degree be at his own option, and can be regulated by
arts, of industry, these circumstances and many more, too an attention to his resources. The rich may be extravagant,
complex, minute, or adventitious to admit of a particular the poor can be frugal; and private oppression may always be
specification, occasion differences hardly conceivable in the avoided by a judicious selection of objects proper for such
relative opulence and riches of different countries. The conse- impositions. If inequalities should arise in some States from
quence clearly is that there can be no common measure of duties on particular objects, these will, in all probability, be
national wealth, and, of course, no general or stationary rule counterbalanced by proportional inequalities in other States,
by which the ability of a state to pay taxes can be determined. from the duties on other objects. In the course of time and
The attempt, therefore, to regulate the contributions of the things, an equilibrium, as far as it is attainable in so compli-
members of a confederacy by any such rule, cannot fail to be cated a subject, will be established everywhere. Or, if inequali-
productive of glaring inequality and extreme oppression. ties should still exist, they would neither be so great in their
This inequality would of itself be sufficient in America to degree, so uniform in their operation, nor so odious in their
work the eventual destruction of the Union, if any mode of appearance, as those which would necessarily spring from
enforcing a compliance with its requisitions could be devised. quotas, upon any scale that can possibly be devised.
The suffering States would not long consent to remain asso- It is a signal advantage of taxes on articles of consumption,
ciated upon a principle which distributes the public burdens that they contain in their own nature a security against excess.
with so unequal a hand, and which was calculated to impov- They prescribe their own limit; which cannot be exceeded
erish and oppress the citizens of some States, while those of without defeating the end proposed, that is, an extension of
others would scarcely be conscious of the small proportion of the revenue. When applied to this object, the saying is as just
the weight they were required to sustain. This, however, is an as it is witty, that, “in political arithmetic, two and two do
evil inseparable from the principle of quotas and requisitions. not always make four.” If duties are too high, they lessen the
There is no method of steering clear of this inconvenience, consumption; the collection is eluded; and the product to the
but by authorizing the national government to raise its own treasury is not so great as when they are confined within proper
revenues in its own way. Imposts, excises, and, in general, all and moderate bounds. This forms a complete barrier against
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any material oppression of the citizens by taxes of this class, FEDERALIST No. 22
and is itself a natural limitation of the power of imposing
them. The Same Subject Continued
Impositions of this kind usually fall under the denomina-
tion of indirect taxes, and must for a long time constitute the (Other Defects of the Present Confederation)
chief part of the revenue raised in this country. Those of the
direct kind, which principally relate to land and buildings, From the New York Packet.
may admit of a rule of apportionment. Either the value of
land, or the number of the people, may serve as a standard. Friday, December 14, 1787.
The state of agriculture and the populousness of a country
have been considered as nearly connected with each other. And, HAMILTON
as a rule, for the purpose intended, numbers, in the view of
simplicity and certainty, are entitled to a preference. In every To the People of the State of New York:
country it is a herculean task to obtain a valuation of the
land; in a country imperfectly settled and progressive in im- In addition to the defects already enumerated in the existing
provement, the difficulties are increased almost to impracti- federal system, there are others of not less importance, which
cability. The expense of an accurate valuation is, in all situa- concur in rendering it altogether unfit for the administration
tions, a formidable objection. In a branch of taxation where of the affairs of the Union.
no limits to the discretion of the government are to be found The want of a power to regulate commerce is by all parties
in the nature of things, the establishment of a fixed rule, not allowed to be of the number. The utility of such a power has
incompatible with the end, may be attended with fewer in- been anticipated under the first head of our inquiries; and for
conveniences than to leave that discretion altogether at large. this reason, as well as from the universal conviction enter-
tained upon the subject, little need be added in this place. It is
Publius. indeed evident, on the most superficial view, that there is no
object, either as it respects the interests of trade or finance,
that more strongly demands a federal superintendence. The
want of it has already operated as a bar to the formation of
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beneficial treaties with foreign powers, and has given occa- the same obstacles to a uniformity of measures continue to
sions of dissatisfaction between the States. No nation ac- exist.
quainted with the nature of our political association would The interfering and unneighborly regulations of some States,
be unwise enough to enter into stipulations with the United contrary to the true spirit of the Union, have, in different
States, by which they conceded privileges of any importance instances, given just cause of umbrage and complaint to oth-
to them, while they were apprised that the engagements on ers, and it is to be feared that examples of this nature, if not
the part of the Union might at any moment be violated by its restrained by a national control, would be multiplied and ex-
members, and while they found from experience that they tended till they became not less serious sources of animosity
might enjoy every advantage they desired in our markets, with- and discord than injurious impediments to the intcrcourse
out granting us any return but such as their momentary con- between the different parts of the Confederacy. “The com-
venience might suggest. It is not, therefore, to be wondered merce of the German empire* is in continual trammels from
at that Mr. Jenkinson, in ushering into the House of Com- the multiplicity of the duties which the several princes and
mons a bill for regulating the temporary intercourse between states exact upon the merchandises passing through their ter-
the two countries, should preface its introduction by a decla- ritories, by means of which the fine streams and navigable
ration that similar provisions in former bills had been found rivers with which Germany is so happily watered are rendered
to answer every purpose to the commerce of Great Britain, almost useless.’’ Though the genius of the people of this coun-
and that it would be prudent to persist in the plan until it try might never permit this description to be strictly appli-
should appear whether the American government was likely cable to us, yet we may reasonably expect, from the gradual
or not to acquire greater consistency.* conflicts of State regulations, that the citizens of each would
Several States have endeavored, by separate prohibitions, re- at length come to be considered and treated by the others in
strictions, and exclusions, to influence the conduct of that no better light than that of foreigners and aliens.
kingdom in this particular, but the want of concert, arising The power of raising armies, by the most obvious construc-
from the want of a general authority and from clashing and tion of the articles of the Confederation, is merely a power of
dissimilar views in the State, has hitherto frustrated every ex- making requisitions upon the States for quotas of men. This
periment of the kind, and will continue to do so as long as practice in the course of the late war, was found replete with
*This, as nearly as I can recollect, was the sense of his speech obstructions to a vigorous and to an economical system of
on introducing the last bill. *Encyclopedia, article “Empire.”
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defense. It gave birth to a competition between the States plies of men. We shall not, however, see much reason to reget
which created a kind of auction for men. In order to furnish the want of this hope, when we consider how little prospect
the quotas required of them, they outbid each other till boun- there is, that the most delinquent States will ever be able to
ties grew to an enormous and insupportable size. The hope of make compensation for their pecuniary failures. The system
a still further increase afforded an inducement to those who of quotas and requisitions, whether it be applied to men or
were disposed to serve to procrastinate their enlistment, and money, is, in every view, a system of imbecility in the Union,
disinclined them from engaging for any considerable periods. and of inequality and injustice among the members.
Hence, slow and scanty levies of men, in the most critical emer- The right of equal suffrage among the States is another ex-
gencies of our affairs; short enlistments at an unparalleled ex- ceptionable part of the Confederation. Every idea of propor-
pense; continual fluctuations in the troops, ruinous to their tion and every rule of fair representation conspire to condemn
discipline and subjecting the public safety frequently to the a principle, which gives to Rhode Island an equal weight in
perilous crisis of a disbanded army. Hence, also, those oppres- the scale of power with Massachusetts, or Connecticut, or
sive expedients for raising men which were upon several occa- New York; and to Deleware an equal voice in the national
sions practiced, and which nothing but the enthusiasm of lib- deliberations with Pennsylvania, or Virginia, or North Caro-
erty would have induced the people to endure. lina. Its operation contradicts the fundamental maxim of re-
This method of raising troops is not more unfriendly to publican government, which requires that the sense of the
economy and vigor than it is to an equal distribution of the majority should prevail. Sophistry may reply, that sovereigns
burden. The States near the seat of war, influenced by mo- are equal, and that a majority of the votes of the States will be
tives of self-preservation, made efforts to furnish their quo- a majority of confederated America. But this kind of logical
tas, which even exceeded their abilities; while those at a dis- legerdemain will never counteract the plain suggestions of
tance from danger were, for the most part, as remiss as the justice and common-sense. It may happen that this majority
others were diligent, in their exertions. The immediate pres- of States is a small minority of the people of America*; and
sure of this inequality was not in this case, as in that of the two thirds of the people of America could not long be per-
contributions of money, alleviated by the hope of a final liq- *New Hampshire, Rhode Island, New Jersey, Delaware, Geor-
uidation. The States which did not pay their proportions of gia, South Carolina, and Maryland are a majority of the whole
money might at least be charged with their deficiencies; but number of the States, but they do not contain one third of
no account could be formed of the deficiencies in the sup- the people.
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suaded, upon the credit of artificial distinctions and syllogis- States, would extend its operation to interests of the first
tic subtleties, to submit their interests to the management magnitude. In addition to this, it is to be observed that there
and disposal of one third. The larger States would after a while is a probability of an increase in the number of States, and no
revolt from the idea of receiving the law from the smaller. To provision for a proportional augmentation of the ratio of votes.
acquiesce in such a privation of their due importance in the But this is not all: what at first sight may seem a remedy, is,
political scale, would be not merely to be insensible to the in reality, a poison. To give a minority a negative upon the
love of power, but even to sacrifice the desire of equality. It is majority (which is always the case where more than a major-
neither rational to expect the first, nor just to require the last. ity is requisite to a decision), is, in its tendency, to subject the
The smaller States, considering how peculiarly their safety sense of the greater number to that of the lesser. Congress,
and welfare depend on union, ought readily to renounce a from the nonattendance of a few States, have been frequently
pretension which, if not relinquished, would prove fatal to in the situation of a Polish diet, where a single vote has been
its duration. sufficient to put a stop to all their movements. A sixtieth part
It may be objected to this, that not seven but nine States, or of the Union, which is about the proportion of Delaware and
two thirds of the whole number, must consent to the most Rhode Island, has several times been able to oppose an entire
important resolutions; and it may be thence inferred that nine bar to its operations. This is one of those refinements which,
States would always comprehend a majority of the Union. in practice, has an effect the reverse of what is expected from
But this does not obviate the impropriety of an equal vote it in theory. The necessity of unanimity in public bodies, or
between States of the most unequal dimensions and popu- of something approaching towards it, has been founded upon
lousness; nor is the inference accurate in point of fact; for we a supposition that it would contribute to security. But its real
can enumerate nine States which contain less than a majority operation is to embarrass the administration, to destroy the
of the people*; and it is constitutionally possible that these energy of the government, and to substitute the pleasure, ca-
nine may give the vote. Besides, there are matters of consider- price, or artifices of an insignificant, turbulent, or corrupt
able moment determinable by a bare majority; and there are junto, to the regular deliberations and decisions of a respect-
others, concerning which doubts have been entertained, which, able majority. In those emergencies of a nation, in which the
if interpreted in favor of the sufficiency of a vote of seven goodness or badness, the weakness or strength of its govern-
*Add New York and Connecticut to the foregoing seven, and ment, is of the greatest importance, there is commonly a ne-
they will be less than a majority. cessity for action. The public business must, in some way or
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other, go forward. If a pertinacious minority can control the ing the doing what may be necessary, and of keeping affairs in
opinion of a majority, respecting the best mode of conduct- the same unfavorable posture in which they may happen to
ing it, the majority, in order that something may be done, stand at particular periods.
must conform to the views of the minority; and thus the Suppose, for instance, we were engaged in a war, in con-
sense of the smaller number will overrule that of the greater, junction with one foreign nation, against another. Suppose
and give a tone to the national proceedings. Hence, tedious the necessity of our situation demanded peace, and the inter-
delays; continual negotiation and intrigue; contemptible com- est or ambition of our ally led him to seek the prosecution of
promises of the public good. And yet, in such a system, it is the war, with views that might justify us in making separate
even happy when such compromises can take place: for upon terms. In such a state of things, this ally of ours would evi-
some occasions things will not admit of accommodation; and dently find it much easier, by his bribes and intrigues, to tie
then the measures of government must be injuriously sus- up the hands of government from making peace, where two
pended, or fatally defeated. It is often, by the impracticability thirds of all the votes were requisite to that object, than where
of obtaining the concurrence of the necessary number of votes, a simple majority would suffice. In the first case, he would
kept in a state of inaction. Its situation must always savor of have to corrupt a smaller number; in the last, a greater num-
weakness, sometimes border upon anarchy. ber. Upon the same principle, it would be much easier for a
It is not difficult to discover, that a principle of this kind foreign power with which we were at war to perplex our coun-
gives greater scope to foreign corruption, as well as to domes- cils and embarrass our exertions. And, in a commercial view,
tic faction, than that which permits the sense of the majority we may be subjected to similar inconveniences. A nation, with
to decide; though the contrary of this has been presumed. which we might have a treaty of commerce, could with much
The mistake has proceeded from not attending with due care greater facility prevent our forming a connection with her
to the mischiefs that may be occasioned by obstructing the competitor in trade, though such a connection should be ever
progress of government at certain critical seasons. When the so beneficial to ourselves.
concurrence of a large number is required by the Constitu- Evils of this description ought not to be regarded as imagi-
tion to the doing of any national act, we are apt to rest satis- nary. One of the weak sides of republics, among their numer-
fied that all is safe, because nothing improper will be likely to ous advantages, is that they afford too easy an inlet to foreign
be done, but we forget how much good may be prevented, corruption. An hereditary monarch, though often disposed
and how much ill may be produced, by the power of hinder- to sacrifice his subjects to his ambition, has so great a personal
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interest in the government and in the external glory of the violence, or opposition, became one of the most absolute
nation, that it is not easy for a foreign power to give him an and uncontrolled.
equivalent for what he would sacrifice by treachery to the A circumstance which crowns the defects of the Confedera-
state. The world has accordingly been witness to few examples tion remains yet to be mentioned, the want of a judiciary
of this species of royal prostitution, though there have been power. Laws are a dead letter without courts to expound and
abundant specimens of every other kind. define their true meaning and operation. The treaties of the
In republics, persons elevated from the mass of the com- United States, to have any force at all, must be considered as
munity, by the suffrages of their fellow-citizens, to stations part of the law of the land. Their true import, as far as re-
of great pre-eminence and power, may find compensations spects individuals, must, like all other laws, be ascertained by
for betraying their trust, which, to any but minds animated judicial determinations. To produce uniformity in these de-
and guided by superior virtue, may appear to exceed the pro- terminations, they ought to be submitted, in the last resort,
portion of interest they have in the common stock, and to to one supreme tribunal. And this tribunal ought to be insti-
overbalance the obligations of duty. Hence it is that history tuted under the same authority which forms the treaties them-
furnishes us with so many mortifying examples of the selves. These ingredients are both indispensable. If there is in
prevalency of foreign corruption in republican governments. each State a court of final jurisdiction, there may be as many
How much this contributed to the ruin of the ancient com- different final determinations on the same point as there are
monwealths has been already delineated. It is well known that courts. There are endless diversities in the opinions of men.
the deputies of the United Provinces have, in various instances, We often see not only different courts but the judges of the
been purchased by the emissaries of the neighboring king- came court differing from each other. To avoid the confusion
doms. The Earl of Chesterfield (if my memory serves me which would unavoidably result from the contradictory deci-
right), in a letter to his court, intimates that his success in an sions of a number of independent judicatories, all nations
important negotiation must depend on his obtaining a major’s have found it necessary to establish one court paramount to
commission for one of those deputies. And in Sweden the the rest, possessing a general superintendence, and authorized
parties were alternately bought by France and England in so to settle and declare in the last resort a uniform rule of civil
barefaced and notorious a manner that it excited universal justice.
disgust in the nation, and was a principal cause that the most This is the more necessary where the frame of the govern-
limited monarch in Europe, in a single day, without tumult, ment is so compounded that the laws of the whole are in
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danger of being contravened by the laws of the parts. In this dent to all men of reflection, who can divest themselves of
case, if the particular tribunals are invested with a right of the prepossessions of preconceived opinions, that it is a sys-
ultimate jurisdiction, besides the contradictions to be expected tem so radically vicious and unsound, as to admit not of
from difference of opinion, there will be much to fear from amendment but by an entire change in its leading features
the bias of local views and prejudices, and from the interfer- and characters.
ence of local regulations. As often as such an interference was The organization of Congress is itself utterly improper for
to happen, there would be reason to apprehend that the pro- the exercise of those powers which are necessary to be depos-
visions of the particular laws might be preferred to those of ited in the Union. A single assembly may be a proper recep-
the general laws; for nothing is more natural to men in office tacle of those slender, or rather fettered, authorities, which
than to look with peculiar deference towards that authority have been heretofore delegated to the federal head; but it would
to which they owe their official existence. The treaties of the be inconsistent with all the principles of good government,
United States, under the present Constitution, are liable to to intrust it with those additional powers which, even the
the infractions of thirteen different legislatures, and as many moderate and more rational adversaries of the proposed Con-
different courts of final jurisdiction, acting under the author- stitution admit, ought to reside in the United States. If that
ity of those legislatures. The faith, the reputation, the peace plan should not be adopted, and if the necessity of the Union
of the whole Union, are thus continually at the mercy of the should be able to withstand the ambitious aims of those men
prejudices, the passions, and the interests of every member of who may indulge magnificent schemes of personal aggran-
which it is composed. Is it possible that foreign nations can dizement from its dissolution, the probability would be, that
either respect or confide in such a government? Is it possible we should run into the project of conferring supplementary
that the people of America will longer consent to trust their powers upon Congress, as they are now constituted; and ei-
honor, their happiness, their safety, on so precarious a foun- ther the machine, from the intrinsic feebleness of its struc-
dation? ture, will moulder into pieces, in spite of our ill-judged ef-
In this review of the Confederation, I have confined myself forts to prop it; or, by successive augmentations of its force
to the exhibition of its most material defects; passing over an energy, as necessity might prompt, we shall finally accu-
those imperfections in its details by which even a great part of mulate, in a single body, all the most important prerogatives
the power intended to be conferred upon it has been in a of sovereignty, and thus entail upon our posterity one of the
great measure rendered abortive. It must be by this time evi- most execrable forms of government that human infatuation
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ever contrived. Thus, we should create in reality that very FEDERALIST No. 23
tyranny which the adversaries of the new Constitution either
are, or affect to be, solicitous to avert. The Necessity of a Government as Energetic as the One
It has not a little contributed to the infirmities of the exist- Proposed to the Preservation of the Union
ing federal system, that it never had a ratification by the people.
Resting on no better foundation than the consent of the sev- From the New York Packet.
eral legislatures, it has been exposed to frequent and intricate
questions concerning the validity of its powers, and has, in Tuesday, December 18, 1787.
some instances, given birth to the enormous doctrine of a
right of legislative repeal. Owing its ratification to the law of HAMILTON
a State, it has been contended that the same authority might
repeal the law by which it was ratified. However gross a her- To the People of the State of New York:
esy it may be to maintain that a party to a compact has a right
to revoke that compact, the doctrine itself has had respectable The necessity of a Constitution, at least equally energetic with
advocates. The possibility of a question of this nature proves the one proposed, to the preservation of the Union, is the
the necessity of laying the foundations of our national gov- point at the examination of which we are now arrived.
ernment deeper than in the mere sanction of delegated au- This inquiry will naturally divide itself into three branches
thority. The fabric of American empire ought to rest on the the objects to be provided for by the federal government, the
solid basis of the consent of the people. The streams of na- quantity of power necessary to the accomplishment of those
tional power ought to flow immediately from that pure, origi- objects, the persons upon whom that power ought to oper-
nal fountain of all legitimate authority. ate. Its distribution and organization will more properly claim
our attention under the succeeding head.
Publius. The principal purposes to be answered by union are these
the common defense of the members; the preservation of the
public peace as well against internal convulsions as external
attacks; the regulation of commerce with other nations and
between the States; the superintendence of our intercourse,
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political and commercial, with foreign countries. tion of its trust. And unless it can be shown that the circum-
The authorities essential to the common defense are these: stances which may affect the public safety are reducible within
to raise armies; to build and equip fleets; to prescribe rules for certain determinate limits; unless the contrary of this posi-
the government of both; to direct their operations; to pro- tion can be fairly and rationally disputed, it must be admit-
vide for their support. These powers ought to exist without ted, as a necessary consequence, that there can be no limita-
limitation, because it is impossible to foresee or define the extent tion of that authority which is to provide for the defense and
and variety of national exigencies, or the correspondent extent protection of the community, in any matter essential to its
and variety of the means which may be necessary to satisfy them. efficacy that is, in any matter essential to the formation, direc-
The circumstances that endanger the safety of nations are in- tion, or support of the national forces.
finite, and for this reason no constitutional shackles can wisely Defective as the present Confederation has been proved to
be imposed on the power to which the care of it is commit- be, this principle appears to have been fully recognized by the
ted. This power ought to be coextensive with all the possible framers of it; though they have not made proper or adequate
combinations of such circumstances; and ought to be under provision for its exercise. Congress have an unlimited discre-
the direction of the same councils which are appointed to tion to make requisitions of men and money; to govern the
preside over the common defense. army and navy; to direct their operations. As their requisi-
This is one of those truths which, to a correct and unpreju- tions are made constitutionally binding upon the States, who
diced mind, carries its own evidence along with it; and may are in fact under the most solemn obligations to furnish the
be obscured, but cannot be made plainer by argument or rea- supplies required of them, the intention evidently was that
soning. It rests upon axioms as simple as they are universal; the United States should command whatever resources were
the means ought to be proportioned to the end; the persons, by them judged requisite to the “common defense and gen-
from whose agency the attainment of any end is expected, eral welfare.’’ It was presumed that a sense of their true inter-
ought to possess the means by which it is to be attained. ests, and a regard to the dictates of good faith, would be found
Whether there ought to be a federal government intrusted sufficient pledges for the punctual performance of the duty
with the care of the common defense, is a question in the first of the members to the federal head.
instance, open for discussion; but the moment it is decided in The experiment has, however, demonstrated that this ex-
the affirmative, it will follow, that that government ought to pectation was ill-founded and illusory; and the observations,
be clothed with all the powers requisite to complete execu- made under the last head, will, I imagine, have sufficed to
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convince the impartial and discerning, that there is an abso- citizens of the same State the proper department of the local
lute necessity for an entire change in the first principles of the governments? These must possess all the authorities which
system; that if we are in earnest about giving the Union en- are connected with this object, and with every other that may
ergy and duration, we must abandon the vain project of legis- be allotted to their particular cognizance and direction. Not
lating upon the States in their collective capacities; we must to confer in each case a degree of power commensurate to the
extend the laws of the federal government to the individual end, would be to violate the most obvious rules of prudence
citizens of America; we must discard the fallacious scheme of and propriety, and improvidently to trust the great interests
quotas and requisitions, as equally impracticable and unjust. of the nation to hands which are disabled from managing
The result from all this is that the Union ought to be in- them with vigor and success.
vested with full power to levy troops; to build and equip Who is likely to make suitable provisions for the public
fleets; and to raise the revenues which will be required for the defense, as that body to which the guardianship of the public
formation and support of an army and navy, in the custom- safety is confided; which, as the centre of information, will
ary and ordinary modes practiced in other governments. best understand the extent and urgency of the dangers that
If the circumstances of our country are such as to demand a threaten; as the representative of the whole, will feel itself most
compound instead of a simple, a confederate instead of a sole, deeply interested in the preservation of every part; which, from
government, the essential point which will remain to be ad- the responsibility implied in the duty assigned to it, will be
justed will be to discriminate the objects, as far as it can be most sensibly impressed with the necessity of proper exer-
done, which shall appertain to the different provinces or de- tions; and which, by the extension of its authority through-
partments of power; allowing to each the most ample au- out the States, can alone establish uniformity and concert in
thority for fulfilling the objects committed to its charge. Shall the plans and measures by which the common safety is to be
the Union be constituted the guardian of the common safety? secured? Is there not a manifest inconsistency in devolving
Are fleets and armies and revenues necessary to this purpose? upon the federal government the care of the general defense,
The government of the Union must be empowered to pass and leaving in the State governments the effective powers by
all laws, and to make all regulations which have relation to which it is to be provided for? Is not a want of co-operation
them. The same must be the case in respect to commerce, the infallible consequence of such a system? And will not
and to every other matter to which its jurisdiction is permit- weakness, disorder, an undue distribution of the burdens and
ted to extend. Is the administration of justice between the calamities of war, an unnecessary and intolerable increase of
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expense, be its natural and inevitable concomitants? Have we management of our national interests; nor can any satisfactory
not had unequivocal experience of its effects in the course of argument be framed to show that they are chargeable with such
the revolution which we have just accomplished? an excess. If it be true, as has been insinuated by some of the
Every view we may take of the subject, as candid inquirers writers on the other side, that the difficulty arises from the
after truth, will serve to convince us, that it is both unwise nature of the thing, and that the extent of the country will not
and dangerous to deny the federal government an unconfined permit us to form a government in which such ample powers
authority, as to all those objects which are intrusted to its can safely be reposed, it would prove that we ought to contract
management. It will indeed deserve the most vigilant and care- our views, and resort to the expedient of separate confederacies,
ful attention of the people, to see that it be modeled in such which will move within more practicable spheres. For the ab-
a manner as to admit of its being safely vested with the requi- surdity must continually stare us in the face of confiding to a
site powers. If any plan which has been, or may be, offered to government the direction of the most essential national inter-
our consideration, should not, upon a dispassionate inspec- ests, without daring to trust it to the authorities which are
tion, be found to answer this description, it ought to be re- indispensible to their proper and efficient management. Let us
jected. A government, the constitution of which renders it not attempt to reconcile contradictions, but firmly embrace a
unfit to be trusted with all the powers which a free people rational alternative.
ought to delegate to any government, would be an unsafe and I trust, however, that the impracticability of one general
improper depositary of the national interests. Wherever these system cannot be shown. I am greatly mistaken, if any thing
can with propriety be confided, the coincident powers may of weight has yet been advanced of this tendency; and I flatter
safely accompany them. This is the true result of all just rea- myself, that the observations which have been made in the
soning upon the subject. And the adversaries of the plan pro- course of these papers have served to place the reverse of that
mulgated by the convention ought to have confined them- position in as clear a light as any matter still in the womb of
selves to showing, that the internal structure of the proposed time and experience can be susceptible of. This, at all events,
government was such as to render it unworthy of the confi- must be evident, that the very difficulty itself, drawn from
dence of the people. They ought not to have wandered into the extent of the country, is the strongest argument in favor
inflammatory declamations and unmeaning cavils about the of an energetic government; for any other can certainly never
extent of the powers. The powers are not too extensive for the preserve the Union of so large an empire. If we embrace the
objects of federal administration, or, in other words, for the tenets of those who oppose the adoption of the proposed
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Constitution, as the standard of our political creed, we can- FEDERALIST No. 24
not fail to verify the gloomy doctrines which predict the im-
practicability of a national system pervading entire limits of The Powers Necessary to the Common Defense Further
the present Confederacy. Considered

Publius. For the Independent Journal.

HAMILTON

To the People of the State of New York:

To the powers proposed to be conferred upon the federal


government, in respect to the creation and direction of the
national forces, I have met with but one specific objection,
which, if I understand it right, is this, that proper provision
has not been made against the existence of standing armies in
time of peace; an objection which, I shall now endeavor to
show, rests on weak and unsubstantial foundations.
It has indeed been brought forward in the most vague and
general form, supported only by bold assertions, without the
appearance of argument; without even the sanction of theo-
retical opinions; in contradiction to the practice of other free
nations, and to the general sense of America, as expressed in
most of the existing constitutions. The proprietory of this
remark will appear, the moment it is recollected that the ob-
jection under consideration turns upon a supposed necessity
of restraining the legislative authority of the nation, in the
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article of military establishments; a principle unheard of, ex- this vehement and pathetic declamation can be without some
cept in one or two of our State constitutions, and rejected in colorable pretext. It must needs be that this people, so jealous
all the rest. of their liberties, have, in all the preceding models of the con-
A stranger to our politics, who was to read our newspapers stitutions which they have established, inserted the most pre-
at the present juncture, without having previously inspected cise and rigid precautions on this point, the omission of which,
the plan reported by the convention, would be naturally led in the new plan, has given birth to all this apprehension and
to one of two conclusions: either that it contained a positive clamor.
injunction, that standing armies should be kept up in time of If, under this impression, he proceeded to pass in review
peace; or that it vested in the executive the whole power of the several State constitutions, how great would be his disap-
levying troops, without subjecting his discretion, in any shape, pointment to find that two only of them* contained an inter-
to the control of the legislature. diction of standing armies in time of peace; that the other
If he came afterwards to peruse the plan itself, he would be
*This statement of the matter is taken from the printed collection
surprised to discover, that neither the one nor the other was
of State constitutions. Pennsylvania and North Carolina are the
the case; that the whole power of raising armies was lodged in
two which contain the interdiction in these words: “As standing
the legislature, not in the executive; that this legislature was to armies in time of peace are dangerous to liberty, they ought not to
be a popular body, consisting of the representatives of the be kept up.’’ This is, in truth, rather a caution than a prohibition.
people periodically elected; and that instead of the provision New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Delaware, and Maryland have,
he had supposed in favor of standing armies, there was to be in each of their bils of rights, a clause to this effect:
found, in respect to this object, an important qualification “Standing armies are dangerous to liberty, and ought not to
even of the legislative discretion, in that clause which forbids be raised or kept up without the consent of the legislature’’; which
the appropriation of money for the support of an army for is a formal admission of the authority of the Legislature. New
any longer period than two years a precaution which, upon a York has no bills of rights, and her constitution says not a word
nearer view of it, will appear to be a great and real security about the matter. No bills of rights appear annexed to the con-
stitutions of the other States, except the foregoing, and their
against the keeping up of troops without evident necessity.
constitutions are equally silent. I am told, however that one or
Disappointed in his first surmise, the person I have sup-
two States have bills of rights which do not appear in this col-
posed would be apt to pursue his conjectures a little further. lection; but that those also recognize the right of the legislative
He would naturally say to himself, it is impossible that all authority in this respect.
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eleven had either observed a profound silence on the subject, longer refrain from regarding these clamors as the dishonest
or had in express terms admitted the right of the Legislature artifices of a sinister and unprincipled opposition to a plan
to authorize their existence. which ought at least to receive a fair and candid examination
Still, however he would be persuaded that there must be some from all sincere lovers of their country! How else, he would
plausible foundation for the cry raised on this head. He would say, could the authors of them have been tempted to vent
never be able to imagine, while any source of information re- such loud censures upon that plan, about a point in which it
mained unexplored, that it was nothing more than an experi- seems to have conformed itself to the general sense of America
ment upon the public credulity, dictated either by a deliberate as declared in its different forms of government, and in which
intention to deceive, or by the overflowings of a zeal too in- it has even superadded a new and powerful guard unknown
temperate to be ingenuous. It would probably occur to him, to any of them? If, on the contrary, he happened to be a man
that he would be likely to find the precautions he was in search of calm and dispassionate feelings, he would indulge a sigh
of in the primitive compact between the States. Here, at length, for the frailty of human nature, and would lament, that in a
he would expect to meet with a solution of the enigma. No matter so interesting to the happiness of millions, the true
doubt, he would observe to himself, the existing Confedera- merits of the question should be perplexed and entangled by
tion must contain the most explicit provisions against military expedients so unfriendly to an impartial and right determina-
establishments in time of peace; and a departure from this tion. Even such a man could hardly forbear remarking, that a
model, in a favorite point, has occasioned the discontent which conduct of this kind has too much the appearance of an in-
appears to influence these political champions. tention to mislead the people by alarming their passions, rather
If he should now apply himself to a careful and critical sur- than to convince them by arguments addressed to their un-
vey of the articles of Confederation, his astonishment would derstandings.
not only be increased, but would acquire a mixture of indig- But however little this objection may be countenanced, even
nation, at the unexpected discovery, that these articles, instead by precedents among ourselves, it may be satisfactory to take
of containing the prohibition he looked for, and though they a nearer view of its intrinsic merits. From a close examination
had, with jealous circumspection, restricted the authority of it will appear that restraints upon the discretion of the legisla-
the State legislatures in this particular, had not imposed a single ture in respect to military establishments in time of peace,
restraint on that of the United States. If he happened to be a would be improper to be imposed, and if imposed, from the
man of quick sensibility, or ardent temper, he could now no necessities of society, would be unlikely to be observed.
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Though a wide ocean separates the United States from Eu- our Western frontier. No person can doubt that these will
rope, yet there are various considerations that warn us against continue to be indispensable, if it should only be against the
an excess of confidence or security. On one side of us, and ravages and depredations of the Indians. These garrisons must
stretching far into our rear, are growing settlements subject to either be furnished by occasional detachments from the mili-
the dominion of Britain. On the other side, and extending to tia, or by permanent corps in the pay of the government. The
meet the British settlements, are colonies and establishments first is impracticable; and if practicable, would be pernicious.
subject to the dominion of Spain. This situation and the vi- The militia would not long, if at all, submit to be dragged
cinity of the West India Islands, belonging to these two pow- from their occupations and families to perform that most
ers create between them, in respect to their American posses- disagreeable duty in times of profound peace. And if they
sions and in relation to us, a common interest. The savage could be prevailed upon or compelled to do it, the increased
tribes on our Western frontier ought to be regarded as our expense of a frequent rotation of service, and the loss of labor
natural enemies, their natural allies, because they have most and disconcertion of the industrious pursuits of individuals,
to fear from us, and most to hope from them. The improve- would form conclusive objections to the scheme. It would be
ments in the art of navigation have, as to the facility of com- as burdensome and injurious to the public as ruinous to pri-
munication, rendered distant nations, in a great measure, neigh- vate citizens. The latter resource of permanent corps in the
bors. Britain and Spain are among the principal maritime pay of the government amounts to a standing army in time
powers of Europe. A future concert of views between these of peace; a small one, indeed, but not the less real for being
nations ought not to be regarded as improbable. The increas- small. Here is a simple view of the subject, that shows us at
ing remoteness of consanguinity is every day diminishing the once the impropriety of a constitutional interdiction of such
force of the family compact between France and Spain. And establishments, and the necessity of leaving the matter to the
politicians have ever with great reason considered the ties of discretion and prudence of the legislature.
blood as feeble and precarious links of political connection. In proportion to our increase in strength, it is probable,
These circumstances combined, admonish us not to be too nay, it may be said certain, that Britain and Spain would aug-
sanguine in considering ourselves as entirely out of the reach ment their military establishments in our neighborhood. If
of danger. we should not be willing to be exposed, in a naked and de-
Previous to the Revolution, and ever since the peace, there fenseless condition, to their insults and encroachments, we
has been a constant necessity for keeping small garrisons on should find it expedient to increase our frontier garrisons in
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some ratio to the force by which our Western settlements FEDERALIST No. 25
might be annoyed. There are, and will be, particular posts,
the possession of which will include the command of large The Same Subject Continued
districts of territory, and facilitate future invasions of the re-
mainder. It may be added that some of those posts will be (The Powers Necessary to the Common Defense
keys to the trade with the Indian nations. Can any man think Further Considered)
it would be wise to leave such posts in a situation to be at any
instant seized by one or the other of two neighboring and From the New York Packet.
formidable powers? To act this part would be to desert all the
usual maxims of prudence and policy. Friday, December 21, 1787.
If we mean to be a commercial people, or even to be secure
on our Atlantic side, we must endeavor, as soon as possible, HAMILTON
to have a navy. To this purpose there must be dock-yards and
arsenals; and for the defense of these, fortifications, and prob- To the People of the State of New York:
ably garrisons. When a nation has become so powerful by sea
that it can protect its dock-yards by its fleets, this supersedes It may perhaps be urged that the objects enumerated in the
the necessity of garrisons for that purpose; but where naval preceding number ought to be provided for by the State gov-
establishments are in their infancy, moderate garrisons will, ernments, under the direction of the Union. But this would
in all likelihood, be found an indispensable security against be, in reality, an inversion of the primary principle of our
descents for the destruction of the arsenals and dock-yards, political association, as it would in practice transfer the care
and sometimes of the fleet itself. of the common defense from the federal head to the indi-
vidual members: a project oppressive to some States, danger-
Publius. ous to all, and baneful to the Confederacy.
The territories of Britain, Spain, and of the Indian nations
in our neighborhood do not border on particular States, but
encircle the Union from Maine to Georgia. The danger,
though in different degrees, is therefore common. And the
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The Federalist Papers
means of guarding against it ought, in like manner, to be the rivalship with that of the Union, the foundation of which
objects of common councils and of a common treasury. It hap- will be the love of power; and that in any contest between the
pens that some States, from local situation, are more directly federal head and one of its members the people will be most
exposed. New York is of this class. Upon the plan of separate apt to unite with their local government. If, in addition to
provisions, New York would have to sustain the whole weight this immense advantage, the ambition of the members should
of the establishments requisite to her immediate safety, and to be stimulated by the separate and independent possession of
the mediate or ultimate protection of her neighbors. This would military forces, it would afford too strong a temptation and
neither be equitable as it respected New York nor safe as it re- too great a facility to them to make enterprises upon, and
spected the other States. Various inconveniences would attend finally to subvert, the constitutional authority of the Union.
such a system. The States, to whose lot it might fall to support On the other hand, the liberty of the people would be less
the necessary establishments, would be as little able as willing, safe in this state of things than in that which left the national
for a considerable time to come, to bear the burden of compe- forces in the hands of the national government. As far as an
tent provisions. The security of all would thus be subjected to army may be considered as a dangerous weapon of power, it
the parsimony, improvidence, or inability of a part. If the re- had better be in those hands of which the people are most
sources of such part becoming more abundant and extensive, likely to be jealous than in those of which they are least likely
its provisions should be proportionally enlarged, the other States to be jealous. For it is a truth, which the experience of ages
would quickly take the alarm at seeing the whole military force has attested, that the people are always most in danger when
of the Union in the hands of two or three of its members, and the means of injuring their rights are in the possession of those
those probably amongst the most powerful. They would each of whom they entertain the least suspicion.
choose to have some counterpoise, and pretenses could easily The framers of the existing Confederation, fully aware of the
be contrived. In this situation, military establishments, nour- danger to the Union from the separate possession of military
ished by mutual jealousy, would be apt to swell beyond their forces by the States, have, in express terms, prohibited them
natural or proper size; and being at the separate disposal of the from having either ships or troops, unless with the consent of
members, they would be engines for the abridgment or demo- Congress. The truth is, that the existence of a federal govern-
lition of the national authcrity. ment and military establishments under State authority are not
Reasons have been already given to induce a supposition less at variance with each other than a due supply of the federal
that the State governments will too naturally be prone to a treasury and the system of quotas and requisitions.
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There are other lights besides those already taken notice of, for eluding the force of the provision.
in which the impropriety of restraints on the discretion of the The supposed utility of a provision of this kind can only be
national legislature will be equally manifest. The design of founded on the supposed probability, or at least possibility,
the objection, which has been mentioned, is to preclude stand- of a combination between the executive and the legislative, in
ing armies in time of peace, though we have never been in- some scheme of usurpation. Should this at any time happen,
formed how far it is designed the prohibition should extend; how easy would it be to fabricate pretenses of approaching
whether to raising armies as well as to keeping them up in a danger! Indian hostilities, instigated by Spain or Britain, would
season of tranquillity or not. If it be confined to the latter it always be at hand. Provocations to produce the desired ap-
will have no precise signification, and it will be ineffectual for pearances might even be given to some foreign power, and
the purpose intended. When armies are once raised what shall appeased again by timely concessions. If we can reasonably
be denominated “keeping them up,’’ contrary to the sense of presume such a combination to have been formed, and that
the Constitution? What time shall be requisite to ascertain the enterprise is warranted by a sufficient prospect of success,
the violation? Shall it be a week, a month, a year? Or shall we the army, when once raised, from whatever cause, or on what-
say they may be continued as long as the danger which occa- ever pretext, may be applied to the execution of the project.
sioned their being raised continues? This would be to admit If, to obviate this consequence, it should be resolved to ex-
that they might be kept up in time of peace, against threaten- tend the prohibition to the raising of armies in time of peace,
ing or impending danger, which would be at once to deviate the United States would then exhibit the most extraordinary
from the literal meaning of the prohibition, and to introduce spectacle which the world has yet seen, that of a nation inca-
an extensive latitude of construction. Who shall judge of the pacitated by its Constitution to prepare for defense, before it
continuance of the danger? This must undoubtedly be sub- was actually invaded. As the ceremony of a formal denuncia-
mitted to the national government, and the matter would tion of war has of late fallen into disuse, the presence of an
then be brought to this issue, that the national government, enemy within our territories must be waited for, as the legal
to provide against apprehended danger, might in the first in- warrant to the government to begin its levies of men for the
stance raise troops, and might afterwards keep them on foot protection of the State. We must receive the blow, before we
as long as they supposed the peace or safety of the commu- could even prepare to return it. All that kind of policy by
nity was in any degree of jeopardy. It is easy to perceive that a which nations anticipate distant danger, and meet the gather-
discretion so latitudinary as this would afford ample room ing storm, must be abstained from, as contrary to the genu-
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ine maxims of a free government. We must expose our prop- The Bill of Rights of that State declares that standing armies
erty and liberty to the mercy of foreign invaders, and invite are dangerous to liberty, and ought not to be kept up in time
them by our weakness to seize the naked and defenseless prey, of peace. Pennsylvania, nevertheless, in a time of profound
because we are afraid that rulers, created by our choice, de- peace, from the existence of partial disorders in one or two of
pendent on our will, might endanger that liberty, by an abuse her counties, has resolved to raise a body of troops; and in all
of the means necessary to its preservation. probability will keep them up as long as there is any appear-
Here I expect we shall be told that the militia of the coun- ance of danger to the public peace. The conduct of Massa-
try is its natural bulwark, and would be at all times equal to chusetts affords a lesson on the same subject, though on dif-
the national defense. This doctrine, in substance, had like to ferent ground. That State (without waiting for the sanction
have lost us our independence. It cost millions to the United of Congress, as the articles of the Confederation require) was
States that might have been saved. The facts which, from our compelled to raise troops to quell a domestic insurrection,
own experience, forbid a reliance of this kind, are too recent and still keeps a corps in pay to prevent a revival of the spirit
to permit us to be the dupes of such a suggestion. The steady of revolt. The particular constitution of Massachusetts op-
operations of war against a regular and disciplined army can posed no obstacle to the measure; but the instance is still of
only be successfully conducted by a force of the same kind. use to instruct us that cases are likely to occur under our gov-
Considerations of economy, not less than of stability and vigor, ernment, as well as under those of other nations, which will
confirm this position. The American militia, in the course of sometimes render a military force in time of peace essential
the late war, have, by their valor on numerous occasions, to the security of the society, and that it is therefore improper
erected eternal monuments to their fame; but the bravest of in this respect to control the legislative discretion. It also teaches
them feel and know that the liberty of their country could us, in its application to the United States, how little the rights
not have been established by their efforts alone, however great of a feeble government are likely to be respected, even by its
and valuable they were. War, like most other things, is a sci- own constituents. And it teaches us, in addition to the rest,
ence to be acquired and perfected by diligence, by how unequal parchment provisions are to a struggle with
perserverance, by time, and by practice. public necessity
All violent policy, as it is contrary to the natural and experi- It was a fundamental maxim of the Lacedaemonian com-
enced course of human affairs, defeats itself. Pennsylvania, at monwealth, that the post of admiral should not be conferred
this instant, affords an example of the truth of this remark. twice on the same person. The Peloponnesian confederates,
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having suffered a severe defeat at sea from the Athenians, de- FEDERALIST No. 26
manded Lysander, who had before served with success in that
capacity, to command the combined fleets. The The Idea of Restraining the Legislative Authority in
Lacedaemonians, to gratify their allies, and yet preserve the Regard to the Common Defense Considered
semblance of an adherence to their ancient institutions, had
recourse to the flimsy subterfuge of investing Lysander with For the Independent Journal.
the real power of admiral, under the nominal title of vice-
admiral. This instance is selected from among a multitude HAMILTON
that might be cited to confirm the truth already advanced
and illustrated by domestic examples; which is, that nations To the People of the State of New York:
pay little regard to rules and maxims calculated in their very
nature to run counter to the necessities of society. Wise poli- It was a thing hardly to be expected that in a popular revolu-
ticians will be cautious about fettering the government with tion the minds of men should stop at that happy mean which
restrictions that cannot be observed, because they know that marks the salutary boundary between power and privilege, and
every breach of the fundamental laws, though dictated by combines the energy of government with the security of pri-
necessity, impairs that sacred reverence which ought to be vate rights. A failure in this delicate and important point is
maintained in the breast of rulers towards the constitution of the great source of the inconveniences we experience, and if
a country, and forms a precedent for other breaches where the we are not cautious to avoid a repetition of the error, in our
same plea of necessity does not exist at all, or is less urgent future attempts to rectify and ameliorate our system, we may
and palpable. travel from one chimerical project to another; we may try
change after change; but we shall never be likely to make any
Publius. material change for the better.
The idea of restraining the legislative authority, in the means
of providing for the national defense, is one of those refine-
ments which owe their origin to a zeal for liberty more ardent
than enlightened. We have seen, however, that it has not had
thus far an extensive prevalency; that even in this country,
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where it made its first appearance, Pennsylvania and North ity of the community.
Carolina are the only two States by which it has been in any It may not be amiss in this place concisely to remark the
degree patronized; and that all the others have refused to give origin and progress of the idea, which aims at the exclusion of
it the least countenance; wisely judging that confidence must military establishments in time of peace. Though in specula-
be placed somewhere; that the necessity of doing it, is im- tive minds it may arise from a contemplation of the nature
plied in the very act of delegating power; and that it is better and tendency of such institutions, fortified by the events that
to hazard the abuse of that confidence than to embarrass the have happened in other ages and countries, yet as a national
government and endanger the public safety by impolitic re- sentiment, it must be traced to those habits of thinking which
strictions on the legislative authority. The opponents of the we derive from the nation from whom the inhabitants of
proposed Constitution combat, in this respect, the general these States have in general sprung.
decision of America; and instead of being taught by experi- In England, for a long time after the Norman Conquest,
ence the propriety of correcting any extremes into which we the authority of the monarch was almost unlimited. Inroads
may have heretofore run, they appear disposed to conduct us were gradually made upon the prerogative, in favor of liberty,
into others still more dangerous, and more extravagant. As if first by the barons, and afterwards by the people, till the great-
the tone of government had been found too high, or too est part of its most formidable pretensions became extinct.
rigid, the doctrines they teach are calculated to induce us to But it was not till the revolution in 1688, which elevated the
depress or to relax it, by expedients which, upon other occa- Prince of Orange to the throne of Great Britain, that English
sions, have been condemned or forborne. It may be affirmed liberty was completely triumphant. As incident to the unde-
without the imputation of invective, that if the principles fined power of making war, an acknowledged prerogative of
they inculcate, on various points, could so far obtain as to the crown, Charles II. had, by his own authority, kept on
become the popular creed, they would utterly unfit the people foot in time of peace a body of 5,000 regular troops. And
of this country for any species of government whatever. But a this number James II. increased to 30,000; who were paid
danger of this kind is not to be apprehended. The citizens of out of his civil list. At the revolution, to abolish the exercise
America have too much discernment to be argued into anar- of so dangerous an authority, it became an article of the Bill
chy. And I am much mistaken, if experience has not wrought of Rights then framed, that “the raising or keeping a standing
a deep and solemn conviction in the public mind, that greater army within the kingdom in time of peace, unless with the
energy of government is essential to the welfare and prosper- consent of Parliament, was against law.’’
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In that kingdom, when the pulse of liberty was at its highest where this error was not adopted, we find unnecessary decla-
pitch, no security against the danger of standing armies was rations that standing armies ought not to be kept up, in time
thought requisite, beyond a prohibition of their being raised or of peace, without the consent of the legislature. I call them
kept up by the mere authority of the executive magistrate. The unnecessary, because the reason which had introduced a simi-
patriots, who effected that memorable revolution, were too lar provision into the English Bill of Rights is not applicable
temperate, too wellinformed, to think of any restraint on the to any of the State constitutions. The power of raising armies
legislative discretion. They were aware that a certain number of at all, under those constitutions, can by no construction be
troops for guards and garrisons were indispensable; that no pre- deemed to reside anywhere else, than in the legislatures them-
cise bounds could be set to the national exigencies; that a power selves; and it was superfluous, if not absurd, to declare that a
equal to every possible contingency must exist somewhere in matter should not be done without the consent of a body,
the government: and that when they referred the exercise of which alone had the power of doing it. Accordingly, in some
that power to the judgment of the legislature, they had arrived of these constitutions, and among others, in that of this State
at the ultimate point of precaution which was reconcilable with of New York, which has been justly celebrated, both in Eu-
the safety of the community. rope and America, as one of the best of the forms of govern-
From the same source, the people of America may be said ment established in this country, there is a total silence upon
to have derived an hereditary impression of danger to liberty, the subject.
from standing armies in time of peace. The circumstances of It is remarkable, that even in the two States which seem to
a revolution quickened the public sensibility on every point have meditated an interdiction of military establishments in
connected with the security of popular rights, and in some time of peace, the mode of expression made use of is rather
instances raise the warmth of our zeal beyond the degree which cautionary than prohibitory. It is not said, that standing armies
consisted with the due temperature of the body politic. The shall not be kept up, but that they ought not to be kept up, in
attempts of two of the States to restrict the authority of the time of peace. This ambiguity of terms appears to have been
legislature in the article of military establishments, are of the the result of a conflict between jealousy and conviction; be-
number of these instances. The principles which had taught tween the desire of excluding such establishments at all events,
us to be jealous of the power of an hereditary monarch were and the persuasion that an absolute exclusion would be un-
by an injudicious excess extended to the representatives of the wise and unsafe.
people in their popular assemblies. Even in some of the States, Can it be doubted that such a provision, whenever the situ-
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ation of public affairs was understood to require a departure enough to arraign the measures and criminate the views of
from it, would be interpreted by the legislature into a mere the majority. The provision for the support of a military force
admonition, and would be made to yield to the necessities or will always be a favorable topic for declamation. As often as
supposed necessities of the State? Let the fact already men- the question comes forward, the public attention will be
tioned, with respect to Pennsylvania, decide. What then (it roused and attracted to the subject, by the party in opposi-
may be asked) is the use of such a provision, if it cease to tion; and if the majority should be really disposed to exceed
operate the moment there is an inclination to disregard it? the proper limits, the community will be warned of the dan-
Let us examine whether there be any comparison, in point ger, and will have an opportunity of taking measures to guard
of efficacy, between the provision alluded to and that which against it. Independent of parties in the national legislature
is contained in the new Constitution, for restraining the ap- itself, as often as the period of discussion arrived, the State
propriations of money for military purposes to the period of legislatures, who will always be not only vigilant but suspi-
two years. The former, by aiming at too much, is calculated cious and jealous guardians of the rights of the citizens against
to effect nothing; the latter, by steering clear of an imprudent encroachments from the federal government, will constantly
extreme, and by being perfectly compatible with a proper have their attention awake to the conduct of the national rul-
provision for the exigencies of the nation, will have a salutary ers, and will be ready enough, if any thing improper appears,
and powerful operation. to sound the alarm to the people, and not only to be the
The legislature of the United States will be obliged, by this voice, but, if necessary, the arm of their discontent.
provision, once at least in every two years, to deliberate upon Schemes to subvert the liberties of a great community re-
the propriety of keeping a military force on foot; to come to quire time to mature them for execution. An army, so large as
a new resolution on the point; and to declare their sense of seriously to menace those liberties, could only be formed by
the matter, by a formal vote in the face of their constituents. progressive augmentations; which would suppose, not merely
They are not at liberty to vest in the executive department a temporary combination between the legislature and execu-
permanent funds for the support of an army, if they were tive, but a continued conspiracy for a series of time. Is it prob-
even incautious enough to be willing to repose in it so im- able that such a combination would exist at all? Is it probable
proper a confidence. As the spirit of party, in different de- that it would be persevered in, and transmitted along through
grees, must be expected to infect all political bodies, there all the successive variations in a representative body, which
will be, no doubt, persons in the national legislature willing biennial elections would naturally produce in both houses? Is
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it presumable, that every man, the instant he took his seat in legislature. But the question again recurs, upon what pretense
the national Senate or House of Representatives, would com- could he be put in possession of a force of that magnitude in
mence a traitor to his constituents and to his country? Can it time of peace? If we suppose it to have been created in conse-
be supposed that there would not be found one man, dis- quence of some domestic insurrection or foreign war, then it
cerning enough to detect so atrocious a conspiracy, or bold or becomes a case not within the principles of the objection; for
honest enough to apprise his constituents of their danger? If this is levelled against the power of keeping up troops in time
such presumptions can fairly be made, there ought at once to of peace. Few persons will be so visionary as seriously to con-
be an end of all delegated authority. The people should re- tend that military forces ought not to be raised to quell a
solve to recall all the powers they have heretofore parted with rebellion or resist an invasion; and if the defense of the com-
out of their own hands, and to divide themselves into as many munity under such circumstances should make it necessary
States as there are counties, in order that they may be able to to have an army so numerous as to hazard its liberty, this is
manage their own concerns in person. one of those calamaties for which there is neither preventative
If such suppositions could even be reasonably made, still nor cure. It cannot be provided against by any possible form
the concealment of the design, for any duration, would be of government; it might even result from a simple league of-
impracticable. It would be announced, by the very circum- fensive and defensive, if it should ever be necessary for the
stance of augmenting the army to so great an extent in time confederates or allies to form an army for common defense.
of profound peace. What colorable reason could be assigned, But it is an evil infinitely less likely to attend us in a united
in a country so situated, for such vast augmentations of the than in a disunited state; nay, it may be safely asserted that it
military force? It is impossible that the people could be long is an evil altogether unlikely to attend us in the latter situa-
deceived; and the destruction of the project, and of the pro- tion. It is not easy to conceive a possibility that dangers so
jectors, would quickly follow the discovery. formidable can assail the whole Union, as to demand a force
It has been said that the provision which limits the appro- considerable enough to place our liberties in the least jeop-
priation of money for the support of an army to the period ardy, especially if we take into our view the aid to be derived
of two years would be unavailing, because the Executive, when from the militia, which ought always to be counted upon as
once possessed of a force large enough to awe the people into a valuable and powerful auxiliary. But in a state of disunion
submission, would find resources in that very force sufficient (as has been fully shown in another place), the contrary of
to enable him to dispense with supplies from the acts of the this supposition would become not only probable, but al-
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most unavoidable. FEDERALIST No. 27
Publius. The Same Subject Continued

(The Idea of Restraining the Legislative Authority in


Regard to the Common Defense Considered)

From the New York Packet.

Tuesday, December 25, 1787.

HAMILTON

To the People of the State of New York:

It has been urged, in different shapes, that a Constitution of


the kind proposed by the convention cannot operate without
the aid of a military force to execute its laws. This, however,
like most other things that have been alleged on that side,
rests on mere general assertion, unsupported by any precise or
intelligible designation of the reasons upon which it is founded.
As far as I have been able to divine the latent meaning of the
objectors, it seems to originate in a presupposition that the
people will be disinclined to the exercise of federal authority
in any matter of an internal nature. Waiving any exception
that might be taken to the inaccuracy or inexplicitness of the
distinction between internal and external, let us inquire what
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ground there is to presuppose that disinclination in the people. ties, which, in smaller societies, frequently contaminate the
Unless we presume at the same time that the powers of the public councils, beget injustice and oppression of a part of
general government will be worse administered than those of the community, and engender schemes which, though they
the State government, there seems to be no room for the gratify a momentary inclination or desire, terminate in gen-
presumption of ill-will, disaffection, or opposition in the eral distress, dissatisfaction, and disgust.Several additional
people. I believe it may be laid down as a general rule that reasons of considerable force, to fortify that probability, will
their confidence in and obedience to a government will com- occur when we come to survey, with a more critical eye, the
monly be proportioned to the goodness or badness of its ad- interior structure of the edifice which we are invited to erect.
ministration. It must be admitted that there are exceptions to It will be sufficient here to remark, that until satisfactory rea-
this rule; but these exceptions depend so entirely on acciden- sons can be assigned to justify an opinion, that the federal
tal causes, that they cannot be considered as having any rela- government is likely to be administered in such a manner as
tion to the intrinsic merits or demerits of a constitution. These to render it odious or contemptible to the people, there can
can only be judged of by general principles and maxims. be no reasonable foundation for the supposition that the laws
Various reasons have been suggested, in the course of these of the Union will meet with any greater obstruction from
papers, to induce a probability that the general government them, or will stand in need of any other methods to enforce
will be better administered than the particular governments; their execution, than the laws of the particular members.
the principal of which reasons are that the extension of the The hope of impunity is a strong incitement to sedition;
spheres of election will present a greater option, or latitude of the dread of punishment, a proportionably strong discour-
choice, to the people; that through the medium of the State agement to it. Will not the government of the Union, which,
legislatures which are select bodies of men, and which are to if possessed of a due degree of power, can call to its aid the
appoint the members of the national Senate there is reason to collective resources of the whole Confederacy, be more likely
expect that this branch will generally be composed with pe- to repress the former sentiment and to inspire the latter, than
culiar care and judgment; that these circumstances promise that of a single State, which can only command the resources
greater knowledge and more extensive information in the within itself? A turbulent faction in a State may easily sup-
national councils, and that they will be less apt to be tainted pose itself able to contend with the friends to the govern-
by the spirit of faction, and more out of the reach of those ment in that State; but it can hardly be so infatuated as to
occasional ill-humors, or temporary prejudices and propensi- imagine itself a match for the combined efforts of the Union.
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If this reflection be just, there is less danger of resistance from ment like the one proposed would bid much fairer to avoid
irregular combinations of individuals to the authority of the the necessity of using force, than that species of league con-
Confederacy than to that of a single member. tend for by most of its opponents; the authority of which
I will, in this place, hazard an observation, which will not be should only operate upon the States in their political or col-
the less just because to some it may appear new; which is, that lective capacities. It has been shown that in such a Confed-
the more the operations of the national authority are inter- eracy there can be no sanction for the laws but force; that
mingled in the ordinary exercise of government, the more the frequent delinquencies in the members are the natural off-
citizens are accustomed to meet with it in the common occur- spring of the very frame of the government; and that as often
rences of their political life, the more it is familiarized to their as these happen, they can only be redressed, if at all, by war
sight and to their feelings, the further it enters into those ob- and violence.
jects which touch the most sensible chords and put in motion The plan reported by the convention, by extending the au-
the most active springs of the human heart, the greater will be thority of the federal head to the individual citizens of the
the probability that it will conciliate the respect and attach- several States, will enable the government to employ the or-
ment of the community. Man is very much a creature of habit. dinary magistracy of each, in the execution of its laws. It is
A thing that rarely strikes his senses will generally have but little easy to perceive that this will tend to destroy, in the common
influence upon his mind. A government continually at a dis- apprehension, all distinction between the sources from which
tance and out of sight can hardly be expected to interest the they might proceed; and will give the federal government the
sensations of the people. The inference is, that the authority of same advantage for securing a due obedience to its authority
the Union, and the affections of the citizens towards it, will be which is enjoyed by the government of each State, in addi-
strengthened, rather than weakened, by its extension to what tion to the influence on public opinion which will result from
are called matters of internal concern; and will have less occa- the important consideration of its having power to call to its
sion to recur to force, in proportion to the familiarity and com- assistance and support the resources of the whole Union. It
prehensiveness of its agency. The more it circulates through merits particular attention in this place, that the laws of the
those channls and currents in which the passions of mankind Confederacy, as to the enumerated and legitimate objects of
naturally flow, the less will it require the aid of the violent and its jurisdiction, will become the supreme law of the land; to
perilous expedients of compulsion. the observance of which all officers, legislative, executive, and
One thing, at all events, must be evident, that a govern- judicial, in each State, will be bound by the sanctity of an
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oath. Thus the legislatures, courts, and magistrates, of the FEDERALIST No. 28
respective members, will be incorporated into the operations
of the national government as far as its just and constitutional The Same Subject Continued
authority extends; and will be rendered auxiliary to the en-
forcement of its laws.* Any man who will pursue, by his own (The Idea of Restraining the Legislative Authority in
reflections, the consequences of this situation, will perceive Regard to the Common Defense Considered)
that there is good ground to calculate upon a regular and peace-
able execution of the laws of the Union, if its powers are ad- For the Independent Journal.
ministered with a common share of prudence. If we will arbi-
trarily suppose the contrary, we may deduce any inferences HAMILTON
we please from the supposition; for it is certainly possible, by
an injudicious exercise of the authorities of the best govern- To the People of the State of New York:
ment that ever was, or ever can be instituted, to provoke and
precipitate the people into the wildest excesses. But though That there may happen cases in which the national govern-
the adversaries of the proposed Constitution should presume ment may be necessitated to resort to force, cannot be de-
that the national rulers would be insensible to the motives of nied. Our own experience has corroborated the lessons taught
public good, or to the obligations of duty, I would still ask by the examples of other nations; that emergencies of this
them how the interests of ambition, or the views of encroach- sort will sometimes arise in all societies, however constituted;
ment, can be promoted by such a conduct? that seditions and insurrections are, unhappily, maladies as
inseparable from the body politic as tumors and eruptions
Publius. from the natural body; that the idea of governing at all times
by the simple force of law (which we have been told is the
only admissible principle of republican government), has no
place but in the reveries of those political doctors whose sa-
*The sophistry which has been employed to show that this gacity disdains the admonitions of experimental instruction.
will tend to the destruction of the State governments, will, in Should such emergencies at any time happen under the na-
its will, in its proper place, be fully detected. tional government, there could be no remedy but force. The
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means to be employed must be proportioned to the extent of governments themselves, why should the possibility, that the
the mischief. If it should be a slight commotion in a small part national government might be under a like necessity, in simi-
of a State, the militia of the residue would be adequate to its lar extremities, be made an objection to its existence? Is it not
suppression; and the national presumption is that they would surprising that men who declare an attachment to the Union
be ready to do their duty. An insurrection, whatever may be its in the abstract, should urge as an objection to the proposed
immediate cause, eventually endangers all government. Regard Constitution what applies with tenfold weight to the plan
to the public peace, if not to the rights of the Union, would for which they contend; and what, as far as it has any founda-
engage the citizens to whom the contagion had not communi- tion in truth, is an inevitable consequence of civil society upon
cated itself to oppose the insurgents; and if the general govern- an enlarged scale? Who would not prefer that possibility to
ment should be found in practice conducive to the prosperity the unceasing agitations and frequent revolutions which are
and felicity of the people, it were irrational to believe that they the continual scourges of petty republics?
would be disinclined to its support. Let us pursue this examination in another light. Suppose,
If, on the contrary, the insurrection should pervade a whole in lieu of one general system, two, or three, or even four Con-
State, or a principal part of it, the employment of a different federacies were to be formed, would not the same difficulty
kind of force might become unavoidable. It appears that oppose itself to the operations of either of these Confedera-
Massachusetts found it necessary to raise troops for repressing cies? Would not each of them be exposed to the same casual-
the disorders within that State; that Pennsylvania, from the ties; and when these happened, be obliged to have recourse to
mere apprehension of commotions among a part of her citi- the same expedients for upholding its authority which are
zens, has thought proper to have recourse to the same mea- objected to in a government for all the States? Would the
sure. Suppose the State of New York had been inclined to re- militia, in this supposition, be more ready or more able to
establish her lost jurisdiction over the inhabitants of Vermont, support the federal authority than in the case of a general
could she have hoped for success in such an enterprise from union? All candid and intelligent men must, upon due con-
the efforts of the militia alone? Would she not have been com- sideration, acknowledge that the principle of the objection is
pelled to raise and to maintain a more regular force for the equally applicable to either of the two cases; and that whether
execution of her design? If it must then be admitted that the we have one government for all the States, or different gov-
necessity of recurring to a force different from the militia, in ernments for different parcels of them, or even if there should
cases of this extraordinary nature, is applicable to the State be an entire separation of the States, there might sometimes
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be a necessity to make use of a force constituted differently smaller the extent of the territory, the more difficult will it be
from the militia, to preserve the peace of the community and for the people to form a regular or systematic plan of opposi-
to maintain the just authority of the laws against those vio- tion, and the more easy will it be to defeat their early efforts.
lent invasions of them which amount to insurrections and Intelligence can be more speedily obtained of their prepara-
rebellions. tions and movements, and the military force in the posses-
Independent of all other reasonings upon the subject, it is a sion of the usurpers can be more rapidly directed against the
full answer to those who require a more peremptory provision part where the opposition has begun. In this situation there
against military establishments in time of peace, to say that the must be a peculiar coincidence of circumstances to insure suc-
whole power of the proposed government is to be in the hands cess to the popular resistance.
of the representatives of the people. This is the essential, and, The obstacles to usurpation and the facilities of resistance
after all, only efficacious security for the rights and privileges of increase with the increased extent of the state, provided the
the people, which is attainable in civil society.* citizens understand their rights and are disposed to defend
If the representatives of the people betray their constitu- them. The natural strength of the people in a large commu-
ents, there is then no resource left but in the exertion of that nity, in proportion to the artificial strength of the govern-
original right of self-defense which is paramount to all posi- ment, is greater than in a small, and of course more compe-
tive forms of government, and which against the usurpations tent to a struggle with the attempts of the government to
of the national rulers, may be exerted with infinitely better establish a tyranny. But in a confederacy the people, without
prospect of success than against those of the rulers of an indi- exaggeration, may be said to be entirely the masters of their
vidual state. In a single state, if the persons intrusted with own fate. Power being almost always the rival of power, the
supreme power become usurpers, the different parcels, subdi- general government will at all times stand ready to check the
visions, or districts of which it consists, having no distinct usurpations of the state governments, and these will have the
government in each, can take no regular measures for defense. same disposition towards the general government. The people,
The citizens must rush tumultuously to arms, without con- by throwing themselves into either scale, will infallibly make
cert, without system, without resource; except in their cour- it preponderate. If their rights are invaded by either, they can
age and despair. The usurpers, clothed with the forms of legal make use of the other as the instrument of redress. How wise
authority, can too often crush the opposition in embryo. The will it be in them by cherishing the union to preserve to them-
*Its full efficacy will be examined hereafter. selves an advantage which can never be too highly prized!
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It may safely be received as an axiom in our political sys- tain a large army; and as the means of doing this increase, the
tem, that the State governments will, in all possible contingen- population and natural strength of the community will pro-
cies, afford complete security against invasions of the public portionably increase. When will the time arrive that the fed-
liberty by the national authority. Projects of usurpation cannot eral government can raise and maintain an army capable of
be masked under pretenses so likely to escape the penetration erecting a despotism over the great body of the people of an
of select bodies of men, as of the people at large. The legisla- immense empire, who are in a situation, through the me-
tures will have better means of information. They can discover dium of their State governments, to take measures for their
the danger at a distance; and possessing all the organs of civil own defense, with all the celerity, regularity, and system of
power, and the confidence of the people, they can at once adopt independent nations? The apprehension may be considered as
a regular plan of opposition, in which they can combine all the a disease, for which there can be found no cure in the re-
resources of the community. They can readily communicate sources of argument and reasoning.
with each other in the different States, and unite their com-
mon forces for the protection of their common liberty. Publius.
The great extent of the country is a further security. We
have already experienced its utility against the attacks of a for-
eign power. And it would have precisely the same effect against
the enterprises of ambitious rulers in the national councils. If
the federal army should be able to quell the resistance of one
State, the distant States would have it in their power to make
head with fresh forces. The advantages obtained in one place
must be abandoned to subdue the opposition in others; and
the moment the part which had been reduced to submission
was left to itself, its efforts would be renewed, and its resis-
tance revive.
We should recollect that the extent of the military force
must, at all events, be regulated by the resources of the coun-
try. For a long time to come, it will not be possible to main-
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FEDERALIST No. 29 authority. It is, therefore, with the most evident propriety,
that the plan of the convention proposes to empower the
Concerning the Militia Union “to provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining
the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be
From the Daily Advertiser. employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the
states respectively the appointment of the officers, and the au-
Thursday, January 10, 1788 thority of training the militia according to the discipline pre-
scribed by congress.’’
HAMILTON Of the different grounds which have been taken in opposi-
tion to the plan of the convention, there is none that was so
To the People of the State of New York: little to have been expected, or is so untenable in itself, as the
one from which this particular provision has been attacked. If
The power of regulating the militia, and of commanding its a well-regulated militia be the most natural defense of a free
services in times of insurrection and invasion are natural inci- country, it ought certainly to be under the regulation and at
dents to the duties of superintending the common defense, the disposal of that body which is constituted the guardian of
and of watching over the internal peace of the Confederacy. the national security. If standing armies are dangerous to lib-
It requires no skill in the science of war to discern that uni- erty, an efficacious power over the militia, in the body to
formity in the organization and discipline of the militia would whose care the protection of the State is committed, ought,
be attended with the most beneficial effects, whenever they as far as possible, to take away the inducement and the pre-
were called into service for the public defense. It would en- text to such unfriendly institutions. If the federal government
able them to discharge the duties of the camp and of the field can command the aid of the militia in those emergencies which
with mutual intelligence and concert an advantage of peculiar call for the military arm in support of the civil magistrate, it
moment in the operations of an army; and it would fit them can the better dispense with the employment of a different
much sooner to acquire the degree of proficiency in military kind of force. If it cannot avail itself of the former, it will be
functions which would be essential to their usefulness. This obliged to recur to the latter. To render an army unnecessary,
desirable uniformity can only be accomplished by confiding will be a more certain method of preventing its existence than
the regulation of the militia to the direction of the national a thousand prohibitions upon paper.
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In order to cast an odium upon the power of calling forth ernment over the militia, is as uncandid as it is illogical. What
the militia to execute the laws of the Union, it has been re- reason could there be to infer, that force was intended to be
marked that there is nowhere any provision in the proposed the sole instrument of authority, merely because there is a
Constitution for calling out the posse comitatus, to assist the power to make use of it when necessary? What shall we think
magistrate in the execution of his duty, whence it has been of the motives which could induce men of sense to reason in
inferred, that military force was intended to be his only aux- this manner? How shall we prevent a conflict between charity
iliary. There is a striking incoherence in the objections which and judgment?
have appeared, and sometimes even from the same quarter, By a curious refinement upon the spirit of republican jeal-
not much calculated to inspire a very favorable opinion of the ousy, we are even taught to apprehend danger from the mili-
sincerity or fair dealing of their authors. The same persons tia itself, in the hands of the federal government. It is ob-
who tell us in one breath, that the powers of the federal gov- served that select corps may be formed, composed of the young
ernment will be despotic and unlimited, inform us in the and ardent, who may be rendered subservient to the views of
next, that it has not authority sufficient even to call out the arbitrary power. What plan for the regulation of the militia
posse comitatus. The latter, fortunately, is as much short of the may be pursued by the national government, is impossible to
truth as the former exceeds it. It would be as absurd to doubt, be foreseen. But so far from viewing the matter in the same
that a right to pass all laws necessary and proper to execute its light with those who object to select corps as dangerous, were
declared powers, would include that of requiring the assis- the Constitution ratified, and were I to deliver my sentiments
tance of the citizens to the officers who may be intrusted to a member of the federal legislature from this State on the
with the execution of those laws, as it would be to believe, subject of a militia establishment, I should hold to him, in
that a right to enact laws necessary and proper for the impo- substance, the following discourse: “The project of disciplin-
sition and collection of taxes would involve that of varying ing all the militia of the United States is as futile as it would
the rules of descent and of the alienation of landed property, be injurious, if it were capable of being carried into execu-
or of abolishing the trial by jury in cases relating to it. It being tion. A tolerable expertness in military movements is a busi-
therefore evident that the supposition of a want of power to ness that requires time and practice. It is not a day, or even a
require the aid of the posse comitatus is entirely destitute of week, that will suffice for the attainment of it. To oblige the
color, it will follow, that the conclusion which has been drawn great body of the yeomanry, and of the other classes of the
from it, in its application to the authority of the federal gov- citizens, to be under arms for the purpose of going through
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military exercises and evolutions, as often as might be neces- cumstances should at any time oblige the government to form
sary to acquire the degree of perfection which would entitle an army of any magnitude that army can never be formidable
them to the character of a well-regulated militia, would be a to the liberties of the people while there is a large body of citi-
real grievance to the people, and a serious public inconve- zens, little, if at all, inferior to them in discipline and the use of
nience and loss. It would form an annual deduction from the arms, who stand ready to defend their own rights and those of
productive labor of the country, to an amount which, calcu- their fellow-citizens. This appears to me the only substitute
lating upon the present numbers of the people, would not that can be devised for a standing army, and the best possible
fall far short of the whole expense of the civil establishments security against it, if it should exist.’’
of all the States. To attempt a thing which would abridge the Thus differently from the adversaries of the proposed Con-
mass of labor and industry to so considerable an extent, would stitution should I reason on the same subject, deducing argu-
be unwise: and the experiment, if made, could not succeed, ments of safety from the very sources which they represent as
because it would not long be endured. Little more can rea- fraught with danger and perdition. But how the national leg-
sonably be aimed at, with respect to the people at large, than islature may reason on the point, is a thing which neither they
to have them properly armed and equipped; and in order to nor I can foresee.
see that this be not neglected, it will be necessary to assemble There is something so far-fetched and so extravagant in the
them once or twice in the course of a year. “But though the idea of danger to liberty from the militia, that one is at a loss
scheme of disciplining the whole nation must be abandoned whether to treat it with gravity or with raillery; whether to
as mischievous or impracticable; yet it is a matter of the ut- consider it as a mere trial of skill, like the paradoxes of rheto-
most importance that a well-digested plan should, as soon as ricians; as a disingenuous artifice to instil prejudices at any
possible, be adopted for the proper establishment of the mi- price; or as the serious offspring of political fanaticism. Where
litia. The attention of the government ought particularly to be in the name of common-sense, are our fears to end if we may
directed to the formation of a select corps of moderate extent, not trust our sons, our brothers, our neighbors, our fellow-
upon such principles as will really fit them for service in case of citizens? What shadow of danger can there be from men who
need. By thus circumscribing the plan, it will be possible to are daily mingling with the rest of their countrymen and who
have an excellent body of well-trained militia, ready to take the participate with them in the same feelings, sentiments, habits
field whenever the defense of the State shall require it. This will and interests? What reasonable cause of apprehension can be
not only lessen the call for military establishments, but if cir- inferred from a power in the Union to prescribe regulations
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for the militia, and to command its services when necessary, and that of Massachusetts is to be transported an equal dis-
while the particular States are to have the sole and exclusive tance to subdue the refractory haughtiness of the aristocratic
appointment of the officers? If it were possible seriously to in- Virginians. Do the persons who rave at this rate imagine that
dulge a jealousy of the militia upon any conceivable establish- their art or their eloquence can impose any conceits or absur-
ment under the federal government, the circumstance of the dities upon the people of America for infallible truths?
officers being in the appointment of the States ought at once If there should be an army to be made use of as the engine
to extinguish it. There can be no doubt that this circumstance of despotism, what need of the militia? If there should be no
will always secure to them a preponderating influence over army, whither would the militia, irritated by being called upon
the militia. to undertake a distant and hopeless expedition, for the pur-
In reading many of the publications against the Constitu- pose of riveting the chains of slavery upon a part of their
tion, a man is apt to imagine that he is perusing some ill- countrymen, direct their course, but to the seat of the ty-
written tale or romance, which instead of natural and agree- rants, who had meditated so foolish as well as so wicked a
able images, exhibits to the mind nothing but frightful and project, to crush them in their imagined intrenchments of
distorted shapes “Gorgons, hydras, and chimeras dire’’; dis- power, and to make them an example of the just vengeance
coloring and disfiguring whatever it represents, and transform- of an abused and incensed people? Is this the way in which
ing everything it touches into a monster. usurpers stride to dominion over a numerous and enlight-
A sample of this is to be observed in the exaggerated and ened nation? Do they begin by exciting the detestation of the
improbable suggestions which have taken place respecting the very instruments of their intended usurpations? Do they usu-
power of calling for the services of the militia. That of New ally commence their career by wanton and disgustful acts of
Hampshire is to be marched to Georgia, of Georgia to New power, calculated to answer no end, but to draw upon them-
Hampshire, of New York to Kentucky, and of Kentucky to selves universal hatred and execration? Are suppositions of this
Lake Champlain. Nay, the debts due to the French and Dutch sort the sober admonitions of discerning patriots to a dis-
are to be paid in militiamen instead of louis d’ors and ducats. cerning people? Or are they the inflammatory ravings of in-
At one moment there is to be a large army to lay prostrate the cendiaries or distempered enthusiasts? If we were even to sup-
liberties of the people; at another moment the militia of Vir- pose the national rulers actuated by the most ungovernable
ginia are to be dragged from their homes five or six hundred ambition, it is impossible to believe that they would employ
miles, to tame the republican contumacy of Massachusetts; such preposterous means to accomplish their designs.
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In times of insurrection, or invasion, it would be natural FEDERALIST No. 30
and proper that the militia of a neighboring State should be
marched into another, to resist a common enemy, or to guard Concerning the General Power of Taxation
the republic against the violence of faction or sedition. This
was frequently the case, in respect to the first object, in the From the New York Packet.
course of the late war; and this mutual succor is, indeed, a
principal end of our political association. If the power of af- Friday, December 28, 1787.
fording it be placed under the direction of the Union, there
will be no danger of a supine and listless inattention to the HAMILTON
dangers of a neighbor, till its near approach had superadded
the incitements of selfpreservation to the too feeble impulses To the People of the State of New York:
of duty and sympathy.
It has been already observed that the federal government ought
Publius. to possess the power of providing for the support of the na-
tional forces; in which proposition was intended to be in-
cluded the expense of raising troops, of building and equip-
ping fleets, and all other expenses in any wise connected with
military arrangements and operations. But these are not the
only objects to which the jurisdiction of the Union, in re-
spect to revenue, must necessarily be empowered to extend. It
must embrace a provision for the support of the national civil
list; for the payment of the national debts contracted, or that
may be contracted; and, in general, for all those matters which
will call for disbursements out of the national treasury. The
conclusion is, that there must be interwoven, in the frame of
the government, a general power of taxation, in one shape or
another.
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Money is, with propriety, considered as the vital principle an erroneous principle, it has been done in such a manner as
of the body politic; as that which sustains its life and motion, entirely to have frustrated the intention. Congress, by the ar-
and enables it to perform its most essential functions. A com- ticles which compose that compact (as has already been stated),
plete power, therefore, to procure a regular and adequate sup- are authorized to ascertain and call for any sums of money
ply of it, as far as the resources of the community will permit, necessary, in their judgment, to the service of the United States;
may be regarded as an indispensable ingredient in every con- and their requisitions, if conformable to the rule of appor-
stitution. From a deficiency in this particular, one of two evils tionment, are in every constitutional sense obligatory upon
must ensue; either the people must be subjected to continual the States. These have no right to question the propriety of
plunder, as a substitute for a more eligible mode of supplying the demand; no discretion beyond that of devising the ways
the public wants, or the government must sink into a fatal and means of furnishing the sums demanded. But though
atrophy, and, in a short course of time, perish. this be strictly and truly the case; though the assumption of
In the Ottoman or Turkish empire, the sovereign, though such a right would be an infringement of the articles of Union;
in other respects absolute master of the lives and fortunes of though it may seldom or never have been avowedly claimed,
his subjects, has no right to impose a new tax. The conse- yet in practice it has been constantly exercised, and would
quence is that he permits the bashaws or governors of prov- continue to be so, as long as the revenues of the Confederacy
inces to pillage the people without mercy; and, in turn, should remain dependent on the intermediate agency of its
squeezes out of them the sums of which he stands in need, to members. What the consequences of this system have been, is
satisfy his own exigencies and those of the state. In America, within the knowledge of every man the least conversant in
from a like cause, the government of the Union has gradually our public affairs, and has been amply unfolded in different
dwindled into a state of decay, approaching nearly to annihi- parts of these inquiries. It is this which has chiefly contrib-
lation. Who can doubt, that the happiness of the people in uted to reduce us to a situation, which affords ample cause
both countries would be promoted by competent authorities both of mortification to ourselves, and of triumph to our
in the proper hands, to provide the revenues which the neces- enemies.
sities of the public might require? What remedy can there be for this situation, but in a change
The present Confederation, feeble as it is intended to re- of the system which has produced it in a change of the falla-
pose in the United States, an unlimited power of providing cious and delusive system of quotas and requisitions? What
for the pecuniary wants of the Union. But proceeding upon substitute can there be imagined for this ignis fatuus in fi-
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nance, but that of permitting the national government to raise most improved scale, would even suffice for its present neces-
its own revenues by the ordinary methods of taxation autho- sities. Its future necessities admit not of calculation or limita-
rized in every well-ordered constitution of civil government? tion; and upon the principle, more than once adverted to, the
Ingenious men may declaim with plausibility on any subject; power of making provision for them as they arise ought to be
but no human ingenuity can point out any other expedient to equally unconfined. I believe it may be regarded as a position
rescue us from the inconveniences and embarrassments natu- warranted by the history of mankind, that, in the usual progress
rally resulting from defective supplies of the public treasury. of things, the necessities of a nation, in every stage of its exist-
The more intelligent adversaries of the new Constitution ence, will be found at least equal to its resources.
admit the force of this reasoning; but they qualify their ad- To say that deficiencies may be provided for by requisitions
mission by a distinction between what they call internal and upon the States, is on the one hand to acknowledge that this
external taxation. The former they would reserve to the State system cannot be depended upon, and on the other hand to
governments; the latter, which they explain into commercial depend upon it for every thing beyond a certain limit. Those
imposts, or rather duties on imported articles, they declare who have carefully attended to its vices and deformities as
themselves willing to concede to the federal head. This dis- they have been exhibited by experience or delineated in the
tinction, however, would violate the maxim of good sense course of these papers, must feel invincible repugnancy to trust-
and sound policy, which dictates that every power ought to be ing the national interests in any degree to its operation. Its
in proportion to its object; and would still leave the general inevitable tendency, whenever it is brought into activity, must
government in a kind of tutelage to the State governments, be to enfeeble the Union, and sow the seeds of discord and
inconsistent with every idea of vigor or efficiency. Who can contention between the federal head and its members, and
pretend that commercial imposts are, or would be, alone equal between the members themselves. Can it be expected that the
to the present and future exigencies of the Union? Taking deficiencies would be better supplied in this mode than the
into the account the existing debt, foreign and domestic, upon total wants of the Union have heretofore been supplied in the
any plan of extinguishment which a man moderately im- same mode? It ought to be recollected that if less will be re-
pressed with the importance of public justice and public credit quired from the States, they will have proportionably less
could approve, in addition to the establishments which all means to answer the demand. If the opinions of those who
parties will acknowledge to be necessary, we could not rea- contend for the distinction which has been mentioned were
sonably flatter ourselves, that this resource alone, upon the to be received as evidence of truth, one would be led to con-
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clude that there was some known point in the economy of their proper objects to the defense of the State? It is not easy
national affairs at which it would be safe to stop and to say: to see how a step of this kind could be avoided; and if it
Thus far the ends of public happiness will be promoted by should be taken, it is evident that it would prove the destruc-
supplying the wants of government, and all beyond this is tion of public credit at the very moment that it was becom-
unworthy of our care or anxiety. How is it possible that a ing essential to the public safety. To imagine that at such a
government half supplied and always necessitous, can fulfill crisis credit might be dispensed with, would be the extreme
the purposes of its institution, can provide for the security, of infatuation. In the modern system of war, nations the most
advance the prosperity, or support the reputation of the com- wealthy are obliged to have recourse to large loans. A country
monwealth? How can it ever possess either energy or stabil- so little opulent as ours must feel this necessity in a much
ity, dignity or credit, confidence at home or respectability stronger degree. But who would lend to a government that
abroad? How can its administration be any thing else than a prefaced its overtures for borrowing by an act which demon-
succession of expedients temporizing, impotent, disgraceful? strated that no reliance could be placed on the steadiness of its
How will it be able to avoid a frequent sacrifice of its engage- measures for paying? The loans it might be able to procure
ments to immediate necessity? How can it undertake or ex- would be as limited in their extent as burdensome in their
ecute any liberal or enlarged plans of public good? conditions. They would be made upon the same principles
Let us attend to what would be the effects of this situation that usurers commonly lend to bankrupt and fraudulent debt-
in the very first war in which we should happen to be en- ors, with a sparing hand and at enormous premiums.
gaged. We will presume, for argument’s sake, that the revenue It may perhaps be imagined that, from the scantiness of the
arising from the impost duties answers the purposes of a pro- resources of the country, the necessity of diverting the estab-
vision for the public debt and of a peace establishment for the lished funds in the case supposed would exist, though the
Union. Thus circumstanced, a war breaks out. What would national government should possess an unrestrained power
be the probable conduct of the government in such an emer- of taxation. But two considerations will serve to quiet all ap-
gency? Taught by experience that proper dependence could prehension on this head: one is, that we are sure the resources
not be placed on the success of requisitions, unable by its of the community, in their full extent, will be brought into
own authority to lay hold of fresh resources, and urged by activity for the benefit of the Union; the other is, that what-
considerations of national danger, would it not be driven to ever deficiences there may be, can without difficulty be sup-
the expedient of diverting the funds already appropriated from plied by loans.
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The power of creating new funds upon new objects of taxa- FEDERALIST No. 31
tion, by its own authority, would enable the national govern-
ment to borrow as far as its necessities might require. For- The Same Subject Continued
eigners, as well as the citizens of America, could then reason-
ably repose confidence in its engagements; but to depend upon (Concerning the General Power of Taxation)
a government that must itself depend upon thirteen other
governments for the means of fulfilling its contracts, when From the New York Packet.
once its situation is clearly understood, would require a de-
gree of credulity not often to be met with in the pecuniary Tuesday, January 1, 1788.
transactions of mankind, and little reconcilable with the usual
sharp-sightedness of avarice. HAMILTON
Reflections of this kind may have trifling weight with men
who hope to see realized in America the halcyon scenes of the To the People of the State of New York:
poetic or fabulous age; but to those who believe we are likely
to experience a common portion of the vicissitudes and ca- In disquisitions of every kind, there are certain primary truths,
lamities which have fallen to the lot of other nations, they or first principles, upon which all subsequent reasonings must
must appear entitled to serious attention. Such men must depend. These contain an internal evidence which, anteced-
behold the actual situation of their country with painful so- ent to all reflection or combination, commands the assent of
licitude, and deprecate the evils which ambition or revenge the mind. Where it produces not this effect, it must proceed
might, with too much facility, inflict upon it. either from some defect or disorder in the organs of percep-
tion, or from the influence of some strong interest, or pas-
Publius. sion, or prejudice. Of this nature are the maxims in geom-
etry, that “the whole is greater than its part; things equal to
the same are equal to one another; two straight lines cannot
enclose a space; and all right angles are equal to each other.’’
Of the same nature are these other maxims in ethics and poli-
tics, that there cannot be an effect without a cause; that the
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means ought to be proportioned to the end; that every power sary armor against error and imposition. But this
ought to be commensurate with its object; that there ought to untractableness may be carried too far, and may degenerate
be no limitation of a power destined to effect a purpose which into obstinacy, perverseness, or disingenuity. Though it can-
is itself incapable of limitation. And there are other truths in not be pretended that the principles of moral and political
the two latter sciences which, if they cannot pretend to rank in knowledge have, in general, the same degree of certainty with
the class of axioms, are yet such direct inferences from them, those of the mathematics, yet they have much better claims
and so obvious in themselves, and so agreeable to the natural in this respect than, to judge from the conduct of men in
and unsophisticated dictates of common-sense, that they chal- particular situations, we should be disposed to allow them.
lenge the assent of a sound and unbiased mind, with a degree of The obscurity is much oftener in the passions and prejudices
force and conviction almost equally irresistible. of the reasoner than in the subject. Men, upon too many
The objects of geometrical inquiry are so entirely abstracted occasions, do not give their own understandings fair play; but,
from those pursuits which stir up and put in motion the un- yielding to some untoward bias, they entangle themselves in
ruly passions of the human heart, that mankind, without dif- words and confound themselves in subtleties.
ficulty, adopt not only the more simple theorems of the sci- How else could it happen (if we admit the objectors to be
ence, but even those abstruse paradoxes which, however they sincere in their opposition), that positions so clear as those
may appear susceptible of demonstration, are at variance with which manifest the necessity of a general power of taxation in
the natural conceptions which the mind, without the aid of the government of the Union, should have to encounter any
philosophy, would be led to entertain upon the subject. The adversaries among men of discernment? Though these posi-
infinite divisibility of matter, or, in other words, the infinite tions have been elsewhere fully stated, they will perhaps not
divisibility of a finite thing, extending even to the minutest be improperly recapitulated in this place, as introductory to
atom, is a point agreed among geometricians, though not less an examination of what may have been offered by way of
incomprehensible to common-sense than any of those mys- objection to them. They are in substance as follows:
teries in religion, against which the batteries of infidelity have A government ought to contain in itself every power requi-
been so industriously leveled. site to the full accomplishment of the objects committed to
But in the sciences of morals and politics, men are found its care, and to the complete execution of the trusts for which
far less tractable. To a certain degree, it is right and useful that it is responsible, free from every other control but a regard to
this should be the case. Caution and investigation are a neces- the public good and to the sense of the people.
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As the duties of superintending the national defense and of because the exigencies of the Union may not be susceptible of
securing the public peace against foreign or domestic violence limitation, that its power of laying taxes ought to be uncon-
involve a provision for casualties and dangers to which no fined. Revenue is as requisite to the purposes of the local ad-
possible limits can be assigned, the power of making that pro- ministrations as to those of the Union; and the former are at
vision ought to know no other bounds than the exigencies of least of equal importance with the latter to the happiness of
the nation and the resources of the community. the people. It is, therefore, as necessary that the State govern-
As revenue is the essential engine by which the means of ments should be able to command the means of supplying
answering the national exigencies must be procured, the power their wants, as that the national government should possess
of procuring that article in its full extent must necessarily be the like faculty in respect to the wants of the Union. But an
comprehended in that of providing for those exigencies. indefinite power of taxation in the latter might, and prob-
As theory and practice conspire to prove that the power of ably would in time, deprive the former of the means of pro-
procuring revenue is unavailing when exercised over the States viding for their own necessities; and would subject them en-
in their collective capacities, the federal government must of tirely to the mercy of the national legislature. As the laws of
necessity be invested with an unqualified power of taxation the Union are to become the supreme law of the land, as it is
in the ordinary modes. to have power to pass all laws that may be necessary for carry-
Did not experience evince the contrary, it would be natural ing into execution the authorities with which it is proposed
to conclude that the propriety of a general power of taxation to vest it, the national government might at any time abolish
in the national government might safely be permitted to rest the taxes imposed for State objects upon the pretense of an
on the evidence of these propositions, unassisted by any addi- interference with its own. It might allege a necessity of doing
tional arguments or illustrations. But we find, in fact, that this in order to give efficacy to the national revenues. And
the antagonists of the proposed Constitution, so far from thus all the resources of taxation might by degrees become
acquiescing in their justness or truth, seem to make their prin- the subjects of federal monopoly, to the entire exclusion and
cipal and most zealous effort against this part of the plan. It destruction of the State governments.’’
may therefore be satisfactory to analyze the arguments with This mode of reasoning appears sometimes to turn upon
which they combat it. the supposition of usurpation in the national government; at
Those of them which have been most labored with that other times it seems to be designed only as a deduction from
view, seem in substance to amount to this: “It is not true, the constitutional operation of its intended powers. It is only
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in the latter light that it can be admitted to have any preten- as probable as a disposition in the Union to encroach upon
sions to fairness. The moment we launch into conjectures about the rights of the State governments. What side would be likely
the usurpations of the federal government, we get into an un- to prevail in such a conflict, must depend on the means which
fathomable abyss, and fairly put ourselves out of the reach of the contending parties could employ toward insuring success.
all reasoning. Imagination may range at pleasure till it gets be- As in republics strength is always on the side of the people,
wildered amidst the labyrinths of an enchanted castle, and knows and as there are weighty reasons to induce a belief that the
not on which side to turn to extricate itself from the perplexi- State governments will commonly possess most influence over
ties into which it has so rashly adventured. Whatever may be them, the natural conclusion is that such contests will be most
the limits or modifications of the powers of the Union, it is apt to end to the disadvantage of the Union; and that there is
easy to imagine an endless train of possible dangers; and by greater probability of encroachments by the members upon
indulging an excess of jealousy and timidity, we may bring our- the federal head, than by the federal head upon the members.
selves to a state of absolute scepticism and irresolution. I repeat But it is evident that all conjectures of this kind must be ex-
here what I have observed in substance in another place, that all tremely vague and fallible: and that it is by far the safest course
observations founded upon the danger of usurpation ought to to lay them altogether aside, and to confine our attention
be referred to the composition and structure of the govern- wholly to the nature and extent of the powers as they are
ment, not to the nature or extent of its powers. The State gov- delineated in the Constitution. Every thing beyond this must
ernments, by their original constitutions, are invested with com- be left to the prudence and firmness of the people; who, as
plete sovereignty. In what does our security consist against usur- they will hold the scales in their own hands, it is to be hoped,
pation from that quarter? Doubtless in the manner of their will always take care to preserve the constitutional equilib-
formation, and in a due dependence of those who are to ad- rium between the general and the State governments. Upon
minister them upon the people. If the proposed construction this ground, which is evidently the true one, it will not be
of the federal government be found, upon an impartial exami- difficult to obviate the objections which have been made to
nation of it, to be such as to afford, to a proper extent, the an indefinite power of taxation in the United States.
same species of security, all apprehensions on the score of usur-
pation ought to be discarded. Publius.
It should not be forgotten that a disposition in the State
governments to encroach upon the rights of the Union is quite
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FEDERALIST No. 32 the sole exception of duties on imports and exports) they would,
under the plan of the convention, retain that authority in the
The Same Subject Continued most absolute and unqualified sense; and that an attempt on
the part of the national government to abridge them in the
(Concerning the General Power of Taxation) exercise of it, would be a violent assumption of power, unwar-
ranted by any article or clause of its Constitution.
From the Daily Advertiser. An entire consolidation of the States into one complete
national sovereignty would imply an entire subordination of
Thursday, January 3, 1788. the parts; and whatever powers might remain in them, would
be altogether dependent on the general will. But as the plan
HAMILTON of the convention aims only at a partial union or consolida-
tion, the State governments would clearly retain all the rights
To the People of the State of New York: of sovereignty which they before had, and which were not,
by that act, exlusively delegated to the United States. This
Although I am of opinion that there would be no real danger exclusive delegation, or rather this alienation, of State sover-
of the consequences which seem to be apprehended to the eignty, would only exist in three cases: where the Constitu-
State governments from a power in the Union to control them tion in express terms granted an exclusive authority to the
in the levies of money, because I am persuaded that the sense Union; where it granted in one instance an authority to the
of the people, the extreme hazard of provoking the resent- Union, and in another prohibited the States from exercising
ments of the State governments, and a conviction of the util- the like authority; and where it granted an authority to the
ity and necessity of local administrations for local purposes, Union, to which a similar authority in the States would be
would be a complete barrier against the oppressive use of such absolutely and totally contradictory and repugnant. I use these
a power; yet I am willing here to allow, in its full extent, the terms to distinguish this last case from another which might
justness of the reasoning which requires that the individual appear to resemble it, but which would, in fact, be essentially
States should possess an independent and uncontrollable au- different; I mean where the exercise of a concurrent jurisdic-
thority to raise their own revenues for the supply of their tion might be productive of occasional interferences in the
own wants. And making this concession, I affirm that (with policy of any branch of administration, but would not imply
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any direct contradiction or repugnancy in point of constitu- posing taxes on all articles other than exports and imports.
tional authority. These three cases of exclusive jurisdiction in This, I contend, is manifestly a concurrent and coequal au-
the federal government may be exemplified by the following thority in the United States and in the individual States. There
instances: The last clause but one in the eighth section of the is plainly no expression in the granting clause which makes
first article provides expressly that Congress shall exercise “ex- that power exclusive in the Union. There is no independent
clusive legislation” over the district to be appropriated as the clause or sentence which prohibits the States from exercising
seat of government. This answers to the first case. The first it. So far is this from being the case, that a plain and conclu-
clause of the same section empowers Congress “to lay and sive argument to the contrary is to be deduced from the re-
collect taxes, duties, imposts and excises’’; and the second clause straint laid upon the States in relation to duties on imports
of the tenth section of the same article declares that, “no state and exports. This restriction implies an admission that, if it
shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any imposts or du- were not inserted, the States would possess the power it ex-
ties on imports or exports, except for the purpose of executing cludes; and it implies a further admission, that as to all other
its inspection laws.’’ Hence would result an exclusive power taxes, the authority of the States remains undiminished. In
in the Union to lay duties on imports and exports, with the any other view it would be both unnecessary and dangerous;
particular exception mentioned; but this power is abridged it would be unnecessary, because if the grant to the Union of
by another clause, which declares that no tax or duty shall be the power of laying such duties implied the exclusion of the
laid on articles exported from any State; in consequence of States, or even their subordination in this particular, there could
which qualification, it now only extends to the duties on im- be no need of such a restriction; it would be dangerous, be-
ports. This answers to the second case. The third will be found cause the introduction of it leads directly to the conclusion
in that clause which declares that Congress shall have power which has been mentioned, and which, if the reasoning of the
“to establish an uniform rule of naturalization throughout the objectors be just, could not have been intended; I mean that
United States.’’ This must necessarily be exclusive; because if the States, in all cases to which the restriction did not apply,
each State had power to prescribe a distinct rule, there could would have a concurrent power of taxation with the Union.
not be a uniform rule. The restriction in question amounts to what lawyers call a
A case which may perhaps be thought to resemble the lat- negative pregnant that is, a negation of one thing, and an affir-
ter, but which is in fact widely different, affects the question mance of another; a negation of the authority of the States to
immediately under consideration. I mean the power of im- impose taxes on imports and exports, and an affirmance of
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their authority to impose them on all other articles. It would would be involved no direct contradiction of power. The par-
be mere sophistry to argue that it was meant to exclude them ticular policy of the national and of the State systems of fi-
absolutely from the imposition of taxes of the former kind, nance might now and then not exactly coincide, and might
and to leave them at liberty to lay others subject to the control require reciprocal forbearances. It is not, however a mere pos-
of the national legislature. The restraining or prohibitory clause sibility of inconvenience in the exercise of powers, but an
only says, that they shall not, without the consent of congress, immediate constitutional repugnancy that can by implication
lay such duties; and if we are to understand this in the sense alienate and extinguish a pre-existing right of sovereignty.
last mentioned, the Constitution would then be made to in- The necessity of a concurrent jurisdiction in certain cases
troduce a formal provision for the sake of a very absurd con- results from the division of the sovereign power; and the rule
clusion; which is, that the States, with the consent of the na- that all authorities, of which the States are not explicitly di-
tional legislature, might tax imports and exports; and that vested in favor of the Union, remain with them in full vigor,
they might tax every other article, unless controlled by the same is not a theoretical consequence of that division, but is clearly
body. If this was the intention, why not leave it, in the first admitted by the whole tenor of the instrument which con-
instance, to what is alleged to be the natural operation of the tains the articles of the proposed Constitution. We there find
original clause, conferring a general power of taxation upon that, notwithstanding the affirmative grants of general au-
the Union? It is evident that this could not have been the thorities, there has been the most pointed care in those cases
intention, and that it will not bear a construction of the kind. where it was deemed improper that the like authorities should
As to a supposition of repugnancy between the power of reside in the States, to insert negative clauses prohibiting the
taxation in the States and in the Union, it cannot be sup- exercise of them by the States. The tenth section of the first
ported in that sense which would be requisite to work an article consists altogether of such provisions.
exclusion of the States. It is, indeed, possible that a tax might This circumstance is a clear indication of the sense of the
be laid on a particular article by a State which might render it convention, and furnishes a rule of interpretation out of the
inexpedient that thus a further tax should be laid on the same body of the act, which justifies the position I have advanced
article by the Union; but it would not imply a constitutional and refutes every hypothesis to the contrary.
inability to impose a further tax. The quantity of the imposi-
tion, the expediency or inexpediency of an increase on either Publius.
side, would be mutually questions of prudence; but there
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FEDERALIST No. 33 These two clauses have been the source of much virulent
invective and petulant declamation against the proposed Con-
The Same Subject Continued stitution. They have been held up to the people in all the
exaggerated colors of misrepresentation as the pernicious en-
(Concerning the General Power of Taxation) gines by which their local governments were to be destroyed
and their liberties exterminated; as the hideous monster whose
From the Daily Advertiser. devouring jaws would spare neither sex nor age, nor high nor
low, nor sacred nor profane; and yet, strange as it may appear,
January 3, 1788. after all this clamor, to those who may not have happened to
contemplate them in the same light, it may be affirmed with
HAMILTON perfect confidence that the constitutional operation of the
intended government would be precisely the same, if these
To the People of the State of New York: clauses were entirely obliterated, as if they were repeated in
every article. They are only declaratory of a truth which would
The residue of the argument against the provisions of the have resulted by necessary and unavoidable implication from
Constitution in respect to taxation is ingrafted upon the fol- the very act of constituting a federal government, and vesting
lowing clause. The last clause of the eighth section of the first it with certain specified powers. This is so clear a proposition,
article of the plan under consideration authorizes the national that moderation itself can scarcely listen to the railings which
legislature “to make all laws which shall be necessary and proper have been so copiously vented against this part of the plan,
for carrying into execution the powers by that Constitution without emotions that disturb its equanimity.
vested in the government of the United States, or in any de- What is a power, but the ability or faculty of doing a thing?
partment or officer thereof ’’; and the second clause of the What is the ability to do a thing, but the power of employing
sixth article declares, “that the Constitution and the laws of the means necessary to its execution? What is a legislative power,
the United States made in pursuance thereof, and the treaties but a power of making laws? What are the means to execute a
made by their authority shall be the supreme law of the land, legislative power but laws? What is the power of laying and
any thing in the constitution or laws of any State to the con- collecting taxes, but a legislative power, or a power of making
trary notwithstanding.’’ laws, to lay and collect taxes? What are the propermeans of
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executing such a power, but necessary and proper laws? who might hereafter feel a disposition to curtail and evade
This simple train of inquiry furnishes us at once with a test the legitimatb authorities of the Union. The Convention prob-
by which to judge of the true nature of the clause complained ably foresaw, what it has been a principal aim of these papers
of. It conducts us to this palpable truth, that a power to lay to inculcate, that the danger which most threatens our politi-
and collect taxes must be a power to pass all laws necessary cal welfare is that the State governments will finally sap the
and proper for the execution of that power; and what does the foundations of the Union; and might therefore think it nec-
unfortunate and culumniated provision in question do more essary, in so cardinal a point, to leave nothing to construc-
than declare the same truth, to wit, that the national legisla- tion. Whatever may have been the inducement to it, the wis-
ture, to whom the power of laying and collecting taxes had dom of the precaution is evident from the cry which has been
been previously given, might, in the execution of that power, raised against it; as that very cry betrays a disposition to ques-
pass all laws necessary and proper to carry it into effect? I have tion the great and essential truth which it is manifestly the
applied these observations thus particularly to the power of object of that provision to declare.
taxation, because it is the immediate subject under consider- But it may be again asked, Who is to judge of the necessity
ation, and because it is the most important of the authorities and propriety of the laws to be passed for executing the pow-
proposed to be conferred upon the Union. But the same pro- ers of the Union? I answer, first, that this question arises as
cess will lead to the same result, in relation to all other powers well and as fully upon the simple grant of those powers as
declared in the Constitution. And it is expressly to execute upon the declaratory clause; and I answer, in the second place,
these powers that the sweeping clause, as it has been affect- that the national government, like every other, must judge, in
edly called, authorizes the national legislature to pass all neces- the first instance, of the proper exercise of its powers, and its
sary and proper laws. If there is any thing exceptionable, it constituents in the last. If the federal government should over-
must be sought for in the specific powers upon which this pass the just bounds of its authority and make a tyrannical
general declaration is predicated. The declaration itself, though use of its powers, the people, whose creature it is, must ap-
it may be chargeable with tautology or redundancy, is at least peal to the standard they have formed, and take such mea-
perfectly harmless. sures to redress the injury done to the Constitution as the
But suspicion may ask, Why then was it introduced? The exigency may suggest and prudence justify. The propriety of a
answer is, that it could only have been done for greater cau- law, in a constitutional light, must always be determined by
tion, and to guard against all cavilling refinements in those the nature of the powers upon which it is founded. Suppose,
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by some forced constructions of its authority (which, indeed, over those societies, and the individuals of whom they are
cannot easily be imagined), the Federal legislature should at- composed. It would otherwise be a mere treaty, dependent
tempt to vary the law of descent in any State, would it not be on the good faith of the parties, and not a goverment, which
evident that, in making such an attempt, it had exceeded its is only another word for political power and supremacy. But it
jurisdiction, and infringed upon that of the State? Suppose, will not follow from this doctrine that acts of the large soci-
again, that upon the pretense of an interference with its rev- ety which are not pursuant to its constitutional powers, but
enues, it should undertake to abrogate a landtax imposed by which are invasions of the residuary authorities of the smaller
the authority of a State; would it not be equally evident that societies, will become the supreme law of the land. These
this was an invasion of that concurrent jurisdiction in respect will be merely acts of usurpation, and will deserve to be treated
to this species of tax, which its Constitution plainly supposes as such. Hence we perceive that the clause which declares the
to exist in the State governments? If there ever should be a supremacy of the laws of the Union, like the one we have just
doubt on this head, the credit of it will be entirely due to before considered, only declares a truth, which flows imme-
those reasoners who, in the imprudent zeal of their animosity diately and necessarily from the institution of a federal gov-
to the plan of the convention, have labored to envelop it in a ernment. It will not, I presume, have escaped observation,
cloud calculated to obscure the plainest and simplest truths. that it expressly confines this supremacy to laws made pursu-
But it is said that the laws of the Union are to be the su- ant to the constitution; which I mention merely as an instance
preme law of the land. But what inference can be drawn from of caution in the convention; since that limitation would have
this, or what would they amount to, if they were not to be been to be understood, though it had not been expressed.
supreme? It is evident they would amount to nothing. A law, Though a law, therefore, laying a tax for the use of the United
by the very meaning of the term, includes supremacy. It is a States would be supreme in its nature, and could not legally
rule which those to whom it is prescribed are bound to ob- be opposed or controlled, yet a law for abrogating or prevent-
serve. This results from every political association. If indi- ing the collection of a tax laid by the authority of the State,
viduals enter into a state of society, the laws of that society (unless upon imports and exports), would not be the supreme
must be the supreme regulator of their conduct. If a number law of the land, but a usurpation of power not granted by the
of political societies enter into a larger political society, the Constitution. As far as an improper accumulation of taxes on
laws which the latter may enact, pursuant to the powers in- the same object might tend to render the collection difficult
trusted to it by its constitution, must necessarily be supreme or precarious, this would be a mutual inconvenience, not aris-
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ing from a superiority or defect of power on either side, but FEDERALIST No. 34
from an injudicious exercise of power by one or the other, in
a manner equally disadvantageous to both. It is to be hoped The Same Subject Continued
and presumed, however, that mutual interest would dictate a
concert in this respect which would avoid any material incon- (Concerning the General Power of Taxation)
venience. The inference from the whole is, that the individual
States would, under the proposed Constitution, retain an in- From the New York Packet.
dependent and uncontrollable authority to raise revenue to
any extent of which they may stand in need, by every kind of Friday, January 4, 1788.
taxation, except duties on imports and exports. It will be
shown in the next paper that this concurrent jurisdiction in the HAMILTON
article of taxation was the only admissible substitute for an
entire subordination, in respect to this branch of power, of To the People of the State of New York:
the State authority to that of the Union.
I flatter myself it has been clearly shown in my last number
Publius. that the particular States, under the proposed Constitution,
would have coequal authority with the Union in the article of
revenue, except as to duties on imports. As this leaves open to
the States far the greatest part of the resources of the commu-
nity, there can be no color for the assertion that they would
not possess means as abundant as could be desired for the
supply of their own wants, independent of all external con-
trol. That the field is sufficiently wide will more fully appear
when we come to advert to the inconsiderable share of the
public expenses for which it will fall to the lot of the State
governments to provide.
To argue upon abstract principles that this co-ordinate au-
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thority cannot exist, is to set up supposition and theory against rally reduce themselves within a very narrow compass; and in
fact and reality. However proper such reasonings might be to the interim, the United States will, in all probability, find it
show that a thing ought not to exist, they are wholly to be convenient to abstain wholly from those objects to which the
rejected when they are made use of to prove that it does not particular States would be inclined to resort.
exist contrary to the evidence of the fact itself. It is well known To form a more precise judgment of the true merits of this
that in the Roman republic the legislative authority, in the question, it will be well to advert to the proportion between
last resort, resided for ages in two different political bodies the objects that will require a federal provision in respect to
not as branches of the same legislature, but as distinct and revenue, and those which will require a State provision. We
independent legislatures, in each of which an opposite inter- shall discover that the former are altogether unlimited, and
est prevailed: in one the patrician; in the other, the plebian. that the latter are circumscribed within very moderate bounds.
Many arguments might have been adduced to prove the un- In pursuing this inquiry, we must bear in mind that we are
fitness of two such seemingly contradictory authorities, each not to confine our view to the present period, but to look
having power to annul or repeal the acts of the other. But a forward to remote futurity. Constitutions of civil government
man would have been regarded as frantic who should have are not to be framed upon a calculation of existing exigencies,
attempted at Rome to disprove their existence. It will be readily but upon a combination of these with the probable exigen-
understood that I allude to the comitia centuriata and the cies of ages, according to the natural and tried course of hu-
comitia tributa. The former, in which the people voted by man affairs. Nothing, therefore, can be more fallacious than
centuries, was so arranged as to give a superiority to the patri- to infer the extent of any power, proper to be lodged in the
cian interest; in the latter, in which numbers prevailed, the national government, from an estimate of its immediate ne-
plebian interest had an entire predominancy. And yet these cessities. There ought to be a capacity to provide for future
two legislatures coexisted for ages, and the Roman republic contingencies as they may happen; and as these are illimitable
attained to the utmost height of human greatness. in their nature, it is impossible safely to limit that capacity. It
In the case particularly under consideration, there is no such is true, perhaps, that a computation might be made with suf-
contradiction as appears in the example cited; there is no power ficient accuracy to answer the purpose of the quantity of rev-
on either side to annul the acts of the other. And in practice enue requisite to discharge the subsisting engagements of the
there is little reason to apprehend any inconvenience; because, Union, and to maintain those establishments which, for some
in a short course of time, the wants of the States will natu- time to come, would suffice in time of peace. But would it
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be wise, or would it not rather be the extreme of folly, to stop it should break forth into a storm, who can insure us that in
at this point, and to leave the government intrusted with the its progress a part of its fury would not be spent upon us? No
care of the national defense in a state of absolute incapacity to reasonable man would hastily pronounce that we are entirely
provide for the protection of the community against future out of its reach. Or if the combustible materials that now
invasions of the public peace, by foreign war or domestic con- seem to be collecting should be dissipated without coming to
vulsions? If, on the contrary, we ought to exceed this point, maturity, or if a flame should be kindled without extending
where can we stop, short of an indefinite power of providing to us, what security can we have that our tranquillity will
for emergencies as they may arise? Though it is easy to assert, long remain undisturbed from some other cause or from some
in general terms, the possibility of forming a rational judg- other quarter? Let us recollect that peace or war will not al-
ment of a due provision against probable dangers, yet we may ways be left to our option; that however moderate or unam-
safely challenge those who make the assertion to bring for- bitious we may be, we cannot count upon the moderation,
ward their data, and may affirm that they would be found as or hope to extinguish the ambition of others. Who could
vague and uncertain as any that could be produced to estab- have imagined at the conclusion of the last war that France
lish the probable duration of the world. Observations con- and Britain, wearied and exhausted as they both were, would
fined to the mere prospects of internal attacks can deserve no so soon have looked with so hostile an aspect upon each other?
weight; though even these will admit of no satisfactory calcu- To judge from the history of mankind, we shall be com-
lation: but if we mean to be a commercial people, it must pelled to conclude that the fiery and destructive passions of
form a part of our policy to be able one day to defend that war reign in the human breast with much more powerful
commerce. The support of a navy and of naval wars would sway than the mild and beneficent sentiments of peace; and
involve contingencies that must baffle all the efforts of politi- that to model our political systems upon speculations of last-
cal arithmetic. ing tranquillity, is to calculate on the weaker springs of the
Admitting that we ought to try the novel and absurd ex- human character.
periment in politics of tying up the hands of government What are the chief sources of expense in every government?
from offensive war founded upon reasons of state, yet cer- What has occasioned that enormous accumulation of debts
tainly we ought not to disable it from guarding the commu- with which several of the European nations are oppressed?
nity against the ambition or enmity of other nations. A cloud The answers plainly is, wars and rebellions; the support of
has been for some time hanging over the European world. If those institutions which are necessary to guard the body poli-
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tic against these two most mortal diseases of society. The ex- But let us advert to the large debt which we have ourselves
penses arising from those institutions which are relative to contracted in a single war, and let us only calculate on a com-
the mere domestic police of a state, to the support of its leg- mon share of the events which disturb the peace of nations,
islative, executive, and judicial departments, with their differ- and we shall instantly perceive, without the aid of any elabo-
ent appendages, and to the encouragement of agriculture and rate illustration, that there must always be an immense dis-
manufactures (which will comprehend almost all the objects proportion between the objects of federal and state expendi-
of state expenditure), are insignificant in comparison with tures. It is true that several of the States, separately, are en-
those which relate to the national defense. cumbered with considerable debts, which are an excrescence
In the kingdom of Great Britain, where all the ostentatious of the late war. But this cannot happen again, if the proposed
apparatus of monarchy is to be provided for, not above a fif- system be adopted; and when these debts are discharged, the
teenth part of the annual income of the nation is appropri- only call for revenue of any consequence, which the State
ated to the class of expenses last mentioned; the other four- governments will continue to experience, will be for the mere
teen fifteenths are absorbed in the payment of the interest of support of their respective civil list; to which, if we add all
debts contracted for carrying on the wars in which that coun- contingencies, the total amount in every State ought to fall
try has been engaged, and in the maintenance of fleets and considerably short of two hundred thousand pounds.
armies. If, on the one hand, it should be observed that the In framing a government for posterity as well as ourselves,
expenses incurred in the prosecution of the ambitious enter- we ought, in those provisions which are designed to be per-
prises and vainglorious pursuits of a monarchy are not a proper manent, to calculate, not on temporary, but on permanent
standard by which to judge of those which might be neces- causes of expense. If this principle be a just one our attention
sary in a republic, it ought, on the other hand, to be remarked would be directed to a provision in favor of the State govern-
that there should be as great a disproportion between the pro- ments for an annual sum of about two hundred thousand
fusion and extravagance of a wealthy kingdom in its domes- pounds; while the exigencies of the Union could be suscep-
tic administration, and the frugality and economy which in tible of no limits, even in imagination. In this view of the
that particular become the modest simplicity of republican subject, by what logic can it be maintained that the local gov-
government. If we balance a proper deduction from one side ernments ought to command, in perpetuity, an exclusive source
against that which it is supposed ought to be made from the of revenue for any sum beyond the extent of two hundred
other, the proportion may still be considered as holding good. thousand pounds? To extend its power further, in exclusion of
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the authority of the Union, would be to take the resources of The preceding train of observation will justify the position
the community out of those hands which stood in need of which has been elsewhere laid down, that “a concurrent juris-
them for the public welfare, in order to put them into other diction in the article of taxation was the only admissible sub-
hands which could have no just or proper occasion for them. stitute for an entire subordination, in respect to this branch
Suppose, then, the convention had been inclined to pro- of power, of State authority to that of the Union.’’ Any sepa-
ceed upon the principle of a repartition of the objects of rev- ration of the objects of revenue that could have been fallen
enue, between the Union and its members, in proportion to upon, would have amounted to a sacrifice of the great inter-
their comparative necessities; what particular fund could have ests of the Union to the power of the individual States. The
been selected for the use of the States, that would not either convention thought the concurrent jurisdiction preferable to
have been too much or too little too little for their present, that subordination; and it is evident that it has at least the
too much for their future wants? As to the line of separation merit of reconciling an indefinite constitutional power of taxa-
between external and internal taxes, this would leave to the tion in the Federal government with an adequate and inde-
States, at a rough computation, the command of two thirds pendent power in the States to provide for their own necessi-
of the resources of the community to defray from a tenth to ties. There remain a few other lights, in which this important
a twentieth part of its expenses; and to the Union, one third subject of taxation will claim a further consideration.
of the resources of the community, to defray from nine tenths
to nineteen twentieths of its expenses. If we desert this bound- Publius.
ary and content ourselves with leaving to the States an exclu-
sive power of taxing houses and lands, there would still be a
great disproportion between the means and the end; the pos-
session of one third of the resources of the community to
supply, at most, one tenth of its wants. If any fund could
have been selected and appropriated, equal to and not greater
than the object, it would have been inadequate to the dis-
charge of the existing debts of the particular States, and would
have left them dependent on the Union for a provision for
this purpose.
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FEDERALIST No. 35 imagine that they can never be carried to too great a length;
since the higher they are, the more it is alleged they will tend
The Same Subject Continued to discourage an extravagant consumption, to produce a fa-
vorable balance of trade, and to promote domestic manufac-
(Concerning the General Power of Taxation) tures. But all extremes are pernicious in various ways. Exorbi-
tant duties on imported articles would beget a general spirit
For the Independent Journal. of smuggling; which is always prejudicial to the fair trader,
and eventually to the revenue itself: they tend to render other
HAMILTON classes of the community tributary, in an improper degree, to
the manufacturing classes, to whom they give a premature
To the People of the State of New York: monopoly of the markets; they sometimes force industry out
of its more natural channels into others in which it flows
Before we proceed to examine any other objections to an in- with less advantage; and in the last place, they oppress the
definite power of taxation in the Union, I shall make one merchant, who is often obliged to pay them himself without
general remark; which is, that if the jurisdiction of the na- any retribution from the consumer. When the demand is equal
tional government, in the article of revenue, should be re- to the quantity of goods at market, the consumer generally
stricted to particular objects, it would naturally occasion an pays the duty; but when the markets happen to be overstocked,
undue proportion of the public burdens to fall upon those a great proportion falls upon the merchant, and sometimes
objects. Two evils would spring from this source: the oppres- not only exhausts his profits, but breaks in upon his capital. I
sion of particular branches of industry; and an unequal distri- am apt to think that a division of the duty, between the seller
bution of the taxes, as well among the several States as among and the buyer, more often happens than is commonly imag-
the citizens of the same State. ined. It is not always possible to raise the price of a commod-
Suppose, as has been contended for, the federal power of ity in exact proportion to every additional imposition laid
taxation were to be confined to duties on imports, it is evi- upon it. The merchant, especially in a country of small com-
dent that the government, for want of being able to com- mercial capital, is often under a necessity of keeping prices
mand other resources, would frequently be tempted to ex- down in order to a more expeditious sale.
tend these duties to an injurious excess. There are persons who The maxim that the consumer is the payer, is so much
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oftener true than the reverse of the proposition, that it is far course, suffer in a double light from restraining the jurisdic-
more equitable that the duties on imports should go into a tion of the Union to commercial imposts.
common stock, than that they should redound to the exclu- So far as these observations tend to inculcate a danger of the
sive benefit of the importing States. But it is not so generally import duties being extended to an injurious extreme it may
true as to render it equitable, that those duties should form be observed, conformably to a remark made in another part of
the only national fund. When they are paid by the merchant these papers, that the interest of the revenue itself would be a
they operate as an additional tax upon the importing State, sufficient guard against such an extreme. I readily admit that
whose citizens pay their proportion of them in the character this would be the case, as long as other resources were open;
of consumers. In this view they are productive of inequality but if the avenues to them were closed, hope, stimulated by
among the States; which inequality would be increased with necessity, would beget experiments, fortified by rigorous pre-
the increased extent of the duties. The confinement of the cautions and additional penalties, which, for a time, would have
national revenues to this species of imposts would be attended the intended effect, till there had been leisure to contrive expe-
with inequality, from a different cause, between the manu- dients to elude these new precautions. The first success would
facturing and the non-manufacturing States. The States which be apt to inspire false opinions, which it might require a long
can go farthest towards the supply of their own wants, by course of subsequent experience to correct. Necessity, especially
their own manufactures, will not, according to their numbers in politics, often occasions false hopes, false reasonings, and a
or wealth, consume so great a proportion of imported ar- system of measures correspondingly erroneous. But even if this
ticles as those States which are not in the same favorable situ- supposed excess should not be a consequence of the limitation
ation. They would not, therefore, in this mode alone con- of the federal power of taxation, the inequalities spoken of
tribute to the public treasury in a ratio to their abilities. To would still ensue, though not in the same degree, from the
make them do this it is necessary that recourse be had to ex- other causes that have been noticed. Let us now return to the
cises, the proper objects of which are particular kinds of manu- examination of objections.
factures. New York is more deeply interested in these consid- One which, if we may judge from the frequency of its rep-
erations than such of her citizens as contend for limiting the etition, seems most to be relied on, is, that the House of
power of the Union to external taxation may be aware of. Representatives is not sufficiently numerous for the reception
New York is an importing State, and is not likely speedily to of all the different classes of citizens, in order to combine the
be, to any great extent, a manufacturing State. She would, of interests and feelings of every part of the community, and to
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produce a due sympathy between the representative body and terests can be more effectually promoted by the merchant
its constituents. This argument presents itself under a very than by themselves. They are sensible that their habits in life
specious and seducing form; and is well calculated to lay hold have not been such as to give them those acquired endow-
of the prejudices of those to whom it is addressed. But when ments, without which, in a deliberative assembly, the greatest
we come to dissect it with attention, it will appear to be made natural abilities are for the most part useless; and that the
up of nothing but fair-sounding words. The object it seems influence and weight, and superior acquirements of the mer-
to aim at is, in the first place, impracticable, and in the sense chants render them more equal to a contest with any spirit
in which it is contended for, is unnecessary. I reserve for an- which might happen to infuse itself into the public councils,
other place the discussion of the question which relates to the unfriendly to the manufacturing and trading interests. These
sufficiency of the representative body in respect to numbers, considerations, and many others that might be mentioned
and shall content myself with examining here the particular prove, and experience confirms it, that artisans and manufac-
use which has been made of a contrary supposition, in refer- turers will commonly be disposed to bestow their votes upon
ence to the immediate subject of our inquiries. merchants and those whom they recommend. We must there-
The idea of an actual representation of all classes of the fore consider merchants as the natural representatives of all
people, by persons of each class, is altogether visionary. Un- these classes of the community.
less it were expressly provided in the Constitution, that each With regard to the learned professions, little need be ob-
different occupation should send one or more members, the served; they truly form no distinct interest in society, and ac-
thing would never take place in practice. Mechanics and manu- cording to their situation and talents, will be indiscriminately
facturers will always be inclined, with few exceptions, to give the objects of the confidence and choice of each other, and of
their votes to merchants, in preference to persons of their own other parts of the community.
professions or trades. Those discerning citizens are well aware Nothing remains but the landed interest; and this, in a po-
that the mechanic and manufacturing arts furnish the materi- litical view, and particularly in relation to taxes, I take to be
als of mercantile enterprise and industry. Many of them, in- perfectly united, from the wealthiest landlord down to the
deed, are immediately connected with the operations of com- poorest tenant. No tax can be laid on land which will not
merce. They know that the merchant is their natural patron affect the proprietor of millions of acres as well as the propri-
and friend; and they are aware, that however great the confi- etor of a single acre. Every landholder will therefore have a
dence they may justly feel in their own good sense, their in- common interest to keep the taxes on land as low as possible;
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and common interest may always be reckoned upon as the mote or insure the interest of landed property? And will he
surest bond of sympathy. But if we even could suppose a not, from his own interest in that species of property, be suf-
distinction of interest between the opulent landholder and ficiently prone to resist every attempt to prejudice or encum-
the middling farmer, what reason is there to conclude, that ber it? Will not the merchant understand and be disposed to
the first would stand a better chance of being deputed to the cultivate, as far as may be proper, the interests of the me-
national legislature than the last? If we take fact as our guide, chanic and manufacturing arts, to which his commerce is so
and look into our own senate and assembly, we shall find that nearly allied? Will not the man of the learned profession, who
moderate proprietors of land prevail in both; nor is this less will feel a neutrality to the rivalships between the different
the case in the senate, which consists of a smaller number, branches of industry, be likely to prove an impartial arbiter
than in the assembly, which is composed of a greater number. between them, ready to promote either, so far as it shall ap-
Where the qualifications of the electors are the same, whether pear to him conducive to the general interests of the society?
they have to choose a small or a large number, their votes will If we take into the account the momentary humors or dis-
fall upon those in whom they have most confidence; whether positions which may happen to prevail in particular parts of
these happen to be men of large fortunes, or of moderate the society, and to which a wise administration will never be
property, or of no property at all. inattentive, is the man whose situation leads to extensive in-
It is said to be necessary, that all classes of citizens should have quiry and information less likely to be a competent judge of
some of their own number in the representative body, in order their nature, extent, and foundation than one whose observa-
that their feelings and interests may be the better understood tion does not travel beyond the circle of his neighbors and
and attended to. But we have seen that this will never happen acquaintances? Is it not natural that a man who is a candidate
under any arrangement that leaves the votes of the people free. for the favor of the people, and who is dependent on the
Where this is the case, the representative body, with too few suffrages of his fellow-citizens for the continuance of his public
exceptions to have any influence on the spirit of the govern- honors, should take care to inform himself of their disposi-
ment, will be composed of landholders, merchants, and men tions and inclinations, and should be willing to allow them
of the learned professions. But where is the danger that the their proper degree of influence upon his conduct? This de-
interests and feelings of the different classes of citizens will not pendence, and the necessity of being bound himself, and his
be understood or attended to by these three descriptions of posterity, by the laws to which he gives his assent, are the
men? Will not the landholder know and feel whatever will pro- true, and they are the strong chords of sympathy between the
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representative and the constituent. FEDERALIST No. 36
There is no part of the administration of government that
requires extensive information and a thorough knowledge of The Same Subject Continued
the principles of political economy, so much as the business
of taxation. The man who understands those principles best (Concerning the General Power of Taxation)
will be least likely to resort to oppressive expedients, or sacri-
fice any particular class of citizens to the procurement of rev- From the New York Packet.
enue. It might be demonstrated that the most productive sys-
tem of finance will always be the least burdensome. There Tuesday January 8, 1788.
can be no doubt that in order to a judicious exercise of the
power of taxation, it is necessary that the person in whose HAMILTON
hands it should be acquainted with the general genius, habits,
and modes of thinking of the people at large, and with the To the People of the State of New York:
resources of the country. And this is all that can be reasonably
meant by a knowledge of the interests and feelings of the We have seen that the result of the observations, to which the
people. In any other sense the proposition has either no mean- foregoing number has been principally devoted, is, that from
ing, or an absurd one. And in that sense let every considerate the natural operation of the different interests and views of
citizen judge for himself where the requisite qualification is the various classes of the community, whether the representa-
most likely to be found. tion of the people be more or less numerous, it will consist
almost entirely of proprietors of land, of merchants, and of
Publius. members of the learned professions, who will truly represent
all those different interests and views. If it should be objected
that we have seen other descriptions of men in the local legis-
latures, I answer that it is admitted there are exceptions to the
rule, but not in sufficient number to influence the general
complexion or character of the government. There are strong
minds in every walk of life that will rise superior to the disad-
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vantages of situation, and will command the tribute due to exercised with advantage, as well from the want of a suffi-
their merit, not only from the classes to which they particu- cient knowledge of local circumstances, as from an interfer-
larly belong, but from the society in general. The door ought ence between the revenue laws of the Union and of the par-
to be equally open to all; and I trust, for the credit of human ticular States. The supposition of a want of proper knowl-
nature, that we shall see examples of such vigorous plants flour- edge seems to be entirely destitute of foundation. If any ques-
ishing in the soil of federal as well as of State legislation; but tion is depending in a State legislature respecting one of the
occasional instances of this sort will not render the reasoning counties, which demands a knowledge of local details, how is
founded upon the general course of things, less conclusive. it acquired? No doubt from the information of the members
The subject might be placed in several other lights that of the county. Cannot the like knowledge be obtained in the
would all lead to the same result; and in particular it might be national legislature from the representatives of each State? And
asked. What greater affinity or relation of interest can be con- is it not to be presumed that the men who will generally be
ceived between the carpenter and blacksmith, and the linen sent there will be possessed of the necessary degree of intelli-
manufacturer or stocking weaver, than between the merchant gence to be able to communicate that information? Is the
and either of them? It is notorious that there are often as great knowledge of local circumstances, as applied to taxation, a
rivalships between different branches of the mechanic or manu- minute topographical acquaintance with all the mountains,
facturing arts as there are between any of the departments of rivers, streams, highways, and bypaths in each State; or is it a
labor and industry; so that, unless the representative body were general acquaintance with its situation and resources, with the
to be far more numerous than would be consistent with any state of its agriculture, commerce, manufactures, with the
idea of regularity or wisdom in its deliberations, it is impos- nature of its products and consumptions, with the different
sible that what seems to be the spirit of the objection we have degrees and kinds of its wealth, property, and industry?
been considering should ever be realized in practice. But I Nations in general, even under governments of the more
forbear to dwell any longer on a matter which has hitherto popular kind, usually commit the administration of their fi-
worn too loose a garb to admit even of an accurate inspection nances to single men or to boards composed of a few indi-
of its real shape or tendency. viduals, who digest and prepare, in the first instance, the plans
There is another objection of a somewhat more precise na- of taxation, which are afterwards passed into laws by the au-
ture that claims our attention. It has been asserted that a power thority of the sovereign or legislature.
of internal taxation in the national legislature could never be Inquisitive and enlightened statesmen are deemed everywhere
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best qualified to make a judicious selection of the objects but even in this view it will not bear a close examination.
proper for revenue; which is a clear indication, as far as the Land taxes are co monly laid in one of two modes, either by
sense of mankind can have weight in the question, of the actual valuations, permanent or periodical, or by occasional
species of knowledge of local circumstances requisite to the assessments, at the discretion, or according to the best judg-
purposes of taxation. ment, of certain officers whose duty it is to make them. In
The taxes intended to be comprised under the general de- either case, the execution of the business, which alone requires
nomination of internal taxes may be subdivided into those of the knowledge of local details, must be devolved upon dis-
the direct and those of the indirect kind. Though the objec- creet persons in the character of commissioners or assessors,
tion be made to both, yet the reasoning upon it seems to be elected by the people or appointed by the government for the
confined to the former branch. And indeed, as to the latter, purpose. All that the law can do must be to name the persons
by which must be understood duties and excises on articles of or to prescribe the manner of their election or appointment,
consumption, one is at a loss to conceive what can be the to fix their numbers and qualifications and to draw the gen-
nature of the difficulties apprehended. The knowledge relat- eral outlines of their powers and duties. And what is there in
ing to them must evidently be of a kind that will either be all this that cannot as well be performed by the national legis-
suggested by the nature of the article itself, or can easily be lature as by a State legislature? The attention of either can
procured from any well-informed man, especially of the mer- only reach to general principles; local details, as already ob-
cantile class. The circumstances that may distinguish its situ- served, must be referred to those who are to execute the plan.
ation in one State from its situation in another must be few, But there is a simple point of view in which this matter
simple, and easy to be comprehended. The principal thing to may be placed that must be altogether satisfactory. The na-
be attended to, would be to avoid those articles which had tional legislature can make use of the system of each state within
been previously appropriated to the use of a particular State; that state. The method of laying and collecting this species of
and there could be no difficulty in ascertaining the revenue taxes in each State can, in all its parts, be adopted and em-
system of each. This could always be known from the respec- ployed by the federal government.
tive codes of laws, as well as from the information of the Let it be recollected that the proportion of these taxes is not
members from the several States. to be left to the discretion of the national legislature, but is to
The objection, when applied to real property or to houses be determined by the numbers of each State, as described in
and lands, appears to have, at first sight, more foundation, the second section of the first article. An actual census or enu-
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meration of the people must furnish the rule, a circumstance clashing or repugnancy of authority. The laws cannot, there-
which effectually shuts the door to partiality or oppression. fore, in a legal sense, interfere with each other; and it is far
The abuse of this power of taxation seems to have been pro- from impossible to avoid an interference even in the policy of
vided against with guarded circumspection. In addition to their different systems. An effectual expedient for this pur-
the precaution just mentioned, there is a provision that “all pose will be, mutually, to abstain from those objects which
duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the either side may have first had recourse to. As neither can con-
United States.’’ trol the other, each will have an obvious and sensible interest
It has been very properly observed by different speakers and in this reciprocal forbearance. And where there is an immedi-
writers on the side of the Constitution, that if the exercise of ate common interest, we may safely count upon its opera-
the power of internal taxation by the Union should be dis- tion. When the particular debts of the States are done away,
covered on experiment to be really inconvenient, the federal and their expenses come to be limited within their natural
government may then forbear the use of it, and have recourse compass, the possibility almost of interference will vanish. A
to requisitions in its stead. By way of answer to this, it has small land tax will answer the purpose of the States, and will
been triumphantly asked, Why not in the first instance omit be their most simple and most fit resource.
that ambiguous power, and rely upon the latter resource? Two Many spectres have been raised out of this power of inter-
solid answers may be given. The first is, that the exercise of nal taxation, to excite the apprehensions of the people: double
that power, if convenient, will be preferable, because it will sets of revenue officers, a duplication of their burdens by
be more effectual; and it is impossible to prove in theory, or double taxations, and the frightful forms of odious and op-
otherwise than by the experiment, that it cannot be advanta- pressive poll-taxes, have been played off with all the inge-
geously exercised. The contrary, indeed, appears most prob- nious dexterity of political legerdemain.
able. The second answer is, that the existence of such a power As to the first point, there are two cases in which there can
in the Constitution will have a strong influence in giving effi- be no room for double sets of officers: one, where the right
cacy to requisitions. When the States know that the Union of imposing the tax is exclusively vested in the Union, which
can apply itself without their agency, it will be a powerful applies to the duties on imports; the other, where the object
motive for exertion on their part. has not fallen under any State regulation or provision, which
As to the interference of the revenue laws of the Union, and may be applicable to a variety of objects. In other cases, the
of its members, we have already seen that there can be no probability is that the United States will either wholly abstain
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from the objects preoccupied for local purposes, or will make ment. The quantity of taxes to be paid by the community
use of the State officers and State regulations for collecting must be the same in either case; with this advantage, if the
the additional imposition. This will best answer the views of provision is to be made by the Union that the capital resource
revenue, because it will save expense in the collection, and of commercial imposts, which is the most convenient branch
will best avoid any occasion of disgust to the State govern- of revenue, can be prudently improved to a much greater ex-
ments and to the people. At all events, here is a practicable tent under federal than under State regulation, and of course
expedient for avoiding such an inconvenience; and nothing will render it less necessary to recur to more inconvenient
more can be required than to show that evils predicted to not methods; and with this further advantage, that as far as there
necessarily result from the plan. may be any real difficulty in the exercise of the power of in-
As to any argument derived from a supposed system of in- ternal taxation, it will impose a disposition to greater care in
fluence, it is a sufficient answer to say that it ought not to be the choice and arrangement of the means; and must naturally
presumed; but the supposition is susceptible of a more pre- tend to make it a fixed point of policy in the national admin-
cise answer. If such a spirit should infest the councils of the istration to go as far as may be practicable in making the luxury
Union, the most certain road to the accomplishment of its of the rich tributary to the public treasury, in order to dimin-
aim would be to employ the State officers as much as pos- ish the necessity of those impositions which might create dis-
sible, and to attach them to the Union by an accumulation of satisfaction in the poorer and most numerous classes of the
their emoluments. This would serve to turn the tide of State society. Happy it is when the interest which the government
influence into the channels of the national government, in- has in the preservation of its own power, coincides with a
stead of making federal influence flow in an opposite and proper distribution of the public burdens, and tends to guard
adverse current. But all suppositions of this kind are invidi- the least wealthy part of the community from oppression!
ous, and ought to be banished from the consideration of the As to poll taxes, I, without scruple, confess my disapproba-
great question before the people. They can answer no other tion of them; and though they have prevailed from an early
end than to cast a mist over the truth. period in those States* which have uniformly been the most
As to the suggestion of double taxation, the answer is plain. tenacious of their rights, I should lament to see them intro-
The wants of the Union are to be supplied in one way or duced into practice under the national government. But does
another; if to be done by the authority of the federal govern- it follow because there is a power to lay them that they will
ment, it will not be to be done by that of the State govern- *The New England States.
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actually be laid? Every State in the Union has power to im- may be considered as having an immediate relation to the
pose taxes of this kind; and yet in several of them they are energy of the government; and have endeavored to answer
unknown in practice. Are the State governments to be stig- the principal objections which have been made to them. I
matized as tyrannies, because they possess this power? If they have passed over in silence those minor authorities, which are
are not, with what propriety can the like power justify such a either too inconsiderable to have been thought worthy of the
charge against the national government, or even be urged as hostilities of the opponents of the Constitution, or of too
an obstacle to its adoption? As little friendly as I am to the manifest propriety to admit of controversy. The mass of ju-
species of imposition, I still feel a thorough conviction that diciary power, however, might have claimed an investigation
the power of having recourse to it ought to exist in the federal under this head, had it not been for the consideration that its
government. There are certain emergencies of nations, in which organization and its extent may be more advantageously con-
expedients, that in the ordinary state of things ought to be sidered in connection. This has determined me to refer it to
forborne, become essential to the public weal. And the gov- the branch of our inquiries upon which we shall next enter.
ernment, from the possibility of such emergencies, ought ever
to have the option of making use of them. The real scarcity Publius.
of objects in this country, which may be considered as pro-
ductive sources of revenue, is a reason peculiar to itself, for
not abridging the discretion of the national councils in this
respect. There may exist certain critical and tempestuous con-
junctures of the State, in which a poll tax may become an
inestimable resource. And as I know nothing to exempt this
portion of the globe from the common calamities that have
befallen other parts of it, I acknowledge my aversion to every
project that is calculated to disarm the government of a single
weapon, which in any possible contingency might be usefully
employed for the general defense and security.
I have now gone through the examination of such of the
powers proposed to be vested in the United States, which
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FEDERALIST No. 37 lic measures are rarely investigated with that spirit of modera-
tion which is essential to a just estimate of their real tendency
Concerning the Difficulties of the Convention to advance or obstruct the public good; and that this spirit is
in Devising a Proper Form of Government more apt to be diminished than promoted, by those occa-
sions which require an unusual exercise of it. To those who
From the Daily Advertiser. have been led by experience to attend to this consideration, it
could not appear surprising, that the act of the convention,
Friday, January 11, 1788. which recommends so many important changes and innova-
tions, which may be viewed in so many lights and relations,
MADISON and which touches the springs of so many passions and inter-
ests, should find or excite dispositions unfriendly, both on
To the People of the State of New York: one side and on the other, to a fair discussion and accurate
judgment of its merits. In some, it has been too evident from
In reviewing the defects of the existing Confederation, and their own publications, that they have scanned the proposed
showing that they cannot be supplied by a government of less Constitution, not only with a predisposition to censure, but
energy than that before the public, several of the most impor- with a predetermination to condemn; as the language held by
tant principles of the latter fell of course under consideration. others betrays an opposite predetermination or bias, which
But as the ultimate object of these papers is to determine must render their opinions also of little moment in the ques-
clearly and fully the merits of this Constitution, and the ex- tion. In placing, however, these different characters on a level,
pediency of adopting it, our plan cannot be complete with- with respect to the weight of their opinions, I wish not to
out taking a more critical and thorough survey of the work of insinuate that there may not be a material difference in the
the convention, without examining it on all its sides, com- purity of their intentions. It is but just to remark in favor of
paring it in all its parts, and calculating its probable effects. the latter description, that as our situation is universally ad-
That this remaining task may be executed under impres- mitted to be peculiarly critical, and to require indispensably
sions conducive to a just and fair result, some reflections must that something should be done for our relief, the predeter-
in this place be indulged, which candor previously suggests. mined patron of what has been actually done may have taken
It is a misfortune, inseparable from human affairs, that pub- his bias from the weight of these considerations, as well as
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from considerations of a sinister nature. The predetermined with it the superstructure resting upon it. It has been shown,
adversary, on the other hand, can have been governed by no that the other confederacies which could be consulted as pre-
venial motive whatever. The intentions of the first may be cedents have been vitiated by the same erroneous principles,
upright, as they may on the contrary be culpable. The views and can therefore furnish no other light than that of beacons,
of the last cannot be upright, and must be culpable. But the which give warning of the course to be shunned, without
truth is, that these papers are not addressed to persons falling pointing out that which ought to be pursued. The most that
under either of these characters. They solicit the attention of the convention could do in such a situation, was to avoid the
those only, who add to a sincere zeal for the happiness of their errors suggested by the past experience of other countries, as
country, a temper favorable to a just estimate of the means of well as of our own; and to provide a convenient mode of
promoting it. rectifying their own errors, as future experiences may unfold
Persons of this character will proceed to an examination of them.
the plan submitted by the convention, not only without a dis- Among the difficulties encountered by the convention, a
position to find or to magnify faults; but will see the propriety very important one must have lain in combining the requi-
of reflecting, that a faultless plan was not to be expected. Nor site stability and energy in government, with the inviolable
will they barely make allowances for the errors which may be attention due to liberty and to the republican form. Without
chargeable on the fallibility to which the convention, as a body substantially accomplishing this part of their undertaking, they
of men, were liable; but will keep in mind, that they them- would have very imperfectly fulfilled the object of their ap-
selves also are but men, and ought not to assume an infallibility pointment, or the expectation of the public; yet that it could
in rejudging the fallible opinions of others. not be easily accomplished, will be denied by no one who is
With equal readiness will it be perceived, that besides these unwilling to betray his ignorance of the subject. Energy in
inducements to candor, many allowances ought to be made government is essential to that security against external and
for the difficulties inherent in the very nature of the under- internal danger, and to that prompt and salutary execution of
taking referred to the convention. the laws which enter into the very definition of good govern-
The novelty of the undertaking immediately strikes us. It ment. Stability in government is essential to national charac-
has been shown in the course of these papers, that the existing ter and to the advantages annexed to it, as well as to that
Confederation is founded on principles which are fallacious; repose and confidence in the minds of the people, which are
that we must consequently change this first foundation, and among the chief blessings of civil society. An irregular and
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mutable legislation is not more an evil in itself than it is odi- proper line of partition between the authority of the general
ous to the people; and it may be pronounced with assurance and that of the State governments. Every man will be sensible
that the people of this country, enlightened as they are with of this difficulty, in proportion as he has been accustomed to
regard to the nature, and interested, as the great body of them contemplate and discriminate objects extensive and compli-
are, in the effects of good government, will never be satisfied cated in their nature. The faculties of the mind itself have
till some remedy be applied to the vicissitudes and uncertain- never yet been distinguished and defined, with satisfactory
ties which characterize the State administrations. On com- precision, by all the efforts of the most acute and metaphysi-
paring, however, these valuable ingredients with the vital prin- cal philosophers. Sense, perception, judgment, desire, voli-
ciples of liberty, we must perceive at once the difficulty of tion, memory, imagination, are found to be separated by such
mingling them together in their due proportions. The genius delicate shades and minute gradations that their boundaries
of republican liberty seems to demand on one side, not only have eluded the most subtle investigations, and remain a preg-
that all power should be derived from the people, but that nant source of ingenious disquisition and controversy. The
those intrusted with it should be kept in independence on boundaries between the great kingdom of nature, and, still
the people, by a short duration of their appointments; and more, between the various provinces, and lesser portions, into
that even during this short period the trust should be placed which they are subdivided, afford another illustration of the
not in a few, but a number of hands. Stability, on the con- same important truth. The most sagacious and laborious natu-
trary, requires that the hands in which power is lodged should ralists have never yet succeeded in tracing with certainty the
continue for a length of time the same. A frequent change of line which separates the district of vegetable life from the neigh-
men will result from a frequent return of elections; and a boring region of unorganized matter, or which marks the
frequent change of measures from a frequent change of men: ermination of the former and the commencement of the ani-
whilst energy in government requires not only a certain dura- mal empire. A still greater obscurity lies in the distinctive char-
tion of power, but the execution of it by a single hand. acters by which the objects in each of these great departments
How far the convention may have succeeded in this part of of nature have been arranged and assorted.
their work, will better appear on a more accurate view of it. When we pass from the works of nature, in which all the
From the cursory view here taken, it must clearly appear to delineations are perfectly accurate, and appear to be otherwise
have been an arduous part. only from the imperfection of the eye which surveys them,
Not less arduous must have been the task of marking the to the institutions of man, in which the obscurity arises as
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well from the object itself as from the organ by which it is and equivocal, until their meaning be liquidated and ascer-
contemplated, we must perceive the necessity of moderating tained by a series of particular discussions and adjudications.
still further our expectations and hopes from the efforts of Besides the obscurity arising from the complexity of objects,
human sagacity. Experience has instructed us that no skill in and the imperfection of the human faculties, the medium
the science of government has yet been able to discriminate through which the conceptions of men are conveyed to each
and define, with sufficient certainty, its three great provinces other adds a fresh embarrassment. The use of words is to ex-
the legislative, executive, and judiciary; or even the privileges press ideas. Perspicuity, therefore, requires not only that the
and powers of the different legislative branches. Questions ideas should be distinctly formed, but that they should be
daily occur in the course of practice, which prove the obscu- expressed by words distinctly and exclusively appropriate to
rity which reins in these subjects, and which puzzle the great- them. But no language is so copious as to supply words and
est adepts in political science. phrases for every complex idea, or so correct as not to include
The experience of ages, with the continued and combined many equivocally denoting different ideas. Hence it must
labors of the most enlightened legislatures and jurists, has been happen that however accurately objects may be discriminated
equally unsuccessful in delineating the several objects and limits in themselves, and however accurately the discrimination may
of different codes of laws and different tribunals of justice. be considered, the definition of them may be rendered inac-
The precise extent of the common law, and the statute law, curate by the inaccuracy of the terms in which it is delivered.
the maritime law, the ecclesiastical law, the law of corpora- And this unavoidable inaccuracy must be greater or less, ac-
tions, and other local laws and customs, remains still to be cording to the complexity and novelty of the objects defined.
clearly and finally established in Great Britain, where accu- When the Almighty himself condescends to address mankind
racy in such subjects has been more industriously pursued than in their own language, his meaning, luminous as it must be,
in any other part of the world. The jurisdiction of her several is rendered dim and doubtful by the cloudy medium through
courts, general and local, of law, of equity, of admiralty, etc., which it is communicated.
is not less a source of frequent and intricate discussions, suffi- Here, then, are three sources of vague and incorrect defini-
ciently denoting the indeterminate limits by which they are tions: indistinctness of the object, imperfection of the organ
respectively circumscribed. All new laws, though penned with of conception, inadequateness of the vehicle of ideas. Any
the greatest technical skill, and passed on the fullest and most one of these must produce a certain degree of obscurity. The
mature deliberation, are considered as more or less obscure convention, in delineating the boundary between the federal
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and State jurisdictions, must have experienced the full effect tricts, and its citizens into different classes, which give birth
of them all. to contending interests and local jealousies, so the different
To the difficulties already mentioned may be added the in- parts of the United States are distinguished from each other
terfering pretensions of the larger and smaller States. We can- by a variety of circumstances, which produce a like effect on a
not err in supposing that the former would contend for a larger scale. And although this variety of interests, for reasons
participation in the government, fully proportioned to their sufficiently explained in a former paper, may have a salutary
superior wealth and importance; and that the latter would influence on the administration of the government when
not be less tenacious of the equality at present enjoyed by formed, yet every one must be sensible of the contrary influ-
them. We may well suppose that neither side would entirely ence, which must have been experienced in the task of form-
yield to the other, and consequently that the struggle could ing it.
be terminated only by compromise. It is extremely probable, Would it be wonderful if, under the pressure of all these
also, that after the ratio of representation had been adjusted, difficulties, the convention should have been forced into some
this very compromise must have produced a fresh struggle deviations from that artificial structure and regular symmetry
between the same parties, to give such a turn to the organiza- which an abstract view of the subject might lead an ingenious
tion of the government, and to the distribution of its powers, theorist to bestow on a Constitution planned in his closet or
as would increase the importance of the branches, in forming in his imagination? The real wonder is that so many difficul-
which they had respectively obtained the greatest share of in- ties should have been surmounted, and surmounted with a
fluence. There are features in the Constitution which war- unanimity almost as unprecedented as it must have been un-
rant each of these suppositions; and as far as either of them is expected. It is impossible for any man of candor to reflect on
well founded, it shows that the convention must have been this circumstance without partaking of the astonishment. It
compelled to sacrifice theoretical propriety to the force of is impossible for the man of pious reflection not to perceive
extraneous considerations. in it a finger of that Almighty hand which has been so fre-
Nor could it have been the large and small States only, which quently and signally extended to our relief in the critical stages
would marshal themselves in opposition to each other on of the revolution.
various points. Other combinations, resulting from a differ- We had occasion, in a former paper, to take notice of the
ence of local position and policy, must have created additional repeated trials which have been unsuccessfully made in the
difficulties. As every State may be divided into different dis- United Netherlands for reforming the baneful and notorious
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vices of their constitution. The history of almost all the great FEDERALIST No. 38
councils and consultations held among mankind for recon-
ciling their discordant opinions, assuaging their mutual jeal- The Same Subject Continued, and the Incoherence of
ousies, and adjusting their respective interests, is a history of the Objections to the New Plan Exposed
factions, contentions, and disappointments, and may be classed
among the most dark and degraded pictures which display From the New York Packet.
the infirmities and depravities of the human character. If, in a
few scattered instances, a brighter aspect is presented, they Tuesday, January 15, 1788.
serve only as exceptions to admonish us of the general truth;
and by their lustre to darken the gloom of the adverse pros- MADISON
pect to which they are contrasted. In revolving the causes from
which these exceptions result, and applying them to the par- To the People of the State of New York:
ticular instances before us, we are necessarily led to two im-
portant conclusions. The first is, that the convention must It is not a little remarkable that in every case reported by an-
have enjoyed, in a very singular degree, an exemption from cient history, in which government has been established with
the pestilential influence of party animosities the disease most deliberation and consent, the task of framing it has not been
incident to deliberative bodies, and most apt to contaminate committed to an assembly of men, but has been performed
their proceedings. The second conclusion is that all the depu- by some individual citizen of preeminent wisdom and ap-
tations composing the convention were satisfactorily accom- proved integrity.
modated by the final act, or were induced to accede to it by a Minos, we learn, was the primitive founder of the govern-
deep conviction of the necessity of sacrificing private opin- ment of Crete, as Zaleucus was of that of the Locrians. Theseus
ions and partial interests to the public good, and by a despair first, and after him Draco and Solon, instituted the govern-
of seeing this necessity diminished by delays or by new ex- ment of Athens. Lycurgus was the lawgiver of Sparta. The
periments. foundation of the original government of Rome was laid by
Romulus, and the work completed by two of his elective suc-
Publius. cessors, Numa and Tullius Hostilius. On the abolition of roy-
alty the consular administration was substituted by Brutus,
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who stepped forward with a project for such a reform, which, manded by fewer than ten generals, and who required no other
he alleged, had been prepared by Tullius Hostilius, and to proof of danger to their liberties than the illustrious merit of
which his address obtained the assent and ratification of the a fellow-citizen, should consider one illustrious citizen as a
senate and people. This remark is applicable to confederate more eligible depositary of the fortunes of themselves and
governments also. Amphictyon, we are told, was the author their posterity, than a select body of citizens, from whose com-
of that which bore his name. The Achaean league received its mon deliberations more wisdom, as well as more safety, might
first birth from Achaeus, and its second from Aratus. have been expected? These questions cannot be fully answered,
What degree of agency these reputed lawgivers might have without supposing that the fears of discord and disunion
in their respective establishments, or how far they might be among a number of counsellors exceeded the apprehension
clothed with the legitimate authority of the people, cannot in of treachery or incapacity in a single individual. History in-
every instance be ascertained. In some, however, the proceed- forms us, likewise, of the difficulties with which these cel-
ing was strictly regular. Draco appears to have been intrusted ebrated reformers had to contend, as well as the expedients
by the people of Athens with indefinite powers to reform its which they were obliged to employ in order to carry their
government and laws. And Solon, according to Plutarch, was reforms into effect. Solon, who seems to have indulged a more
in a manner compelled, by the universal suffrage of his fel- temporizing policy, confessed that he had not given to his
low-citizens, to take upon him the sole and absolute power countrymen the government best suited to their happiness,
of new-modeling the constitution. The proceedings under but most tolerable to their prejudices. And Lycurgus, more
Lycurgus were less regular; but as far as the advocates for a true to his object, was under the necessity of mixing a por-
regular reform could prevail, they all turned their eyes to- tion of violence with the authority of superstition, and of
wards the single efforts of that celebrated patriot and sage, securing his final success by a voluntary renunciation, first of
instead of seeking to bring about a revolution by the inter- his country, and then of his life. If these lessons teach us, on
vention of a deliberative body of citizens. one hand, to admire the improvement made by America on
Whence could it have proceeded, that a people, jealous as the ancient mode of preparing and establishing regular plans
the Greeks were of their liberty, should so far abandon the of government, they serve not less, on the other, to admonish
rules of caution as to place their destiny in the hands of a us of the hazards and difficulties incident to such experiments,
single citizen? Whence could it have proceeded, that the Athe- and of the great imprudence of unnecessarily multiplying
nians, a people who would not suffer an army to be com- them.
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Is it an unreasonable conjecture, that the errors which may protracting the public calamities, and endangering the event
be contained in the plan of the convention are such as have of the contest. Every candid reader will make the proper re-
resulted rather from the defect of antecedent experience on flections on these important facts.
this complicated and difficult subject, than from a want of A patient who finds his disorder daily growing worse, and
accuracy or care in the investigation of it; and, consequently that an efficacious remedy can no longer be delayed without
such as will not be ascertained until an actual trial shall have extreme danger, after coolly revolving his situation, and the
pointed them out? This conjecture is rendered probable, not characters of different physicians, selects and calls in such of
only by many considerations of a general nature, but by the them as he judges most capable of administering relief, and
particular case of the Articles of Confederation. It is observ- best entitled to his confidence. The physicians attend; the case
able that among the numerous objections and amendments of the patient is carefully examined; a consultation is held;
suggested by the several States, when these articles were sub- they are unanimously agreed that the symptoms are critical,
mitted for their ratification, not one is found which alludes but that the case, with proper and timely relief, is so far from
to the great and radical error which on actual trial has discov- being desperate, that it may be made to issue in an improve-
ered itself. And if we except the observations which New Jer- ment of his constitution. They are equally unanimous in pre-
sey was led to make, rather by her local situation, than by her scribing the remedy, by which this happy effect is to be pro-
peculiar foresight, it may be questioned whether a single sug- duced. The prescription is no sooner made known, however,
gestion was of sufficient moment to justify a revision of the than a number of persons interpose, and, without denying
system. There is abundant reason, nevertheless, to suppose the reality or danger of the disorder, assure the patient that
that immaterial as these objections were, they would have the prescription will be poison to his constitution, and forbid
been adhered to with a very dangerous inflexibility, in some him, under pain of certain death, to make use of it. Might
States, had not a zeal for their opinions and supposed inter- not the patient reasonably demand, before he ventured to
ests been stifled by the more powerful sentiment of follow this advice, that the authors of it should at least agree
selfpreservation. One State, we may remember, persisted for among themselves on some other remedy to be substituted?
several years in refusing her concurrence, although the enemy And if he found them differing as much from one another as
remained the whole period at our gates, or rather in the very from his first counsellors, would he not act prudently in try-
bowels of our country. Nor was her pliancy in the end ef- ing the experiment unanimously recommended by the latter,
fected by a less motive, than the fear of being chargeable with rather than be hearkening to those who could neither deny
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the necessity of a speedy remedy, nor agree in proposing one? inequality in the House of Representatives. From this quar-
Such a patient and in such a situation is America at this ter, we are alarmed with the amazing expense, from the num-
moment. She has been sensible of her malady. She has ob- ber of persons who are to administer the new government.
tained a regular and unanimous advice from men of her own From another quarter, and sometimes from the same quarter,
deliberate choice. And she is warned by others against follow- on another occasion, the cry is that the Congress will be but a
ing this advice under pain of the most fatal consequences. Do shadow of a representation, and that the government would
the monitors deny the reality of her danger? No. Do they be far less objectionable if the number and the expense were
deny the necessity of some speedy and powerful remedy? No. doubled. A patriot in a State that does not import or export,
Are they agreed, are any two of them agreed, in their objec- discerns insuperable objections against the power of direct
tions to the remedy proposed, or in the proper one to be taxation. The patriotic adversary in a State of great exports
substituted? Let them speak for themselves. This one tells us and imports, is not less dissatisfied that the whole burden of
that the proposed Constitution ought to be rejected, because taxes may be thrown on consumption. This politician dis-
it is not a confederation of the States, but a government over covers in the Constitution a direct and irresistible tendency to
individuals. Another admits that it ought to be a government monarchy; that is equally sure it will end in aristocracy. An-
over individuals to a certain extent, but by no means to the other is puzzled to say which of these shapes it will ultimately
extent proposed. A third does not object to the government assume, but sees clearly it must be one or other of them;
over individuals, or to the extent proposed, but to the want whilst a fourth is not wanting, who with no less confidence
of a bill of rights. A fourth concurs in the absolute necessity affirms that the Constitution is so far from having a bias to-
of a bill of rights, but contends that it ought to be declara- wards either of these dangers, that the weight on that side will
tory, not of the personal rights of individuals, but of the rights not be sufficient to keep it upright and firm against its oppo-
reserved to the States in their political capacity. A fifth is of site propensities. With another class of adversaries to the Con-
opinion that a bill of rights of any sort would be superfluous stitution the language is that the legislative, executive, and
and misplaced, and that the plan would be unexceptionable judiciary departments are intermixed in such a manner as to
but for the fatal power of regulating the times and places of contradict all the ideas of regular government and all the req-
election. An objector in a large State exclaims loudly against uisite precautions in favor of liberty. Whilst this objection
the unreasonable equality of representation in the Senate. An circulates in vague and general expressions, there are but a few
objector in a small State is equally loud against the dangerous who lend their sanction to it. Let each one come forward
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with his particular explanation, and scarce any two are exactly considers it as a fundamental condition that the appointment
agreed upon the subject. In the eyes of one the junction of the should be made by the President himself.
Senate with the President in the responsible function of ap- As it can give no umbrage to the writers against the plan of
pointing to offices, instead of vesting this executive power in the federal Constitution, let us suppose, that as they are the
the Executive alone, is the vicious part of the organization. most zealous, so they are also the most sagacious, of those
To another, the exclusion of the House of Representatives, who think the late convention were unequal to the task as-
whose numbers alone could be a due security against corrup- signed them, and that a wiser and better plan might and ought
tion and partiality in the exercise of such a power, is equally to be substituted. Let us further suppose that their country
obnoxious. With another, the admission of the President into should concur, both in this favorable opinion of their merits,
any share of a power which ever must be a dangerous engine and in their unfavorable opinion of the convention; and should
in the hands of the executive magistrate, is an unpardonable accordingly proceed to form them into a second convention,
violation of the maxims of republican jealousy. No part of with full powers, and for the express purpose of revising and
the arrangement, according to some, is more inadmissible than remoulding the work of the first. Were the experiment to be
the trial of impeachments by the Senate, which is alternately seriously made, though it required some effort to view it seri-
a member both of the legislative and executive departments, ously even in fiction, I leave it to be decided by the sample of
when this power so evidently belonged to the judiciary de- opinions just exhibited, whether, with all their enmity to their
partment. “We concur fully,’’ reply others, “in the objection predecessors, they would, in any one point, depart so widely
to this part of the plan, but we can never agree that a reference from their example, as in the discord and ferment that would
of impeachments to the judiciary authority would be an mark their own deliberations; and whether the Constitution,
amendment of the error. Our principal dislike to the organi- now before the public, would not stand as fair a chance for
zation arises from the extensive powers already lodged in that immortality, as Lycurgus gave to that of Sparta, by making
department.’’ Even among the zealous patrons of a council of its change to depend on his own return from exile and death,
state the most irreconcilable variance is discovered concerning if it were to be immediately adopted, and were to continue in
the mode in which it ought to be constituted. The demand force, not until a better, but until another should be agreed
of one gentleman is, that the council should consist of a small upon by this new assembly of lawgivers.
number to be appointed by the most numerous branch of It is a matter both of wonder and regret, that those who
the legislature. Another would prefer a larger number, and raise so many objections against the new Constitution should
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never call to mind the defects of that which is to be exchanged Confederation has no bill of rights. Is it an objection against
for it. It is not necessary that the former should be perfect; it the new Constitution, that it empowers the Senate, with the
is sufficient that the latter is more imperfect. No man would concurrence of the Executive, to make treaties which are to
refuse to give brass for silver or gold, because the latter had be the laws of the land? The existing Congress, without any
some alloy in it. No man would refuse to quit a shattered and such control, can make treaties which they themselves have
tottering habitation for a firm and commodious building, declared, and most of the States have recognized, to be the
because the latter had not a porch to it, or because some of supreme law of the land. Is the importation of slaves permit-
the rooms might be a little larger or smaller, or the ceilings a ted by the new Constitution for twenty years? By the old it is
little higher or lower than his fancy would have planned them. permitted forever.
But waiving illustrations of this sort, is it not manifest that I shall be told, that however dangerous this mixture of pow-
most of the capital objections urged against the new system ers may be in theory, it is rendered harmless by the depen-
lie with tenfold weight against the existing Confederation? Is dence of Congress on the State for the means of carrying them
an indefinite power to raise money dangerous in the hands of into practice; that however large the mass of powers may be,
the federal government? The present Congress can make req- it is in fact a lifeless mass. Then, say I, in the first place, that
uisitions to any amount they please, and the States are consti- the Confederation is chargeable with the still greater folly of
tutionally bound to furnish them; they can emit bills of credit declaring certain powers in the federal government to be ab-
as long as they will pay for the paper; they can borrow, both solutely necessary, and at the same time rendering them abso-
abroad and at home, as long as a shilling will be lent. Is an lutely nugatory; and, in the next place, that if the Union is to
indefinite power to raise troops dangerous? The Confedera- continue, and no better government be substituted, effective
tion gives to Congress that power also; and they have already powers must either be granted to, or assumed by, the existing
begun to make use of it. Is it improper and unsafe to inter- Congress; in either of which events, the contrast just stated
mix the different powers of government in the same body of will hold good. But this is not all. Out of this lifeless mass
men? Congress, a single body of men, are the sole depositary has already grown an excrescent power, which tends to realize
of all the federal powers. Is it particularly dangerous to give all the dangers that can be apprehended from a defective con-
the keys of the treasury, and the command of the army, into struction of the supreme government of the Union. It is now
the same hands? The Confederation places them both in the no longer a point of speculation and hope, that the Western
hands of Congress. Is a bill of rights essential to liberty? The territory is a mine of vast wealth to the United States; and
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although it is not of such a nature as to extricate them from heard. Would they not act with more consistency, in urging
their present distresses, or for some time to come, to yield the establishment of the latter, as no less necessary to guard
any regular supplies for the public expenses, yet must it here- the Union against the future powers and resources of a body
after be able, under proper management, both to effect a constructed like the existing Congress, than to save it from
gradual discharge of the domestic debt, and to furnish, for a the dangers threatened by the present impotency of that As-
certain period, liberal tributes to the federal treasury. A very sembly?
large proportion of this fund has been already surrendered by I mean not, by any thing here said, to throw censure on the
individual States; and it may with reason be expected that the measures which have been pursued by Congress. I am sen-
remaining States will not persist in withholding similar proofs sible they could not have done otherwise. The public inter-
of their equity and generosity. We may calculate, therefore, est, the necessity of the case, imposed upon them the task of
that a rich and fertile country, of an area equal to the inhab- overleaping their constitutional limits. But is not the fact an
ited extent of the United States, will soon become a national alarming proof of the danger resulting from a government
stock. Congress have assumed the administration of this stock. which does not possess regular powers commensurate to its
They have begun to render it productive. Congress have un- objects? A dissolution or usurpation is the dreadful dilemma
dertaken to do more: they have proceeded to form new States, to which it is continually exposed.
to erect temporary governments, to appoint officers for them,
and to prescribe the conditions on which such States shall be Publius.
admitted into the Confederacy. All this has been done; and
done without the least color of constitutional authority. Yet
no blame has been whispered; no alarm has been sounded. A
great and independent fund of revenue is passing into the hands
of a single body of men, who can raise troops to an indefinite
number, and appropriate money to their support for an in-
definite period of time. And yet there are men, who have not
only been silent spectators of this prospect, but who are ad-
vocates for the system which exhibits it; and, at the same time,
urge against the new system the objections which we have
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FEDERALIST No. 39 political writers, to the constitution of different States, no
satisfactory one would ever be found. Holland, in which no
The Conformity of the Plan to Republican Principles particle of the supreme authority is derived from the people,
has passed almost universally under the denomination of a re-
For the Independent Journal. public. The same title has been bestowed on Venice, where
absolute power over the great body of the people is exercised,
MADISON in the most absolute manner, by a small body of hereditary
nobles. Poland, which is a mixture of aristocracy and of mon-
To the People of the State of New York: archy in their worst forms, has been dignified with the same
appellation. The government of England, which has one re-
The last paper having concluded the observations which were publican branch only, combined with an hereditary aristocracy
meant to introduce a candid survey of the plan of govern- and monarchy, has, with equal impropriety, been frequently
ment reported by the convention, we now proceed to the placed on the list of republics. These examples, which are nearly
execution of that part of our undertaking. as dissimilar to each other as to a genuine republic, show the
The first question that offers itself is, whether the general extreme inaccuracy with which the term has been used in po-
form and aspect of the government be strictly republican. It litical disquisitions.
is evident that no other form would be reconcilable with the If we resort for a criterion to the different principles on
genius of the people of America; with the fundamental prin- which different forms of government are established, we may
ciples of the Revolution; or with that honorable determina- define a republic to be, or at least may bestow that name on,
tion which animates every votary of freedom, to rest all our a government which derives all its powers directly or indi-
political experiments on the capacity of mankind for self- rectly from the great body of the people, and is administered
government. If the plan of the convention, therefore, be found by persons holding their offices during pleasure, for a limited
to depart from the republican character, its advocates must period, or during good behavior. It is essential to such a gov-
abandon it as no longer defensible. ernment that it be derived from the great body of the society,
What, then, are the distinctive characters of the republican not from an inconsiderable proportion, or a favored class of
form? Were an answer to this question to be sought, not by it; otherwise a handful of tyrannical nobles, exercising their
recurring to principles, but in the application of the term by oppressions by a delegation of their powers, might aspire to
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the rank of republicans, and claim for their government the people. The Senate, like the present Congress, and the Senate
honorable title of republic. It is sufficient for such a govern- of Maryland, derives its appointment indirectly from the
ment that the persons administering it be appointed, either people. The President is indirectly derived from the choice of
directly or indirectly, by the people; and that they hold their the people, according to the example in most of the States.
appointments by either of the tenures just specified; other- Even the judges, with all other officers of the Union, will, as
wise every government in the United States, as well as every in the several States, be the choice, though a remote choice,
other popular government that has been or can be well orga- of the people themselves, the duration of the appointments is
nized or well executed, would be degraded from the republi- equally conformable to the republican standard, and to the
can character. According to the constitution of every State in model of State constitutions The House of Representatives is
the Union, some or other of the officers of government are periodically elective, as in all the States; and for the period of
appointed indirectly only by the people. According to most two years, as in the State of South Carolina. The Senate is
of them, the chief magistrate himself is so appointed. And elective, for the period of six years; which is but one year
according to one, this mode of appointment is extended to more than the period of the Senate of Maryland, and but two
one of the co-ordinate branches of the legislature. According more than that of the Senates of New York and Virginia. The
to all the constitutions, also, the tenure of the highest offices President is to continue in office for the period of four years;
is extended to a definite period, and in many instances, both as in New York and Delaware, the chief magistrate is elected
within the legislative and executive departments, to a period for three years, and in South Carolina for two years. In the
of years. According to the provisions of most of the constitu- other States the election is annual. In several of the States,
tions, again, as well as according to the most respectable and however, no constitutional provision is made for the impeach-
received opinions on the subject, the members of the judi- ment of the chief magistrate. And in Delaware and Virginia
ciary department are to retain their offices by the firm tenure he is not impeachable till out of office. The President of the
of good behavior. United States is impeachable at any time during his continu-
On comparing the Constitution planned by the conven- ance in office. The tenure by which the judges are to hold
tion with the standard here fixed, we perceive at once that it their places, is, as it unquestionably ought to be, that of good
is, in the most rigid sense, conformable to it. The House of behavior. The tenure of the ministerial offices generally, will
Representatives, like that of one branch at least of all the State be a subject of legal regulation, conformably to the reason of
legislatures, is elected immediately by the great body of the the case and the example of the State constitutions.
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Could any further proof be required of the republican com- On examining the first relation, it appears, on one hand, that
plexion of this system, the most decisive one might be found the Constitution is to be founded on the assent and ratification
in its absolute prohibition of titles of nobility, both under the of the people of America, given by deputies elected for the
federal and the State governments; and in its express guaranty special purpose; but, on the other, that this assent and ratifica-
of the republican form to each of the latter. “But it was not tion is to be given by the people, not as individuals composing
sufficient,” say the adversaries of the proposed Constitution, one entire nation, but as composing the distinct and indepen-
“for the convention to adhere to the republican form. They dent States to which they respectively belong. It is to be the
ought, with equal care, to have preserved the federal form, which assent and ratification of the several States, derived from the
regards the Union as a confederacy of sovereign states; instead of supreme authority in each State, the authority of the people
which, they have framed a national government, which regards themselves. The act, therefore, establishing the Constitution,
the Union as a consolidation of the States.’’ And it is asked by will not be a national, but a federal act.
what authority this bold and radical innovation was undertaken? That it will be a federal and not a national act, as these terms
The handle which has been made of this objection requires are understood by the objectors; the act of the people, as form-
that it should be examined with some precision. ing so many independent States, not as forming one aggregate
Without inquiring into the accuracy of the distinction on nation, is obvious from this single consideration, that it is to
which the objection is founded, it will be necessary to a just result neither from the decision of a majority of the people of
estimate of its force, first, to ascertain the real character of the the Union, nor from that of a majority of the States. It must
government in question; secondly, to inquire how far the con- result from the unanimous assent of the several States that are
vention were authorized to propose such a government; and parties to it, differing no otherwise from their ordinary assent
thirdly, how far the duty they owed to their country could than in its being expressed, not by the legislative authority, but
supply any defect of regular authority. by that of the people themselves. Were the people regarded in
First. In order to ascertain the real character of the govern- this transaction as forming one nation, the will of the majority
ment, it may be considered in relation to the foundation on of the whole people of the United States would bind the mi-
which it is to be established; to the sources from which its nority, in the same manner as the majority in each State must
ordinary powers are to be drawn; to the operation of those bind the minority; and the will of the majority must be deter-
powers; to the extent of them; and to the authority by which mined either by a comparison of the individual votes, or by
future changes in the government are to be introduced. considering the will of the majority of the States as evidence of
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the will of a majority of the people of the United States. Nei- appears to be of a mixed character, presenting at least as many
ther of these rules have been adopted. Each State, in ratifying federal as national features.
the Constitution, is considered as a sovereign body, indepen- The difference between a federal and national government,
dent of all others, and only to be bound by its own voluntary as it relates to the operation of the government, is supposed to
act. In this relation, then, the new Constitution will, if estab- consist in this, that in the former the powers operate on the
lished, be a federal, and not a national constitution. political bodies composing the Confederacy, in their political
The next relation is, to the sources from which the ordi- capacities; in the latter, on the individual citizens composing
nary powers of government are to be derived. The House of the nation, in their individual capacities. On trying the Con-
Representatives will derive its powers from the people of stitution by this criterion, it falls under the national, not the
America; and the people will be represented in the same pro- federal character; though perhaps not so completely as has
portion, and on the same principle, as they are in the legisla- been understood. In several cases, and particularly in the trial
ture of a particular State. So far the government is national, of controversies to which States may be parties, they must be
not federal. The Senate, on the other hand, will derive its viewed and proceeded against in their collective and political
powers from the States, as political and coequal societies; and capacities only. So far the national countenance of the gov-
these will be represented on the principle of equality in the ernment on this side seems to be disfigured by a few federal
Senate, as they now are in the existing Congress. So far the features. But this blemish is perhaps unavoidable in any plan;
government is federal, not national. The executive power will and the operation of the government on the people, in their
be derived from a very compound source. The immediate individual capacities, in its ordinary and most essential pro-
election of the President is to be made by the States in their ceedings, may, on the whole, designate it, in this relation, a
political characters. The votes allotted to them are in a com- national government.
pound ratio, which considers them partly as distinct and co- But if the government be national with regard to the opera-
equal societies, partly as unequal members of the same soci- tion of its powers, it changes its aspect again when we con-
ety. The eventual election, again, is to be made by that branch template it in relation to the extent of its powers. The idea of
of the legislature which consists of the national representa- a national government involves in it, not only an authority
tives; but in this particular act they are to be thrown into the over the individual citizens, but an indefinite supremacy over
form of individual delegations, from so many distinct and all persons and things, so far as they are objects of lawful
coequal bodies politic. From this aspect of the government it government. Among a people consolidated into one nation,
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this supremacy is completely vested in the national legisla- by which amendments are to be made, we find it neither wholly
ture. Among communities united for particular purposes, national nor wholly federal. Were it wholly national, the su-
it is vested partly in the general and partly in the municipal preme and ultimate authority would reside in the majority of
legislatures. In the former case, all local authorities are sub- the people of the Union; and this authority would be compe-
ordinate to the supreme; and may be controlled, directed, tent at all times, like that of a majority of every national soci-
or abolished by it at pleasure. In the latter, the local or mu- ety, to alter or abolish its established government. Were it wholly
nicipal authorities form distinct and independent portions federal, on the other hand, the concurrence of each State in the
of the supremacy, no more subject, within their respective Union would be essential to every alteration that would be
spheres, to the general authority, than the general authority binding on all. The mode provided by the plan of the conven-
is subject to them, within its own sphere. In this relation, tion is not founded on either of these principles. In requiring
then, the proposed government cannot be deemed a national more than a majority, and principles. In requiring more than a
one; since its jurisdiction extends to certain enumerated majority, and particularly in computing the proportion by states,
objects only, and leaves to the several States a residuary and not by citizens, it departs from the national and advances to-
inviolable sovereignty over all other objects. It is true that in wards the federal character; in rendering the concurrence of less
controversies relating to the boundary between the two ju- than the whole number of States sufficient, it loses again the
risdictions, the tribunal which is ultimately to decide, is to federal and partakes of the national character.
be established under the general government. But this does The proposed Constitution, therefore, is, in strictness, nei-
not change the principle of the case. The decision is to be ther a national nor a federal Constitution, but a composition
impartially made, according to the rules of the Constitu- of both. In its foundation it is federal, not national; in the
tion; and all the usual and most effectual precautions are sources from which the ordinary powers of the government
taken to secure this impartiality. Some such tribunal is clearly are drawn, it is partly federal and partly national; in the op-
essential to prevent an appeal to the sword and a dissolution eration of these powers, it is national, not federal; in the ex-
of the compact; and that it ought to be established under tent of them, again, it is federal, not national; and, finally, in
the general rather than under the local governments, or, to the authoritative mode of introducing amendments, it is nei-
speak more properly, that it could be safely established un- ther wholly federal nor wholly national.
der the first alone, is a position not likely to be combated.
If we try the Constitution by its last relation to the authority Publius.
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FEDERALIST No. 40 to report such an act for that purpose, to the United States in
Congress assembled, as when agreed to by them, and after-
The Powers of the Convention to wards confirmed by the legislature of every State, will effec-
Form a Mixed Government Examined and Sustained tually provide for the same. ‘’The recommendatory act of
Congress is in the words following:“Whereas, There is provi-
From the New York Packet. sion in the articles of Confederation and perpetual Union,
for making alterations therein, by the assent of a Congress of
Friday, January 18, 1788. the United States, and of the legislatures of the several States;
and whereas experience hath evinced, that there are defects in
MADISON the present Confederation; as a mean to remedy which, sev-
eral of the States, and particularly the state of New York, by
To the People of the State of New York: express instructions to their delegates in Congress, have sug-
gested a convention for the purposes expressed in the follow-
The second point to be examined is, whether the convention ing resolution; and such convention appearing to be the most
were authorized to frame and propose this mixed Constitu- probable mean of establishing in these States a firm national
tion. The powers of the convention ought, in strictness, to be government:“Resolved, That in the opinion of Congress it is
determined by an inspection of the commissions given to the expedient, that on the second Monday of May next a con-
members by their respective constituents. As all of these, how- vention of delegates, who shall have been appointed by the
ever, had reference, either to the recommendation from the several States, be held at Philadelphia, for the sole and express
meeting at Annapolis, in September, 1786, or to that from purpose of revising the articles of confederation, and reporting
Congress, in February, 1787, it will be sufficient to recur to to Congress and the several legislatures such alterations and
these particular acts. provisions therein, as shall, when agreed to in Congress, and
The act from Annapolis recommends the “appointment confirmed by the States, render the federal Constitution ad-
of commissioners to take into consideration the situation of equate to the exigencies of government and the preservation of
the United States; to devise such further provisions as shall ap- the Union. ‘’From these two acts, it appears, 1st, that the
pear to them necessary to render the Constitution of the fed- object of the convention was to establish, in these States, a
eral government adequate to the exigencies of the Union; and firm national government; 2d, that this government was to be
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such as would be adequate to the exigencies of government and federation; which part of the definition ought to have been
the preservation of the Union; 3d, that these purposes were to embraced, and which rejected? Which was the more impor-
be effected by alterations and provisions in the articles of con- tant, which the less important part? Which the end; which
federation, as it is expressed in the act of Congress, or by such the means? Let the most scrupulous expositors of delegated
further provisions as should appear necessary, as it stands in the powers; let the most inveterate objectors against those exer-
recommendatory act from Annapolis; 4th, that the alterations cised by the convention, answer these questions. Let them
and provisions were to be reported to Congress, and to the declare, whether it was of most importance to the happiness
States, in order to be agreed to by the former and confirmed of the people of America, that the articles of Confederation
by the latter. should be disregarded, and an adequate government be pro-
From a comparison and fair construction of these several vided, and the Union preserved; or that an adequate govern-
modes of expression, is to be deduced the authority under ment should be omitted, and the articles of Confederation
which the convention acted. They were to frame a national preserved. Let them declare, whether the preservation of these
government, adequate to the exigencies of government, and of articles was the end, for securing which a reform of the gov-
the Union; and to reduce the articles of Confederation into ernment was to be introduced as the means; or whether the
such form as to accomplish these purposes. There are two establishment of a government, adequate to the national hap-
rules of construction, dictated by plain reason, as well as piness, was the end at which these articles themselves origi-
founded on legal axioms. The one is, that every part of the nally aimed, and to which they ought, as insufficient means,
expression ought, if possible, to be allowed some meaning, to have been sacrificed.
and be made to conspire to some common end. The other is, But is it necessary to suppose that these expressions are ab-
that where the several parts cannot be made to coincide, the solutely irreconcilable to each other; that no alterations or
less important should give way to the more important part; provisions in the articles of the confederation could possibly
the means should be sacrificed to the end, rather than the end mould them into a national and adequate government; into
to the means. Suppose, then, that the expressions defining such a government as has been proposed by the convention?
the authority of the convention were irreconcilably at vari- No stress, it is presumed, will, in this case, be laid on the title;
ance with each other; that a national and adequate govern- a change of that could never be deemed an exercise of un-
ment could not possibly, in the judgment of the convention, granted power. Alterations in the body of the instrument are
be affected by alterations and provisions in the articles of con- expressly authorized. New Provisions therein are also expressly
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authorized. Here then is a power to change the title; to insert ately on individuals? In some instances, as has been shown,
new articles; to alter old ones. Must it of necessity be admit- the powers of the new government will act on the States in
ted that this power is infringed, so long as a part of the old their collective characters. In some instances, also, those of
articles remain? Those who maintain the affirmative ought at the existing government act immediately on individuals. In
least to mark the boundary between authorized and usurped cases of capture; of piracy; of the post office; of coins, weights,
innovations; between that degree of change which lies within and measures; of trade with the Indians; of claims under grants
the compass of alterations and furthr provisions, and that which of land by different States; and, above all, in the case of trials
amounts to a transmutation of the government. Will it be by courts-marshal in the army and navy, by which death may
said that the alterations ought not to have touched the sub- be inflicted without the intervention of a jury, or even of a
stance of the Confederation? civil magistrate; in all these cases the powers of the Confed-
The States would never have appointed a convention with eration operate immediately on the persons and interests of
so much solemnity, nor described its objects with so much individual citizens. Do these fundamental principles require,
latitude, if some substantial reform had not been in contem- particularly, that no tax should be levied without the inter-
plation. Will it be said that the fundamental principles of the mediate agency of the States? The Confederation itself au-
Confederation were not within the purview of the conven- thorizes a direct tax, to a certain extent, on the post office.
tion, and ought not to have been varied? I ask, What are these The power of coinage has been so construed by Congress as
principles? Do they require that, in the establishment of the to levy a tribute immediately from that source also. But pre-
Constitution, the States should be regarded as distinct and termitting these instances, was it not an acknowledged object
independent sovereigns? They are so regarded by the Consti- of the convention and the universal expectation of the people,
tution proposed. Do they require that the members of the that the regulation of trade should be submitted to the gen-
government should derive their appointment from the legis- eral government in such a form as would render it an imme-
latures, not from the people of the States? One branch of the diate source of general revenue? Had not Congress repeatedly
new government is to be appointed by these legislatures; and recommended this measure as not inconsistent with the fun-
under the Confederation, the delegates to Congress may all damental principles of the Confederation? Had not every State
be appointed immediately by the people, and in two States1 but one; had not New York herself, so far complied with the
are actually so appointed. Do they require that the powers of plan of Congress as to recognize the principle of the innova-
the government should act on the States, and not immedi- tion? Do these principles, in fine, require that the powers of
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the general government should be limited, and that, beyond tieth of the people of America to a measure approved and
this limit, the States should be left in possession of their sov- called for by the voice of twelve States, comprising fifty-nine
ereignty and independence? We have seen that in the new gov- sixtieths of the people an example still fresh in the memory
ernment, as in the old, the general powers are limited; and and indignation of every citizen who has felt for the wounded
that the States, in all unenumerated cases, are left in the en- honor and prosperity of his country. As this objection, there-
joyment of their sovereign and independent jurisdiction. fore, has been in a manner waived by those who have criticised
The truth is, that the great principles of the Constitution the powers of the convention, I dismiss it without further
proposed by the convention may be considered less as abso- observation.
lutely new, than as the expansion of principles which are found The third point to be inquired into is, how far consider-
in the articles of Confederation. The misfortune under the ations of duty arising out of the case itself could have sup-
latter system has been, that these principles are so feeble and plied any defect of regular authority. In the preceding inquir-
confined as to justify all the charges of inefficiency which ies the powers of the convention have been analyzed and tried
have been urged against it, and to require a degree of enlarge- with the same rigor, and by the same rules, as if they had been
ment which gives to the new system the aspect of an entire real and final powers for the establishment of a Constitution
transformation of the old. for the United States. We have seen in what manner they have
In one particular it is admitted that the convention have borne the trial even on that supposition. It is time now to
departed from the tenor of their commission. Instead of re- recollect that the powers were merely advisory and recom-
porting a plan requiring the confirmation of the legislatures of mendatory; that they were so meant by the States, and so
all the states, they have reported a plan which is to be con- understood by the convention; and that the latter have ac-
firmed by the people, and may be carried into effect by nine cordingly planned and proposed a Constitution which is to
states only. It is worthy of remark that this objection, though be of no more consequence than the paper on which it is
the most plausible, has been the least urged in the publica- written, unless it be stamped with the approbation of those
tions which have swarmed against the convention. The for- to whom it is addressed. This reflection places the subject in a
bearance can only have proceeded from an irresistible convic- point of view altogether different, and will enable us to judge
tion of the absurdity of subjecting the fate of twelve States to with propriety of the course taken by the convention. Let us
the perverseness or corruption of a thirteenth; from the ex- view the ground on which the convention stood. It may be
ample of inflexible opposition given by a majority of one six- collected from their proceedings, that they were deeply and
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unanimously impressed with the crisis, which had led their ought to give way to substance; that a rigid adherence in such
country almost with one voice to make so singular and sol- cases to the former, would render nominal and nugatory the
emn an experiment for correcting the errors of a system by transcendent and precious right of the people to “abolish or
which this crisis had been produced; that they were no less alter their governments as to them shall seem most likely to
deeply and unanimously convinced that such a reform as they effect their safety and happiness,’’* since it is impossible for
have proposed was absolutely necessary to effect the purposes the people spontaneously and universally to move in concert
of their appointment. It could not be unknown to them that towards their object; and it is therefore essential that such
the hopes and expectations of the great body of citizens, changes be instituted by some informal and unauthorized
throughout this great empire, were turned with the keenest propositions, made by some patriotic and respectable citizen or
anxiety to the event of their deliberations. They had every number of citizens. They must have recollected that it was by
reason to believe that the contrary sentiments agitated the this irregular and assumed privilege of proposing to the people
minds and bosoms of every external and internal foe to the plans for their safety and happiness, that the States were first
liberty and prosperity of the United States. They had seen in united against the danger with which they were threatened by
the origin and progress of the experiment, the alacrity with their ancient government; that committees and congresses were
which the proposition, made by a single State (Virginia), to- formed for concentrating their efforts and defending their
wards a partial amendment of the Confederation, had been rights; and that conventions were elected in the several states
attended to and promoted. They had seen the liberty assumed for establishing the constitutions under which they are now
by a very few deputies from a very few States, convened at governed; nor could it have been forgotten that no little ill-
Annapolis, of recommending a great and critical object, wholly timed scruples, no zeal for adhering to ordinary forms, were
foreign to their commission, not only justified by the public anywhere seen, except in those who wished to indulge, under
opinion, but actually carried into effect by twelve out of the these masks, their secret enmity to the substance contended
thirteen States. They had seen, in a variety of instances, as- for. They must have borne in mind, that as the plan to be
sumptions by Congress, not only of recommendatory, but of framed and proposed was to be submitted to the people them-
operative, powers, warranted, in the public estimation, by selves, the disapprobation of this supreme authority would
occasions and objects infinitely less urgent than those by which destroy it forever; its approbation blot out antecedent errors
their conduct was to be governed. They must have reflected, and irregularities. It might even have occurred to them, that
that in all great changes of established governments, forms *Connecticut and Rhode Island. Declaration of Independence.
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where a disposition to cavil prevailed, their neglect to execute But that the objectors may be disarmed of every pretext, it
the degree of power vested in them, and still more their rec- shall be granted for a moment that the convention were nei-
ommendation of any measure whatever, not warranted by ther authorized by their commission, nor justified by circum-
their commission, would not less excite animadversion, than stances in proposing a Constitution for their country: does it
a recommendation at once of a measure fully commensurate follow that the Constitution ought, for that reason alone, to
to the national exigencies. Had the convention, under all these be rejected? If, according to the noble precept, it be lawful to
impressions, and in the midst of all these considerations, in- accept good advice even from an enemy, shall we set the ig-
stead of exercising a manly confidence in their country, by noble example of refusing such advice even when it is offered
whose confidence they had been so peculiarly distinguished, by our friends?
and of pointing out a system capable, in their judgment, of The prudent inquiry, in all cases, ought surely to be, not so
securing its happiness, taken the cold and sullen resolution of much from whom the advice comes, as whether the advice be
disappointing its ardent hopes, of sacrificing substance to good. The sum of what has been here advanced and proved is,
forms, of committing the dearest interests of their country to that the charge against the convention of exceeding their pow-
the uncertainties of delay and the hazard of events, let me ask ers, except in one instance little urged by the objectors, has no
the man who can raise his mind to one elevated conception, foundation to support it; that if they had exceeded their pow-
who can awaken in his bosom one patriotic emotion, what ers, they were not only warranted, but required, as the confi-
judgment ought to have been pronounced by the impartial dential servants of their country, by the circumstances in which
world, by the friends of mankind, by every virtuous citizen, they were placed, to exercise the liberty which they assume;
on the conduct and character of this assembly? Or if there be and that finally, if they had violated both their powers and
a man whose propensity to condemn is susceptible of no con- their obligations, in proposing a Constitution, this ought
trol, let me then ask what sentence he has in reserve for the nevertheless to be embraced, if it be calculated to accomplish
twelve States who usurped the power of sending deputies to the views and happiness of the people of America. How far
the convention, a body utterly unknown to their constitu- this character is due to the Constitution, is the subject under
tions; for Congress, who recommended the appointment of investigation.
this body, equally unknown to the Confederation; and for
the State of New York, in particular, which first urged and Publius.
then complied with this unauthorized interposition?
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FEDERALIST No. 41 to the arguments employed against the extensive powers of
the government, that the authors of them have very little con-
General View of the Powers sidered how far these powers were necessary means of attain-
Conferred by The Constitution ing a necessary end. They have chosen rather to dwell on the
inconveniences which must be unavoidably blended with all
For the Independent Journal. political advantages; and on the possible abuses which must
be incident to every power or trust, of which a beneficial use
MADISON can be made.
This method of handling the subject cannot impose on the
To the People of the State of New York: good sense of the people of America. It may display the
subtlety of the writer; it may open a boundless field for rhetoric
The Constitution proposed by the convention may be con- and declamation; it may inflame the passions of the unthink-
sidered under two general points of view. The first relates to ing, and may confirm the prejudices of the misthinking: but
the sum or quantity of power which it vests in the govern- cool and candid people will at once reflect, that the purest of
ment, including the restraints imposed on the States. The sec- human blessings must have a portion of alloy in them; that
ond, to the particular structure of the government, and the the choice must always be made, if not of the lesser evil, at
distribution of this power among its several branches. Under least of the greater, not the perfect, good; and that in every
the first view of the subject, two important questions arise: political institution, a power to advance the public happiness
involves a discretion which may be misapplied and abused.
1. Whether any part of the powers transferred to the general They will see, therefore, that in all cases where power is to be
government be unnecessary or improper? conferred, the point first to be decided is, whether such a
2. Whether the entire mass of them be dangerous to the power be necessary to the public good; as the next will be, in
portion of jurisdiction left in the several States? case of an affirmative decision, to guard as effectually as pos-
sible against a perversion of the power to the public detri-
Is the aggregate power of the general government greater ment. That we may form a correct judgment on this subject,
than ought to have been vested in it? This is the first question. it will be proper to review the several powers conferred on the
It cannot have escaped those who have attended with candor government of the Union; and that this may be the more
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conveniently done they may be reduced into different classes The answer to these questions has been too far anticipated
as they relate to the following different objects: in another place to admit an extensive discussion of them in
this place. The answer indeed seems to be so obvious and
1. Security against foreign danger; conclusive as scarcely to justify such a discussion in any place.
2. Regulation of the intercourse with foreign nations; With what color of propriety could the force necessary for
3. Maintenance of harmony and proper intercourse among defense be limited by those who cannot limit the force of
the States; offense? If a federal Constitution could chain the ambition or
4. Certain miscellaneous objects of general utility; set bounds to the exertions of all other nations, then indeed
5. Restraint of the States from certain injurious acts; might it prudently chain the discretion of its own govern-
6. Provisions for giving due efficacy to all these powers. ment, and set bounds to the exertions for its own safety.
How could a readiness for war in time of peace be safely
The powers falling within the first class are those of declar- prohibited, unless we could prohibit, in like manner, the prepa-
ing war and granting letters of marque; of providing armies rations and establishments of every hostile nation? The means
and fleets; of regulating and calling forth the militia; of levy- of security can only be regulated by the means and the danger
ing and borrowing money. Security against foreign danger is of attack. They will, in fact, be ever determined by these rules,
one of the primitive objects of civil society. It is an avowed and by no others. It is in vain to oppose constitutional barri-
and essential object of the American Union. The powers req- ers to the impulse of self-preservation. It is worse than in vain;
uisite for attaining it must be effectually confided to the fed- because it plants in the Constitution itself necessary usurpa-
eral councils. Is the power of declaring war necessary? No man tions of power, every precedent of which is a germ of unnec-
will answer this question in the negative. It would be super- essary and multiplied repetitions. If one nation maintains
fluous, therefore, to enter into a proof of the affirmative. The constantly a disciplined army, ready for the service of ambi-
existing Confederation establishes this power in the most tion or revenge, it obliges the most pacific nations who may
ample form. Is the power of raising armies and equipping be within the reach of its enterprises to take corresponding
fleets necessary? This is involved in the foregoing power. It is precautions.
involved in the power of self-defense. But was it necessary to The fifteenth century was the unhappy epoch of military
give an indefinite power of raising troops, as well as providing establishments in the time of peace. They were introduced by
fleets; and of maintaining both in peace, as well as in war? Charles VII. of France. All Europe has followed, or been forced
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into, the example. Had the example not been followed by former occasion, that the want of this pretext had saved the
other nations, all Europe must long ago have worn the chains liberties of one nation in Europe. Being rendered by her insu-
of a universal monarch. Were every nation except France now lar situation and her maritime resources impregnable to the
to disband its peace establishments, the same event might armies of her neighbors, the rulers of Great Britain have never
follow. The veteran legions of Rome were an overmatch for been able, by real or artificial dangers, to cheat the public into
the undisciplined valor of all other nations and rendered her an extensive peace establishment. The distance of the United
the mistress of the world. Not the less true is it, that the States from the powerful nations of the world gives them the
liberties of Rome proved the final victim to her military tri- same happy security. A dangerous establishment can never be
umphs; and that the liberties of Europe, as far as they ever necessary or plausible, so long as they continue a united people.
existed, have, with few exceptions, been the price of her mili- But let it never, for a moment, be forgotten that they are
tary establishments. A standing force, therefore, is a danger- indebted for this advantage to the Union alone. The moment
ous, at the same time that it may be a necessary, provision. of its dissolution will be the date of a new order of things.
On the smallest scale it has its inconveniences. On an exten- The fears of the weaker, or the ambition of the stronger States,
sive scale its consequences may be fatal. On any scale it is an or Confederacies, will set the same example in the New, as
object of laudable circumspection and precaution. A wise na- Charles VII. did in the Old World. The example will be fol-
tion will combine all these considerations; and, whilst it does lowed here from the same motives which produced universal
not rashly preclude itself from any resource which may be- imitation there. Instead of deriving from our situation the
come essential to its safety, will exert all its prudence in di- precious advantage which Great Britain has derived from hers,
minishing both the necessity and the danger of resorting to the face of America will be but a copy of that of the continent
one which may be inauspicious to its liberties. The clearest of Europe. It will present liberty everywhere crushed between
marks of this prudence are stamped on the proposed Consti- standing armies and perpetual taxes. The fortunes of disunited
tution. The Union itself, which it cements and secures, de- America will be even more disastrous than those of Europe.
stroys every pretext for a military establishment which could The sources of evil in the latter are confined to her own lim-
be dangerous. America united, with a handful of troops, or its. No superior powers of another quarter of the globe in-
without a single soldier, exhibits a more forbidding posture trigue among her rival nations, inflame their mutual animosi-
to foreign ambition than America disunited, with a hundred ties, and render them the instruments of foreign ambition,
thousand veterans ready for combat. It was remarked, on a jealousy, and revenge. In America the miseries springing from
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her internal jealousies, contentions, and wars, would form a propriations for two years? On the contrary, it cannot be un-
part only of her lot. A plentiful addition of evils would have known to the authors of the fallacy themselves, that the Brit-
their source in that relation in which Europe stands to this ish Constitution fixes no limit whatever to the discretion of
quarter of the earth, and which no other quarter of the earth the legislature, and that the American ties down the legisla-
bears to Europe. This picture of the consequences of disunion ture to two years, as the longest admissible term. Had the
cannot be too highly colored, or too often exhibited. Every argument from the British example been truly stated, it would
man who loves peace, every man who loves his country, every have stood thus: The term for which supplies may be appro-
man who loves liberty, ought to have it ever before his eyes, priated to the army establishment, though unlimited by the
that he may cherish in his heart a due attachment to the Union British Constitution, has nevertheless, in practice, been lim-
of America, and be able to set a due value on the means of ited by parliamentary discretion to a single year. Now, if in
preserving it. Great Britain, where the House of Commons is elected for
Next to the effectual establishment of the Union, the best seven years; where so great a proportion of the members are
possible precaution against danger from standing armies is a elected by so small a proportion of the people; where the
limitation of the term for which revenue may be appropri- electors are so corrupted by the representatives, and the repre-
ated to their support. This precaution the Constitution has sentatives so corrupted by the Crown, the representative body
prudently added. I will not repeat here the observations which can possess a power to make appropriations to the army for
I flatter myself have placed this subject in a just and satisfac- an indefinite term, without desiring, or without daring, to
tory light. But it may not be improper to take notice of an extend the term beyond a single year, ought not suspicion
argument against this part of the Constitution, which has herself to blush, in pretending that the representatives of the
been drawn from the policy and practice of Great Britain. It United States, elected freely by the whole body of the people,
is said that the continuance of an army in that kingdom re- every second year, cannot be safely intrusted with the discre-
quires an annual vote of the legislature; whereas the American tion over such appropriations, expressly limited to the short
Constitution has lengthened this critical period to two years. period of two years? A bad cause seldom fails to betray itself.
This is the form in which the comparison is usually stated to Of this truth, the management of the opposition to the fed-
the public: but is it a just form? Is it a fair comparison? Does eral government is an unvaried exemplification. But among
the British Constitution restrain the parliamentary discretion all the blunders which have been committed, none is more
to one year? Does the American impose on the Congress ap- striking than the attempt to enlist on that side the prudent
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jealousy entertained by the people, of standing armies. The erto been suffered to sleep quietly in their beds; if their prop-
attempt has awakened fully the public attention to that im- erty has remained safe against the predatory spirit of licen-
portant subject; and has led to investigations which must ter- tious adventurers; if their maritime towns have not yet been
minate in a thorough and universal conviction, not only that compelled to ransom themselves from the terrors of a confla-
the constitution has provided the most effectual guards against gration, by yielding to the exactions of daring and sudden
danger from that quarter, but that nothing short of a Consti- invaders, these instances of good fortune are not to be as-
tution fully adequate to the national defense and the preser- cribed to the capacity of the existing government for the pro-
vation of the Union, can save America from as many stand- tection of those from whom it claims allegiance, but to causes
ing armies as it may be split into States or Confederacies, and that are fugitive and fallacious. If we except perhaps Virginia
from such a progressive augmentation, of these establishments and Maryland, which are peculiarly vulnerable on their east-
in each, as will render them as burdensome to the properties ern frontiers, no part of the Union ought to feel more anxiety
and ominous to the liberties of the people, as any establish- on this subject than New York. Her seacoast is extensive. A
ment that can become necessary, under a united and efficient very important district of the State is an island. The State
government, must be tolerable to the former and safe to the itself is penetrated by a large navigable river for more than
latter. The palpable necessity of the power to provide and fifty leagues. The great emporium of its commerce, the great
maintain a navy has protected that part of the Constitution reservoir of its wealth, lies every moment at the mercy of
against a spirit of censure, which has spared few other parts. It events, and may almost be regarded as a hostage for igno-
must, indeed, be numbered among the greatest blessings of minious compliances with the dictates of a foreign enemy, or
America, that as her Union will be the only source of her even with the rapacious demands of pirates and barbarians.
maritime strength, so this will be a principal source of her Should a war be the result of the precarious situation of Eu-
security against danger from abroad. In this respect our situa- ropean affairs, and all the unruly passions attending it be let
tion bears another likeness to the insular advantage of Great loose on the ocean, our escape from insults and depredations,
Britain. The batteries most capable of repelling foreign enter- not only on that element, but every part of the other border-
prises on our safety, are happily such as can never be turned by ing on it, will be truly miraculous. In the present condition
a perfidious government against our liberties. The inhabit- of America, the States more immediately exposed to these
ants of the Atlantic frontier are all of them deeply interested calamities have nothing to hope from the phantom of a gen-
in this provision for naval protection, and if they have hith- eral government which now exists; and if their single resources
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were equal to the task of fortifying themselves against the increase. In a more remote stage, the imports may consist in a
danger, the object to be protected would be almost consumed considerable part of raw materials, which will be wrought
by the means of protecting them. The power of regulating into articles for exportation, and will, therefore, require rather
and calling forth the militia has been already sufficiently vin- the encouragement of bounties, than to be loaded with dis-
dicated and explained. The power of levying and borrowing couraging duties. A system of government, meant for dura-
money, being the sinew of that which is to be exerted in the tion, ought to contemplate these revolutions, and be able to
national defense, is properly thrown into the same class with accommodate itself to them. Some, who have not denied the
it. This power, also, has been examined already with much necessity of the power of taxation, have grounded a very fierce
attention, and has, I trust, been clearly shown to be necessary, attack against the Constitution, on the language in which it is
both in the extent and form given to it by the Constitution. defined. It has been urged and echoed, that the power “to lay
I will address one additional reflection only to those who and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts,
contend that the power ought to have been restrained to ex- and provide for the common defense and general welfare of
ternal taxation by which they mean, taxes on articles imported the United States,’’ amounts to an unlimited commission to
from other countries. It cannot be doubted that this will al- exercise every power which may be alleged to be necessary for
ways be a valuable source of revenue; that for a considerable the common defense or general welfare. No stronger proof
time it must be a principal source; that at this moment it is an could be given of the distress under which these writers labor
essential one. But we may form very mistaken ideas on this for objections, than their stooping to such a misconstruc-
subject, if we do not call to mind in our calculations, that the tion. Had no other enumeration or definition of the powers
extent of revenue drawn from foreign commerce must vary of the Congress been found in the Constitution, than the
with the variations, both in the extent and the kind of im- general expressions just cited, the authors of the objection
ports; and that these variations do not correspond with the might have had some color for it; though it would have been
progress of population, which must be the general measure difficult to find a reason for so awkward a form of describing
of the public wants. As long as agriculture continues the sole an authority to legislate in all possible cases. A power to de-
field of labor, the importation of manufactures must increase stroy the freedom of the press, the trial by jury, or even to
as the consumers multiply. As soon as domestic manufac- regulate the course of descents, or the forms of conveyances,
tures are begun by the hands not called for by agriculture, the must be very singularly expressed by the terms “to raise money
imported manufactures will decrease as the numbers of people for the general welfare. ‘’But what color can the objection
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have, when a specification of the objects alluded to by these curred for the common defense or general welfare, and al-
general terms immediately follows, and is not even separated lowed by the United States in Congress, shall be defrayed out
by a longer pause than a semicolon? If the different parts of of a common treasury,’’ etc. A similar language again occurs
the same instrument ought to be so expounded, as to give in article ninth. Construe either of these articles by the rules
meaning to every part which will bear it, shall one part of the which would justify the construction put on the new Consti-
same sentence be excluded altogether from a share in the mean- tution, and they vest in the existing Congress a power to leg-
ing; and shall the more doubtful and indefinite terms be re- islate in all cases whatsoever.
tained in their full extent, and the clear and precise expres- But what would have been thought of that assembly, if,
sions be denied any signification whatsoever? For what pur- attaching themselves to these general expressions, and disre-
pose could the enumeration of particular powers be inserted, garding the specifications which ascertain and limit their im-
if these and all others were meant to be included in the pre- port, they had exercised an unlimited power of providing for
ceding general power? Nothing is more natural nor common the common defense and general welfare? I appeal to the ob-
than first to use a general phrase, and then to explain and jectors themselves, whether they would in that case have em-
qualify it by a recital of particulars. But the idea of an enu- ployed the same reasoning in justification of Congress as they
meration of particulars which neither explain nor qualify the now make use of against the convention. How difficult it is
general meaning, and can have no other effect than to con- for error to escape its own condemnation!
found and mislead, is an absurdity, which, as we are reduced
to the dilemma of charging either on the authors of the ob- Publius.
jection or on the authors of the Constitution, we must take
the liberty of supposing, had not its origin with the latter.
The objection here is the more extraordinary, as it appears
that the language used by the convention is a copy from the
articles of Confederation. The objects of the Union among
the States, as described in article third, are “their common
defense, security of their liberties, and mutual and general
welfare. ‘’ The terms of article eighth are still more identical:
“All charges of war and all other expenses that shall be in-
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FEDERALIST No. 42 prised in the articles of Confederation, with this difference
only, that the former is disembarrassed, by the plan of the
The Powers Conferred by the Constitution convention, of an exception, under which treaties might be
Further Considered substantially frustrated by regulations of the States; and that a
power of appointing and receiving “other public ministers and
From the New York Packet. consuls,” is expressly and very properly added to the former
Tuesday, January 22, 1788. provision concerning ambassadors. The term ambassador, if
taken strictly, as seems to be required by the second of the
MADISON articles of Confederation, comprehends the highest grade only
of public ministers, and excludes the grades which the United
To the People of the State of New York: States will be most likely to prefer, where foreign embassies
may be necessary. And under no latitude of construction will
The second class of powers, lodged in the general govern- the term comprehend consuls. Yet it has been found expedi-
ment, consists of those which regulate the intercourse with ent, and has been the practice of Congress, to employ the
foreign nations, to wit: to make treaties; to send and receive inferior grades of public ministers, and to send and receive
ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls; to define consuls.
and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, It is true, that where treaties of commerce stipulate for the
and offenses against the law of nations; to regulate foreign mutual appointment of consuls, whose functions are con-
commerce, including a power to prohibit, after the year 1808, nected with commerce, the admission of foreign consuls may
the importation of slaves, and to lay an intermediate duty of fall within the power of making commercial treaties; and that
ten dollars per head, as a discouragement to such importa- where no such treaties exist, the mission of American consuls
tions. This class of powers forms an obvious and essential into foreign countries may perhaps be covered under the au-
branch of the federal administration. If we are to be one na- thority, given by the ninth article of the Confederation, to
tion in any respect, it clearly ought to be in respect to other appoint all such civil officers as may be necessary for manag-
nations. ing the general affairs of the United States. But the admission
The powers to make treaties and to send and receive am- of consuls into the United States, where no previous treaty
bassadors, speak their own propriety. Both of them are com- has stipulated it, seems to have been nowhere provided for. A
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supply of the omission is one of the lesser instances in which mon law of England; and of various import in the statute law
the convention have improved on the model before them. of that kingdom. But neither the common nor the statute
But the most minute provisions become important when law of that, or of any other nation, ought to be a standard for
they tend to obviate the necessity or the pretext for gradual the proceedings of this, unless previously made its own by
and unobserved usurpations of power. A list of the cases in legislative adoption. The meaning of the term, as defined in
which Congress have been betrayed, or forced by the defects the codes of the several States, would be as impracticable as
of the Confederation, into violations of their chartered au- the former would be a dishonorable and illegitimate guide. It
thorities, would not a little surprise those who have paid no is not precisely the same in any two of the States; and varies in
attention to the subject; and would be no inconsiderable ar- each with every revision of its criminal laws. For the sake of
gument in favor of the new Constitution, which seems to certainty and uniformity, therefore, the power of defining
have provided no less studiously for the lesser, than the more felonies in this case was in every respect necessary and proper.
obvious and striking defects of the old. The power to define The regulation of foreign commerce, having fallen within
and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, several views which have been taken of this subject, has been
and offenses against the law of nations, belongs with equal too fully discussed to need additional proofs here of its being
propriety to the general government, and is a still greater im- properly submitted to the federal administration. It were
provement on the articles of Confederation. These articles doubtless to be wished, that the power of prohibiting the
contain no provision for the case of offenses against the law importation of slaves had not been postponed until the year
of nations; and consequently leave it in the power of any in- 1808, or rather that it had been suffered to have immediate
discreet member to embroil the Confederacy with foreign operation. But it is not difficult to account, either for this
nations. The provision of the federal articles on the subject of restriction on the general government, or for the manner in
piracies and felonies extends no further than to the establish- which the whole clause is expressed. It ought to be considered
ment of courts for the trial of these offenses. The definition as a great point gained in favor of humanity, that a period of
of piracies might, perhaps, without inconveniency, be left to twenty years may terminate forever, within these States, a traf-
the law of nations; though a legislative definition of them is fic which has so long and so loudly upbraided the barbarism
found in most municipal codes. of modern policy; that within that period, it will receive a
A definition of felonies on the high seas is evidently requi- considerable discouragement from the federal government,
site. Felony is a term of loose signification, even in the com- and may be totally abolished, by a concurrence of the few
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States which continue the unnatural traffic, in the prohibi- sures; to establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uni-
tory example which has been given by so great a majority of form laws of bankruptcy, to prescribe the manner in which
the Union. Happy would it be for the unfortunate Africans, the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of each State
if an equal prospect lay before them of being redeemed from shall be proved, and the effect they shall have in other States;
the oppressions of their European brethren! and to establish post offices and post roads. The defect of
Attempts have been made to pervert this clause into an power in the existing Confederacy to regulate the commerce
objection against the Constitution, by representing it on one between its several members, is in the number of those which
side as a criminal toleration of an illicit practice, and on an- have been clearly pointed out by experience. To the proofs
other as calculated to prevent voluntary and beneficial emi- and remarks which former papers have brought into view on
grations from Europe to America. I mention these miscon- this subject, it may be added that without this supplemental
structions, not with a view to give them an answer, for they provision, the great and essential power of regulating foreign
deserve none, but as specimens of the manner and spirit in commerce would have been incomplete and ineffectual. A
which some have thought fit to conduct their opposition to very material object of this power was the relief of the States
the proposed government. The powers included in the third which import and export through other States, from the im-
class are those which provide for the harmony and proper proper contributions levied on them by the latter. Were these
intercourse among the States. Under this head might be in- at liberty to regulate the trade between State and State, it must
cluded the particular restraints imposed on the authority of be foreseen that ways would be found out to load the articles
the States, and certain powers of the judicial department; but of import and export, during the passage through their juris-
the former are reserved for a distinct class, and the latter will diction, with duties which would fall on the makers of the
be particularly examined when we arrive at the structure and latter and the consumers of the former. We may be assured by
organization of the government. I shall confine myself to a past experience, that such a practice would be introduced by
cursory review of the remaining powers comprehended un- future contrivances; and both by that and a common knowl-
der this third description, to wit: to regulate commerce among edge of human affairs, that it would nourish unceasing ani-
the several States and the Indian tribes; to coin money, regu- mosities, and not improbably terminate in serious interrup-
late the value thereof, and of foreign coin; to provide for the tions of the public tranquillity. To those who do not view the
punishment of counterfeiting the current coin and secureties question through the medium of passion or of interest, the
of the United States; to fix the standard of weights and mea- desire of the commercial States to collect, in any form, an
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indirect revenue from their uncommercial neighbors, must not members of any of the States, and is not to violate or
appear not less impolitic than it is unfair; since it would stimu- infringe the legislative right of any State within its own lim-
late the injured party, by resentment as well as interest, to its. What description of Indians are to be deemed members
resort to less convenient channels for their foreign trade. But of a State, is not yet settled, and has been a question of fre-
the mild voice of reason, pleading the cause of an enlarged quent perplexity and contention in the federal councils. And
and permanent interest, is but too often drowned, before how the trade with Indians, though not members of a State,
public bodies as well as individuals, by the clamors of an im- yet residing within its legislative jurisdiction, can be regulated
patient avidity for immediate and immoderate gain. The ne- by an external authority, without so far intruding on the in-
cessity of a superintending authority over the reciprocal trade ternal rights of legislation, is absolutely incomprehensible. This
of confederated States, has been illustrated by other examples is not the only case in which the articles of Confederation
as well as our own. In Switzerland, where the Union is so very have inconsiderately endeavored to accomplish impossibili-
slight, each canton is obliged to allow to merchandises a pas- ties; to reconcile a partial sovereignty in the Union, with com-
sage through its jurisdiction into other cantons, without an plete sovereignty in the States; to subvert a mathematical
augmentation of the tolls. In Germany it is a law of the em- axiom, by taking away a part, and letting the whole remain.
pire, that the princes and states shall not lay tolls or customs All that need be remarked on the power to coin money, regu-
on bridges, rivers, or passages, without the consent of the late the value thereof, and of foreign coin, is, that by provid-
emperor and the diet; though it appears from a quotation in ing for this last case, the Constitution has supplied a material
an antecedent paper, that the practice in this, as in many other omission in the articles of Confederation. The authority of
instances in that confederacy, has not followed the law, and the existing Congress is restrained to the regulation of coin
has produced there the mischiefs which have been foreseen struck by their own authority, or that of the respective States.
here. Among the restraints imposed by the Union of the Neth- It must be seen at once that the proposed uniformity in the
erlands on its members, one is, that they shall not establish value of the current coin might be destroyed by subjecting
imposts disadvantageous to their neighbors, without the gen- that of foreign coin to the different regulations of the differ-
eral permission. The regulation of commerce with the Indian ent States. The punishment of counterfeiting the public secu-
tribes is very properly unfettered from two limitations in the rities, as well as the current coin, is submitted of course to
articles of Confederation, which render the provision obscure that authority which is to secure the value of both.
and contradictory. The power is there restrained to Indians, The regulation of weights and measures is transferred from
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the articles of Confederation, and is founded on like consid- which would confine the stipulated privileges to citizens alone,
erations with the preceding power of regulating coin. the difficulty is diminished only, not removed. The very im-
The dissimilarity in the rules of naturalization has long been proper power would still be retained by each State, of natu-
remarked as a fault in our system, and as laying a foundation ralizing aliens in every other State. In one State, residence for
for intricate and delicate questions. In the fourth article of a short term confirms all the rights of citizenship: in another,
the Confederation, it is declared “that the free inhabitants of qualifications of greater importance are required. An alien,
each of these States, paupers, vagabonds, and fugitives from therefore, legally incapacitated for certain rights in the latter,
justice, excepted, shall be entitled to all privileges and immu- may, by previous residence only in the former, elude his inca-
nities of free citizens in the several States; and the people of pacity; and thus the law of one State be preposterously ren-
each State shall, in every other, enjoy all the privileges of trade dered paramount to the law of another, within the jurisdic-
and commerce,’’ etc. There is a confusion of language here, tion of the other. We owe it to mere casualty, that very serious
which is remarkable. Why the terms free inhabitants are used embarrassments on this subject have been hitherto escaped.
in one part of the article, free citizens in another, and people in By the laws of several States, certain descriptions of aliens,
another; or what was meant by superadding to “all privileges who had rendered themselves obnoxious, were laid under in-
and immunities of free citizens,’’ “all the privileges of trade terdicts inconsistent not only with the rights of citizenship
and commerce,’’ cannot easily be determined. It seems to be a but with the privilege of residence. What would have been
construction scarcely avoidable, however, that those who come the consequence, if such persons, by residence or otherwise,
under the denomination of free inhabitants of a State, although had acquired the character of citizens under the laws of an-
not citizens of such State, are entitled, in every other State, to other State, and then asserted their rights as such, both to
all the privileges of free citizens of the latter; that is, to greater residence and citizenship, within the State proscribing them?
privileges than they may be entitled to in their own State: so Whatever the legal consequences might have been, other con-
that it may be in the power of a particular State, or rather sequences would probably have resulted, of too serious a na-
every State is laid under a necessity, not only to confer the ture not to be provided against. The new Constitution has
rights of citizenship in other States upon any whom it may accordingly, with great propriety, made provision against them,
admit to such rights within itself, but upon any whom it and all others proceeding from the defect of the Confedera-
may allow to become inhabitants within its jurisdiction. But tion on this head, by authorizing the general government to
were an exposition of the term “inhabitants” to be admitted establish a uniform rule of naturalization throughout the
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United States. The power of establishing uniform laws of FEDERALIST No. 43
bankruptcy is so intimately connected with the regulation of
commerce, and will prevent so many frauds where the parties The Same Subject Continued(The Powers Conferred by
or their property may lie or be removed into different States, the
that the expediency of it seems not likely to be drawn into
question. The power of prescribing by general laws, the man- Constitution Further Considered)
ner in which the public acts, records and judicial proceedings
of each State shall be proved, and the effect they shall have in For the Independent Journal.
other States, is an evident and valuable improvement on the
clause relating to this subject in the articles of Confederation. MADISON
The meaning of the latter is extremely indeterminate, and
can be of little importance under any interpretation which it To the People of the State of New York:
will bear. The power here established may be rendered a very
convenient instrument of justice, and be particularly benefi- The fourth class comprises the following miscellaneous
cial on the borders of contiguous States, where the effects powers:
liable to justice may be suddenly and secretly translated, in
any stage of the process, within a foreign jurisdiction. The 1. A power “to promote the progress of science and useful
power of establishing post roads must, in every view, be a arts, by securing, for a limited time, to authors and inventors,
harmless power, and may, perhaps, by judicious management, the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries.
become productive of great public conveniency. ‘’The utility of this power will scarcely be questioned. The
Nothing which tends to facilitate the intercourse between copyright of authors has been solemnly adjudged, in Great Brit-
the States can be deemed unworthy of the public care. ain, to be a right of common law. The right to useful inven-
tions seems with equal reason to belong to the inventors.
Publius. The public good fully coincides in both cases with the claims
of individuals. The States cannot separately make effectual
provisions for either of the cases, and most of them have an-
ticipated the decision of this point, by laws passed at the in-
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stance of Congress. sufficiently circumscribed to satisfy every jealousy of an op-
posite nature. And as it is to be appropriated to this use with
2. “To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, the consent of the State ceding it; as the State will no doubt
over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by provide in the compact for the rights and the consent of the
cession of particular States and the acceptance of Congress, citizens inhabiting it; as the inhabitants will find sufficient
become the seat of the government of the United States; and inducements of interest to become willing parties to the ces-
to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the con- sion; as they will have had their voice in the election of the
sent of the legislatures of the States in which the same shall government which is to exercise authority over them; as a
be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, municipal legislature for local purposes, derived from their
and other needful buildings. ‘’The indispensable necessity of own suffrages, will of course be allowed them; and as the
complete authority at the seat of government, carries its own authority of the legislature of the State, and of the inhabit-
evidence with it. It is a power exercised by every legislature of ants of the ceded part of it, to concur in the cession, will be
the Union, I might say of the world, by virtue of its general derived from the whole people of the State in their adoption
supremacy. Without it, not only the public authority might of the Constitution, every imaginable objection seems to be
be insulted and its proceedings interrupted with impunity; obviated. The necessity of a like authority over forts, maga-
but a dependence of the members of the general government zines, etc. , established by the general government, is not less
on the State comprehending the seat of the government, for evident. The public money expended on such places, and the
protection in the exercise of their duty, might bring on the public property deposited in them, requires that they should
national councils an imputation of awe or influence, equally be exempt from the authority of the particular State. Nor
dishonorable to the government and dissatisfactory to the would it be proper for the places on which the security of the
other members of the Confederacy. This consideration has entire Union may depend, to be in any degree dependent on
the more weight, as the gradual accumulation of public im- a particular member of it. All objections and scruples are here
provements at the stationary residence of the government also obviated, by requiring the concurrence of the States con-
would be both too great a public pledge to be left in the cerned, in every such establishment.
hands of a single State, and would create so many obstacles to
a removal of the government, as still further to abridge its 3. “To declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of
necessary independence. The extent of this federal district is treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except
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during the life of the person attained. ‘’As treason may be therefore, has the new system supplied the defect. The gen-
committed against the United States, the authority of the eral precaution, that no new States shall be formed, without
United States ought to be enabled to punish it. But as new- the concurrence of the federal authority, and that of the States
fangled and artificial treasons have been the great engines by concerned, is consonant to the principles which ought to gov-
which violent factions, the natural offspring of free govern- ern such transactions. The particular precaution against the
ment, have usually wreaked their alternate malignity on each erection of new States, by the partition of a State without its
other, the convention have, with great judgment, opposed a consent, quiets the jealousy of the larger States; as that of the
barrier to this peculiar danger, by inserting a constitutional smaller is quieted by a like precaution, against a junction of
definition of the crime, fixing the proof necessary for convic- States without their consent.
tion of it, and restraining the Congress, even in punishing it,
from extending the consequences of guilt beyond the person 5. “To dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations
of its author. respecting the territory or other property belonging to the
United States, with a proviso, that nothing in the Constitu-
4. “To admit new States into the Union; but no new State shall tion shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the
be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State; United States, or of any particular State. ‘’This is a power of
nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States, very great importance, and required by considerations similar
or parts of States, without the consent of the legislatures of the to those which show the propriety of the former. The pro-
States concerned, as well as of the Congress. viso annexed is proper in itself, and was probably rendered
‘’In the articles of Confederation, no provision is found on absolutely necessary by jealousies and questions concerning
this important subject. Canada was to be admitted of right, the Western territory sufficiently known to the public.
on her joining in the measures of the United States; and the
other colonies, by which were evidently meant the other Brit- 6. “To guarantee to every State in the Union a republican
ish colonies, at the discretion of nine States. The eventual form of government; to protect each of them against inva-
establishment of new states seems to have been overlooked sion; and on application of the legislature, or of the executive
by the compilers of that instrument. We have seen the incon- (when the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic
venience of this omission, and the assumption of power into violence. ‘’In a confederacy founded on republican principles,
which Congress have been led by it. With great propriety, and composed of republican members, the superintending
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government ought clearly to possess authority to defend the ambition of enterprising leaders, or by the intrigues and influ-
system against aristocratic or monarchial innovations. The ence of foreign powers? To the second question it may be an-
more intimate the nature of such a union may be, the greater swered, that if the general government should interpose by vir-
interest have the members in the political institutions of each tue of this constitutional authority, it will be, of course, bound
other; and the greater right to insist that the forms of govern- to pursue the authority. But the authority extends no further
ment under which the compact was entered into should be than to a guaranty of a republican form of government, which
substantially maintained. But a right implies a remedy; and supposes a pre-existing government of the form which is to be
where else could the remedy be deposited, than where it is guaranteed. As long, therefore, as the existing republican forms
deposited by the Constitution? Governments of dissimilar are continued by the States, they are guaranteed by the federal
principles and forms have been found less adapted to a federal Constitution. Whenever the States may choose to substitute
coalition of any sort, than those of a kindred nature. “As the other republican forms, they have a right to do so, and to claim
confederate republic of Germany,’’ says Montesquieu, “con- the federal guaranty for the latter. The only restriction imposed
sists of free cities and petty states, subject to different princes, on them is, that they shall not exchange republican for antire-
experience shows us that it is more imperfect than that of publican Constitutions; a restriction which, it is presumed, will
Holland and Switzerland.” “Greece was undone,’’ he adds, “as hardly be considered as a grievance.
soon as the king of Macedon obtained a seat among the A protection against invasion is due from every society to
Amphictyons. ‘’ In the latter case, no doubt, the dispropor- the parts composing it. The latitude of the expression here
tionate force, as well as the monarchical form, of the new used seems to secure each State, not only against foreign hos-
confederate, had its share of influence on the events. It may tility, but against ambitious or vindictive enterprises of its
possibly be asked, what need there could be of such a precau- more powerful neighbors. The history, both of ancient and
tion, and whether it may not become a pretext for alterations modern confederacies, proves that the weaker members of
in the State governments, without the concurrence of the States the union ought not to be insensible to the policy of this
themselves. These questions admit of ready answers. If the article. Protection against domestic violence is added with
interposition of the general government should not be needed, equal propriety. It has been remarked, that even among the
the provision for such an event will be a harmless superfluity Swiss cantons, which, properly speaking, are not under one
only in the Constitution. But who can say what experiments government, provision is made for this object; and the his-
may be produced by the caprice of particular States, by the tory of that league informs us that mutual aid is frequently
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claimed and afforded; and as well by the most democratic, as sarily on the same side in republican governments? May not
the other cantons. A recent and well-known event among the minor party possess such a superiority of pecuniary re-
ourselves has warned us to be prepared for emergencies of a sources, of military talents and experience, or of secret suc-
like nature. At first view, it might seem not to square with cors from foreign powers, as will render it superior also in an
the republican theory, to suppose, either that a majority have appeal to the sword? May not a more compact and advanta-
not the right, or that a minority will have the force, to sub- geous position turn the scale on the same side, against a supe-
vert a government; and consequently, that the federal inter- rior number so situated as to be less capable of a prompt and
position can never be required, but when it would be im- collected exertion of its strength? Nothing can be more chi-
proper. But theoretic reasoning, in this as in most other cases, merical than to imagine that in a trial of actual force, victory
must be qualified by the lessons of practice. Why may not may be calculated by the rules which prevail in a census of the
illicit combinations, for purposes of violence, be formed as inhabitants, or which determine the event of an election!
well by a majority of a State, especially a small State as by a May it not happen, in fine, that the minority of citizens
majority of a county, or a district of the same State; and if the may become a majority of persons, by the accession of alien
authority of the State ought, in the latter case, to protect the residents, of a casual concourse of adventurers, or of those
local magistracy, ought not the federal authority, in the former, whom the constitution of the State has not admitted to the
to support the State authority? Besides, there are certain parts rights of suffrage? I take no notice of an unhappy species of
of the State constitutions which are so interwoven with the population abounding in some of the States, who, during the
federal Constitution, that a violent blow cannot be given to calm of regular government, are sunk below the level of men;
the one without communicating the wound to the other. but who, in the tempestuous scenes of civil violence, may
Insurrections in a State will rarely induce a federal interpo- emerge into the human character, and give a superiority of
sition, unless the number concerned in them bear some pro- strength to any party with which they may associate them-
portion to the friends of government. It will be much better selves. In cases where it may be doubtful on which side justice
that the violence in such cases should be repressed by the su- lies, what better umpires could be desired by two violent fac-
perintending power, than that the majority should be left to tions, flying to arms, and tearing a State to pieces, than the
maintain their cause by a bloody and obstinate contest. The representatives of confederate States, not heated by the local
existence of a right to interpose, will generally prevent the flame? To the impartiality of judges, they would unite the
necessity of exerting it. Is it true that force and right are neces- affection of friends. Happy would it be if such a remedy for
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its infirmities could be enjoyed by all free governments; if a ercised on the Constitution, it has been remarked that the
project equally effectual could be established for the universal validity of engagements ought to have been asserted in favor
peace of mankind! Should it be asked, what is to be the re- of the United States, as well as against them; and in the spirit
dress for an insurrection pervading all the States, and com- which usually characterizes little critics, the omission has been
prising a superiority of the entire force, though not a consti- transformed and magnified into a plot against the national
tutional right? the answer must be, that such a case, as it would rights. The authors of this discovery may be told, what few
be without the compass of human remedies, so it is fortu- others need to be informed of, that as engagements are in
nately not within the compass of human probability; and that their nature reciprocal, an assertion of their validity on one
it is a sufficient recommendation of the federal Constitution, side, necessarily involves a validity on the other side; and that
that it diminishes the risk of a calamity for which no possible as the article is merely declaratory, the establishment of the
constitution can provide a cure. Among the advantages of a principle in one case is sufficient for every case. They may be
confederate republic enumerated by Montesquieu, an impor- further told, that every constitution must limit its precau-
tant one is, “that should a popular insurrection happen in one tions to dangers that are not altogether imaginary; and that
of the States, the others are able to quell it. Should abuses no real danger can exist that the government would dare, with,
creep into one part, they are reformed by those that remain or even without, this constitutional declaration before it, to
sound.” remit the debts justly due to the public, on the pretext here
condemned.
7. “To consider all debts contracted, and engagements en-
tered into, before the adoption of this Constitution, as being 8. “To provide for amendments to be ratified by three fourths
no less valid against the United States, under this Constitu- of the States under two exceptions only. ‘’That useful alter-
tion, than under the Confederation. ‘’This can only be con- ations will be suggested by experience, could not but be fore-
sidered as a declaratory proposition; and may have been in- seen. It was requisite, therefore, that a mode for introducing
serted, among other reasons, for the satisfaction of the for- them should be provided. The mode preferred by the con-
eign creditors of the United States, who cannot be strangers vention seems to be stamped with every mark of propriety. It
to the pretended doctrine, that a change in the political form guards equally against that extreme facility, which would ren-
of civil society has the magical effect of dissolving its moral der the Constitution too mutable; and that extreme diffi-
obligations. Among the lesser criticisms which have been ex- culty, which might perpetuate its discovered faults. It, more-
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over, equally enables the general and the State governments to 2. What relation is to subsist between the nine or more
originate the amendment of errors, as they may be pointed States ratifying the Constitution, and the remaining few
out by the experience on one side, or on the other. The excep- who do not become parties to it?
tion in favor of the equality of suffrage in the Senate, was
probably meant as a palladium to the residuary sovereignty of The first question is answered at once by recurring to the
the States, implied and secured by that principle of represen- absolute necessity of the case; to the great principle of self-
tation in one branch of the legislature; and was probably in- preservation; to the transcendent law of nature and of nature’s
sisted on by the States particularly attached to that equality. God, which declares that the safety and happiness of society
The other exception must have been admitted on the same are the objects at which all political institutions aim, and to
considerations which produced the privilege defended by it. which all such institutions must be sacrificed. Perhaps, also,
an answer may be found without searching beyond the prin-
9. “The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be ciples of the compact itself. It has been heretofore noted among
sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution between the defects of the Confederation, that in many of the States it
the States, ratifying the same. ‘’This article speaks for itself. had received no higher sanction than a mere legislative ratifi-
The express authority of the people alone could give due va- cation. The principle of reciprocality seems to require that its
lidity to the Constitution. To have required the unanimous obligation on the other States should be reduced to the same
ratification of the thirteen States, would have subjected the standard. A compact between independent sovereigns, founded
essential interests of the whole to the caprice or corruption of on ordinary acts of legislative authority, can pretend to no
a single member. It would have marked a want of foresight in higher validity than a league or treaty between the parties. It is
the convention, which our own experience would have ren- an established doctrine on the subject of treaties, that all the
dered inexcusable. Two questions of a very delicate nature articles are mutually conditions of each other; that a breach of
present themselves on this occasion: any one article is a breach of the whole treaty; and that a breach,
committed by either of the parties, absolves the others, and
1. On what principle the Confederation, which stands in authorizes them, if they please, to pronounce the compact
the solemn form of a compact among the States, can be violated and void. Should it unhappily be necessary to appeal
superseded without the unanimous consent of the parties to these delicate truths for a justification for dispensing with
to it? the consent of particular States to a dissolution of the federal
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pact, will not the complaining parties find it a difficult task FEDERALIST No. 44
to answer the multiplied and important infractions with which
they may be confronted? The time has been when it was in- Restrictions on the Authority of the Several States
cumbent on us all to veil the ideas which this paragraph ex-
hibits. The scene is now changed, and with it the part which From the New York Packet.
the same motives dictate. The second question is not less deli- Friday, January 25, 1788.
cate; and the flattering prospect of its being merely hypo-
thetical forbids an overcurious discussion of it. It is one of MADISON
those cases which must be left to provide for itself. In general,
it may be observed, that although no political relation can To the People of the State of New York:
subsist between the assenting and dissenting States, yet the
moral relations will remain uncancelled. The claims of jus- A fifth class of provisions in favor of the federal authority
tice, both on one side and on the other, will be in force, and consists of the following restrictions on the authority of the
must be fulfilled; the rights of humanity must in all cases be several States:
duly and mutually respected; whilst considerations of a com-
mon interest, and, above all, the remembrance of the endear- 1. “No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confedera-
ing scenes which are past, and the anticipation of a speedy tion; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit
triumph over the obstacles to reunion, will, it is hoped, not bills of credit; make any thing but gold and silver a legal ten-
urge in vain moderation on one side, and prudence on the der in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex-post-
other. facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts; or
grant any title of nobility. ‘’The prohibition against treaties,
Publius. alliances, and confederations makes a part of the existing ar-
ticles of Union; and for reasons which need no explanation, is
copied into the new Constitution. The prohibition of letters
of marque is another part of the old system, but is somewhat
extended in the new. According to the former, letters of marque
could be granted by the States after a declaration of war; ac-
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cording to the latter, these licenses must be obtained, as well confidence between man and man, on the necessary confi-
during war as previous to its declaration, from the govern- dence in the public councils, on the industry and morals of
ment of the United States. This alteration is fully justified by the people, and on the character of republican government,
the advantage of uniformity in all points which relate to for- constitutes an enormous debt against the States chargeable
eign powers; and of immediate responsibility to the nation in with this unadvised measure, which must long remain unsat-
all those for whose conduct the nation itself is to be respon- isfied; or rather an accumulation of guilt, which can be expi-
sible. ated no otherwise than by a voluntary sacrifice on the altar of
The right of coining money, which is here taken from the justice, of the power which has been the instrument of it. In
States, was left in their hands by the Confederation, as a con- addition to these persuasive considerations, it may be observed,
current right with that of Congress, under an exception in that the same reasons which show the necessity of denying to
favor of the exclusive right of Congress to regulate the alloy the States the power of regulating coin, prove with equal force
and value. In this instance, also, the new provision is an im- that they ought not to be at liberty to substitute a paper me-
provement on the old. Whilst the alloy and value depended dium in the place of coin. Had every State a right to regulate
on the general authority, a right of coinage in the particular the value of its coin, there might be as many different curren-
States could have no other effect than to multiply expensive cies as States, and thus the intercourse among them would be
mints and diversify the forms and weights of the circulating impeded; retrospective alterations in its value might be made,
pieces. The latter inconveniency defeats one purpose for which and thus the citizens of other States be injured, and animosi-
the power was originally submitted to the federal head; and ties be kindled among the States themselves. The subjects of
as far as the former might prevent an inconvenient remittance foreign powers might suffer from the same cause, and hence
of gold and silver to the central mint for recoinage, the end the Union be discredited and embroiled by the indiscretion
can be as well attained by local mints established under the of a single member. No one of these mischiefs is less incident
general authority. to a power in the States to emit paper money, than to coin
The extension of the prohibition to bills of credit must gold or silver. The power to make any thing but gold and
give pleasure to every citizen, in proportion to his love of silver a tender in payment of debts, is withdrawn from the
justice and his knowledge of the true springs of public pros- States, on the same principle with that of issuing a paper cur-
perity. The loss which America has sustained since the peace, rency. Bills of attainder, ex-post-facto laws, and laws impair-
from the pestilent effects of paper money on the necessary ing the obligation of contracts, are contrary to the first prin-
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ciples of the social compact, and to every principle of sound 2. “No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay
legislation. The two former are expressly prohibited by the any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what
declarations prefixed to some of the State constitutions, and may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws,
all of them are prohibited by the spirit and scope of these and the net produce of all duties and imposts laid by any
fundamental charters. Our own experience has taught us, nev- State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the trea-
ertheless, that additional fences against these dangers ought sury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to
not to be omitted. Very properly, therefore, have the conven- the revision and control of the Congress. No State shall, with-
tion added this constitutional bulwark in favor of personal out the consent of Congress, lay any duty on tonnage, keep
security and private rights; and I am much deceived if they troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agree-
have not, in so doing, as faithfully consulted the genuine sen- ment or compact with another State, or with a foreign power,
timents as the undoubted interests of their constituents. The or engage in war unless actually invaded, or in such imminent
sober people of America are weary of the fluctuating policy danger as will not admit of delay. ‘’The restraint on the power
which has directed the public councils. They have seen with of the States over imports and exports is enforced by all the
regret and indignation that sudden changes and legislative in- arguments which prove the necessity of submitting the regu-
terferences, in cases affecting personal rights, become jobs in lation of trade to the federal councils. It is needless, therefore,
the hands of enterprising and influential speculators, and snares to remark further on this head, than that the manner in which
to the more-industrious and lessinformed part of the com- the restraint is qualified seems well calculated at once to se-
munity. They have seen, too, that one legislative interference cure to the States a reasonable discretion in providing for the
is but the first link of a long chain of repetitions, every subse- conveniency of their imports and exports, and to the United
quent interference being naturally produced by the effects of States a reasonable check against the abuse of this discretion.
the preceding. They very rightly infer, therefore, that some The remaining particulars of this clause fall within reasonings
thorough reform is wanting, which will banish speculations which are either so obvious, or have been so fully developed,
on public measures, inspire a general prudence and industry, that they may be passed over without remark.
and give a regular course to the business of society. The prohi- The sixth and last class consists of the several powers and
bition with respect to titles of nobility is copied from the provisions by which efficacy is given to all the rest.
articles of Confederation and needs no comment.
1. Of these the first is, the “power to make all laws which
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shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the latitude as to destroy altogether the force of the restriction.
foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Consti- It would be easy to show, if it were necessary, that no im-
tution in the government of the United States, or in any de- portant power, delegated by the articles of Confederation,
partment or officer thereof. ‘’Few parts of the Constitution has been or can be executed by Congress, without recurring
have been assailed with more intemperance than this; yet on a more or less to the doctrine of construction or implication. As
fair investigation of it, no part can appear more completely the powers delegated under the new system are more exten-
invulnerable. Without the substance of this power, the whole sive, the government which is to administer it would find
Constitution would be a dead letter. Those who object to the itself still more distressed with the alternative of betraying the
article, therefore, as a part of the Constitution, can only mean public interests by doing nothing, or of violating the Consti-
that the form of the provision is improper. But have they con- tution by exercising powers indispensably necessary and proper,
sidered whether a better form could have been substituted? but, at the same time, not expressly granted. Had the conven-
There are four other possible methods which the Constitu- tion attempted a positive enumeration of the powers neces-
tion might have taken on this subject. They might have cop- sary and proper for carrying their other powers into effect,
ied the second article of the existing Confederation, which the attempt would have involved a complete digest of laws
would have prohibited the exercise of any power not expressly on every subject to which the Constitution relates; accom-
delegated; they might have attempted a positive enumeration modated too, not only to the existing state of things, but to
of the powers comprehended under the general terms “neces- all the possible changes which futurity may produce; for in
sary and proper”; they might have attempted a negative enu- every new application of a general power, the particular pow-
meration of them, by specifying the powers excepted from ers, which are the means of attaining the object of the general
the general definition; they might have been altogether silent power, must always necessarily vary with that object, and be
on the subject, leaving these necessary and proper powers to often properly varied whilst the object remains the same.
construction and inference. Had the convention taken the first Had they attempted to enumerate the particular powers or
method of adopting the second article of Confederation, it is means not necessary or proper for carrying the general powers
evident that the new Congress would be continually exposed, into execution, the task would have been no less chimerical;
as their predecessors have been, to the alternative of constru- and would have been liable to this further objection, that
ing the term “expressly” with so much rigor, as to disarm the every defect in the enumeration would have been equivalent
government of all real authority whatever, or with so much to a positive grant of authority. If, to avoid this consequence,
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they had attempted a partial enumeration of the exceptions, lars, and any one of these were to be violated; the same, in
and described the residue by the general terms, not necessary short, as if the State legislatures should violate the irrespective
or proper, it must have happened that the enumeration would constitutional authorities. In the first instance, the success of
comprehend a few of the excepted powers only; that these the usurpation will depend on the executive and judiciary
would be such as would be least likely to be assumed or toler- departments, which are to expound and give effect to the leg-
ated, because the enumeration would of course select such as islative acts; and in the last resort a remedy must be obtained
would be least necessary or proper; and that the unnecessary from the people who can, by the election of more faithful
and improper powers included in the residuum, would be representatives, annul the acts of the usurpers. The truth is,
less forcibly excepted, than if no partial enumeration had been that this ultimate redress may be more confided in against
made. Had the Constitution been silent on this head, there unconstitutional acts of the federal than of the State legisla-
can be no doubt that all the particular powers requisite as tures, for this plain reason, that as every such act of the former
means of executing the general powers would have resulted will be an invasion of the rights of the latter, these will be ever
to the government, by unavoidable implication. No axiom is ready to mark the innovation, to sound the alarm to the
more clearly established in law, or in reason, than that wher- people, and to exert their local influence in effecting a change
ever the end is required, the means are authorized; wherever a of federal representatives. There being no such intermediate
general power to do a thing is given, every particular power body between the State legislatures and the people interested
necessary for doing it is included. Had this last method, there- in watching the conduct of the former, violations of the State
fore, been pursued by the convention, every objection now constitutions are more likely to remain unnoticed and unre-
urged against their plan would remain in all its plausibility; dressed.
and the real inconveniency would be incurred of not remov-
ing a pretext which may be seized on critical occasions for 2. “This Constitution and the laws of the United States which
drawing into question the essential powers of the Union. If it shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or
be asked what is to be the consequence, in case the Congress which shall be made, under the authority of the United States,
shall misconstrue this part of the Constitution, and exercise shall be the supreme law of the land, and the judges in every
powers not warranted by its true meaning, I answer, the same State shall be bound thereby, any thing in the constitution or
as if they should misconstrue or enlarge any other power vested laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. ‘’The in-
in them; as if the general power had been reduced to particu- discreet zeal of the adversaries to the Constitution has be-
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trayed them into an attack on this part of it also, without monster, in which the head was under the direction of the
which it would have been evidently and radically defective. members.
To be fully sensible of this, we need only suppose for a mo-
ment that the supremacy of the State constitutions had been 3. “The Senators and Representatives, and the members of
left complete by a saving clause in their favor. In the first the several State legislatures, and all executive and judicial of-
place, as these constitutions invest the State legislatures with ficers, both of the United States and the several States, shall
absolute sovereignty, in all cases not excepted by the existing be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitu-
articles of Confederation, all the authorities contained in the tion. ‘’It has been asked why it was thought necessary, that
proposed Constitution, so far as they exceed those enumer- the State magistracy should be bound to support the federal
ated in the Confederation, would have been annulled, and Constitution, and unnecessary that a like oath should be im-
the new Congress would have been reduced to the same im- posed on the officers of the United States, in favor of the
potent condition with their predecessors. In the next place, as State constitutions. Several reasons might be assigned for the
the constitutions of some of the States do not even expressly distinction. I content myself with one, which is obvious and
and fully recognize the existing powers of the Confederacy, conclusive. The members of the federal government will have
an express saving of the supremacy of the former would, in no agency in carrying the State constitutions into effect. The
such States, have brought into question every power contained members and officers of the State governments, on the con-
in the proposed Constitution. In the third place, as the con- trary, will have an essential agency in giving effect to the fed-
stitutions of the States differ much from each other, it might eral Constitution. The election of the President and Senate
happen that a treaty or national law, of great and equal im- will depend, in all cases, on the legislatures of the several States.
portance to the States, would interfere with some and not And the election of the House of Representatives will equally
with other constitutions, and would consequently be valid in depend on the same authority in the first instance; and will,
some of the States, at the same time that it would have no probably, forever be conducted by the officers, and according
effect in others. In fine, the world would have seen, for the to the laws, of the States.
first time, a system of government founded on an inversion
of the fundamental principles of all government; it would 4. Among the provisions for giving efficacy to the federal
have seen the authority of the whole society every where sub- powers might be added those which belong to the executive
ordinate to the authority of the parts; it would have seen a and judiciary departments: but as these are reserved for par-
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ticular examination in another place, I pass them over in this. FEDERALIST No. 45
We have now reviewed, in detail, all the articles composing
the sum or quantity of power delegated by the proposed The Alleged Danger From the Powers of the Union to
Constitution to the federal government, and are brought to the State Governments Considered
this undeniable conclusion, that no part of the power is un-
necessary or improper for accomplishing the necessary ob- For the Independent Fournal.
jects of the Union. The question, therefore, whether this
amount of power shall be granted or not, resolves itself into MADISON
another question, whether or not a government commensu-
rate to the exigencies of the Union shall be established; or, in To the People of the State of New York:
other words, whether the Union itself shall be preserved.
Having shown that no one of the powers transferred to the
Publius. federal government is unnecessary or improper, the next ques-
tion to be considered is, whether the whole mass of them will
be dangerous to the portion of authority left in the several
States. The adversaries to the plan of the convention, instead
of considering in the first place what degree of power was
absolutely necessary for the purposes of the federal govern-
ment, have exhausted themselves in a secondary inquiry into
the possible consequences of the proposed degree of power to
the governments of the particular States. But if the Union, as
has been shown, be essential to the security of the people of
America against foreign danger; if it be essential to their secu-
rity against contentions and wars among the different States;
if it be essential to guard them against those violent and op-
pressive factions which embitter the blessings of liberty, and
against those military establishments which must gradually
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poison its very fountain; if, in a word, the Union be essential onciled to the happiness of the people, the voice of every
to the happiness of the people of America, is it not preposter- good citizen must be, Let the former be sacrificed to the lat-
ous, to urge as an objection to a government, without which ter. How far the sacrifice is necessary, has been shown. How
the objects of the Union cannot be attained, that such a gov- far the unsacrificed residue will be endangered, is the question
ernment may derogate from the importance of the govern- before us. Several important considerations have been touched
ments of the individual States? Was, then, the American Revo- in the course of these papers, which discountenance the sup-
lution effected, was the American Confederacy formed, was position that the operation of the federal government will by
the precious blood of thousands spilt, and the hard-earned degrees prove fatal to the State governments. The more I re-
substance of millions lavished, not that the people of America volve the subject, the more fully I am persuaded that the bal-
should enjoy peace, liberty, and safety, but that the govern- ance is much more likely to be disturbed by the preponder-
ment of the individual States, that particular municipal es- ancy of the last than of the first scale. We have seen, in all the
tablishments, might enjoy a certain extent of power, and be examples of ancient and modern confederacies, the strongest
arrayed with certain dignities and attributes of sovereignty? tendency continually betraying itself in the members, to de-
We have heard of the impious doctrine in the Old World, spoil the general government of its authorities, with a very
that the people were made for kings, not kings for the people. ineffectual capacity in the latter to defend itself against the
Is the same doctrine to be revived in the New, in another encroachments. Although, in most of these examples, the sys-
shape that the solid happiness of the people is to be sacrificed tem has been so dissimilar from that under consideration as
to the views of political institutions of a different form? It is greatly to weaken any inference concerning the latter from
too early for politicians to presume on our forgetting that the the fate of the former, yet, as the States will retain, under the
public good, the real welfare of the great body of the people, proposed Constitution, a very extensive portion of active sov-
is the supreme object to be pursued; and that no form of ereignty, the inference ought not to be wholly disregarded. In
government whatever has any other value than as it may be the Achaean league it is probable that the federal head had a
fitted for the attainment of this object. Were the plan of the degree and species of power, which gave it a considerable like-
convention adverse to the public happiness, my voice would ness to the government framed by the convention. The Lycian
be, Reject the plan. Were the Union itself inconsistent with Confederacy, as far as its principles and form are transmitted,
the public happiness, it would be, Abolish the Union. In like must have borne a still greater analogy to it. Yet history does
manner, as far as the sovereignty of the States cannot be rec- not inform us that either of them ever degenerated, or tended
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to degenerate, into one consolidated government. On the con- garded as constituent and essential parts of the federal govern-
trary, we know that the ruin of one of them proceeded from ment; whilst the latter is nowise essential to the operation or
the incapacity of the federal authority to prevent the dissen- organization of the former. Without the intervention of the
sions, and finally the disunion, of the subordinate authori- State legislatures, the President of the United States cannot be
ties. These cases are the more worthy of our attention, as the elected at all. They must in all cases have a great share in his
external causes by which the component parts were pressed appointment, and will, perhaps, in most cases, of themselves
together were much more numerous and powerful than in determine it. The Senate will be elected absolutely and exclu-
our case; and consequently less powerful ligaments within sively by the State legislatures. Even the House of Representa-
would be sufficient to bind the members to the head, and to tives, though drawn immediately from the people, will be
each other. In the feudal system, we have seen a similar pro- chosen very much under the influence of that class of men,
pensity exemplified. Notwithstanding the want of proper whose influence over the people obtains for themselves an
sympathy in every instance between the local sovereigns and election into the State legislatures. Thus, each of the principal
the people, and the sympathy in some instances between the branches of the federal government will owe its existence more
general sovereign and the latter, it usually happened that the or less to the favor of the State governments, and must conse-
local sovereigns prevailed in the rivalship for encroachments. quently feel a dependence, which is much more likely to be-
Had no external dangers enforced internal harmony and sub- get a disposition too obsequious than too overbearing towards
ordination, and particularly, had the local sovereigns possessed them. On the other side, the component parts of the State
the affections of the people, the great kingdoms in Europe governments will in no instance be indebted for their appoint-
would at this time consist of as many independent princes as ment to the direct agency of the federal government, and very
there were formerly feudatory barons. The State government little, if at all, to the local influence of its members. The num-
will have the advantage of the Federal government, whether ber of individuals employed under the Constitution of the
we compare them in respect to the immediate dependence of United States will be much smaller than the number em-
the one on the other; to the weight of personal influence which ployed under the particular States.
each side will possess; to the powers respectively vested in There will consequently be less of personal influence on the
them; to the predilection and probable support of the people; side of the former than of the latter. The members of the
to the disposition and faculty of resisting and frustrating the legislative, executive, and judiciary departments of thirteen
measures of each other. The State governments may be re- and more States, the justices of peace, officers of militia, min-
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isterial officers of justice, with all the county, corporation, Union, will generally be made by the officers, and according
and town officers, for three millions and more of people, to the rules, appointed by the several States. Indeed it is ex-
intermixed, and having particular acquaintance with every class tremely probable, that in other instances, particularly in the
and circle of people, must exceed, beyond all proportion, both organization of the judicial power, the officers of the States
in number and influence, those of every description who will will be clothed with the correspondent authority of the Union.
be employed in the administration of the federal system. Should it happen, however, that separate collectors of in-
Compare the members of the three great departments of the ternal revenue should be appointed under the federal govern-
thirteen States, excluding from the judiciary department the ment, the influence of the whole number would not bear a
justices of peace, with the members of the corresponding de- comparison with that of the multitude of State officers in the
partments of the single government of the Union; compare opposite scale. Within every district to which a federal collec-
the militia officers of three millions of people with the mili- tor would be allotted, there would not be less than thirty or
tary and marine officers of any establishment which is within forty, or even more, officers of different descriptions, and many
the compass of probability, or, I may add, of possibility, and of them persons of character and weight, whose influence
in this view alone, we may pronounce the advantage of the would lie on the side of the State. The powers delegated by
States to be decisive. If the federal government is to have col- the proposed Constitution to the federal government are few
lectors of revenue, the State governments will have theirs also. and defined. Those which are to remain in the State govern-
And as those of the former will be principally on the seacoast, ments are numerous and indefinite. The former will be exer-
and not very numerous, whilst those of the latter will be spread cised principally on external objects, as war, peace, negotia-
over the face of the country, and will be very numerous, the tion, and foreign commerce; with which last the power of
advantage in this view also lies on the same side. taxation will, for the most part, be connected. The powers
It is true, that the Confederacy is to possess, and may exer- reserved to the several States will extend to all the objects
cise, the power of collecting internal as well as external taxes which, in the ordinary course of affairs, concern the lives,
throughout the States; but it is probable that this power will liberties, and properties of the people, and the internal order,
not be resorted to, except for supplemental purposes of rev- improvement, and prosperity of the State. The operations of
enue; that an option will then be given to the States to supply the federal government will be most extensive and important
their quotas by previous collections of their own; and that in times of war and danger; those of the State governments,
the eventual collection, under the immediate authority of the in times of peace and security. As the former periods will prob-
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ably bear a small proportion to the latter, the State govern- towards single persons, our past experience is very far from
ments will here enjoy another advantage over the federal gov- countenancing an opinion, that the State governments would
ernment. The more adequate, indeed, the federal powers may have lost their constitutional powers, and have gradually un-
be rendered to the national defense, the less frequent will be dergone an entire consolidation. To maintain that such an
those scenes of danger which might favor their ascendancy event would have ensued, would be to say at once, that the
over the governments of the particular States. If the new Con- existence of the State governments is incompatible with any
stitution be examined with accuracy and candor, it will be system whatever that accomplishes the essental purposes of
found that the change which it proposes consists much less in the Union.
the addition of new powers to the Union, than in the invigo-
ration of its original powers. The regulation of commerce, it is Publius.
true, is a new power; but that seems to be an addition which
few oppose, and from which no apprehensions are entertained.
The powers relating to war and peace, armies and fleets, trea-
ties and finance, with the other more considerable powers,
are all vested in the existing Congress by the articles of Con-
federation. The proposed change does not enlarge these pow-
ers; it only substitutes a more effectual mode of administer-
ing them. The change relating to taxation may be regarded as
the most important; and yet the present Congress have as
complete authority to require of the States indefinite supplies
of money for the common defense and general welfare, as the
future Congress will have to require them of individual citi-
zens; and the latter will be no more bound than the States
themselves have been, to pay the quotas respectively taxed on
them. Had the States complied punctually with the articles
of Confederation, or could their compliance have been en-
forced by as peaceable means as may be used with success
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FEDERALIST No. 46 any common superior in their efforts to usurp the authorities
of each other. These gentlemen must here be reminded of
The Influence of the State and Federal Governments their error. They must be told that the ultimate authority,
Compared wherever the derivative may be found, resides in the people
alone, and that it will not depend merely on the comparative
From the New York Packet. ambition or address of the different governments, whether
Tuesday, January 29, 1788. either, or which of them, will be able to enlarge its sphere of
jurisdiction at the expense of the other. Truth, no less than
MADISON decency, requires that the event in every case should be sup-
posed to depend on the sentiments and sanction of their com-
To the People of the State of New York: mon constituents. Many considerations, besides those sug-
gested on a former occasion, seem to place it beyond doubt
Resuming the subject of the last paper, I proceed to inquire that the first and most natural attachment of the people will
whether the federal government or the State governments will be to the governments of their respective States.
have the advantage with regard to the predilection and sup- Into the administration of these a greater number of indi-
port of the people. Notwithstanding the different modes in viduals will expect to rise. From the gift of these a greater
which they are appointed, we must consider both of them as number of offices and emoluments will flow. By the superin-
substantially dependent on the great body of the citizens of tending care of these, all the more domestic and personal in-
the United States. terests of the people will be regulated and provided for. With
I assume this position here as it respects the first, reserving the affairs of these, the people will be more familiarly and
the proofs for another place. The federal and State govern- minutely conversant. And with the members of these, will a
ments are in fact but different agents and trustees of the people, greater proportion of the people have the ties of personal ac-
constituted with different powers, and designed for different quaintance and friendship, and of family and party attach-
purposes. The adversaries of the Constitution seem to have ments; on the side of these, therefore, the popular bias may
lost sight of the people altogether in their reasonings on this well be expected most strongly to incline. Experience speaks
subject; and to have viewed these different establishments, the same language in this case. The federal administration,
not only as mutual rivals and enemies, but as uncontrolled by though hitherto very defective in comparison with what may
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be hoped under a better system, had, during the war, and State governments, are the disposition and the faculty they
particularly whilst the independent fund of paper emissions may respectively possess, to resist and frustrate the measures
was in credit, an activity and importance as great as it can well of each other. It has been already proved that the members of
have in any future circumstances whatever. the federal will be more dependent on the members of the
It was engaged, too, in a course of measures which had for State governments, than the latter will be on the former. It
their object the protection of everything that was dear, and has appeared also, that the prepossessions of the people, on
the acquisition of everything that could be desirable to the whom both will depend, will be more on the side of the
people at large. It was, nevertheless, invariably found, after State governments, than of the federal government. So far as
the transient enthusiasm for the early Congresses was over, the disposition of each towards the other may be influenced
that the attention and attachment of the people were turned by these causes, the State governments must clearly have the
anew to their own particular governments; that the federal advantage.
council was at no time the idol of popular favor; and that But in a distinct and very important point of view, the ad-
opposition to proposed enlargements of its powers and im- vantage will lie on the same side. The prepossessions, which
portance was the side usually taken by the men who wished the members themselves will carry into the federal govern-
to build their political consequence on the prepossessions of ment, will generally be favorable to the States; whilst it will
their fellow-citizens. If, therefore, as has been elsewhere re- rarely happen, that the members of the State governments
marked, the people should in future become more partial to will carry into the public councils a bias in favor of the gen-
the federal than to the State governments, the change can only eral government. A local spirit will infallibly prevail much
result from such manifest and irresistible proofs of a better more in the members of Congress, than a national spirit will
administration, as will overcome all their antecedent propen- prevail in the legislatures of the particular States. Every one
sities. And in that case, the people ought not surely to be knows that a great proportion of the errors committed by the
precluded from giving most of their confidence where they State legislatures proceeds from the disposition of the mem-
may discover it to be most due; but even in that case the State bers to sacrifice the comprehensive and permanent interest of
governments could have little to apprehend, because it is only the State, to the particular and separate views of the counties
within a certain sphere that the federal power can, in the na- or districts in which they reside. And if they do not suffi-
ture of things, be advantageously administered. The remain- ciently enlarge their policy to embrace the collective welfare
ing points on which I propose to compare the federal and of their particular State, how can it be imagined that they will
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make the aggregate prosperity of the Union, and the dignity to be disinclined to invade the rights of the individual States,
and respectability of its government, the objects of their af- or the preorgatives of their governments. The motives on the
fections and consultations? For the same reason that the mem- part of the State governments, to augment their prerogatives
bers of the State legislatures will be unlikely to attach them- by defalcations from the federal government, will be over-
selves sufficiently to national objects, the members of the fed- ruled by no reciprocal predispositions in the members. Were
eral legislature will be likely to attach themselves too much to it admitted, however, that the Federal government may feel
local objects. The States will be to the latter what counties an equal disposition with the State governments to extend its
and towns are to the former. Measures will too often be de- power beyond the due limits, the latter would still have the
cided according to their probable effect, not on the national advantage in the means of defeating such encroachments. If
prosperity and happiness, but on the prejudices, interests, and an act of a particular State, though unfriendly to the national
pursuits of the governments and people of the individual government, be generally popular in that State and should
States. What is the spirit that has in general characterized the not too grossly violate the oaths of the State officers, it is
proceedings of Congress? A perusal of their journals, as well executed immediately and, of course, by means on the spot
as the candid acknowledgments of such as have had a seat in and depending on the State alone. The opposition of the fed-
that assembly, will inform us, that the members have but too eral government, or the interposition of federal officers, would
frequently displayed the character, rather of partisans of their but inflame the zeal of all parties on the side of the State, and
respective States, than of impartial guardians of a common the evil could not be prevented or repaired, if at all, without
interest; that where on one occasion improper sacrifices have the employment of means which must always be resorted to
been made of local considerations, to the aggrandizement of with reluctance and difficulty.
the federal government, the great interests of the nation have On the other hand, should an unwarrantable measure of
suffered on a hundred, from an undue attention to the local the federal government be unpopular in particular States,
prejudices, interests, and views of the particular States. I mean which would seldom fail to be the case, or even a warrantable
not by these reflections to insinuate, that the new federal gov- measure be so, which may sometimes be the case, the means
ernment will not embrace a more enlarged plan of policy than of opposition to it are powerful and at hand. The disquietude
the existing government may have pursued; much less, that of the people; their repugnance and, perhaps, refusal to co-
its views will be as confined as those of the State legislatures; operate with the officers of the Union; the frowns of the ex-
but only that it will partake sufficiently of the spirit of both, ecutive magistracy of the State; the embarrassments created
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by legislative devices, which would often be added on such would be contending against thirteen sets of representatives,
occasions, would oppose, in any State, difficulties not to be with the whole body of their common constituents on the
despised; would form, in a large State, very serious impedi- side of the latter. The only refuge left for those who prophesy
ments; and where the sentiments of several adjoining States the downfall of the State governments is the visionary suppo-
happened to be in unison, would present obstructions which sition that the federal government may previously accumu-
the federal government would hardly be willing to encoun- late a military force for the projects of ambition. The reason-
ter. But ambitious encroachments of the federal government, ings contained in these papers must have been employed to
on the authority of the State governments, would not excite little purpose indeed, if it could be necessary now to disprove
the opposition of a single State, or of a few States only. They the reality of this danger.
would be signals of general alarm. Every government would That the people and the States should, for a sufficient pe-
espouse the common cause. A correspondence would be riod of time, elect an uninterupted succession of men ready
opened. Plans of resistance would be concerted. One spirit to betray both; that the traitors should, throughout this pe-
would animate and conduct the whole. The same combina- riod, uniformly and systematically pursue some fixed plan
tions, in short, would result from an apprehension of the fed- for the extension of the military establishment; that the gov-
eral, as was produced by the dread of a foreign, yoke; and ernments and the people of the States should silently and pa-
unless the projected innovations should be voluntarily re- tiently behold the gathering storm, and continue to supply
nounced, the same appeal to a trial of force would be made in the materials, until it should be prepared to burst on their
the one case as was made in the other. But what degree of own heads, must appear to every one more like the incoher-
madness could ever drive the federal government to such an ent dreams of a delirious jealousy, or the misjudged exaggera-
extremity. In the contest with Great Britain, one part of the tions of a counterfeit zeal, than like the sober apprehensions
empire was employed against the other. of genuine patriotism.
The more numerous part invaded the rights of the less nu- Extravagant as the supposition is, let it however be made.
merous part. The attempt was unjust and unwise; but it was Let a regular army, fully equal to the resources of the country,
not in speculation absolutely chimerical. But what would be be formed; and let it be entirely at the devotion of the federal
the contest in the case we are supposing? Who would be the government; still it would not be going too far to say, that
parties? A few representatives of the people would be opposed the State governments, with the people on their side, would
to the people themselves; or rather one set of representatives be able to repel the danger. The highest number to which,
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The Federalist Papers
according to the best computation, a standing army can be themselves, who could collect the national will and direct the
carried in any country, does not exceed one hundredth part of national force, and of officers appointed out of the militia,
the whole number of souls; or one twenty-fifth part of the by these governments, and attached both to them and to the
number able to bear arms. This proportion would not yield, militia, it may be affirmed with the greatest assurance, that
in the United States, an army of more than twenty-five or the throne of every tyranny in Europe would be speedily over-
thirty thousand men. To these would be opposed a militia turned in spite of the legions which surround it. Let us not
amounting to near half a million of citizens with arms in insult the free and gallant citizens of America with the suspi-
their hands, officered by men chosen from among themselves, cion, that they would be less able to defend the rights of which
fighting for their common liberties, and united and conducted they would be in actual possession, than the debased subjects
by governments possessing their affections and confidence. It of arbitrary power would be to rescue theirs from the hands
may well be doubted, whether a militia thus circumstanced of their oppressors. Let us rather no longer insult them with
could ever be conquered by such a proportion of regular troops. the supposition that they can ever reduce themselves to the
Those who are best acquainted with the last successful re- necessity of making the experiment, by a blind and tame sub-
sistance of this country against the British arms, will be most mission to the long train of insidious measures which must
inclined to deny the possibility of it. Besides the advantage of precede and produce it. The argument under the present head
being armed, which the Americans possess over the people of may be put into a very concise form, which appears alto-
almost every other nation, the existence of subordinate gov- gether conclusive. Either the mode in which the federal gov-
ernments, to which the people are attached, and by which the ernment is to be constructed will render it sufficiently depen-
militia officers are appointed, forms a barrier against the en- dent on the people, or it will not. On the first supposition, it
terprises of ambition, more insurmountable than any which will be restrained by that dependence from forming schemes
a simple government of any form can admit of. Notwith- obnoxious to their constituents. On the other supposition, it
standing the military establishments in the several kingdoms will not possess the confidence of the people, and its schemes
of Europe, which are carried as far as the public resources will of usurpation will be easily defeated by the State governments,
bear, the governments are afraid to trust the people with arms. who will be supported by the people. On summing up the
And it is not certain, that with this aid alone they would not considerations stated in this and the last paper, they seem to
be able to shake off their yokes. But were the people to pos- amount to the most convincing evidence, that the powers
sess the additional advantages of local governments chosen by proposed to be lodged in the federal government are as little
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formidable to those reserved to the individual States, as they FEDERALIST No. 47
are indispensably necessary to accomplish the purposes of the
Union; and that all those alarms which have been sounded, The Particular Structure of the New Government and
of a meditated and consequential annihilation of the State the Distribution of Power Among Its Different Parts
governments, must, on the most favorable interpretation, be
ascribed to the chimerical fears of the authors of them. From the New York Packet.
Friday, February 1, 1788.
Publius.
MADISON

To the People of the State of New York:

Having reviewed the general form of the proposed govern-


ment and the general mass of power allotted to it, I proceed
to examine the particular structure of this government, and
the distribution of this mass of power among its constituent
parts. One of the principal objections inculcated by the more
respectable adversaries to the Constitution, is its supposed
violation of the political maxim, that the legislative, execu-
tive, and judiciary departments ought to be separate and dis-
tinct. In the structure of the federal government, no regard, it
is said, seems to have been paid to this essential precaution in
favor of liberty. The several departments of power are distrib-
uted and blended in such a manner as at once to destroy all
symmetry and beauty of form, and to expose some of the
essential parts of the edifice to the danger of being crushed by
the disproportionate weight of other parts. No political truth
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is certainly of greater intrinsic value, or is stamped with the principles and rules of the epic art were to be drawn, and by
authority of more enlightened patrons of liberty, than that which all similar works were to be judged, so this great politi-
on which the objection is founded. The accumulation of all cal critic appears to have viewed the Constitution of England
powers, legislative, executive, and judiciary, in the same hands, as the standard, or to use his own expression, as the mirror of
whether of one, a few, or many, and whether hereditary, political liberty; and to have delivered, in the form of elemen-
selfappointed, or elective, may justly be pronounced the very tary truths, the several characteristic principles of that par-
definition of tyranny. Were the federal Constitution, there- ticular system. That we may be sure, then, not to mistake his
fore, really chargeable with the accumulation of power, or meaning in this case, let us recur to the source from which the
with a mixture of powers, having a dangerous tendency to maxim was drawn.
such an accumulation, no further arguments would be neces- On the slightest view of the British Constitution, we must
sary to inspire a universal reprobation of the system. I per- perceive that the legislative, executive, and judiciary depart-
suade myself, however, that it will be made apparent to every ments are by no means totally separate and distinct from each
one, that the charge cannot be supported, and that the maxim other. The executive magistrate forms an integral part of the
on which it relies has been totally misconceived and misap- legislative authority. He alone has the prerogative of making
plied. In order to form correct ideas on this important sub- treaties with foreign sovereigns, which, when made, have,
ject, it will be proper to investigate the sense in which the under certain limitations, the force of legislative acts. All the
preservation of liberty requires that the three great depart- members of the judiciary department are appointed by him,
ments of power should be separate and distinct. The oracle can be removed by him on the address of the two Houses of
who is always consulted and cited on this subject is the cel- Parliament, and form, when he pleases to consult them, one
ebrated Montesquieu. If he be not the author of this invalu- of his constitutional councils. One branch of the legislative
able precept in the science of politics, he has the merit at least department forms also a great constitutional council to the
of displaying and recommending it most effectually to the executive chief, as, on another hand, it is the sole depositary
attention of mankind. Let us endeavor, in the first place, to of judicial power in cases of impeachment, and is invested
ascertain his meaning on this point. The British Constitution with the supreme appellate jurisdiction in all other cases. The
was to Montesquieu what Homer has been to the didactic judges, again, are so far connected with the legislative depart-
writers on epic poetry. As the latter have considered the work ment as often to attend and participate in its deliberations,
of the immortal bard as the perfect model from which the though not admitted to a legislative vote. From these facts,
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by which Montesquieu was guided, it may clearly be inferred judges may be removed from their offices, and though one of
that, in saying “There can be no liberty where the legislative its branches is possessed of the judicial power in the last re-
and executive powers are united in the same person, or body sort. The entire legislature, again, can exercise no executive
of magistrates,’’ or, “if the power of judging be not separated prerogative, though one of its branches constitutes the su-
from the legislative and executive powers,’’ he did not mean preme executive magistracy, and another, on the impeachment
that these departments ought to have no partial agency in, or of a third, can try and condemn all the subordinate officers in
no control over, the acts of each other. His meaning, as his the executive department. The reasons on which Montesquieu
own words import, and still more conclusively as illustrated grounds his maxim are a further demonstration of his mean-
by the example in his eye, can amount to no more than this, ing. “When the legislative and executive powers are united in
that where the whole power of one department is exercised by the same person or body,’’ says he, “there can be no liberty,
the same hands which possess the whole power of another because apprehensions may arise lest the same monarch or
department, the fundamental principles of a free constitution senate should enact tyrannical laws to execute them in a ty-
are subverted. This would have been the case in the constitu- rannical manner. ‘’ Again: ``Were the power of judging joined
tion examined by him, if the king, who is the sole executive with the legislative, the life and liberty of the subject would
magistrate, had possessed also the complete legislative power, be exposed to arbitrary control, for the judge would then be
or the supreme administration of justice; or if the entire legis- the legislator. Were it joined to the executive power, the judge
lative body had possessed the supreme judiciary, or the su- might behave with all the violence of an oppressor. ‘’ Some of
preme executive authority. This, however, is not among the these reasons are more fully explained in other passages; but
vices of that constitution. The magistrate in whom the whole briefly stated as they are here, they sufficiently establish the
executive power resides cannot of himself make a law, though meaning which we have put on this celebrated maxim of this
he can put a negative on every law; nor administer justice in celebrated author.
person, though he has the appointment of those who do ad- If we look into the constitutions of the several States, we
minister it. The judges can exercise no executive prerogative, find that, notwithstanding the emphatical and, in some in-
though they are shoots from the executive stock; nor any leg- stances, the unqualified terms in which this axiom has been
islative function, though they may be advised with by the laid down, there is not a single instance in which the several
legislative councils. The entire legislature can perform no ju- departments of power have been kept absolutely separate and
diciary act, though by the joint act of two of its branches the distinct. New Hampshire, whose constitution was the last
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formed, seems to have been fully aware of the impossibility precisely with the doctrine of Montesquieu, as it has been
and inexpediency of avoiding any mixture whatever of these explained, and is not in a single point violated by the plan of
departments, and has qualified the doctrine by declaring “that the convention. It goes no farther than to prohibit any one of
the legislative, executive, and judiciary powers ought to be the entire departments from exercising the powers of another
kept as separate from, and independent of, each other as the department. In the very Constitution to which it is prefixed,
nature of a free government will admit; or as is consistent with a partial mixture of powers has been admitted. The executive
that chain of connection that binds the whole fabric of the con- magistrate has a qualified negative on the legislative body, and
stitution in one indissoluble bond of unity and amity.” Her con- the Senate, which is a part of the legislature, is a court of
stitution accordingly mixes these departments in several re- impeachment for members both of the executive and judi-
spects. The Senate, which is a branch of the legislative depart- ciary departments. The members of the judiciary department,
ment, is also a judicial tribunal for the trial of impeachments. again, are appointable by the executive department, and re-
The President, who is the head of the executive department, movable by the same authority on the address of the two
is the presiding member also of the Senate; and, besides an legislative branches.
equal vote in all cases, has a casting vote in case of a tie. The Lastly, a number of the officers of government are annually
executive head is himself eventually elective every year by the appointed by the legislative department. As the appointment
legislative department, and his council is every year chosen by to offices, particularly executive offices, is in its nature an ex-
and from the members of the same department. Several of ecutive function, the compilers of the Constitution have, in
the officers of state are also appointed by the legislature. And this last point at least, violated the rule established by them-
the members of the judiciary department are appointed by selves. I pass over the constitutions of Rhode Island and Con-
the executive department. The constitution of Massachusetts necticut, because they were formed prior to the Revolution,
has observed a sufficient though less pointed caution, in ex- and even before the principle under examination had become
pressing this fundamental article of liberty. It declares “that an object of political attention. The constitution of New York
the legislative department shall never exercise the executive contains no declaration on this subject; but appears very clearly
and judicial powers, or either of them; the executive shall never to have been framed with an eye to the danger of improperly
exercise the legislative and judicial powers, or either of them; blending the different departments. It gives, nevertheless, to
the judicial shall never exercise the legislative and executive the executive magistrate, a partial control over the legislative
powers, or either of them. ‘’ This declaration corresponds department; and, what is more, gives a like control to the
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judiciary department; and even blends the executive and judi- ment. The members of the executive counoil are made ex-
ciary departments in the exercise of this control. In its council officio justices of peace throughout the State. In Delaware, the
of appointment members of the legislative are associated with chief executive magistrate is annually elected by the legislative
the executive authority, in the appointment of officers, both department. The speakers of the two legislative branches are
executive and judiciary. And its court for the trial of impeach- vice-presidents in the executive department. The executive
ments and correction of errors is to consist of one branch of chief, with six others, appointed, three by each of the legisla-
the legislature and the principal members of the judiciary de- tive branches constitutes the Supreme Court of Appeals; he is
partment. The constitution of New Jersey has blended the joined with the legislative department in the appointment of
different powers of government more than any of the preced- the other judges. Throughout the States, it appears that the
ing. The governor, who is the executive magistrate, is appointed members of the legislature may at the same time be justices
by the legislature; is chancellor and ordinary, or surrogate of of the peace; in this State, the members of one branch of it
the State; is a member of the Supreme Court of Appeals, and are ex-officio justices of the peace; as are also the members of
president, with a casting vote, of one of the legislative branches. the executive council. The principal officers of the executive
The same legislative branch acts again as executive council of department are appointed by the legislative; and one branch
the governor, and with him constitutes the Court of Appeals. of the latter forms a court of impeachments. All officers may
The members of the judiciary department are appointed by be removed on address of the legislature. Maryland has adopted
the legislative department and removable by one branch of it, the maxim in the most unqualified terms; declaring that the
on the impeachment of the other. According to the constitu- legislative, executive, and judicial powers of government ought
tion of Pennsylvania, the president, who is the head of the to be forever separate and distinct from each other. Her con-
executive department, is annually elected by a vote in which stitution, notwithstanding, makes the executive magistrate
the legislative department predominates. In conjunction with appointable by the legislative department; and the members
an executive council, he appoints the members of the judi- of the judiciary by the executive department. The language of
ciary department, and forms a court of impeachment for trial Virginia is still more pointed on this subject. Her constitu-
of all officers, judiciary as well as executive. The judges of the tion declares, “that the legislative, executive, and judiciary de-
Supreme Court and justices of the peace seem also to be re- partments shall be separate and distinct; so that neither exer-
movable by the legislature; and the executive power of par- cise the powers properly belonging to the other; nor shall any
doning in certain cases, to be referred to the same depart- person exercise the powers of more than one of them at the
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same time, except that the justices of county courts shall be ture; and the executive prerogative of pardon to be finally
eligible to either House of Assembly. ‘’ Yet we find not only exercised by the same authority. Even justices of the peace are
this express exception, with respect to the members of the to be appointed by the legislature. In citing these cases, in
irferior courts, but that the chief magistrate, with his execu- which the legislative, executive, and judiciary departments have
tive council, are appointable by the legislature; that two mem- not been kept totally separate and distinct, I wish not to be
bers of the latter are triennially displaced at the pleasure of the regarded as an advocate for the particular organizations of the
legislature; and that all the principal offices, both executive several State governments. I am fully aware that among the
and judiciary, are filled by the same department. The execu- many excellent principles which they exemplify, they carry
tive prerogative of pardon, also, is in one case vested in the strong marks of the haste, and still stronger of the inexperi-
legislative department. The constitution of North Carolina, ence, under which they were framed. It is but too obvious
which declares “that the legislative, executive, and supreme that in some instances the fundamental principle under con-
judicial powers of government ought to be forever separate sideration has been violated by too great a mixture, and even
and distinct from each other,’’ refers, at the same time, to the an actual consolidation, of the different powers; and that in
legislative department, the appointment not only of the ex- no instance has a competent provision been made for main-
ecutive chief, but all the principal officers within both that taining in practice the separation delineated on paper. What I
and the judiciary department. In South Carolina, the consti- have wished to evince is, that the charge brought against the
tution makes the executive magistracy eligible by the legisla- proposed Constitution, of violating the sacred maxim of free
tive department. government, is warranted neither by the real meaning annexed
It gives to the latter, also, the appointment of the members to that maxim by its author, nor by the sense in which it has
of the judiciary department, including even justices of the hitherto been understood in America. This interesting sub-
peace and sheriffs; and the appointment of officers in the ex- ject will be resumed in the ensuing paper.
ecutive department, down to captains in the army and navy
of the State. In the constitution of Georgia, where it is de- Publius.
clared “that the legislative, executive, and judiciary departments
shall be separate and distinct, so that neither exercise the pow-
ers properly belonging to the other,’’ we find that the execu-
tive department is to be filled by appointments of the legisla-
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FEDERALIST No. 48 an encroaching nature, and that it ought to be effectually re-
strained from passing the limits assigned to it.
These Departments Should Not Be So Far Separated as After discriminating, therefore, in theory, the several classes
to Have No Constitutional Control Over Each Other of power, as they may in their nature be legislative, executive,
or judiciary, the next and most difficult task is to provide
From the New York Packet. some practical security for each, against the invasion of the
others.
Friday, February 1, 1788. What this security ought to be, is the great problem to be
solved. Will it be sufficient to mark, with precision, the bound-
MADISON aries of these departments, in the constitution of the govern-
ment, and to trust to these parchment barriers against the
To the People of the State of New York: encroaching spirit of power? This is the security which ap-
pears to have been principally relied on by the compilers of
It was shown in the last paper that the political apothegm there most of the American constitutions. But experience assures
examined does not require that the legislative, executive, and us, that the efficacy of the provision has been greatly over-
judiciary departments should be wholly unconnected with each rated; and that some more adequate defense is indispensably
other. I shall undertake, in the next place, to show that unless necessary for the more feeble, against the more powerful,
these departments be so far connected and blended as to give to members of the government. The legislative department is
each a constitutional control over the others, the degree of sepa- everywhere extending the sphere of its activity, and drawing
ration which the maxim requires, as essential to a free govern- all power into its impetuous vortex. The founders of our re-
ment, can never in practice be duly maintained. It is agreed on publics have so much merit for the wisdom which they have
all sides, that the powers properly belonging to one of the de- displayed, that no task can be less pleasing than that of point-
partments ought not to be directly and completely adminis- ing out the errors into which they have fallen. A respect for
tered by either of the other departments. It is equally evident, truth, however, obliges us to remark, that they seem never for
that none of them ought to possess, directly or indirectly, an a moment to have turned their eyes from the danger to lib-
overruling influence over the others, in the administration of erty from the overgrown and all-grasping prerogative of an
their respective powers. It will not be denied, that power is of hereditary magistrate, supported and fortified by an heredi-
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tary branch of the legislative authority. They seem never to tible of precise limits, it can, with the greater facility, mask,
have recollected the danger from legislative usurpations, which, under complicated and indirect measures, the encroachments
by assembling all power in the same hands, must lead to the which it makes on the co-ordinate departments. It is not
same tyranny as is threatened by executive usurpations. In a unfrequently a question of real nicety in legislative bodies,
government where numerous and extensive prerogatives are whether the operation of a particular measure will, or will
placed in the hands of an hereditary monarch, the executive not, extend beyond the legislative sphere. On the other side,
department is very justly regarded as the source of danger, and the executive power being restrained within a narrower com-
watched with all the jealousy which a zeal for liberty ought to pass, and being more simple in its nature, and the judiciary
inspire. In a democracy, where a multitude of people exercise being described by landmarks still less uncertain, projects of
in person the legislative functions, and are continually exposed, usurpation by either of these departments would immedi-
by their incapacity for regular deliberation and concerted ately betray and defeat themselves. Nor is this all: as the legis-
measures, to the ambitious intrigues of their executive magis- lative department alone has access to the pockets of the people,
trates, tyranny may well be apprehended, on some favorable and has in some constitutions full discretion, and in all a pre-
emergency, to start up in the same quarter. But in a represen- vailing influence, over the pecuniary rewards of those who fill
tative republic, where the executive magistracy is carefully lim- the other departments, a dependence is thus created in the
ited; both in the extent and the duration of its power; and latter, which gives still greater facility to encroachments of
where the legislative power is exercised by an assembly, which the former. I have appealed to our own experience for the
is inspired, by a supposed influence over the people, with an truth of what I advance on this subject. Were it necessary to
intrepid confidence in its own strength; which is sufficiently verify this experience by particular proofs, they might be
numerous to feel all the passions which actuate a multitude, multiplied without end. I might find a witness in every citi-
yet not so numerous as to be incapable of pursuing the ob- zen who has shared in, or been attentive to, the course of
jects of its passions, by means which reason prescribes; it is public administrations. I might collect vouchers in abundance
against the enterprising ambition of this department that the from the records and archives of every State in the Union.
people ought to indulge all their jealousy and exhaust all their But as a more concise, and at the same time equally satisfac-
precautions. The legislative department derives a superiority tory, evidence, I will refer to the example of two States, at-
in our governments from other circumstances. Its constitu- tested by two unexceptionable authorities. The first example
tional powers being at once more extensive, and less suscep- is that of Virginia, a State which, as we have seen, has ex-
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pressly declared in its constitution, that the three great de- But no barrier was provided between these several powers. The
partments ought not to be intermixed. The authority in sup- judiciary and the executive members were left dependent on
port of it is Mr. Jefferson, who, besides his other advantages the legislative for their subsistence in office, and some of them
for remarking the operation of the government, was himself for their continuance in it. If, therefore, the legislature as-
the chief magistrate of it. In order to convey fully the ideas sumes executive and judiciary powers, no opposition is likely
with which his experience had impressed him on this subject, to be made; nor, if made, can be effectual; because in that case
it will be necessary to quote a passage of some length from they may put their proceedings into the form of acts of As-
his very interesting “Notes on the State of Virginia,’’ p. 195. sembly, which will render them obligatory on the other
“All the powers of government, legislative, executive, and ju- branches. They have accordingly, in many instances, decided
diciary, result to the legislative body. The concentrating these rights which should have been left to judiciary controversy, and
in the same hands, is precisely the definition of despotic gov- the direction of the executive, during the whole time of their
ernment. It will be no alleviation, that these powers will be session, is becoming habitual and familiar. “The other State
exercised by a plurality of hands, and not by a single one. One which I shall take for an example is Pennsylvania; and the
hundred and seventy-three despots would surely be as op- other authority, the Council of Censors, which assembled in
pressive as one. Let those who doubt it, turn their eyes on the the years 1783 and 1784. A part of the duty of this body, as
republic of Venice. As little will it avail us, that they are cho- marked out by the constitution, was “to inquire whether the
sen by ourselves. An elective despotism was not the govern- constitution had been preserved inviolate in every part; and
ment we fought for; but one which should not only be whether the legislative and executive branches of government
founded on free principles, but in which the powers of gov- had performed their duty as guardians of the people, or as-
ernment should be so divided and balanced among several sumed to themselves, or exercised, other or greater powers
bodies of magistracy, as that no one could transcend their than they are entitled to by the constitution. ‘’ In the execu-
legal limits, without being effectually checked and restrained tion of this trust, the council were necessarily led to a com-
by the others. For this reason, that convention which passed parison of both the legislative and executive proceedings, with
the ordinance of government, laid its foundation on this ba- the constitutional powers of these departments; and from the
sis, that the legislative, executive, and judiciary departments facts enumerated, and to the truth of most of which both
should be separate and distinct, so that no person should ex- sides in the council subscribed, it appears that the constitu-
ercise the powers of more than one of them at the same time. tion had been flagrantly violated by the legislature in a variety
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of important instances. A great number of laws had been SECONDLY, in most of the other instances, they conformed
passed, violating, without any apparent necessity, the rule re- either to the declared or the known sentiments of the legisla-
quiring that all bills of a public nature shall be previously tive department;
printed for the consideration of the people; although this is
one of the precautions chiefly relied on by the constitution THIRDLY, the executive department of Pennsylvania is dis-
against improper acts of legislature. The constitutional trial tinguished from that of the other States by the number of
by jury had been violated, and powers assumed which had members composing it. In this respect, it has as much affinity
not been delegated by the constitution. to a legislative assembly as to an executive council. And being
Executive powers had been usurped. The salaries of the at once exempt from the restraint of an individual responsi-
judges, which the constitution expressly requires to be fixed, bility for the acts of the body, and deriving confidence from
had been occasionally varied; and cases belonging to the judi- mutual example and joint influence, unauthorized measures
ciary department frequently drawn within legislative cogni- would, of course, be more freely hazarded, than where the
zance and determination. Those who wish to see the several executive department is administered by a single hand, or by
particulars falling under each of these heads, may consult the a few hands.
journals of the council, which are in print. Some of them, it The conclusion which I am warranted in drawing from these
will be found, may be imputable to peculiar circumstances observations is, that a mere demarcation on parchment of the
connected with the war; but the greater part of them may be constitutional limits of the several departments, is not a suf-
considered as the spontaneous shoots of an ill-constituted ficient guard against those encroachments which lead to a ty-
government. It appears, also, that the executive department rannical concentration of all the powers of government in the
had not been innocent of frequent breaches of the constitu- same hands.
tion. There are three observations, however, which ought to
be made on this head: Publius.

FIRST, a great proportion of the instances were either imme-


diately produced by the necessities of the war, or recommended
by Congress or the commander-in-chief;

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The Federalist Papers
FEDERALIST No. 49 perhaps altogether his own, and as it immediately relates to
the subject of our present inquiry, ought not to be overlooked.
Method of Guarding Against the Encroachments of Any His proposition is, “that whenever any two of the three
One Department of Government by Appealing to the branches of government shall concur in opinion, each by the
People Through a Convention voices of two thirds of their whole number, that a conven-
tion is necessary for altering the constitution, or correcting
From the New York Packet. breaches of it, a convention shall be called for the purpose.
Tuesday, February 5, 1788. ‘’As the people are the only legitimate fountain of power, and
it is from them that the constitutional charter, under which
HAMILTON OR MADISON the several branches of government hold their power, is de-
rived, it seems strictly consonant to the republican theory, to
To the People of the State of New York: recur to the same original authority, not only whenever it
may be necessary to enlarge, diminish, or new-model the
The author of the “Notes on the State of Virginia,” quoted in powers of the government, but also whenever any one of the
the last paper, has subjoined to that valuable work the draught departments may commit encroachments on the chartered
of a constitution, which had been prepared in order to be laid authorities of the others. The several departments being per-
before a convention, expected to be called in 1783, by the fectly co-ordinate by the terms of their common commis-
legislature, for the establishment of a constitution for that sion, none of them, it is evident, can pretend to an exclusive
commonwealth. The plan, like every thing from the same or superior right of settling the boundaries between their re-
pen, marks a turn of thinking, original, comprehensive, and spective powers; and how are the encroachments of the stron-
accurate; and is the more worthy of attention as it equally ger to be prevented, or the wrongs of the weaker to be re-
displays a fervent attachment to republican government and dressed, without an appeal to the people themselves, who, as
an enlightened view of the dangerous propensities against the grantors of the commissions, can alone declare its true
which it ought to be guarded. meaning, and enforce its observance? There is certainly great
One of the precautions which he proposes, and on which force in this reasoning, and it must be allowed to prove that a
he appears ultimately to rely as a palladium to the weaker constitutional road to the decision of the people ought to be
departments of power against the invasions of the stronger, is marked out and kept open, for certain great and extraordi-
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The Federalist Papers
nary occasions. But there appear to be insuperable objections opinion are ancient as well as numerous, they are known to
against the proposed recurrence to the people, as a provision have a double effect. In a nation of philosophers, this consid-
in all cases for keeping the several departments of power within eration ought to be disregarded. A reverence for the laws would
their constitutional limits. In the first place, the provision be sufficiently inculcated by the voice of an enlightened rea-
does not reach the case of a combination of two of the de- son. But a nation of philosophers is as little to be expected as
partments against the third. If the legislative authority, which the philosophical race of kings wished for by Plato. And in
possesses so many means of operating on the motives of the every other nation, the most rational government will not
other departments, should be able to gain to its interest either find it a superfluous advantage to have the prejudices of the
of the others, or even one third of its members, the remain- community on its side. The danger of disturbing the public
ing department could derive no advantage from its remedial tranquillity by interesting too strongly the public passions, is
provision. I do not dwell, however, on this objection, be- a still more serious objection against a frequent reference of
cause it may be thought to be rather against the modification constitutional questions to the decision of the whole society.
of the principle, than against the principle itself. In the next Notwithstanding the success which has attended the revi-
place, it may be considered as an objection inherent in the sions of our established forms of government, and which does
principle, that as every appeal to the people would carry an so much honor to the virtue and intelligence of the people of
implication of some defect in the government, frequent ap- America, it must be confessed that the experiments are of too
peals would, in a great measure, deprive the government of ticklish a nature to be unnecessarily multiplied. We are to
that veneration which time bestows on every thing, and with- recollect that all the existing constitutions were formed in the
out which perhaps the wisest and freest governments would midst of a danger which repressed the passions most unfriendly
not possess the requisite stability. If it be true that all govern- to order and concord; of an enthusiastic confidence of the
ments rest on opinion, it is no less true that the strength of people in their patriotic leaders, which stifled the ordinary
opinion in each individual, and its practical influence on his diversity of opinions on great national questions; of a univer-
conduct, depend much on the number which he supposes to sal ardor for new and opposite forms, produced by a univer-
have entertained the same opinion. The reason of man, like sal resentment and indignation against the ancient govern-
man himself, is timid and cautious when left alone, and ac- ment; and whilst no spirit of party connected with the changes
quires firmness and confidence in proportion to the number to be made, or the abuses to be reformed, could mingle its
with which it is associated. When the examples which fortify leaven in the operation. The future situations in which we
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must expect to be usually placed, do not present any equiva- supposed that the adverse party would have an equal chance
lent security against the danger which is apprehended. But for a favorable issue. But the legislative party would not only
the greatest objection of all is, that the decisions which would be able to plead their cause most successfully with the people.
probably result from such appeals would not answer the pur- They would probably be constituted themselves the judges.
pose of maintaining the constitutional equilibrium of the The same influence which had gained them an election into
government. We have seen that the tendency of republican the legislature, would gain them a seat in the convention. If
governments is to an aggrandizement of the legislative at the this should not be the case with all, it would probably be the
expense of the other departments. The appeals to the people, case with many, and pretty certainly with those leading char-
therefore, would usually be made by the executive and judi- acters, on whom every thing depends in such bodies. The
ciary departments. But whether made by one side or the other, convention, in short, would be composed chiefly of men who
would each side enjoy equal advantages on the trial? Let us had been, who actually were, or who expected to be, mem-
view their different situations. The members of the executive bers of the department whose conduct was arraigned. They
and judiciary departments are few in number, and can be per- would consequently be parties to the very question to be de-
sonally known to a small part only of the people. The latter, cided by them. It might, however, sometimes happen, that
by the mode of their appointment, as well as by the nature appeals would be made under circumstances less adverse to
and permanency of it, are too far removed from the people to the executive and judiciary departments. The usurpations of
share much in their prepossessions. The former are generally the legislature might be so flagrant and so sudden, as to admit
the objects of jealousy, and their administration is always li- of no specious coloring. A strong party among themselves
able to be discolored and rendered unpopular. The members might take side with the other branches. The executive power
of the legislative department, on the other hand, are might be in the hands of a peculiar favorite of the people. In
numberous. They are distributed and dwell among the people such a posture of things, the public decision might be less
at large. Their connections of blood, of friendship, and of swayed by prepossessions in favor of the legislative party. But
acquaintance embrace a great proportion of the most influen- still it could never be expected to turn on the true merits of
tial part of the society. The nature of their public trust im- the question. It would inevitably be connected with the spirit
plies a personal influence among the people, and that they are of pre-existing parties, or of parties springing out of the ques-
more immediately the confidential guardians of the rights and tion itself. It would be connected with persons of distinguished
liberties of the people. With these advantages, it can hardly be character and extensive influence in the community. It would
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be pronounced by the very men who had been agents in, or FEDERALIST No. 50
opponents of, the measures to which the decision would re-
late. The passions, therefore, not the reason, of the public would Periodical Appeals to the People Considered
sit in judgment. But it is the reason, alone, of the public, that
ought to control and regulate the government. The passions From the New York Packet.
ought to be controlled and regulated by the government. Tuesday, February 5, 1788.
We found in the last paper, that mere declarations in the
written constitution are not sufficient to restrain the several HAMILTON OR MADISON
departments within their legal rights. It appears in this, that
ccasional appeals to the people would be neither a proper nor To the People of the State of New York:
an effectual provision for that purpose. How far the provi-
sions of a different nature contained in the plan above quoted It may be contended, perhaps, that instead of occasional ap-
might be adequate, I do not examine. Some of them are un- peals to the people, which are liable to the objections urged
questionably founded on sound political principles, and all against them, periodical appeals are the proper and adequate
of them are framed with singular ingenuity and precision. means of preventing and correcting infractions of the Constitu-
tion. It will be attended to, that in the examination of these
Publius. expedients, I confine myself to their aptitude for enforcing the
Constitution, by keeping the several departments of power
within their due bounds, without particularly considering
them as provisions for altering the Constitution itself. In the
first view, appeals to the people at fixed periods appear to be
nearly as ineligible as appeals on particular occasions as they
emerge.
If the periods be separated by short intervals, the measures
to be reviewed and rectified will have been of recent date, and
will be connected with all the circumstances which tend to
vitiate and pervert the result of occasional revisions. If the
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The Federalist Papers
periods be distant from each other, the same remark will be may, perhaps, as a single experiment, made under circum-
applicable to all recent measures; and in proportion as the stances somewhat peculiar, be thought to be not absolutely
remoteness of the others may favor a dispassionate review of conclusive. But as applied to the case under consideration, it
them, this advantage is inseparable from inconveniences which involves some facts, which I venture to remark, as a complete
seem to counterbalance it. In the first place, a distant prospect and satisfactory illustration of the reasoning which I have
of public censure would be a very feeble restraint on power employed. First. It appears, from the names of the gentlemen
from those excesses to which it might be urged by the force who composed the council, that some, at least, of its most
of present motives. Is it to be imagined that a legislative as- active members had also been active and leading characters in
sembly, consisting of a hundred or two hundred members, the parties which pre-existed in the State.
eagerly bent on some favorite object, and breaking through Secondly. It appears that the same active and leading mem-
the restraints of the Constitution in pursuit of it, would be bers of the council had been active and influential members
arrested in their career, by considerations drawn from a censo- of the legislative and executive branches, within the period to
rial revision of their conduct at the future distance of ten, be reviewed; and even patrons or opponents of the very mea-
fifteen, or twenty years? In the next place, the abuses would sures to be thus brought to the test of the constitution. Two
often have completed their mischievous effects before the re- of the members had been vice-presidents of the State, and
medial provision would be applied. And in the last place, where several other members of the executive council, within the
this might not be the case, they would be of long standing, seven preceding years. One of them had been speaker, and a
would have taken deep root, and would not easily be extir- number of others distinguished members, of the legislative
pated. The scheme of revising the constitution, in order to assembly within the same period.
correct recent breaches of it, as well as for other purposes, has Thirdly. Every page of their proceedings witnesses the ef-
been actually tried in one of the States. One of the objects of fect of all these circumstances on the temper of their delibera-
the Council of Censors which met in Pennsylvania in 1783 tions. Throughout the continuance of the council, it was split
and 1784, was, as we have seen, to inquire, “whether the con- into two fixed and violent parties. The fact is acknowledged
stitution had been violated, and whether the legislative and and lamented by themselves. Had this not been the case, the
executive departments had encroached upon each other. ‘’ This face of their proceedings exhibits a proof equally satisfactory.
important and novel experiment in politics merits, in several In all questions, however unimportant in themselves, or un-
points of view, very particular attention. In some of them it connected with each other, the same names stand invariably
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contrasted on the opposite columns. Every unbiased observer epoch the same State will be free from parties? Is it to be
may infer, without danger of mistake, and at the same time presumed that any other State, at the same or any other given
without meaning to reflect on either party, or any individuals period, will be exempt from them? Such an event ought to
of either party, that, unfortunately, passion, not reason, must be neither presumed nor desired; because an extinction of
have presided over their decisions. When men exercise their parties necessarily implies either a universal alarm for the public
reason coolly and freely on a variety of distinct questions, safety, or an absolute extinction of liberty. Were the precau-
they inevitably fall into different opinions on some of them. tion taken of excluding from the assemblies elected by the
When they are governed by a common passion, their opin- people, to revise the preceding administration of the govern-
ions, if they are so to be called, will be the same. ment, all persons who should have been concerned with the
Fourthly. It is at least problematical, whether the decisions government within the given period, the difficulties would
of this body do not, in several instances, misconstrue the lim- not be obviated. The important task would probably devolve
its prescribed for the legislative and executive departments, on men, who, with inferior capacities, would in other respects
instead of reducing and limiting them within their constitu- be little better qualified.
tional places. Although they might not have been personally concerned
Fifthly. I have never understood that the decisions of the in the administration, and therefore not immediately agents
council on constitutional questions, whether rightly or erro- in the measures to be examined, they would probably have
neously formed, have had any effect in varying the practice been involved in the parties connected with these measures,
founded on legislative constructions. It even appears, if I mis- and have been elected under their auspices.
take not, that in one instance the contemporary legislature
denied the constructions of the council, and actually prevailed Publius.
in the contest. This censorial body, therefore, proves at the
same time, by its researches, the existence of the disease, and
by its example, the inefficacy of the remedy. This conclusion
cannot be invalidated by alleging that the State in which the
experiment was made was at that crisis, and had been for a
long time before, violently heated and distracted by the rage
of party. Is it to be presumed, that at any future septennial
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FEDERALIST No. 51 order to lay a due foundation for that separate and distinct
exercise of the different powers of government, which to a
The Structure of the Government Must Furnish the certain extent is admitted on all hands to be essential to the
Proper Checks and Balances Between the Different preservation of liberty, it is evident that each department
Departments should have a will of its own; and consequently should be so
constituted that the members of each should have as little
From the New York Packet. agency as possible in the appointment of the members of the
others. Were this principle rigorously adhered to, it would
Friday, February 8, 1788. require that all the appointments for the supreme executive,
legislative, and judiciary magistracies should be drawn from
HAMILTON OR MADISON the same fountain of authority, the people, through channels
having no communication whatever with one another. Per-
To the People of the State of New York: haps such a plan of constructing the several departments would
be less difficult in practice than it may in contemplation ap-
To what expedient, then, shall we finally resort, for maintain- pear. Some difficulties, however, and some additional expense
ing in practice the necessary partition of power among the would attend the execution of it. Some deviations, therefore,
several departments, as laid down in the Constitution? The from the principle must be admitted. In the constitution of
only answer that can be given is, that as all these exterior pro- the judiciary department in particular, it might be inexpedi-
visions are found to be inadequate, the defect must be sup- ent to insist rigorously on the principle: first, because peculiar
plied, by so contriving the interior structure of the govern- qualifications being essential in the members, the primary
ment as that its several constituent parts may, by their mutual consideration ought to be to select that mode of choice which
relations, be the means of keeping each other in their proper best secures these qualifications; secondly, because the perma-
places. Without presuming to undertake a full development nent tenure by which the appointments are held in that de-
of this important idea, I will hazard a few general observa- partment, must soon destroy all sense of dependence on the
tions, which may perhaps place it in a clearer light, and enable authority conferring them. It is equally evident, that the mem-
us to form a more correct judgment of the principles and bers of each department should be as little dependent as pos-
structure of the government planned by the convention. In sible on those of the others, for the emoluments annexed to
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their offices. Were the executive magistrate, or the judges, not distributions of power, where the constant aim is to divide
independent of the legislature in this particular, their inde- and arrange the several offices in such a manner as that each
pendence in every other would be merely nominal. But the may be a check on the other that the private interest of every
great security against a gradual concentration of the several individual may be a sentinel over the public rights. These in-
powers in the same department, consists in giving to those ventions of prudence cannot be less requisite in the distribu-
who administer each department the necessary constitutional tion of the supreme powers of the State. But it is not possible
means and personal motives to resist encroachments of the to give to each department an equal power of self-defense. In
others. The provision for defense must in this, as in all other republican government, the legislative authority necessarily
cases, be made commensurate to the danger of attack. Ambi- predominates. The remedy for this inconveniency is to divide
tion must be made to counteract ambition. The interest of the legislature into different branches; and to render them, by
the man must be connected with the constitutional rights of different modes of election and different principles of action,
the place. It may be a reflection on human nature, that such as little connected with each other as the nature of their com-
devices should be necessary to control the abuses of govern- mon functions and their common dependence on the society
ment. But what is government itself, but the greatest of all will admit. It may even be necessary to guard against danger-
reflections on human nature? If men were angels, no govern- ous encroachments by still further precautions. As the weight
ment would be necessary. If angels were to govern men, nei- of the legislative authority requires that it should be thus di-
ther external nor internal controls on government would be vided, the weakness of the executive may require, on the other
necessary. In framing a government which is to be adminis- hand, that it should be fortified. An absolute negative on the
tered by men over men, the great difficulty lies in this: you legislature appears, at first view, to be the natural defense with
must first enable the government to control the governed; which the executive magistrate should be armed. But perhaps
and in the next place oblige it to control itself. A dependence it would be neither altogether safe nor alone sufficient. On
on the people is, no doubt, the primary control on the gov- ordinary occasions it might not be exerted with the requisite
ernment; but experience has taught mankind the necessity of firmness, and on extraordinary occasions it might be perfidi-
auxiliary precautions. This policy of supplying, by opposite ously abused. May not this defect of an absolute negative be
and rival interests, the defect of better motives, might be traced supplied by some qualified connection between this weaker
through the whole system of human affairs, private as well as department and the weaker branch of the stronger depart-
public. We see it particularly displayed in all the subordinate ment, by which the latter may be led to support the constitu-
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tional rights of the former, without being too much detached community independent of the majority that is, of the soci-
from the rights of its own department? If the principles on ety itself; the other, by comprehending in the society so many
which these observations are founded be just, as I persuade separate descriptions of citizens as will render an unjust com-
myself they are, and they be applied as a criterion to the sev- bination of a majority of the whole very improbable, if not
eral State constitutions, and to the federal Constitution it will impracticable. The first method prevails in all governments
be found that if the latter does not perfectly correspond with possessing an hereditary or self-appointed authority. This, at
them, the former are infinitely less able to bear such a test. best, is but a precarious security; because a power indepen-
There are, moreover, two considerations particularly appli- dent of the society may as well espouse the unjust views of
cable to the federal system of America, which place that sys- the major, as the rightful interests of the minor party, and
tem in a very interesting point of view. First. In a single re- may possibly be turned against both parties. The second
public, all the power surrendered by the people is submitted method will be exemplified in the federal republic of the
to the administration of a single government; and the usurpa- United States. Whilst all authority in it will be derived from
tions are guarded against by a division of the government into and dependent on the society, the society itself will be broken
distinct and separate departments. In the compound republic into so many parts, interests, and classes of citizens, that the
of America, the power surrendered by the people is first di- rights of individuals, or of the minority, will be in little dan-
vided between two distinct governments, and then the por- ger from interested combinations of the majority. In a free
tion allotted to each subdivided among distinct and separate government the security for civil rights must be the same as
departments. Hence a double security arises to the rights of that for religious rights. It consists in the one case in the mul-
the people. The different governments will control each other, tiplicity of interests, and in the other in the multiplicity of
at the same time that each will be controlled by itself. Sec- sects. The degree of security in both cases will depend on the
ond. It is of great importance in a republic not only to guard number of interests and sects; and this may be presumed to
the society against the oppression of its rulers, but to guard depend on the extent of country and number of people com-
one part of the society against the injustice of the other part. prehended under the same government. This view of the sub-
Different interests necessarily exist in different classes of citi- ject must particularly recommend a proper federal system to
zens. If a majority be united by a common interest, the rights all the sincere and considerate friends of republican govern-
of the minority will be insecure. There are but two methods ment, since it shows that in exact proportion as the territory
of providing against this evil: the one by creating a will in the of the Union may be formed into more circumscribed Con-
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federacies, or States oppressive combinations of a majority ests, parties, and sects which it embraces, a coalition of a ma-
will be facilitated: the best security, under the republican forms, jority of the whole society could seldom take place on any
for the rights of every class of citizens, will be diminished: other principles than those of justice and the general good;
and consequently the stability and independence of some whilst there being thus less danger to a minor from the will
member of the government, the only other security, must be of a major party, there must be less pretext, also, to provide
proportionately increased. Justice is the end of government. for the security of the former, by introducing into the gov-
It is the end of civil society. It ever has been and ever will be ernment a will not dependent on the latter, or, in other words,
pursued until it be obtained, or until liberty be lost in the a will independent of the society itself. It is no less certain
pursuit. In a society under the forms of which the stronger than it is important, notwithstanding the contrary opinions
faction can readily unite and oppress the weaker, anarchy may which have been entertained, that the larger the society, pro-
as truly be said to reign as in a state of nature, where the weaker vided it lie within a practical sphere, the more duly capable it
individual is not secured against the violence of the stronger; will be of self-government. And happily for the republican
and as, in the latter state, even the stronger individuals are cause, the practicable sphere may be carried to a very great
prompted, by the uncertainty of their condition, to submit extent, by a judicious modification and mixture of the fed-
to a government which may protect the weak as well as them- eral principle.
selves; so, in the former state, will the more powerful factions
or parties be gradnally induced, by a like motive, to wish for Publius.
a government which will protect all parties, the weaker as
well as the more powerful. It can be little doubted that if the
State of Rhode Island was separated from the Confederacy
and left to itself, the insecurity of rights under the popular
form of government within such narrow limits would be dis-
played by such reiterated oppressions of factious majorities
that some power altogether independent of the people would
soon be called for by the voice of the very factions whose
misrule had proved the necessity of it. In the extended repub-
lic of the United States, and among the great variety of inter-
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FEDERALIST No. 52 improper for the same reason; and for the additional reason
that it would have rendered too dependent on the State gov-
The House of Representatives ernments that branch of the federal government which ought
to be dependent on the people alone. To have reduced the
From the New York Packet. different qualifications in the different States to one uniform
rule, would probably have been as dissatisfactory to some of
Friday, February 8, 1788. the States as it would have been difficult to the convention.
The provision made by the convention appears, therefore, to
HAMILTON OR MADISON be the best that lay within their option.
It must be satisfactory to every State, because it is conform-
To the People of the State of New York: able to the standard already established, or which may be es-
tablished, by the State itself. It will be safe to the United States,
From the more general inquiries pursued in the four last pa- because, being fixed by the State constitutions, it is not alter-
pers, I pass on to a more particular examination of the several able by the State governments, and it cannot be feared that
parts of the government. I shall begin with the House of Rep- the people of the States will alter this part of their constitu-
resentatives. The first view to be taken of this part of the tions in such a manner as to abridge the rights secured to
government relates to the qualifications of the electors and them by the federal Constitution. The qualifications of the
the elected. Those of the former are to be the same with those elected, being less carefully and properly defined by the State
of the electors of the most numerous branch of the State leg- constitutions, and being at the same time more susceptible of
islatures. uniformity, have been very properly considered and regulated
The definition of the right of suffrage is very justly regarded by the convention. A representative of the United States must
as a fundamental article of republican government. It was in- be of the age of twenty-five years; must have been seven years
cumbent on the convention, therefore, to define and estab- a citizen of the United States; must, at the time of his elec-
lish this right in the Constitution. To have left it open for the tion, be an inhabitant of the State he is to represent; and,
occasional regulation of the Congress, would have been im- during the time of his service, must be in no office under the
proper for the reason just mentioned. To have submitted it United States. Under these reasonable limitations, the door
to the legislative discretion of the States, would have been of this part of the federal government is open to merit of
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every description, whether native or adoptive, whether young character ought to be applied, is the House of Commons in
or old, and without regard to poverty or wealth, or to any Great Britain. The history of this branch of the English Con-
particular profession of religious faith. The term for which stitution, anterior to the date of Magna Charta, is too ob-
the representatives are to be elected falls under a second view scure to yield instruction. The very existence of it has been
which may be taken of this branch. In order to decide on the made a question among political antiquaries. The earliest
propriety of this article, two questions must be considered: records of subsequent date prove that parliaments were to sit
first, whether biennial elections will, in this case, be safe; sec- only every year; not that they were to be elected every year.
ondly, whether they be necessary or useful. First. As it is es- And even these annual sessions were left so much at the dis-
sential to liberty that the government in general should have a cretion of the monarch, that, under various pretexts, very long
common interest with the people, so it is particularly essen- and dangerous intermissions were often contrived by royal
tial that the branch of it under consideration should have an ambition. To remedy this grievance, it was provided by a stat-
immediate dependence on, and an intimate sympathy with, ute in the reign of Charles II. , that the intermissions should
the people. Frequent elections are unquestionably the only not be protracted beyond a period of three years. On the ac-
policy by which this dependence and sympathy can be effec- cession of William III., when a revolution took place in the
tually secured. But what particular degree of frequency may government, the subject was still more seriously resumed, and
be absolutely necessary for the purpose, does not appear to be it was declared to be among the fundamental rights of the
susceptible of any precise calculation, and must depend on a people that parliaments ought to be held frequently. By an-
variety of circumstances with which it may be connected. Let other statute, which passed a few years later in the same reign,
us consult experience, the guide that ought always to be fol- the term “frequently,” which had alluded to the triennial pe-
lowed whenever it can be found. The scheme of representa- riod settled in the time of Charles II. , is reduced to a precise
tion, as a substitute for a meeting of the citizens in person, meaning, it being expressly enacted that a new parliament shall
being at most but very imperfectly known to ancient polity, be called within three years after the termination of the former.
it is in more modern times only that we are to expect instruc- The last change, from three to seven years, is well known to
tive examples. And even here, in order to avoid a research too have been introduced pretty early in the present century, un-
vague and diffusive, it will be proper to confine ourselves to der on alarm for the Hanoverian succession. From these facts
the few examples which are best known, and which bear the it appears that the greatest frequency of elections which has
greatest analogy to our particular case. The first to which this been deemed necessary in that kingdom, for binding the rep-
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resentatives to their constituents, does not exceed a triennial light on the subject. As far as we can draw any conclusion
return of them. And if we may argue from the degree of lib- from it, it must be that if the people of that country have
erty retained even under septennial elections, and all the other been able under all these disadvantages to retain any liberty
vicious ingredients in the parliamentary constitution, we can- whatever, the advantage of biennial elections would secure to
not doubt that a reduction of the period from seven to three them every degree of liberty, which might depend on a due
years, with the other necessary reforms, would so far extend connection between their representatives and themselves. Let
the influence of the people over their representatives as to us bring our inquiries nearer home. The example of these
satisfy us that biennial elections, under the federal system, States, when British colonies, claims particular attention, at
cannot possibly be dangerous to the requisite dependence of the same time that it is so well known as to require little to be
the House of Representatives on their constituents. Elections said on it. The principle of representation, in one branch of
in Ireland, till of late, were regulated entirely by the discretion the legislature at least, was established in all of them. But the
of the crown, and were seldom repeated, except on the acces- periods of election were different. They varied from one to
sion of a new prince, or some other contingent event. The seven years. Have we any reason to infer, from the spirit and
parliament which commenced with George II. was contin- conduct of the representatives of the people, prior to the Revo-
ued throughout his whole reign, a period of about thirty-five lution, that biennial elections would have been dangerous to
years. The only dependence of the representatives on the people the public liberties? The spirit which everywhere displayed
consisted in the right of the latter to supply occasional vacan- itself at the commencement of the struggle, and which van-
cies by the election of new members, and in the chance of quished the obstacles to independence, is the best of proofs
some event which might produce a general new election. that a sufficient portion of liberty had been everywhere en-
The ability also of the Irish parliament to maintain the rights joyed to inspire both a sense of its worth and a zeal for its
of their constituents, so far as the disposition might exist, was proper enlargement This remark holds good, as well with re-
extremely shackled by the control of the crown over the sub- gard to the then colonies whose elections were least frequent,
jects of their deliberation. Of late these shackles, if I mistake as to those whose elections were most frequent Virginia was
not, have been broken; and octennial parliaments have be- the colony which stood first in resisting the parliamentary
sides been established. What effect may be produced by this usurpations of Great Britain; it was the first also in espous-
partial reform, must be left to further experience. The ex- ing, by public act, the resolution of independence.
ample of Ireland, from this view of it, can throw but little In Virginia, nevertheless, if I have not been misinformed,
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elections under the former government were septennial. This the people, and the means of influence over the popular branch
particular example is brought into view, not as a proof of any possessed by the other branches of the government above cited.
peculiar merit, for the priority in those instances was prob- With less power, therefore, to abuse, the federal representa-
ably accidental; and still less of any advantage in septennial tives can be less tempted on one side, and will be doubly
elections, for when compared with a greater frequency they watched on the other.
are inadmissible; but merely as a proof, and I conceive it to be
a very substantial proof, that the liberties of the people can be Publius.
in no danger from biennial elections. The conclusion result-
ing from these examples will be not a little strengthened by
recollecting three circumstances. The first is, that the federal
legislature will possess a part only of that supreme legislative
authority which is vested completely in the British Parlia-
ment; and which, with a few exceptions, was exercised by the
colonial assemblies and the Irish legislature. It is a received
and well-founded maxim, that where no other circumstances
affect the case, the greater the power is, the shorter ought to
be its duration; and, conversely, the smaller the power, the
more safely may its duration be protracted. In the second place,
it has, on another occasion, been shown that the federal legis-
lature will not only be restrained by its dependence on its
people, as other legislative bodies are, but that it will be,
moreover, watched and controlled by the several collateral leg-
islatures, which other legislative bodies are not. And in the
third place, no comparison can be made between the means
that will be possessed by the more permanent branches of the
federal government for seducing, if they should be disposed
to seduce, the House of Representatives from their duty to
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FEDERALIST No. 53 of civil society. The election of magistrates might be, if it
were found expedient, as in some instances it actually has been,
The Same Subject Continued daily, weekly, or monthly, as well as annual; and if circum-
(The House of Representatives) stances may require a deviation from the rule on one side,
why not also on the other side? Turning our attention to the
From the New York Packet. periods established among ourselves, for the election of the
Tuesday, February 12, 1788. most numerous branches of the State legislatures, we find
them by no means coinciding any more in this instance, than
HAMILTON OR MADISON in the elections of other civil magistrates. In Connecticut and
Rhode Island, the periods are half-yearly. In the other States,
To the People of the State of New York: South Carolina excepted, they are annual. In South Carolina
they are biennial as is proposed in the federal government.
I shall here, perhaps, be reminded of a current observation, Here is a difference, as four to one, between the longest and
“that where annual elections end, tyranny begins. ” If it be shortest periods; and yet it would be not easy to show, that
true, as has often been remarked, that sayings which become Connecticut or Rhode Island is better governed, or enjoys a
proverbial are generally founded in reason, it is not less true, greater share of rational liberty, than South Carolina; or that
that when once established, they are often applied to cases to either the one or the other of these States is distinguished in
which the reason of them does not extend. I need not look these respects, and by these causes, from the States whose elec-
for a proof beyond the case before us. What is the reason on tions are different from both. In searching for the grounds of
which this proverbial observation is founded? No man will this doctrine, I can discover but one, and that is wholly inap-
subject himself to the ridicule of pretending that any natural plicable to our case. The important distinction so well under-
connection subsists between the sun or the seasons, and the stood in America, between a Constitution established by the
period within which human virtue can bear the temptations people and unalterable by the government, and a law estab-
of power. Happily for mankind, liberty is not, in this respect, lished by the government and alterable by the government,
confined to any single point of time; but lies within extremes, seems to have been little understood and less observed in any
which afford sufficient latitude for all the variations which other country. Wherever the supreme power of legislation has
may be required by the various situations and circumstances resided, has been supposed to reside also a full power to change
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the form of the government. Even in Great Britain, where year; and hence the doctrine has been inculcated by a laudable
the principles of political and civil liberty have been most zeal, to erect some barrier against the gradual innovations of
discussed, and where we hear most of the rights of the Con- an unlimited government, that the advance towards tyranny
stitution, it is maintained that the authority of the Parlia- was to be calculated by the distance of departure from the
ment is transcendent and uncontrollable, as well with regard fixed point of annual elections. But what necessity can there
to the Constitution, as the ordinary objects of legislative pro- be of applying this expedient to a government limited, as the
vision. They have accordingly, in several instances, actually federal government will be, by the authority of a paramount
changed, by legislative acts, some of the most fundamental Constitution? Or who will pretend that the liberties of the
articles of the government. They have in particular, on several people of America will not be more secure under biennial
occasions, changed the period of election; and, on the last elections, unalterably fixed by such a Constitution, than those
occasion, not only introduced septennial in place of triennial of any other nation would be, where elections were annual,
elections, but by the same act, continued themselves in place or even more frequent, but subject to alterations by the ordi-
four years beyond the term for which they were elected by nary power of the government? The second question stated
the people. An attention to these dangerous practices has pro- is, whether biennial elections be necessary or useful. The pro-
duced a very natural alarm in the votaries of free government, priety of answering this question in the affirmative will ap-
of which frequency of elections is the corner-stone; and has pear from several very obvious considerations.
led them to seek for some security to liberty, against the dan- No man can be a competent legislator who does not add to
ger to which it is exposed. Where no Constitution, paramount an upright intention and a sound judgment a certain degree
to the government, either existed or could be obtained, no of knowledge of the subjects on which he is to legislate. A
constitutional security, similar to that established in the United part of this knowledge may be acquired by means of infor-
States, was to be attempted. Some other security, therefore, mation which lie within the compass of men in private as
was to be sought for; and what better security would the case well as public stations. Another part can only be attained, or
admit, than that of selecting and appealing to some simple at least thoroughly attained, by actual experience in the sta-
and familiar portion of time, as a standard for measuring the tion which requires the use of it. The period of service, ought,
danger of innovations, for fixing the national sentiment, and therefore, in all such cases, to bear some proportion to the
for uniting the patriotic exertions? The most simple and fa- extent of practical knowledge requisite to the due performance
miliar portion of time, applicable to the subject was that of a of the service. The period of legislative service established in
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most of the States for the more numerous branch is, as we knowledge of their relative situations in these and other re-
have seen, one year. The question then may be put into this spects? How can taxes be judiciously imposed and effectually
simple form: does the period of two years bear no greater collected, if they be not accommodated to the different laws
proportion to the knowledge requisite for federal legislation and local circumstances relating to these objects in the differ-
than one year does to the knowledge requisite for State legis- ent States? How can uniform regulations for the militia be
lation? The very statement of the question, in this form, sug- duly provided, without a similar knowledge of many internal
gests the answer that ought to be given to it. In a single State, circumstances by which the States are distinguished from each
the requisite knowledge relates to the existing laws which are other? These are the principal objects of federal legislation,
uniform throughout the State, and with which all the citi- and suggest most forcibly the extensive information which
zens are more or less conversant; and to the general affairs of the representatives ought to acquire. The other interior ob-
the State, which lie within a small compass, are not very di- jects will require a proportional degree of information with
versified, and occupy much of the attention and conversation regard to them. It is true that all these difficulties will, by
of every class of people. The great theatre of the United States degrees, be very much diminished. The most laborious task
presents a very different scene. The laws are so far from being will be the proper inauguration of the government and the
uniform, that they vary in every State; whilst the public af- primeval formation of a federal code. Improvements on the
fairs of the Union are spread throughout a very extensive re- first draughts will every year become both easier and fewer.
gion, and are extremely diversified by t e local affairs con- Past transactions of the government will be a ready and accu-
nected with them, and can with difficulty be correctly learnt rate source of information to new members. The affairs of
in any other place than in the central councils to which a the Union will become more and more objects of curiosity
knowledge of them will be brought by the representatives of and conversation among the citizens at large. And the increased
every part of the empire. Yet some knowledge of the affairs, intercourse among those of different States will contribute
and even of the laws, of all the States, ought to be possessed not a little to diffuse a mutual knowledge of their affairs, as
by the members from each of the States. How can foreign this again will contribute to a general assimilation of their
trade be properly regulated by uniform laws, without some manners and laws. But with all these abatements, the busi-
acquaintance with the commerce, the ports, the usages, and ness of federal legislation must continue so far to exceed, both
the regulatious of the different States? How can the trade be- in novelty and difficulty, the legislative business of a single
tween the different States be duly regulated, without some State, as to justify the longer period of service assigned to
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those who are to transact it. A branch of knowledge which delegates to the existing Congress. They are elected annually,
belongs to the acquirements of a federal representative, and it is true; but their re-election is considered by the legislative
which has not been mentioned is that of foreign affairs. In assemblies almost as a matter of course. The election of the
regulating our own commerce he ought to be not only ac- representatives by the people would not be governed by the
quainted with the treaties between the United States and other same principle. A few of the members, as happens in all such
nations, but also with the commercial policy and laws of other assemblies, will possess superior talents; will, by frequent re-
nations. He ought not to be altogether ignorant of the law of elections, become members of long standing; will be thor-
nations; for that, as far as it is a proper object of municipal oughly masters of the public business, and perhaps not un-
legislation, is submitted to the federal government. willing to avail themselves of those advantages. The greater
And although the House of Representatives is not immedi- the proportion of new members, and the less the informa-
ately to participate in foreign negotiations and arrangements, tion of the bulk of the members the more apt will they be to
yet from the necessary connection between the several branches fall into the snares that may be laid for them. This remark is
of public affairs, those particular branches will frequently de- no less applicable to the relation which will subsist between
serve attention in the ordinary course of legislation, and will the House of Representatives and the Senate. It is an inconve-
sometimes demand particular legislative sanction and co-op- nience mingled with the advantages of our frequent elections
eration. Some portion of this knowledge may, no doubt, be even in single States, where they are large, and hold but one
acquired in a man’s closet; but some of it also can only be legislative session in a year, that spurious elections cannot be
derived from the public sources of information; and all of it investigated and annulled in time for the decision to have its
will be acquired to best effect by a practical attention to the due effect. If a return can be obtained, no matter by what
subject during the period of actual service in the legislature. unlawful means, the irregular member, who takes his seat of
There are other considerations, of less importance, perhaps, course, is sure of holding it a sufficient time to answer his
but which are not unworthy of notice. The distance which purposes. Hence, a very pernicious encouragement is given to
many of the representatives will be obliged to travel, and the the use of unlawful means, for obtaining irregular returns.
arrangements rendered necessary by that circumstance, might Were elections for the federal legislature to be annual, this
be much more serious objections with fit men to this service, practice might become a very serious abuse, particularly in
if limited to a single year, than if extended to two years. No the more distant States. Each house is, as it necessarily must
argument can be drawn on this subject, from the case of the be, the judge of the elections, qualifications, and returns of its
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members; and whatever improvements may be suggested by FEDERALIST No. 54
experience, for simplifying and accelerating the process in dis-
puted cases, so great a portion of a year would unavoidably The Apportionment of Members Among the States
elapse, before an illegitimate member could be dispossessed
of his seat, that the prospect of such an event would be little From the New York Packet.
check to unfair and illicit means of obtaining a seat. All these
considerations taken together warrant us in affirming, that Tuesday, February 12, 1788.
biennial elections will be as useful to the affairs of the public
as we have seen that they will be safe to the liberty of the HAMILTON OR MADISON
people.
To the People of the State of New York:
Publius.
The next view which I shall take of the House of Representa-
tives relates to the appointment of its members to the several
States which is to be determined by the same rule with that
of direct taxes.
It is not contended that the number of people in each State
ought not to be the standard for regulating the proportion of
those who are to represent the people of each State. The es-
tablishment of the same rule for the appointment of taxes,
will probably be as little contested; though the rule itself in
this case, is by no means founded on the same principle. In
the former case, the rule is understood to refer to the personal
rights of the people, with which it has a natural and universal
connection.
In the latter, it has reference to the proportion of wealth, of
which it is in no case a precise measure, and in ordinary cases
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a very unfit one. But notwithstanding the imperfection of subject at all times to be restrained in his liberty and chastised
the rule as applied to the relative wealth and contributions of in his body, by the capricious will of another, the slave may
the States, it is evidently the least objectionable among the appear to be degraded from the human rank, and classed with
practicable rules, and had too recently obtained the general those irrational animals which fall under the legal denomina-
sanction of America, not to have found a ready preference tion of property. In being protected, on the other hand, in his
with the convention. All this is admitted, it will perhaps be life and in his limbs, against the violence of all others, even
said; but does it follow, from an admission of numbers for the master of his labor and his liberty; and in being punish-
the measure of representation, or of slaves combined with able himself for all violence committed against others, the
free citizens as a ratio of taxation, that slaves ought to be in- slave is no less evidently regarded by the law as a member of
cluded in the numerical rule of representation? Slaves are con- the society, not as a part of the irrational creation; as a moral
sidered as property, not as persons. They ought therefore to person, not as a mere article of property. The federal Consti-
be comprehended in estimates of taxation which are founded tution, therefore, decides with great propriety on the case of
on property, and to be excluded from representation which is our slaves, when it views them in the mixed character of per-
regulated by a census of persons. This is the objection, as I sons and of property. This is in fact their true character. It is
understand it, stated in its full force. I shall be equally candid the character bestowed on them by the laws under which they
in stating the reasoning which may be offered on the oppo- live; and it will not be denied, that these are the proper crite-
site side. “We subscribe to the doctrine,’’ might one of our rion; because it is only under the pretext that the laws have
Southern brethren observe, “that representation relates more transformed the negroes into subjects of property, that a place
immediately to persons, and taxation more immediately to is disputed them in the computation of numbers; and it is
property, and we join in the application of this distinction to admitted, that if the laws were to restore the rights which
the case of our slaves. But we must deny the fact, that slaves have been taken away, the negroes could no longer be refused
are considered merely as property, and in no respect whatever an equal share of representation with the other inhabitants.
as persons. The true state of the case is, that they partake of “This question may be placed in another light. It is agreed on
both these qualities: being considered by our laws, in some all sides, that numbers are the best scale of wealth and taxa-
respects, as persons, and in other respects as property. In being tion, as they are the only proper scale of representation. Would
compelled to labor, not for himself, but for a master; in be- the convention have been impartial or consistent, if they had
ing vendible by one master to another master; and in being rejected the slaves from the list of inhabitants, when the shares
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of representation were to be calculated, and inserted them on may designate. The qualifications on which the right of suf-
the lists when the tariff of contributions was to be adjusted? frage depend are not, perhaps, the same in any two States. In
Could it be reasonably expected, that the Southern States some of the States the difference is very material. In every
would concur in a system, which considered their slaves in State, a certain proportion of inhabitants are deprived of this
some degree as men, when burdens were to be imposed, but right by the constitution of the State, who will be included in
refused to consider them in the same light, when advantages the census by which the federal Constitution apportions the
were to be conferred? Might not some surprise also be ex- representatives.
pressed, that those who reproach the Southern States with In this point of view the Southern States might retort the
the barbarous policy of considering as property a part of their complaint, by insisting that the principle laid down by the con-
human brethren, should themselves contend, that the gov- vention required that no regard should be had to the policy of
ernment to which all the States are to be parties, ought to particular States towards their own inhabitants; and conse-
consider this unfortunate race more completely in the un- quently, that the slaves, as inhabitants, should have been ad-
natural light of property, than the very laws of which they mitted into the census according to their full number, in like
complain? “It may be replied, perhaps, that slaves are not in- manner with other inhabitants, who, by the policy of other
cluded in the estimate of representatives in any of the States States, are not admitted to all the rights of citizens. A rigorous
possessing them. They neither vote themselves nor increase adherence, however, to this principle, is waived by those who
the votes of their masters. Upon what principle, then, ought would be gainers by it. All that they ask is that equal modera-
they to be taken into the federal estimate of representation? tion be shown on the other side. Let the case of the slaves be
In rejecting them altogether, the Constitution would, in this considered, as it is in truth, a peculiar one. Let the compromis-
respect, have followed the very laws which have been appealed ing expedient of the Constitution be mutually adopted, which
to as the proper guide. “This objection is repelled by a single regards them as inhabitants, but as debased by servitude below
abservation. It is a fundamental principle of the proposed the equal level of free inhabitants, which regards the slave as
Constitution, that as the aggregate number of representatives divested of two fifths of the man. “After all, may not another
allotted to the several States is to be determined by a federal ground be taken on which this article of the Constitution will
rule, founded on the aggregate number of inhabitants, so the admit of a still more ready defense? We have hitherto proceeded
right of choosing this allotted number in each State is to be on the idea that representation related to persons only, and not
exercised by such part of the inhabitants as the State itself at all to property. But is it a just idea?
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Government is instituted no less for protection of the prop- legislature, over the representatives of other States, than what
erty, than of the persons, of individuals. The one as well as may result from their superior number alone. As far, there-
the other, therefore, may be considered as represented by those fore, as their superior wealth and weight may justly entitle
who are charged with the government. Upon this principle it them to any advantage, it ought to be secured to them by a
is, that in several of the States, and particularly in the State of superior share of representation. The new Constitution is, in
New York, one branch of the government is intended more this respect, materially different from the existing Confedera-
especially to be the guardian of property, and is accordingly tion, as well as from that of the United Netherlands, and
elected by that part of the society which is most interested in other similar confederacies. In each of the latter, the efficacy
this object of government. In the federal Constitution, this of the federal resolutions depends on the subsequent and vol-
policy does not prevail. The rights of property are committed untary resolutions of the states composing the union. Hence
into the same hands with the personal rights. Some attention the states, though possessing an equal vote in the public coun-
ought, therefore, to be paid to property in the choice of those cils, have an unequal influence, corresponding with the un-
hands. “For another reason, the votes allowed in the federal equal importance of these subsequent and voluntary resolu-
legislature to the people of each State, ought to bear some tions. Under the proposed Constitution, the federal acts will
proportion to the comparative wealth of the States. States take effect without the necessary intervention of the individual
have not, like individuals, an influence over each other, aris- States. They will depend merely on the majority of votes in
ing from superior advantages of fortune. If the law allows an the federal legislature, and consequently each vote, whether
opulent citizen but a single vote in the choice of his represen- proceeding from a larger or smaller State, or a State more or
tative, the respect and consequence which he derives from his less wealthy or powerful, will have an equal weight and effi-
fortunate situation very frequently guide the votes of others cacy: in the same manner as the votes individually given in a
to the objects of his choice; and through this imperceptible State legislature, by the representatives of unequal counties or
channel the rights of property are conveyed into the public other districts, have each a precise equality of value and effect;
representation. A State possesses no such influence over other or if there be any difference in the case, it proceeds from the
States. It is not probable that the richest State in the Confed- difference in the personal character of the individual represen-
eracy will ever influence the choice of a single representative tative, rather than from any regard to the extent of the district
in any other State. Nor will the representatives of the larger from which he comes. ‘’Such is the reasoning which an advo-
and richer States possess any other advantage in the federal cate for the Southern interests might employ on this subject;
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and although it may appear to be a little strained in some FEDERALIST No. 55
points, yet, on the whole, I must confess that it fully recon-
ciles me to the scale of representation which the convention The Total Number of the House of Representatives
have established. In one respect, the establishment of a com-
mon measure for representation and taxation will have a very From the New York Packet.
salutary effect. As the accuracy of the census to be obtained
by the Congress will necessarily depend, in a considerable de- Friday, February 15, 1788.
gree on the disposition, if not on the co-operation, of the
States, it is of great importance that the States should feel as HAMILTON OR MADISON
little bias as possible, to swell or to reduce the amount of
their numbers. Were their share of representation alone to be To the People of the State of New York:
governed by this rule, they would have an interest in exagger-
ating their inhabitants. Were the rule to decide their share of The number of which the House of Representatives is to con-
taxation alone, a contrary temptation would prevail. By ex- sist, forms another and a very interesting point of view, under
tending the rule to both objects, the States will have opposite which this branch of the federal legislature may be contem-
interests, which will control and balance each other, and pro- plated. Scarce any article, indeed, in the whole Constitution
duce the requisite impartiality. seems to be rendered more worthy of attention, by the weight
of character and the apparent force of argument with which it
Publius. has been assailed.
The charges exhibited against it are, first, that so small a
number of representatives will be an unsafe depositary of the
public interests; secondly, that they will not possess a proper
knowledge of the local circumstances of their numerous con-
stituents; thirdly, that they will be taken from that class of
citizens which will sympathize least with the feelings of the
mass of the people, and be most likely to aim at a permanent
elevation of the few on the depression of the many; fourthly,
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The Federalist Papers
that defective as the number will be in the first instance, it must unavoidably far exceed the proportion in any of the
will be more and more disproportionate, by the increase of other States. Another general remark to be made is, that the
the people, and the obstacles which will prevent a correspon- ratio between the representatives and the people ought not to
dent increase of the representatives. In general it may be re- be the same where the latter are very numerous as where they
marked on this subject, that no political problem is less sus- are very few. Were the representatives in Virginia to be regu-
ceptible of a precise solution than that which relates to the lated by the standard in Rhode Island, they would, at this
number most convenient for a representative legislature; nor time, amount to between four and five hundred; and twenty
is there any point on which the policy of the several States is or thirty years hence, to a thousand. On the other hand, the
more at variance, whether we compare their legislative assem- ratio of Pennsylvania, if applied to the State of Delaware,
blies directly with each other, or consider the proportions would reduce the representative assembly of the latter to seven
which they respectively bear to the number of their constitu- or eight members. Nothing can be more fallacious than to
ents. Passing over the difference between the smallest and larg- found our political calculations on arithmetical principles.
est States, as Delaware, whose most numerous branch con- Sixty or seventy men may be more properly trusted with a
sists of twenty-one representatives, and Massachusetts, where given degree of power than six or seven. But it does not fol-
it amounts to between three and four hundred, a very consid- low that six or seven hundred would be proportionably a bet-
erable difference is observable among States nearly equal in ter depositary. And if we carry on the supposition to six or
population. The number of representatives in Pennsylvania is seven thousand, the whole reasoning ought to be reversed.
not more than one fifth of that in the State last mentioned. The truth is, that in all cases a certain number at least seems
New York, whose population is to that of South Carolina as to be necessary to secure the benefits of free consultation and
six to five, has little more than one third of the number of discussion, and to guard against too easy a combination for
representatives. As great a disparity prevails between the States improper purposes; as, on the other hand, the number ought
of Georgia and Delaware or Rhode Island. In Pennsylvania, at most to be kept within a certain limit, in order to avoid the
the representatives do not bear a greater proportion to their confusion and intemperance of a multitude. In all very nu-
constituents than of one for every four or five thousand. In merous assemblies, of whatever character composed, passion
Rhode Island, they bear a proportion of at least one for every never fails to wrest the sceptre from reason. Had every Athe-
thousand. And according to the constitution of Georgia, the nian citizen been a Socrates, every Athenian assembly would
proportion may be carried to one to every ten electors; and still have been a mob.
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It is necessary also to recollect here the observations which of fifty years, to four hundred. This is a number which, I
were applied to the case of biennial elections. For the same presume, will put an end to all fears arising from the small-
reason that the limited powers of the Congress, and the con- ness of the body. I take for granted here what I shall, in an-
trol of the State legislatures, justify less frequent elections than swering the fourth objection, hereafter show, that the num-
the public safely might otherwise require, the members of ber of representatives will be augmented from time to time
the Congress need be less numerous than if they possessed the in the manner provided by the Constitution. On a contrary
whole power of legislation, and were under no other than the supposition, I should admit the objection to have very great
ordinary restraints of other legislative bodies. With these gen- weight indeed. The true question to be decided then is,
eral ideas in our mind, let us weigh the objections which have whether the smallness of the number, as a temporary regula-
been stated against the number of members proposed for the tion, be dangerous to the public liberty? Whether sixty-five
House of Representatives. It is said, in the first place, that so members for a few years, and a hundred or two hundred for a
small a number cannot be safely trusted with so much power. few more, be a safe depositary for a limited and well-guarded
The number of which this branch of the legislature is to con- power of legislating for the United States? I must own that I
sist, at the outset of the government, will be sixtyfive. Within could not give a negative answer to this question, without
three years a census is to be taken, when the number may be first obliterating every impression which I have received with
augmented to one for every thirty thousand inhabitants; and regard to the present genius of the people of America, the
within every successive period of ten years the census is to be spirit which actuates the State legislatures, and the principles
renewed, and augmentations may continue to be made under which are incorporated with the political character of every
the above limitation. It will not be thought an extravagant class of citizens I am unable to conceive that the people of
conjecture that the first census will, at the rate of one for America, in their present temper, or under any circumstances
every thirty thousand, raise the number of representatives to which can speedily happen, will choose, and every second year
at least one hundred. Estimating the negroes in the propor- repeat the choice of, sixty-five or a hundred men who would
tion of three fifths, it can scarcely be doubted that the popu- be disposed to form and pursue a scheme of tyranny or treach-
lation of the United States will by that time, if it does not ery. I am unable to conceive that the State legislatures, which
already, amount to three millions. At the expiration of twenty- must feel so many motives to watch, and which possess so
five years, according to the computed rate of increase, the many means of counteracting, the federal legislature, would
number of representatives will amount to two hundred, and fail either to detect or to defeat a conspiracy of the latter against
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The Federalist Papers
the liberties of their common constituents. I am equally un- fate of their country more in their hands than it is to be hoped
able to conceive that there are at this time, or can be in any will ever be the case with our future representatives; and from
short time, in the United States, any sixty-five or a hundred the greatness of the prize at stake, and the eagerness of the
men capable of recommending themselves to the choice of party which lost it, it may well be supposed that the use of
the people at large, who would either desire or dare, within other means than force would not have been scrupled. Yet we
the short space of two years, to betray the solemn trust com- know by happy experience that the public trust was not be-
mitted to them. What change of circumstances, time, and a trayed; nor has the purity of our public councils in this par-
fuller population of our country may produce, requires a pro- ticular ever suffered, even from the whispers of calumny. Is
phetic spirit to declare, which makes no part of my preten- the danger apprehended from the other branches of the fed-
sions. But judging from the circumstances now before us, eral government?
and from the probable state of them within a moderate pe- But where are the means to be found by the President, or
riod of time, I must pronounce that the liberties of America the Senate, or both? Their emoluments of office, it is to be
cannot be unsafe in the number of hands proposed by the presumed, will not, and without a previous corruption of the
federal Constitution. From what quarter can the danger pro- House of Representatives cannot, more than suffice for very
ceed? Are we afraid of foreign gold? If foreign gold could so different purposes; their private fortunes, as they must allbe
easily corrupt our federal rulers and enable them to ensnare American citizens, cannot possibly be sources of danger. The
and betray their constituents, how has it happened that we only means, then, which they can possess, will be in the dis-
are at this time a free and independent nation? The Congress pensation of appointments. Is it here that suspicion rests her
which conducted us through the Revolution was a less nu- charge? Sometimes we are told that this fund of corruption is
merous body than their successors will be; they were not cho- to be exhausted by the President in subduing the virtue of the
sen by, nor responsible to, their fellowcitizens at large; though Senate. Now, the fidelity of the other House is to be the vic-
appointed from year to year, and recallable at pleasure, they tim. The improbability of such a mercenary and perfidious
were generally continued for three years, and prior to the rati- combination of the several members of government, stand-
fication of the federal articles, for a still longer term. ing on as different foundations as republican principles will
They held their consultations always under the veil of se- well admit, and at the same time accountable to the society
crecy; they had the sole transaction of our affairs with foreign over which they are placed, ought alone to quiet this appre-
nations; through the whole course of the war they had the hension. But, fortunately, the Constitution has provided a
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still further safeguard. The members of the Congress are ren- FEDERALIST No. 56
dered ineligible to any civil offices that may be created, or of
which the emoluments may be increased, during the term of The Same Subject Continued(The Total Number of the
their election. House of Representatives)
No offices therefore can be dealt out to the existing mem-
bers but such as may become vacant by ordinary casualties: From the New York Packet.
and to suppose that these would be sufficient to purchase the
guardians of the people, selected by the people themselves, is Tuesday, February 19, 1788.
to renounce every rule by which events ought to be calcu-
lated, and to substitute an indiscriminate and unbounded jeal- HAMILTON OR MADISON
ousy, with which all reasoning must be vain. The sincere friends
of liberty, who give themselves up to the extravagancies of To the People of the State of New York:
this passion, are not aware of the injury they do their own
cause. As there is a degree of depravity in mankind which The second charge against the House of Representatives is,
requires a certain degree of circumspection and distrust, so that it will be too small to possess a due knowledge of the
there are other qualities in human nature which justify a cer- interests of its constituents. As this objection evidently pro-
tain portion of esteem and confidence. Republican govern- ceeds from a comparison of the proposed number of repre-
ment presupposes the existence of these qualities in a higher sentatives with the great extent of the United States, the num-
degree than any other form. Were the pictures which have ber of their inhabitants, and the diversity of their interests,
been drawn by the political jealousy of some among us faith- without taking into view at the same time the circumstances
ful likenesses of the human character, the inference would be, which will distinguish the Congress from other legislative
that there is not sufficient virtue among men for self-govern- bodies, the best answer that can be given to it will be a brief
ment; and that nothing less than the chains of despotism can explanation of these peculiarities. It is a sound and important
restrain them from destroying and devouring one another. principle that the representative ought to be acquainted with
the interests and circumstances of his constituents. But this
Publius. principle can extend no further than to those circumstances
and interests to which the authority and care of the represen-
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tative relate. An ignorance of a variety of minute and particu- and must continue to be made, regulations on this subject
lar objects, which do not lie within the compass of legisla- which will, in many cases, leave little more to be done by the
tion, is consistent with every attribute necessary to a due per- federal legislature, than to review the different laws, and re-
formance of the legislative trust. In determining the extent of duce them in one general act. A skillful individual in his closet
information required in the exercise of a particular authority, with all the local codes before him, might compile a law on
recourse then must be had to the objects within the purview some subjects of taxation for the whole union, without any
of that authority. What are to be the objects of federal legisla- aid from oral information, and it may be expected that when-
tion? Those which are of most importance, and which seem ever internal taxes may be necessary, and particularly in cases
most to require local knowledge, are commerce, taxation, and requiring uniformity throughout the States, the more simple
the militia. A proper regulation of commerce requires much objects will be preferred. To be fully sensible of the facility
information, as has been elsewhere remarked; but as far as which will be given to this branch of federal legislation by the
this information relates to the laws and local situation of each assistance of the State codes, we need only suppose for a mo-
individual State, a very few representatives would be very suf- ment that this or any other State were divided into a number
ficient vehicles of it to the federal councils. Taxation will con- of parts, each having and exercising within itself a power of
sist, in a great measure, of duties which will be involved in local legislation. Is it not evident that a degree of local infor-
the regulation of commerce. So far the preceding remark is mation and preparatory labor would be found in the several
applicable to this object. As far as it may consist of internal volumes of their proceedings, which would very much shorten
collections, a more diffusive knowledge of the circumstances the labors of the general legislature, and render a much smaller
of the State may be necessary. But will not this also be pos- number of members sufficient for it? The federal councils
sessed in sufficient degree by a very few intelligent men, dif- will derive great advantage from another circumstance. The
fusively elected within the State? Divide the largest State into representatives of each State will not only bring with them a
ten or twelve districts, and it will be found that there will be considerable knowledge of its laws, and a local knowledge of
no peculiar local interests in either, which will not be within their respective districts, but will probably in all cases have
the knowledge of the representative of the district. Besides been members, and may even at the very time be members,
this source of information, the laws of the State, framed by of the State legislature, where all the local information and
representatives from every part of it, will be almost of them- interests of the State are assembled, and from whence they
selves a sufficient guide. In every State there have been made, may easily be conveyed by a very few hands into the legisla-
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ture of the United States. The observations made on the sub- fore, from each State, may bring with them a due knowledge
ject of taxation apply with greater force to the case of the of their own State, every representative will have much infor-
militia. For however different the rules of discipline may be mation to acquire concerning all the other States.
in different States, they are the same throughout each par- The changes of time, as was formerly remarked, on the com-
ticular State; and depend on circumstances which can differ parative situation of the different States, will have an assimi-
but little in different parts of the same State. The attentive lating effect. The effect of time on the internal affairs of the
reader will discern that the reasoning here used, to prove the States, taken singly, will be just the contrary. At present some
sufficiency of a moderate number of representatives, does not of the States are little more than a society of husbandmen.
in any respect contradict what was urged on another occasion Few of them have made much progress in those branches of
with regard to the extensive information which the represen- industry which give a variety and complexity to the affairs of
tatives ought to possess, and the time that might be necessary a nation. These, however, will in all of them be the fruits of a
for acquiring it. This information, so far as it may relate to more advanced population, and will require, on the part of
local objects, is rendered necessary and difficult, not by a dif- each State, a fuller representation. The foresight of the con-
ference of laws and local circumstances within a single State, vention has accordingly taken care that the progress of popu-
but of those among different States. Taking each State by lation may be accompanied with a proper increase of the rep-
itself, its laws are the same, and its interests but little diversi- resentative branch of the government. The experience of Great
fied. A few men, therefore, will possess all the knowledge Britain, which presents to mankind so many political lessons,
requisite for a proper representation of them. Were the inter- both of the monitory and exemplary kind, and which has
ests and affairs of each individual State perfectly simple and been frequently consulted in the course of these inquiries,
uniform, a knowledge of them in one part would involve a corroborates the result of the reflections which we have just
knowledge of them in every other, and the whole State might made. The number of inhabitants in the two kingdoms of
be competently represented by a single member taken from England and Scotland cannot be stated at less than eight mil-
any part of it. On a comparison of the different States to- lions. The representatives of these eight millions in the House
gether, we find a great dissimilarity in their laws, and in many of Commons amount to five hundred and fifty-eight.
other circumstances connected with the objects of federal leg- Of this number, one ninth are elected by three hundred and
islation, with all of which the federal representatives ought to sixty-four persons, and one half, by five thousand seven hun-
have some acquaintance. Whilst a few representatives, there- dred and twenty-three persons. 1 It cannot be supposed that
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the half thus elected, and who do not even reside among the ing to this case the weight which is due to it, and comparing
people at large, can add any thing either to the security of the it with that of the House of Representatives as above explained
people against the government, or to the knowledge of their it seems to give the fullest assurance, that a representative for
circumstances and interests in the legislative councils. On the every thirty thousand inhabitants will render the latter both a
contrary, it is notorious, that they are more frequently the safe and competent guardian of the interests which will be
representatives and instruments of the executive magistrate, confided to it.
than the guardians and advocates of the popular rights. They
might therefore, with great propriety, be considered as some- Publius.
thing more than a mere deduction from the real representa-
tives of the nation. We will, however, consider them in this Burgh’s “Political Disquisitions.”
light alone, and will not extend the deduction to a consider-
able number of others, who do not reside among their
constitutents, are very faintly connected with them, and have
very little particular knowledge of their affairs. With all these
concessions, two hundred and seventy-nine persons only will
be the depository of the safety, interest, and happiness of eight
millions that is to say, there will be one representative only to
maintain the rights and explain the situation of twenty-eight
thousand six hundred and seventy constitutents, in an assem-
bly exposed to the whole force of executive influence, and
extending its authority to every object of legislation within a
nation whose affairs are in the highest degree diversified and
complicated. Yet it is very certain, not only that a valuable
portion of freedom has been preserved under all these cir-
cumstances, but that the defects in the British code are charge-
able, in a very small proportion, on the ignorance of the leg-
islature concerning the circumstances of the people. Allow-
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FEDERALIST No. 57 most effectual precautions for keeping them virtuous whilst
they continue to hold their public trust. The elective mode
The Alleged Tendency of the New Plan to Elevate the of obtaining rulers is the characteristic policy of republican
Few at the Expense of the Many Considered in Connec- government. The means relied on in this form of govern-
tion with Representation ment for preventing their degeneracy are numerous and vari-
ous. The most effectual one, is such a limitation of the term
From the New York Packet. of appointments as will maintain a proper responsibility to
the people. Let me now ask what circumstance there is in the
Tuesday, February 19, 1788. constitution of the House of Representatives that violates the
principles of republican government, or favors the elevation
HAMILTON OR MADISON of the few on the ruins of the many? Let me ask whether
every circumstance is not, on the contrary, strictly conform-
To the People of the State of New York: able to these principles, and scrupulously impartial to the rights
and pretensions of every class and description of citizens? Who
The third charge against the House of Representatives is, that are to be the electors of the federal representatives? Not the
it will be taken from that class of citizens which will have rich, more than the poor; not the learned, more than the ig-
least sympathy with the mass of the people, and be most norant; not the haughty heirs of distinguished names, more
likely to aim at an ambitious sacrifice of the many to the than the humble sons of obscurity and unpropitious fortune.
aggrandizement of the few. Of all the objections which have The electors are to be the great body of the people of the
been framed against the federal Constitution, this is perhaps United States. They are to be the same who exercise the right
the most extraordinary. in every State of electing the corresponding branch of the leg-
Whilst the objection itself is levelled against a pretended islature of the State. Who are to be the objects of popular
oligarchy, the principle of it strikes at the very root of repub- choice? Every citizen whose merit may recommend him to
lican government. The aim of every political constitution is, the esteem and confidence of his country. No qualification of
or ought to be, first to obtain for rulers men who possess wealth, of birth, of religious faith, or of civil profession is
most wisdom to discern, and most virtue to pursue, the com- permitted to fetter the judgement or disappoint the inclina-
mon good of the society; and in the next place, to take the tion of the people. If we consider the situation of the men on
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whom the free suffrages of their fellow-citizens may confer generally happen that a great proportion of the men deriving
the representative trust, we shall find it involving every secu- their advancement from their influence with the people, would
rity which can be devised or desired for their fidelity to their have more to hope from a preservation of the favor, than
constituents. In the first place, as they will have been distin- from innovations in the government subversive of the au-
guished by the preference of their fellow-citizens, we are to thority of the people. All these securities, however, would be
presume that in general they will be somewhat distinguished found very insufficient without the restraint of frequent elec-
also by those qualities which entitle them to it, and which tions. Hence, in the fourth place, the House of Representa-
promise a sincere and scrupulous regard to the nature of their tives is so constituted as to support in the members an ha-
engagements. In the second place, they will enter into the bitual recollection of their dependence on the people. Before
public service under circumstances which cannot fail to pro- the sentiments impressed on their minds by the mode of their
duce a temporary affection at least to their constituents. There elevation can be effaced by the exercise of power, they will be
is in every breast a sensibility to marks of honor, of favor, of compelled to anticipate the moment when their power is to
esteem, and of confidence, which, apart from all consider- cease, when their exercise of it is to be reviewed, and when
ations of interest, is some pledge for grateful and benevolent they must descend to the level from which they were raised;
returns. there forever to remain unless a faithful discharge of their trust
Ingratitude is a common topic of declamation against hu- shall have established their title to a renewal of it. I will add,
man nature; and it must be confessed that instances of it are as a fifth circumstance in the situation of the House of Repre-
but too frequent and flagrant, both in public and in private sentatives, restraining them from oppressive measures, that
life. But the universal and extreme indignation which it in- they can make no law which will not have its full operation
spires is itself a proof of the energy and prevalence of the con- on themselves and their friends, as well as on the great mass
trary sentiment. of the society. This has always been deemed one of the stron-
In the third place, those ties which bind the representative gest bonds by which human policy can connect the rulers and
to his constituents are strengthened by motives of a more the people together. It creates between them that commun-
selfish nature. His pride and vanity attach him to a form of ion of interests and sympathy of sentiments, of which few
government which favors his pretensions and gives him a share governments have furnished examples; but without which
in its honors and distinctions. Whatever hopes or projects every government degenerates into tyranny. If it be asked, what
might be entertained by a few aspiring characters, it must is to restrain the House of Representatives from making legal
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discriminations in favor of themselves and a particular class objection to be read by one who had not seen the mode pre-
of the society? I answer: the genius of the whole system; the scribed by the Constitution for the choice of representatives,
nature of just and constitutional laws; and above all, the vigi- he could suppose nothing less than that some unreasonable
lant and manly spirit which actuates the people of America, a qualification of property was annexed to the right of suffrage;
spirit which nourishes freedom, and in return is nourished by or that the right of eligibility was limited to persons of par-
it. If this spirit shall ever be so far debased as to tolerate a law ticular families or fortunes; or at least that the mode pre-
not obligatory on the legislature, as well as on the people, the scribed by the State constitutions was in some respect or other,
people will be prepared to tolerate any thing but liberty. Such very grossly departed from. We have seen how far such a sup-
will be the relation between the House of Representatives and position would err, as to the two first points. Nor would it,
their constituents. Duty, gratitude, interest, ambition itself, in fact, be less erroneous as to the last. The only difference
are the chords by which they will be bound to fidelity and discoverable between the two cases is, that each representative
sympathy with the great mass of the people. of the United States will be elected by five or six thousand
It is possible that these may all be insufficient to control the citizens; whilst in the individual States, the election of a rep-
caprice and wickedness of man. But are they not all that gov- resentative is left to about as many hundreds. Will it be pre-
ernment will admit, and that human prudence can devise? tended that this difference is sufficient to justify an attach-
Are they not the genuine and the characteristic means by which ment to the State governments, and an abhorrence to the fed-
republican government provides for the liberty and happiness eral government? If this be the point on which the objection
of the people? Are they not the identical means on which turns, it deserves to be examined. Is it supported by reason?
every State government in the Union relies for the attainment This cannot be said, without maintaining that five or six
of these important ends? What then are we to understand by thousand citizens are less capable of choosing a fit representa-
the objection which this paper has combated? What are we to tive, or more liable to be corrupted by an unfit one, than five
say to the men who profess the most flaming zeal for repub- or six hundred. Reason, on the contrary, assures us, that as in
lican government, yet boldly impeach the fundamental prin- so great a number a fit representative would be most likely to
ciple of it; who pretend to be champions for the right and the be found, so the choice would be less likely to be diverted
capacity of the people to choose their own rulers, yet main- from him by the intrigues of the ambitious or the ambitious
tain that they will prefer those only who will immediately or the bribes of the rich. Is the consequence from this doctrine
and infallibly betray the trust committed to them? Were the admissible? If we say that five or six hundred citizens are as
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many as can jointly exercise their right of suffrage, must we necessary for that purpose; and those of New York still more
not deprive the people of the immediate choice of their pub- so.
lic servants, in every instance where the administration of the In the last State the members of Assembly for the cities and
government does not require as many of them as will amount counties of New York and Albany are elected by very nearly as
to one for that number of citizens? Is the doctrine warranted many voters as will be entitled to a representative in the Con-
by facts? It was shown in the last paper, that the real represen- gress, calculating on the number of sixty-five representatives
tation in the British House of Commons very little exceeds only. It makes no difference that in these senatorial districts
the proportion of one for every thirty thousand inhabitants. and counties a number of representatives are voted for by each
Besides a variety of powerful causes not existing here, and elector at the same time. If the same electors at the same time
which favor in that country the pretensions of rank and wealth, are capable of choosing four or five representatives, they can-
no person is eligible as a representative of a county, unless he not be incapable of choosing one. Pennsylvania is an addi-
possess real estate of the clear value of six hundred pounds tional example. Some of her counties, which elect her State
sterling per year; nor of a city or borough, unless he possess a representatives, are almost as large as her districts will be by
like estate of half that annual value. To this qualification on which her federal representatives will be elected. The city of
the part of the county representatives is added another on the Philadelphia is supposed to contain between fifty and sixty
part of the county electors, which restrains the right of suf- thousand souls. It will therefore form nearly two districts for
frage to persons having a freehold estate of the annual value the choice of federal representatives. It forms, however, but
of more than twenty pounds sterling, according to the present one county, in which every elector votes for each of its repre-
rate of money. Notwithstanding these unfavorable circum- sentatives in the State legislature. And what may appear to be
stances, and notwithstanding some very unequal laws in the still more directly to our purpose, the whole city actually elects
British code, it cannot be said that the representatives of the a single member for the executive council. This is the case in
nation have elevated the few on the ruins of the many. But all the other counties of the State. Are not these facts the
we need not resort to foreign experience on this subject. Our most satisfactory proofs of the fallacy which has been em-
own is explicit and decisive. The districts in New Hampshire ployed against the branch of the federal government under
in which the senators are chosen immediately by the people, consideration? Has it appeared on trial that the senators of
are nearly as large as will be necessary for her representatives in New Hampshire, Massachusetts, and New York, or the ex-
the Congress. Those of Massachusetts are larger than will be ecutive council of Pennsylvania, or the members of the As-
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sembly in the two last States, have betrayed any peculiar dis- FEDERALIST No. 58
position to sacrifice the many to the few, or are in any respect
less worthy of their places than the representatives and magis- Objection That The Number of Members Will Not Be
trates appointed in other States by very small divisions of the Augmented as the Progress of Population Demands
people? But there are cases of a stronger complexion than any Considered
which I have yet quoted.
One branch of the legislature of Connecticut is so consti- MADISON
tuted that each member of it is elected by the whole State. So
is the governor of that State, of Massachusetts, and of this To the People of the State of New York:
State, and the president of New Hampshire. I leave every man
to decide whether the result of any one of these experiments The remaining charge against the House of Representatives,
can be said to countenance a suspicion, that a diffusive mode which I am to examine, is grounded on a supposition that the
of choosing representatives of the people tends to elevate trai- number of members will not be augmented from time to
tors and to undermine the public liberty. time, as the progress of population may demand. It has been
admitted, that this objection, if well supported, would have
Publius. great weight. The following observations will show that, like
most other objections against the Constitution, it can only
proceed from a partial view of the subject, or from a jealousy
which discolors and disfigures every object which is beheld.

1. Those who urge the objection seem not to have recollected


that the federal Constitution will not suffer by a comparison
with the State constitutions, in the security provided for a
gradual augmentation of the number of representatives. The
number which is to prevail in the first instance is declared to
be temporary. Its duration is limited to the short term of
three years. Within every successive term of ten years a census
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of inhabitants is to be repeated. The unequivocal objects of the smaller States. From this circumstance it may with cer-
these regulations are, first, to readjust, from time to time, the tainty be inferred that the larger States will be strenuous ad-
apportionment of representatives to the number of inhabit- vocates for increasing the number and weight of that part of
ants, under the single exception that each State shall have one the legislature in which their influence predominates. And it
representative at least; secondly, to augment the number of so happens that four only of the largest will have a majority
representatives at the same periods, under the sole limitation of the whole votes in the House of Representatives. Should
that the whole number shall not exceed one for every thirty the representatives or people, therefore, of the smaller States
thousand inhabitants. If we review the constitutions of the oppose at any time a reasonable addition of members, a coa-
several States, we shall find that some of them contain no lition of a very few States will be sufficient to overrule the
determinate regulations on this subject, that others correspond opposition; a coalition which, notwithstanding the rivalship
pretty much on this point with the federal Constitution, and and local prejudices which might prevent it on ordinary occa-
that the most effectual security in any of them is resolvable sions, would not fail to take place, when not merely prompted
into a mere directory provision. by common interest, but justified by equity and the prin-
ciples of the Constitution. It may be alleged, perhaps, that
2. As far as experience has taken place on this subject, a gradual the Senate would be prompted by like motives to an adverse
increase of representatives under the State constitutions has at coalition; and as their concurrence would be indispensable,
least kept pace with that of the constituents, and it appears the just and constitutional views of the other branch might
that the former have been as ready to concur in such measures be defeated. This is the difficulty which has probably created
as the latter have been to call for them. the most serious apprehensions in the jealous friends of a nu-
merous representation. Fortunately it is among the difficul-
3. There is a peculiarity in the federal Constitution which ties which, existing only in appearance, vanish on a close and
insures a watchful attention in a majority both of the people accurate inspection. The following reflections will, if I mis-
and of their representatives to a constitutional augmentation take not, be admitted to be conclusive and satisfactory on
of the latter. The peculiarity lies in this, that one branch of this point. Notwithstanding the equal authority which will
the legislature is a representation of citizens, the other of the subsist between the two houses on all legislative subjects, ex-
States: in the former, consequently, the larger States will have cept the originating of money bills, it cannot be doubted that
most weight; in the latter, the advantage will be in favor of the House, composed of the greater number of members,
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when supported by the more powerful States, and speaking latter, by the interest which their States will feel in the former.
the known and determined sense of a majority of the people, These considerations seem to afford ample security on this
will have no small advantage in a question depending on the subject, and ought alone to satisfy all the doubts and fears
comparative firmness of the two houses. This advantage must which have been indulged with regard to it. Admitting, how-
be increased by the consciousness, felt by the same side of ever, that they should all be insufficient to subdue the unjust
being supported in its demands by right, by reason, and by policy of the smaller States, or their predominant influence
the Constitution; and the consciousness, on the opposite side, in the councils of the Senate, a constitutional and infallible
of contending against the force of all these solemn consider- resource still remains with the larger States, by which they
ations. It is farther to be considered, that in the gradation will be able at all times to accomplish their just purposes.
between the smallest and largest States, there are several, which, The House of Representatives cannot only refuse, but they
though most likely in general to arrange themselves among alone can propose, the supplies requisite for the support of
the former are too little removed in extent and population government. They, in a word, hold the purse that powerful
from the latter, to second an opposition to their just and le- instrument by which we behold, in the history of the British
gitimate pretensions. Hence it is by no means certain that a Constitution, an infant and humble representation of the
majority of votes, even in the Senate, would be unfriendly to people gradually enlarging the sphere of its activity and im-
proper augmentations in the number of representatives. It will portance, and finally reducing, as far as it seems to have wished,
not be looking too far to add, that the senators from all the all the overgrown prerogatives of the other branches of the
new States may be gained over to the just views of the House government. This power over the purse may, in fact, be re-
of Representatives, by an expedient too obvious to be over- garded as the most complete and effectual weapon with which
looked. As these States will, for a great length of time, ad- any constitution can arm the immediate representatives of
vance in population with peculiar rapidity, they will be inter- the people, for obtaining a redress of every grievance, and for
ested in frequent reapportionments of the representatives to carrying into effect every just and salutary measure. But will
the number of inhabitants. The large States, therefore, who not the House of Representatives be as much interested as the
will prevail in the House of Representatives, will have noth- Senate in maintaining the government in its proper functions,
ing to do but to make reapportionments and augmentations and will they not therefore be unwilling to stake its existence
mutually conditions of each other; and the senators from all or its reputation on the pliancy of the Senate? Or, if such a
the most growing States will be bound to contend for the trial of firmness between the two branches were hazarded,
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would not the one be as likely first to yield as the other? the federal service a large number of such characters as the
These questions will create no difficulty with those who re- people will probably elect. One observation, however, I must
flect that in all cases the smaller the number, and the more be permitted to add on this subject as claiming, in my judg-
permanent and conspicuous the station, of men in power, the ment, a very serious attention. It is, that in all legislative as-
stronger must be the interest which they will individually feel semblies the greater the number composing them may be,
in whatever concerns the government. Those who represent the fewer will be the men who will in fact direct their pro-
the dignity of their country in the eyes of other nations, will ceedings. In the first place, the more numerous an assembly
be particularly sensible to every prospect of public danger, or may be, of whatever characters composed, the greater is known
of dishonorable stagnation in public affairs. To those causes to be the ascendency of passion over reason. In the next place,
we are to ascribe the continual triumph of the British House the larger the number, the greater will be the proportion of
of Commons over the other branches of the government, members of limited information and of weak capacities. Now,
whenever the engine of a money bill has been employed. An it is precisely on characters of this description that the elo-
absolute inflexibility on the side of the latter, although it could quence and address of the few are known to act with all their
not have failed to involve every department of the state in the force. In the ancient republics, where the whole body of the
general confusion, has neither been apprehended nor experi- people assembled in person, a single orator, or an artful states-
enced. The utmost degree of firmness that can be displayed man, was generally seen to rule with as complete a sway as if
by the federal Senate or President, will not be more than equal a sceptre had been placed in his single hand. On the same
to a resistance in which they will be supported by constitu- principle, the more multitudinous a representative assembly
tional and patriotic principles. In this review of the Constitu- may be rendered, the more it will partake of the infirmities
tion of the House of Representatives, I have passed over the incident to collective meetings of the people.
circumstances of economy, which, in the present state of af- Ignorance will be the dupe of cunning, and passion the slave
fairs, might have had some effect in lessening the temporary of sophistry and declamation. The people can never err more
number of representatives, and a disregard of which would than in supposing that by multiplying their representatives
probably have been as rich a theme of declamation against the beyond a certain limit, they strengthen the barrier against the
Constitution as has been shown by the smallness of the num- government of a few. Experience will forever admonish them
ber proposed. I omit also any remarks on the difficulty which that, on the contrary, after securing a sufficient number for the
might be found, under present circumstances, in engaging in purposes of safety, of local information, and of diffusive sympa-
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thy with the whole society, they will counteract their own views shown itself even in States where a majority only is required;
by every addition to their representatives. The countenance a practice subversive of all the principles of order and regular
of the government may become more democratic, but the government; a practice which leads more directly to public
soul that animates it will be more oligarchic. The machine convulsions, and the ruin of popular governments, than any
will be enlarged, but the fewer, and often the more secret, other which has yet been displayed among us.
will be the springs by which its motions are directed. As con-
nected with the objection against the number of representa- Publius.
tives, may properly be here noticed, that which has been sug-
gested against the number made competent for legislative
business. It has been said that more than a majority ought to
have been required for a quorum; and in particular cases, if
not in all, more than a majority of a quorum for a decision.
That some advantages might have resulted from such a pre-
caution, cannot be denied. It might have been an additional
shield to some particular interests, and another obstacle gen-
erally to hasty and partial measures. But these considerations
are outweighed by the inconveniences in the opposite scale.
In all cases where justice or the general good might require
new laws to be passed, or active measures to be pursued, the
fundamental principle of free government would be reversed.
It would be no longer the majority that would rule: the power
would be transferred to the minority. Were the defensive privi-
lege limited to particular cases, an interested minority might
take advantage of it to screen themselves from equitable sacri-
fices to the general weal, or, in particular emergencies, to ex-
tort unreasonable indulgences. Lastly, it would facilitate and
foster the baneful practice of secessions; a practice which has
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FEDERALIST No. 59 mistaken, notwithstanding, if there be any article in the whole
plan more completely defensible than this. Its propriety rests
Concerning the Power of Congress to Regulate the upon the evidence of this plain proposition, that every gov-
Election of Members ernment ought to contain in itself the means of its own preser-
vation. Every just reasoner will, at first sight, approve an ad-
From the New York Packet. herence to this rule, in the work of the convention; and will
disapprove every deviation from it which may not appear to
Friday, February 22, 1788. have been dictated by the necessity of incorporating into the
work some particular ingredient, with which a rigid confor-
HAMILTON mity to the rule was incompatible. Even in this case, though
he may acquiesce in the necessity, yet he will not cease to
To the People of the State of New York: regard and to regret a departure from so fundamental a prin-
ciple, as a portion of imperfection in the system which may
The natural order of the subject leads us to consider, in this prove the seed of future weakness, and perhaps anarchy. It
place, that provision of the Constitution which authorizes will not be alleged, that an election law could have been framed
the national legislature to regulate, in the last resort, the elec- and inserted in the Constitution, which would have been al-
tion of its own members. It is in these words: “The times, ways applicable to every probable change in the situation of
places, and manner of holding elections for senators and rep- the country; and it will therefore not be denied, that a discre-
resentatives shall be prescribed in each State by the legislature tionary power over elections ought to exist somewhere. It
thereof; but the Congress may, at any time, by law, make or will, I presume, be as readily conceded, that there were only
alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing sena- three ways in which this power could have been reasonably
tors. ‘’1 This provision has not only been declaimed against modified and disposed: that it must either have been lodged
by those who condemn the Constitution in the gross, but it wholly in the national legislature, or wholly in the State legis-
has been censured by those who have objected with less lati- latures, or primarily in the latter and ultimately in the former.
tude and greater moderation; and, in one instance it has been The last mode has, with reason, been preferred by the con-
thought exceptionable by a gentleman who has declared him- vention. They have submitted the regulation of elections for
self the advocate of every other part of the system. I am greatly the federal government, in the first instance, to the local ad-
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The Federalist Papers
ministrations; which, in ordinary cases, and when no improper would any man have hesitated to condemn it, both as an un-
views prevail, may be both more convenient and more satis- warrantable transposition of power, and as a premeditated
factory; but they have reserved to t he national authority a engine for the destruction of the State governments? The vio-
right to interpose, whenever extraordinary circumstances might lation of principle, in this case, would have required no com-
render that interposition necessary to its safety. Nothing can ment; and, to an unbiased observer, it will not be less appar-
be more evident, than that an exclusive power of regulating ent in the project of subjecting the existence of the national
elections for the national government, in the hands of the government, in a similar respect, to the pleasure of the State
State legislatures, would leave the existence of the Union en- governments. An impartial view of the matter cannot fail to
tirely at their mercy. They could at any moment annihilate it, result in a conviction, that each, as far as possible, ought to
by neglecting to provide for the choice of persons to admin- depend on itself for its own preservation. As an objection to
ister its affairs. It is to little purpose to say, that a neglect or this position, it may be remarked that the constitution of the
omission of this kind would not be likely to take place. The national Senate would involve, in its full extent, the danger
constitutional possibility of the thing, without an equivalent which it is suggested might flow from an exclusive power in
for the risk, is an unanswerable objection. Nor has any satis- the State legislatures to regulate the federal elections. It may
factory reason been yet assigned for incurring that risk. The be alleged, that by declining the appointment of Senators,
extravagant surmises of a distempered jealousy can never be they might at any time give a fatal blow to the Union; and
dignified with that character. If we are in a humor to presume from this it may be inferred, that as its existence would be
abuses of power, it is as fair to presume them on the part of thus rendered dependent upon them in so essential a point,
the State governments as on the part of the general govern- there can be no objection to intrusting them with it in the
ment. And as it is more consonant to the rules of a just theory, particular case under consideration. The interest of each State,
to trust the Union with the care of its own existence, than to it may be added, to maintain its representation in the na-
transfer that care to any other hands, if abuses of power are to tional councils, would be a complete security against an abuse
be hazarded on the one side or on the other, it is more ratio- of the trust. This argument, though specious, will not, upon
nal to hazard them where the power would naturally be placed, examination, be found solid. It is certainly true that the State
than where it would unnaturally be placed. Suppose an article legislatures, by forbearing the appointment of senators, may
had been introduced into the Constitution, empowering the destroy the national government. But it will not follow that,
United States to regulate the elections for the particular States, because they have a power to do this in one instance, they
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ought to have it in every other. There are cases in which the to consist of sixteen members. The joint result of these cir-
pernicious tendency of such a power may be far more deci- cumstances would be, that a temporary combination of a few
sive, without any motive equally cogent with that which must States to intermit the appointment of senators, could neither
have regulated the conduct of the convention in respect to annul the existence nor impair the activity of the body; and it
the formation of the Senate, to recommend their admission is not from a general and permanent combination of the States
into the system. So far as that construction may expose the that we can have any thing to fear. The first might proceed
Union to the possibility of injury from the State legislatures, from sinister designs in the leading members of a few of the
it is an evil; but it is an evil which could not have been avoided State legislatures; the last would suppose a fixed and rooted
without excluding the States, in their political capacities, disaffection in the great body of the people, which will either
wholly from a place in the organization of the national gov- never exist at all, or will, in all probability, proceed from an
ernment. If this had been done, it would doubtless have been experience of the inaptitude of the general government to the
interpreted into an entire dereliction of the federal principle; advancement of their happiness in which event no good citi-
and would certainly have deprived the State governments of zen could desire its continuance. But with regard to the fed-
that absolute safeguard which they will enjoy under this pro- eral House of Representatives, there is intended to be a gen-
vision. But however wise it may have been to have submitted eral election of members once in two years. If the State legis-
in this instance to an inconvenience, for the attainment of a latures were to be invested with an exclusive power of regulat-
necessary advantage or a greater good, no inference can be ing these elections, every period of making them would be a
drawn from thence to favor an accumulation of the evil, where delicate crisis in the national situation, which might issue in a
no necessity urges, nor any greater good invites. It may be dissolution of the Union, if the leaders of a few of the most
easily discerned also that the national government would run important States should have entered into a previous con-
a much greater risk from a power in the State legislatures over spiracy to prevent an election. I shall not deny, that there is a
the elections of its House of Representatives, than from their degree of weight in the observation, that the interests of each
power of appointing the members of its Senate. The senators State, to be represented in the federal councils, will be a secu-
are to be chosen for the period of six years; there is to be a rity against the abuse of a power over its elections in the hands
rotation, by which the seats of a third part of them are to be of the State legislatures. But the security will not be consid-
vacated and replenished every two years; and no State is to be ered as complete, by those who attend to the force of an ob-
entitled to more than two senators; a quorum of the body is vious distinction between the interest of the people in the
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public felicity, and the interest of their local rulers in the power nate in the intrigues of foreign powers, and will seldom fail
and consequence of their offices. The people of America may to be patronized and abetted by some of them. Its preserva-
be warmly attached to the government of the Union, at times tion, therefore ought in no case that can be avoided, to be
when the particular rulers of particular States, stimulated by committed to the guardianship of any but those whose situ-
the natural rivalship of power, and by the hopes of personal ation will uniformly beget an immediate interest in the faith-
aggrandizement, and supported by a strong faction in each of ful and vigilant performance of the trust.
those States, may be in a very opposite temper. This diversity
of sentiment between a majority of the people, and the indi- Publius.
viduals who have the greatest credit in their councils, is exem-
plified in some of the States at the present moment, on the Ist clause, 4th section, of the Ist article.
present question. The scheme of separate confederacies, which
will always nultiply the chances of ambition, will be a never
failing bait to all such influential characters in the State ad-
ministrations as are capable of preferring their own emolu-
ment and advancement to the public weal. With so effectual
a weapon in their hands as the exclusive power of regulating
elections for the national government, a combination of a
few such men, in a few of the most considerable States, where
the temptation will always be the strongest, might accom-
plish the destruction of the Union, by seizing the opportu-
nity of some casual dissatisfaction among the people (and
which perhaps they may themselves have excited), to discon-
tinue the choice of members for the federal House of Repre-
sentatives. It ought never to be forgotten, that a firm union
of this country, under an efficient government, will probably
be an increasing object of jealousy to more than one nation of
Europe; and that enterprises to subvert it will sometimes origi-
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FEDERALIST No. 60 to the citizens at large to partake in the choice. Of all chimeri-
cal suppositions, this seems to be the most chimerical. On
The Same Subject Continued the one hand, no rational calculation of probabilities would
lead us to imagine that the disposition which a conduct so
(Concerning the Power of Congress to Regulate the violent and extraordinary would imply, could ever find its
Election of Members) way into the national councils; and on the other, it may be
concluded with certainty, that if so improper a spirit should
From the New York Packet. ever gain admittance into them, it would display itself in a
form altogether different and far more decisive.
Tuesday, February 26, 1788. The improbability of the attempt may be satisfactorily in-
ferred from this single reflection, that it could never be made
HAMILTON without causing an immediate revolt of the great body of the
people, headed and directed by the State governments. It is
To the People of the State of New York: not difficult to conceive that this characteristic right of free-
dom may, in certain turbulent and factious seasons, be vio-
We have seen, that an uncontrollable power over the elections lated, in respect to a particular class of citizens, by a victorious
to the federal government could not, without hazard, be com- and overbearing majority; but that so fundamental a privi-
mitted to the State legislatures. Let us now see, what would lege, in a country so situated and enlightened, should be in-
be the danger on the other side; that is, from confiding the vaded to the prejudice of the great mass of the people, by the
ultimate right of regulating its own elections to the Union deliberate policy of the government, without occasioning a
itself. It is not pretended, that this right would ever be used popular revolution, is altogether inconceivable and incredible.
for the exclusion of any State from its share in the representa- In addition to this general reflection, there are considerations
tion. The interest of all would, in this respect at least, be the of a more precise nature, which forbid all apprehension on
security of all. But it is alleged, that it might be employed in the subject. The dissimilarity in the ingredients which will
such a manner as to promote the election of some favorite compose the national government, and Ustill more in the
class of men in exclusion of others, by confining the places of manner in which they will be brought into action in its vari-
election to particular districts, and rendering it impracticable ous branches, must form a powerful obstacle to a concert of
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The Federalist Papers
views in any partial scheme of elections. There is sufficient itself would not be included? Or to what purpose would it be
diversity in the state of property, in the genius, manners, and established, in reference to one branch of the legislature, if it
habits of the people of the different parts of the Union, to could not be extended to the other? The composition of the
occasion a material diversity of disposition in their represen- one would in this case counteract that of the other. And we
tatives towards the different ranks and conditions in society. can never suppose that it would embrace the appointments
And though an intimate intercourse under the same govern- to the Senate, unless we can at the same time suppose the
ment will promote a gradual assimilation in some of these voluntary co-operation of the State legislatures. If we make
respects, yet there are causes, as well physical as moral, which the latter supposition, it then becomes immaterial where the
may, in a greater or less degree, permanently nourish different power in question is placed whether in their hands or in those
propensities and inclinations in this respect. But the circum- of the Union.
stance which will be likely to have the greatest influence in But what is to be the object of this capricious partiality in
the matter, will be the dissimilar modes of constituting the the national councils? Is it to be exercised in a discrimination
several component parts of the government. The House of between the different departments of industry, or between
Representatives being to be elected immediately by the people, the different kinds of property, or between the different de-
the Senate by the State legislatures, the President by electors grees of property? Will it lean in favor of the landed interest,
chosen for that purpose by the people, there would be little or the moneyed interest, or the mercantile interest, or the
probability of a common interest to cement these different manufacturing interest? Or, to speak in the fashionable lan-
branches in a predilection for any particular class of electors. guage of the adversaries to the Constitution, will it court the
As to the Senate, it is impossible that any regulation of “time elevation of “the wealthy and the well-born,” to the exclusion
and manner,’’ which is all that is proposed to be submitted to and debasement of all the rest of the society?
the national government in respect to that body, can affect If this partiality is to be exerted in favor of those who are
the spirit which will direct the choice of its members. The concerned in any particular description of industry or prop-
collective sense of the State legislatures can never be influ- erty, I presume it will readily be admitted, that the competi-
enced by extraneous circumstances of that sort; a consider- tion for it will lie between landed men and merchants. And I
ation which alone ought to satisfy us that the discrimination scruple not to affirm, that it is infinitely less likely that either
apprehended would never be attempted. For what induce- of them should gain an ascendant in the national councils,
ment could the Senate have to concur in a preference in which than that the one or the other of them should predominate in
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all the local councils. The inference will be, that a conduct that the State legislatures would be warped from their duty
tending to give an undue preference to either is much less to by any external influence. But in reality the same situation
be dreaded from the former than from the latter. must have the same effect, in the primative composition at
The several States are in various degrees addicted to agricul- least of the federal House of Representatives: an improper
ture and commerce. In most, if not all of them, agriculture is bias towards the mercantile class is as little to be expected
predominant. In a few of them, however, commerce nearly from this quarter as from the other.
divides its empire, and in most of them has a considerable In order, perhaps, to give countenance to the objection at
share of influence. In proportion as either prevails, it will be any rate, it may be asked, is there not danger of an opposite
conveyed into the national representation; and for the very bias in the national government, which may dispose it to en-
reason, that this will be an emanation from a greater variety deavor to secure a monopoly of the federal administration to
of interests, and in much more various proportions, than are the landed class? As there is little likelihood that the supposi-
to be found in any single State, it will be much less apt to tion of such a bias will have any terrors for those who would
espouse either of them with a decided partiality, than the rep- be immediately injured by it, a labored answer to this ques-
resentation of any single State. tion will be dispensed with. It will be sufficient to remark,
In a country consisting chiefly of the cultivators of land, first, that for the reasons elsewhere assigned, it is less likely
where the rules of an equal representation obtain, the landed that any decided partiality should prevail in the councils of
interest must, upon the whole, preponderate in the govern- the Union than in those of any of its members. Secondly,
ment. As long as this interest prevails in most of the State that there would be no temptation to violate the Constitu-
legislatures, so long it must maintain a correspondent superi- tion in favor of the landed class, because that class would, in
ority in the national Senate, which will generally be a faithful the natural course of things, enjoy as great a preponderancy as
copy of the majorities of those assemblies. It cannot therefore itself could desire. And thirdly, that men accustomed to in-
be presumed, that a sacrifice of the landed to the mercantile vestigate the sources of public prosperity upon a large scale,
class will ever be a favorite object of this branch of the federal must be too well convinced of the utility of commerce, to be
legislature. In applying thus particularly to the Senate a gen- inclined to inflict upon it so deep a wound as would result
eral observation suggested by the situation of the country, I from the entire exclusion of those who would best under-
am governed by the consideration, that the credulous votaries stand its interest from a share in the management of them.
of State power cannot, upon their own principles, suspect, The importance of commerce, in the view of revenue alone,
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must effectually guard it against the enmity of a body which man knows it to be,*) is it not evident that the policy of
would be continually importuned in its favor, by the urgent confining the places of election to particular districts would
calls of public necessity. be as subversive of its own aim as it would be exceptionable
I the rather consult brevity in discussing the probability of a on every other account? The truth is, that there is no method
preference founded upon a discrimination between the dif- of securing to the rich the preference apprehended, but by
ferent kinds of industry and property, because, as far as I un- prescribing qualifications of property either for those who
derstand the meaning of the objectors, they contemplate a may elect or be elected. But this forms no part of the power
discrimination of another kind. They appear to have in view, to be conferred upon the national government. Its authority
as the objects of the preference with which they endeavor to would be expressly restricted to the regulation of the times,
alarm us, those whom they designate by the description of the places, the manner of elections. The qualifications of the
“the wealthy and the well-born.” These, it seems, are to be persons who may choose or be chosen, as has been remarked
exalted to an odious pre-eminence over the rest of their fel- upon other occasions, are defined and fixed in the Constitu-
low-citizens. At one time, however, their elevation is to be a tion, and are unalterable by the legislature.
necessary consequence of the smallness of the representative Let it, however, be admitted, for argument sake, that the
body; at another time it is to be effected by depriving the expedient suggested might be successful; and let it at the same
people at large of the opportunity of exercising their right of time be equally taken for granted that all the scruples which a
suffrage in the choice of that body. sense of duty or an apprehension of the danger of the experi-
But upon what principle is the discrimination of the places ment might inspire, were overcome in the breasts of the na-
of election to be made, in order to answer the purpose of the tional rulers, still I imagine it will hardly be pretended that
meditated preference? Are “the wealthy and the well-born,” as they could ever hope to carry such an enterprise into execu-
they are called, confined to particular spots in the several States? tion without the aid of a military force sufficient to subdue
Have they, by some miraculous instinct or foresight, set apart the resistance of the great body of the people. The improb-
in each of them a common place of residence? Are they only ability of the existence of a force equal to that object has been
to be met with in the towns or cities? Or are they, on the discussed and demonstrated in different parts of these papers;
contrary, scattered over the face of the country as avarice or but that the futility of the objection under consideration may
chance may have happened to cast their own lot or that of appear in the strongest light, it shall be conceded for a mo-
their predecessors? If the latter is the case, (as every intelligent *Particularly in the Southern States and in this State.
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The Federalist Papers
ment that such a force might exist, and the national govern- FEDERALIST No. 61
ment shall be supposed to be in the actual possession of it.
What will be the conclusion? With a disposition to invade The Same Subject Continued
the essential rights of the community, and with the means of
gratifying that disposition, is it presumable that the persons (Concerning the Power of Congress to Regulate the
who were actuated by it would amuse themselves in the ri- Election of Members)
diculous task of fabricating election laws for securing a pref-
erence to a favorite class of men? Would they not be likely to From the New York Packet.
prefer a conduct better adapted to their own immediate ag-
grandizement? Would they not rather boldly resolve to per- Tuesday, February 26, 1788.
petuate themselves in office by one decisive act of usurpation,
than to trust to precarious expedients which, in spite of all HAMILTON
the precautions that might accompany them, might termi-
nate in the dismission, disgrace, and ruin of their authors? To the People of the State of New York:
Would they not fear that citizens, not less tenacious than con-
scious of their rights, would flock from the remote extremes The more candid opposers of the provision respecting elec-
of their respective States to the places of election, to voerthrow tions, contained in the plan of the convention, when pressed
their tyrants, and to substitute men who would be disposed in argument, will sometimes concede the propriety of that
to avenge the violated majesty of the people? provision; with this qualification, however, that it ought to
have been accompanied with a declaration, that all elections
Publius. should be had in the counties where the electors resided. This,
say they, was a necessary precaution against an abuse of the
power. A declaration of this nature would certainly have been
harmless; so far as it would have had the effect of quieting
apprehensions, it might not have been undesirable. But it
would, in fact, have afforded little or no additional security
against the danger apprehended; and the want of it will never
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The Federalist Papers
be considered, by an impartial and judicious examiner, as a the like expedient. Suppose, for instance, the city of Albany
serious, still less as an insuperable, objection to the plan. The was to be appointed the sole place of election for the county
different views taken of the subject in the two preceding pa- and district of which it is a part, would not the inhabitants of
pers must be sufficient to satisfy all dispassionate and discern- that city speedily become the only electors of the members
ing men, that if the public liberty should ever be the victim both of the Senate and Assembly for that county and district?
of the ambition of the national rulers, the power under ex- Can we imagine that the electors who reside in the remote sub-
amination, at least, will be guiltless of the sacrifice. divisions of the counties of Albany, Saratoga, Cambridge, etc.,
If those who are inclined to consult their jealousy only, would or in any part of the county of Montgomery, would take the
exercise it in a careful inspection of the several State constitu- trouble to come to the city of Albany, to give their votes for
tions, they would find little less room for disquietude and alarm, members of the Assembly or Senate, sooner than they would
from the latitude which most of them allow in respect to elec- repair to the city of New York, to participate in the choice of
tions, than from the latitude which is proposed to be allowed the members of the federal House of Representatives? The
to the national government in the same respect. A review of alarming indifference discoverable in the exercise of so invalu-
their situation, in this particular, would tend greatly to remove able a privilege under the existing laws, which afford every fa-
any ill impressions which may remain in regard to this matter. cility to it, furnishes a ready answer to this question. And, ab-
But as that view would lead into long and tedious details, I stracted from any experience on the subject, we can be at no
shall content myself with the single example of the State in loss to determine, that when the place of election is at an incon-
which I write. The constitution of New York makes no other venient distance from the elector, the effect upon his conduct
provision for locality of elections, than that the members of the will be the same whether that distance be twenty miles or twenty
Assembly shall be elected in the counties; those of the Senate, in thousand miles. Hence it must appear, that objections to the
the great districts into which the State is or may be divided: particular modification of the federal power of regulating elec-
these at present are four in number, and comprehend each from tions will, in substance, apply with equal force to the modifica-
two to six counties. It may readily be perceived that it would tion of the like power in the constitution of this State; and for
not be more difficult to the legislature of New York to defeat this reason it will be impossible to acquit the one, and to con-
the suffrages of the citizens of New York, by confining elec- demn the other. A similar comparison would lead to the same
tions to particular places, than for the legislature of the United conclusion in respect to the constitutions of most of the other
States to defeat the suffrages of the citizens of the Union, by States.
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If it should be said that defects in the State constitutions by a diversity of local circumstances, prejudices, and interests.
furnish no apology for those which are to be found in the Hitherto my observations have only aimed at a vindication
plan proposed, I answer, that as the former have never been of the provision in question, on the ground of theoretic pro-
thought chargeable with inattention to the security of liberty, priety, on that of the danger of placing the power elsewhere,
where the imputations thrown on the latter can be shown to and on that of the safety of placing it in the manner pro-
be applicable to them also, the presumption is that they are posed. But there remains to be mentioned a positive advan-
rather the cavilling refinements of a predetermined opposi- tage which will result from this disposition, and which could
tion, than the well-founded inferences of a candid research not as well have been obtained from any other: I allude to the
after truth. To those who are disposed to consider, as inno- circumstance of uniformity in the time of elections for the
cent omissions in the State constitutions, what they regard as federal House of Representatives. It is more than possible that
unpardonable blemishes in the plan of the convention, noth- this uniformity may be found by experience to be of great
ing can be said; or at most, they can only be asked to assign importance to the public welfare, both as a security against
some substantial reason why the representatives of the people the perpetuation of the same spirit in the body, and as a cure
in a single State should be more impregnable to the lust of for the diseases of faction. If each State may choose its own
power, or other sinister motives, than the representatives of time of election, it is possible there may be at least as many
the people of the United States? If they cannot do this, they different periods as there are months in the year. The times of
ought at least to prove to us that it is easier to subvert the election in the several States, as they are now established for
liberties of three millions of people, with the advantage of local purposes, vary between extremes as wide as March and
local governments to head their opposition, than of two hun- November. The consequence of this diversity would be that
dred thousand people who are destitute of that advantage. there could never happen a total dissolution or renovation of
And in relation to the point immediately under consideration, the body at one time. If an improper spirit of any kind should
they ought to convince us that it is less probable that a pre- happen to prevail in it, that spirit would be apt to infuse itself
dominant faction in a single State should, in order to main- into the new members, as they come forward in succession.
tain its superiority, incline to a preference of a particular class The mass would be likely to remain nearly the same, assimi-
of electors, than that a similar spirit should take possession of lating constantly to itself its gradual accretions. There is a con-
the representatives of thirteen States, spread over a vast re- tagion in example which few men have sufficient force of
gion, and in several respects distinguishable from each other mind to resist. I am inclined to think that treble the duration
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in office, with the condition of a total dissolution of the body FEDERALIST No. 62
at the same time, might be less formidable to liberty than
one third of that duration subject to gradual and successive The Senate
alterations.
Uniformity in the time of elections seems not less requisite For the Independent Journal.
for executing the idea of a regular rotation in the Senate, and
for conveniently assembling the legislature at a stated period HAMILTON OR MADISON
in each year.
It may be asked, Why, then, could not a time have been To the People of the State of New York:
fixed in the Constitution? As the most zealous adversaries of
the plan of the convention in this State are, in general, not Having examined the constitution of the House of Represen-
less zealous admirers of the constitution of the State, the ques- tatives, and answered such of the objections against it as seemed
tion may be retorted, and it may be asked, Why was not a to merit notice, I enter next on the examination of the Senate.
time for the like purpose fixed in the constitution of this The heads into which this member of the government may
State? No better answer can be given than that it was a matter be considered are: I. The qualification of senators; II. The
which might safely be entrusted to legislative discretion; and appointment of them by the State legislatures; III. The equal-
that if a time had been appointed, it might, upon experi- ity of representation in the Senate; IV. The number of sena-
ment, have been found less convenient than some other time. tors, and the term for which they are to be elected; V. The
The same answer may be given to the question put on the powers vested in the Senate.
other side. And it may be added that the supposed danger of
a gradual change being merely speculative, it would have been I. The qualifications proposed for senators, as distinguished
hardly advisable upon that speculation to establish, as a fun- from those of representatives, consist in a more advanced age
damental point, what would deprive several States of the con- and a longer period of citizenship. A senator must be thirty
venience of having the elections for their own governments years of age at least; as a representative must be twenty-five.
and for the national government at the same epochs. And the former must have been a citizen nine years; as seven
years are required for the latter. The propriety of these dis-
Publius. tinctions is explained by the nature of the senatorial trust,
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The Federalist Papers
which, requiring greater extent of information and tability of does not call for much discussion. If indeed it be right, that
character, requires at the same time that the senator should among a people thoroughly incorporated into one nation,
have reached a period of life most likely to supply these ad- every district ought to have a proportional share in the govern-
vantages; and which, participating immediately in transactions ment, and that among independent and sovereign States,
with foreign nations, ought to be exercised by none who are bound together by a simple league, the parties, however un-
not thoroughly weaned from the prepossessions and habits equal in size, ought to have an equal share in the common
incident to foreign birth and education. The term of nine councils, it does not appear to be without some reason that in
years appears to be a prudent mediocrity between a total ex- a compound republic, partaking both of the national and fed-
clusion of adopted citizens, whose merits and talents may claim eral character, the government ought to be founded on a mix-
a share in the public confidence, and an indiscriminate and ture of the principles of proportional and equal representa-
hasty admission of them, which might create a channel for tion. But it is superfluous to try, by the standard of theory, a
foreign influence on the national councils. part of the Constitution which is allowed on all hands to be
the result, not of theory, but “of a spirit of amity, and that
II. It is equally unnecessary to dilate on the appointment of mutual deference and concession which the peculiarity of our
senators by the State legislatures. Among the various modes political situation rendered indispensable.’’ A common gov-
which might have been devised for constituting this branch ernment, with powers equal to its objects, is called for by the
of the government, that which has been proposed by the con- voice, and still more loudly by the political situation, of
vention is probably the most congenial with the public opin- America. A government founded on principles more conso-
ion. It is recommended by the double advantage of favoring a nant to the wishes of the larger States, is not likely to be ob-
select appointment, and of giving to the State governments tained from the smaller States. The only option, then, for the
such an agency in the formation of the federal government as former, lies between the proposed government and a govern-
must secure the authority of the former, and may form a con- ment still more objectionable. Under this alternative, the ad-
venient link between the two systems. vice of prudence must be to embrace the lesser evil; and, in-
stead of indulging a fruitless anticipation of the possible mis-
III. The equality of representation in the Senate is another chiefs which may ensue, to contemplate rather the advanta-
point, which, being evidently the result of compromise be- geous consequences which may qualify the sacrifice.
tween the opposite pretensions of the large and the small States, In this spirit it may be remarked, that the equal vote al-
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The Federalist Papers
lowed to each State is at once a constitutional recognition of pointment, come next to be considered. In order to form an
the portion of sovereignty remaining in the individual States, accurate judgment on both of these points, it will be proper
and an instrument for preserving that residuary sovereignty. to inquire into the purposes which are to be answered by a
So far the equality ought to be no less acceptable to the large senate; and in order to ascertain these, it will be necessary to
than to the small States; since they are not less solicitous to review the inconveniences which a republic must suffer from
guard, by every possible expedient, against an improper con- the want of such an institution.
solidation of the States into one simple republic.
Another advantage accruing from this ingredient in the con- First. It is a misfortune incident to republican government,
stitution of the Senate is, the additional impediment it must though in a less degree than to other governments, that those
prove against improper acts of legislation. No law or resolu- who administer it may forget their obligations to their con-
tion can now be passed without the concurrence, first, of a stituents, and prove unfaithful to their important trust. In
majority of the people, and then, of a majority of the States. this point of view, a senate, as a second branch of the legisla-
It must be acknowledged that this complicated check on leg- tive assembly, distinct from, and dividing the power with, a
islation may in some instances be injurious as well as benefi- first, must be in all cases a salutary check on the government.
cial; and that the peculiar defense which it involves in favor of It doubles the security to the people, by requiring the concur-
the smaller States, would be more rational, if any interests rence of two distinct bodies in schemes of usurpation or per-
common to them, and distinct from those of the other States, fidy, where the ambition or corruption of one would other-
would otherwise be exposed to peculiar danger. But as the wise be sufficient. This is a precaution founded on such clear
larger States will always be able, by their power over the sup- principles, and now so well understood in the United States,
plies, to defeat unreasonable exertions of this prerogative of that it would be more than superfluous to enlarge on it. I will
the lesser States, and as the faculty and excess of law-making barely remark, that as the improbability of sinister combina-
seem to be the diseases to which our governments are most tions will be in proportion to the dissimilarity in the genius
liable, it is not impossible that this part of the Constitution of the two bodies, it must be politic to distinguish them from
may be more convenient in practice than it appears to many each other by every circumstance which will consist with a
in contemplation. due harmony in all proper measures, and with the genuine
principles of republican government.
IV. The number of senators, and the duration of their ap-
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The Federalist Papers
Secondly. The necessity of a senate is not less indicated by the authors of them. What indeed are all the repealing, explain-
propensity of all single and numerous assemblies to yield to ing, and amending laws, which fill and disgrace our volumi-
the impulse of sudden and violent passions, and to be se- nous codes, but so many monuments of deficient wisdom;
duced by factious leaders into intemperate and pernicious reso- so many impeachments exhibited by each succeeding against
lutions. Examples on this subject might be cited without num- each preceding session; so many admonitions to the people,
ber; and from proceedings within the United States, as well as of the value of those aids which may be expected from a well-
from the history of other nations. But a position that will constituted senate?
not be contradicted, need not be proved. All that need be A good government implies two things: first, fidelity to
remarked is, that a body which is to correct this infirmity the object of government, which is the happiness of the people;
ought itself to be free from it, and consequently ought to be secondly, a knowledge of the means by which that object can
less numerous. It ought, moreover, to possess great firmness, be best attained. Some governments are deficient in both these
and consequently ought to hold its authority by a tenure of qualities; most governments are deficient in the first. I scruple
considerable duration. not to assert, that in American governments too little atten-
tion has been paid to the last. The federal Constitution avoids
Thirdly. Another defect to be supplied by a senate lies in a this error; and what merits particular notice, it provides for
want of due acquaintance with the objects and principles of the last in a mode which increases the security for the first.
legislation. It is not possible that an assembly of men called
for the most part from pursuits of a private nature, continued Fourthly. The mutability in the public councils arising from
in appointment for a short time, and led by no permanent a rapid succession of new members, however qualified they
motive to devote the intervals of public occupation to a study may be, points out, in the strongest manner, the necessity of
of the laws, the affairs, and the comprehensive interests of some stable institution in the government. Every new elec-
their country, should, if left wholly to themselves, escape a tion in the States is found to change one half of the represen-
variety of important errors in the exercise of their legislative tatives. From this change of men must proceed a change of
trust. It may be affirmed, on the best grounds, that no small opinions; and from a change of opinions, a change of mea-
share of the present embarrassments of America is to be charged sures. But a continual change even of good measures is incon-
on the blunders of our governments; and that these have pro- sistent with every rule of prudence and every prospect of suc-
ceeded from the heads rather than the hearts of most of the cess. The remark is verified in private life, and becomes more
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just, as well as more important, in national transactions. lamitous. It poisons the blessing of liberty itself. It will be of
To trace the mischievous effects of a mutable government little avail to the people, that the laws are made by men of
would fill a volume. I will hint a few only, each of which will their own choice, if the laws be so voluminous that they can-
be perceived to be a source of innumerable others. not be read, or so incoherent that they cannot be understood;
In the first place, it forfeits the respect and confidence of if they be repealed or revised before they are promulgated, or
other nations, and all the advantages connected with national undergo such incessant changes that no man, who knows what
character. An individual who is observed to be inconstant to the law is to-day, can guess what it will be to-morrow. Law is
his plans, or perhaps to carry on his affairs without any plan defined to be a rule of action; but how can that be a rule,
at all, is marked at once, by all prudent people, as a speedy which is little known, and less fixed?
victim to his own unsteadiness and folly. His more friendly Another effect of public instability is the unreasonable ad-
neighbors may pity him, but all will decline to connect their vantage it gives to the sagacious, the enterprising, and the
fortunes with his; and not a few will seize the opportunity of moneyed few over the industrious and uniformed mass of
making their fortunes out of his. One nation is to another the people. Every new regulation concerning commerce or
what one individual is to another; with this melancholy dis- revenue, or in any way affecting the value of the different
tinction perhaps, that the former, with fewer of the benevo- species of property, presents a new harvest to those who watch
lent emotions than the latter, are under fewer restraints also the change, and can trace its consequences; a harvest, reared
from taking undue advantage from the indiscretions of each not by themselves, but by the toils and cares of the great body
other. Every nation, consequently, whose affairs betray a want of their fellow-citizens. This is a state of things in which it
of wisdom and stability, may calculate on every loss which may be said with some truth that laws are made for the few,
can be sustained from the more systematic policy of their not for the many.
wiser neighbors. But the best instruction on this subject is In another point of view, great injury results from an un-
unhappily conveyed to America by the example of her own stable government. The want of confidence in the public coun-
situation. She finds that she is held in no respect by her friends; cils damps every useful undertaking, the success and profit of
that she is the derision of her enemies; and that she is a prey to which may depend on a continuance of existing arrangements.
every nation which has an interest in speculating on her fluc- What prudent merchant will hazard his fortunes in any new
tuating councils and embarrassed affairs. branch of commerce when he knows not but that his plans
The internal effects of a mutable policy are still more ca- may be rendered unlawful before they can be executed? What
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farmer or manufacturer will lay himself out for the encour- FEDERALIST. No. 63
agement given to any particular cultivation or establishment,
when he can have no assurance that his preparatory labors and The Senate Continued
advances will not render him a victim to an inconstant gov-
ernment? In a word, no great improvement or laudable enter- For the Independent Journal.
prise can go forward which requires the auspices of a steady
system of national policy. HAMILTON OR MADISON
But the most deplorable effect of all is that diminution of
attachment and reverence which steals into the hearts of the To the People of the State of New York:
people, towards a political system which betrays so many
marks of infirmity, and disappoints so many of their flatter- A fifth desideratum, illustrating the utility of a senate, is the
ing hopes. No government, any more than an individual, will want of a due sense of national character. Without a select and
long be respected without being truly respectable; nor be truly stable member of the government, the esteem of foreign pow-
respectable, without possessing a certain portion of order and ers will not only be forfeited by an unenlightened and variable
stability. policy, proceeding from the causes already mentioned, but the
national councils will not possess that sensibility to the opin-
Publius. ion of the world, which is perhaps not less necessary in order to
merit, than it is to obtain, its respect and confidence.
An attention to the judgment of other nations is important
to every government for two reasons: the one is, that, inde-
pendently of the merits of any particular plan or measure, it is
desirable, on various accounts, that it should appear to other
nations as the offspring of a wise and honorable policy; the
second is, that in doubtful cases, particularly where the na-
tional councils may be warped by some strong passion or
momentary interest, the presumed or known opinion of the
impartial world may be the best guide that can be followed.
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What has not America lost by her want of character with for- not only new, but paradoxical. It must nevertheless be ac-
eign nations; and how many errors and follies would she not knowledged, when explained, to be as undeniable as it is im-
have avoided, if the justice and propriety of her measures had, portant.
in every instance, been previously tried by the light in which Responsibility, in order to be reasonable, must be limited
they would probably appear to the unbiased part of man- to objects within the power of the responsible party, and in
kind? order to be effectual, must relate to operations of that power,
Yet however requisite a sense of national character may be, of which a ready and proper judgment can be formed by the
it is evident that it can never be sufficiently possessed by a constituents. The objects of government may be divided into
numerous and changeable body. It can only be found in a two general classes: the one depending on measures which
number so small that a sensible degree of the praise and blame have singly an immediate and sensible operation; the other
of public measures may be the portion of each individual; or depending on a succession of well-chosen and well-connected
in an assembly so durably invested with public trust, that the measures, which have a gradual and perhaps unobserved op-
pride and consequence of its members may be sensibly incor- eration. The importance of the latter description to the col-
porated with the reputation and prosperity of the commu- lective and permanent welfare of every country, needs no ex-
nity. The half-yearly representatives of Rhode Island would planation. And yet it is evident that an assembly elected for so
probably have been little affected in their deliberations on the short a term as to be unable to provide more than one or two
iniquitous measures of that State, by arguments drawn from links in a chain of measures, on which the general welfare
the light in which such measures would be viewed by foreign may essentially depend, ought not to be answerable for the
nations, or even by the sister States; whilst it can scarcely be final result, any more than a steward or tenant, engaged for
doubted that if the concurrence of a select and stable body one year, could be justly made to answer for places or im-
had been necessary, a regard to national character alone would provements which could not be accomplished in less than
have prevented the calamities under which that misguided half a dozen years. Nor is it possible for the people to esti-
people is now laboring. mate the share of influence which their annual assemblies may
I add, as a sixth defect the want, in some important cases, respectively have on events resulting from the mixed transac-
of a due responsibility in the government to the people, aris- tions of several years. It is sufficiently difficult to preserve a
ing from that frequency of elections which in other cases pro- personal responsibility in the members of a numerous body,
duces this responsibility. This remark will, perhaps, appear for such acts of the body as have an immediate, detached, and
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palpable operation on its constituents. tained so provident a safeguard against the tyranny of their
The proper remedy for this defect must be an additional own passions? Popular liberty might then have escaped the
body in the legislative department, which, having sufficient indelible reproach of decreeing to the same citizens the hem-
permanency to provide for such objects as require a contin- lock on one day and statues on the next.
ued attention, and a train of measures, may be justly and ef- It may be suggested, that a people spread over an extensive
fectually answerable for the attainment of those objects. region cannot, like the crowded inhabitants of a small district,
Thus far I have considered the circumstances which point be subject to the infection of violent passions, or to the danger
out the necessity of a well-constructed Senate only as they of combining in pursuit of unjust measures. I am far from
relate to the representatives of the people. To a people as little denying that this is a distinction of peculiar importance. I have,
blinded by prejudice or corrupted by flattery as those whom on the contrary, endeavored in a former paper to show, that it
I address, I shall not scruple to add, that such an institution is one of the principal recommendations of a confederated re-
may be sometimes necessary as a defense to the people against public. At the same time, this advantage ought not to be con-
their own temporary errors and delusions. As the cool and sidered as superseding the use of auxiliary precautions. It may
deliberate sense of the community ought, in all governments, even be remarked, that the same extended situation, which will
and actually will, in all free governments, ultimately prevail exempt the people of America from some of the dangers inci-
over the views of its rulers; so there are particular moments in dent to lesser republics, will expose them to the inconveniency
public affairs when the people, stimulated by some irregular of remaining for a longer time under the influence of those
passion, or some illicit advantage, or misled by the artful mis- misrepresentations which the combined industry of interested
representations of interested men, may call for measures which men may succeed in distributing among them.
they themselves will afterwards be the most ready to lament It adds no small weight to all these considerations, to recol-
and condemn. In these critical moments, how salutary will lect that history informs us of no long-lived republic which
be the interference of some temperate and respectable body had not a senate. Sparta, Rome, and Carthage are, in fact, the
of citizens, in order to check the misguided career, and to only states to whom that character can be applied. In each of
suspend the blow meditated by the people against themselves, the two first there was a senate for life. The constitution of
until reason, justice, and truth can regain their authority over the senate in the last is less known. Circumstantial evidence
the public mind? What bitter anguish would not the people makes it probable that it was not different in this particular
of Athens have often escaped if their government had con- from the two others. It is at least certain, that it had some
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quality or other which rendered it an anchor against popular other republics, consists in the principle of representation;
fluctuations; and that a smaller council, drawn out of the which is the pivot on which the former move, and which is
senate, was appointed not only for life, but filled up vacancies supposed to have been unknown to the latter, or at least to
itself. These examples, though as unfit for the imitation, as the ancient part of them. The use which has been made of
they are repugnant to the genius, of America, are, notwith- this difference, in reasonings contained in former papers, will
standing, when compared with the fugitive and turbulent have shown that I am disposed neither to deny its existence
existence of other ancient republics, very instructive proofs of nor to undervalue its importance. I feel the less restraint, there-
the necessity of some institution that will blend stability with fore, in observing, that the position concerning the ignorance
liberty. I am not unaware of the circumstances which distin- of the ancient governments on the subject of representation,
guish the American from other popular governments, as well is by no means precisely true in the latitude commonly given
ancient as modern; and which render extreme circumspection to it. Without entering into a disquisition which here would
necessary, in reasoning from the one case to the other. But be misplaced, I will refer to a few known facts, in support of
after allowing due weight to this consideration, it may still be what I advance.
maintained, that there are many points of similitude which In the most pure democracies of Greece, many of the ex-
render these examples not unworthy of our attention. Many ecutive functions were performed, not by the people them-
of the defects, as we have seen, which can only be supplied by selves, but by officers elected by the people, and representing
a senatorial institution, are common to a numerous assembly the people in their executive capacity.
frequently elected by the people, and to the people them- Prior to the reform of Solon, Athens was governed by nine
selves. There are others peculiar to the former, which require Archons, annually elected by the people at large. The degree of
the control of such an institution. The people can never wil- power delegated to them seems to be left in great obscurity.
fully betray their own interests; but they may possibly be be- Subsequent to that period, we find an assembly, first of
trayed by the representatives of the people; and the danger four, and afterwards of six hundred members, annually elected
will be evidently greater where the whole legislative trust is by the people; and partially representing them in their legisla-
lodged in the hands of one body of men, than where the tive capacity, since they were not only associated with the
concurrence of separate and dissimilar bodies is required in people in the function of making laws, but had the exclusive
every public act. right of originating legislative propositions to the people. The
The difference most relied on, between the American and senate of Carthage, also, whatever might be its power, or the
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duration of its appointment, appears to have been elective by cupied by the democracies of Greece.
the suffrages of the people. Similar instances might be traced In answer to all these arguments, suggested by reason, illus-
in most, if not all the popular governments of antiquity. trated by examples, and enforced by our own experience, the
Lastly, in Sparta we meet with the Ephori, and in Rome jealous adversary of the Constitution will probably content
with the Tribunes; two bodies, small indeed in numbers, but himself with repeating, that a senate appointed not immedi-
annually elected by the wholoe body of the people, and consid- ately by the people, and for the term of six years, must gradu-
ered as the representatives of the people, almost in their pleni- ally acquire a dangerous pre-eminence in the government, and
potentiary capacity. The Cosmi of Crete were also annually finally transform it into a tyrannical aristocracy.
elected by the people, and have been considered by some au- To this general answer, the general reply ought to be suffi-
thors as an institution analogous to those of Sparta and Rome, cient, that liberty may be endangered by the abuses of liberty
with this difference only, that in the election of that represen- as well as by the abuses of power; that there are numerous
tative body the right of suffrage was communicated to a part instances of the former as well as of the latter; and that the
only of the people. former, rather than the latter, are apparently most to be ap-
From these facts, to which many others might be added, it prehended by the United States. But a more particular reply
is clear that the principle of representation was neither un- may be given.
known to the ancients nor wholly overlooked in their politi- Before such a revolution can be effected, the Senate, it is to
cal constitutions. The true distinction between these and the be observed, must in the first place corrupt itself; must next
American governments, lies in the total exclusion of the people, corrupt the State legislatures; must then corrupt the House
in their collective capacity, from any share in the latter, and of Representatives; and must finally corrupt the people at large.
not in the total exclusion of the representatives of the people It is evident that the Senate must be first corrupted before it
from the administration of the former. The distinction, how- can attempt an establishment of tyranny. Without corrupt-
ever, thus qualified, must be admitted to leave a most advan- ing the State legislatures, it cannot prosecute the attempt,
tageous superiority in favor of the United States. But to in- because the periodical change of members would otherwise
sure to this advantage its full effect, we must be careful not to regenerate the whole body. Without exerting the means of
separate it from the other advantage, of an extensive territory. corruption with equal success on the House of Representa-
For it cannot be believed, that any form of representative gov- tives, the opposition of that coequal branch of the govern-
ernment could have succeeded within the narrow limits oc- ment would inevitably defeat the attempt; and without cor-
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rupting the people themselves, a succession of new represen- not be rivalled by that of any State in the Union.
tatives would speedily restore all things to their pristine order. But if any thing could silence the jealousies on this subject,
Is there any man who can seriously persuade himself that the it ought to be the British example. The Senate there instead
proposed Senate can, by any possible means within the com- of being elected for a term of six years, and of being uncon-
pass of human address, arrive at the object of a lawless ambi- fined to particular families or fortunes, is an hereditary as-
tion, through all these obstructions? sembly of opulent nobles. The House of Representatives, in-
If reason condemns the suspicion, the same sentence is pro- stead of being elected for two years, and by the whole body
nounced by experience. The constitution of Maryland fur- of the people, is elected for seven years, and, in very great
nishes the most apposite example. The Senate of that State is proportion, by a very small proportion of the people. Here,
elected, as the federal Senate will be, indirectly by the people, unquestionably, ought to be seen in full display the aristo-
and for a term less by one year only than the federal Senate. It cratic usurpations and tyranny which are at some future pe-
is distinguished, also, by the remarkable prerogative of filling riod to be exemplified in the United States. Unfortunately,
up its own vacancies within the term of its appointment, and, however, for the anti-federal argument, the British history
at the same time, is not under the control of any such rota- informs us that this hereditary assembly has not been able to
tion as is provided for the federal Senate. There are some other defend itself against the continual encroachments of the House
lesser distinctions, which would expose the former to color- of Representatives; and that it no sooner lost the support of
able objections, that do not lie against the latter. If the federal the monarch, than it was actually crushed by the weight of
Senate, therefore, really contained the danger which has been the popular branch.
so loudly proclaimed, some symptoms at least of a like dan- As far as antiquity can instruct us on this subject, its ex-
ger ought by this time to have been betrayed by the Senate of amples support the reasoning which we have employed. In
Maryland, but no such symptoms have appeared. On the Sparta, the Ephori, the annual representatives of the people,
contrary, the jealousies at first entertained by men of the same were found an overmatch for the senate for life, continually
description with those who view with terror the correspon- gained on its authority and finally drew all power into their
dent part of the federal Constitution, have been gradually own hands. The Tribunes of Rome, who were the representa-
extinguished by the progress of the experiment; and the Mary- tives of the people, prevailed, it is well known, in almost ev-
land constitution is daily deriving, from the salutary opera- ery contest with the senate for life, and in the end gained the
tion of this part of it, a reputation in which it will probably most complete triumph over it. The fact is the more remark-
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able, as unanimity was required in every act of the Tribunes, FEDERALIST No. 64
even after their number was augmented to ten. It proves the
irresistible force possessed by that branch of a free govern- The Powers of the Senate
ment, which has the people on its side. To these examples
might be added that of Carthage, whose senate, according to From the New York Packet.
the testimony of Polybius, instead of drawing all power into
its vortex, had, at the commencement of the second Punic Friday, March 7, 1788.
War, lost almost the whole of its original portion.
Besides the conclusive evidence resulting from this assem- JAY
blage of facts, that the federal Senate will never be able to
transform itself, by gradual usurpations, into an independent To the People of the State of New York:
and aristocratic body, we are warranted in believing, that if
such a revolution should ever happen from causes which the It is a just and not a new observation, that enemies to particu-
foresight of man cannot guard against, the House of Repre- lar persons, and opponents to particular measures, seldom
sentatives, with the people on their side, will at all times be confine their censures to such things only in either as are wor-
able to bring back the Constitution to its primitive form and thy of blame. Unless on this principle, it is difficult to ex-
principles. Against the force of the immediate representatives plain the motives of their conduct, who condemn the pro-
of the people, nothing will be able to maintain even the con- posed Constitution in the aggregate, and treat with severity
stitutional authority of the Senate, but such a display of en- some of the most unexceptionable articles in it.
lightened policy, and attachment to the public good, as will The second section gives power to the President, “by and
divide with that branch of the legislature the affections and with the advice and consent of the senate, to make treaties,
support of the entire body of the people themselves. provided two thirds of the senators present concur.’’
The power of making treaties is an important one, espe-
Publius. cially as it relates to war, peace, and commerce; and it should
not be delegated but in such a mode, and with such precau-
tions, as will afford the highest security that it will be exer-
cised by men the best qualified for the purpose, and in the
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manner most conducive to the public good. The convention gue, that as an assembly of select electors possess, in a greater
appears to have been attentive to both these points: they have degree than kings, the means of extensive and accurate infor-
directed the President to be chosen by select bodies of elec- mation relative to men and characters, so will their appoint-
tors, to be deputed by the people for that express purpose; ments bear at least equal marks of discretion and discernment.
and they have committed the appointment of senators to the The inference which naturally results from these consider-
State legislatures. This mode has, in such cases, vastly the ad- ations is this, that the President and senators so chosen will
vantage of elections by the people in their collective capacity, always be of the number of those who best understand our
where the activity of party zeal, taking the advantage of the national interests, whether considered in relation to the sev-
supineness, the ignorance, and the hopes and fears of the un- eral States or to foreign nations, who are best able to promote
wary and interested, often places men in office by the votes of those interests, and whose reputation for integrity inspires and
a small proportion of the electors. merits confidence. With such men the power of making trea-
As the select assemblies for choosing the President, as well ties may be safely lodged.
as the State legislatures who appoint the senators, will in gen- Although the absolute necessity of system, in the conduct
eral be composed of the most enlightened and respectable of any business, is universally known and acknowledged, yet
citizens, there is reason to presume that their attention and the high importance of it in national affairs has not yet be-
their votes will be directed to those men only who have be- come sufficiently impressed on the public mind. They who
come the most distinguished by their abilities and virtue, and wish to commit the power under consideration to a popular
in whom the people perceive just grounds for confidence. assembly, composed of members constantly coming and go-
The Constitution manifests very particular attention to this ing in quick succession, seem not to recollect that such a body
object. By excluding men under thirty-five from the first of- must necessarily be inadequate to the attainment of those great
fice, and those under thirty from the second, it confines the objects, which require to be steadily contemplated in all their
electors to men of whom the people have had time to form a relations and circumstances, and which can only be approached
judgment, and with respect to whom they will not be liable and achieved by measures which not only talents, but also
to be deceived by those brilliant appearances of genius and exact information, and often much time, are necessary to con-
patriotism, which, like transient meteors, sometimes mislead cert and to execute. It was wise, therefore, in the convention
as well as dazzle. If the observation be well founded, that wise to provide, not only that the power of making treaties should
kings will always be served by able ministers, it is fair to ar- be committed to able and honest men, but also that they
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should continue in place a sufficient time to become per- prehensions will operate on those persons whether they are
fectly acquainted with our national concerns, and to form actuated by mercenary or friendly motives; and there doubt-
and introduce a a system for the management of them. The less are many of both descriptions, who would rely on the
duration prescribed is such as will give them an opportunity secrecy of the President, but who would not confide in that
of greatly extending their political information, and of ren- of the Senate, and still less in that of a large popular Assem-
dering their accumulating experience more and more benefi- bly. The convention have done well, therefore, in so dispos-
cial to their country. Nor has the convention discovered less ing of the power of making treaties, that although the Presi-
prudence in providing for the frequent elections of senators dent must, in forming them, act by the advice and consent of
in such a way as to obviate the inconvenience of periodically the Senate, yet he will be able to manage the business of intel-
transferring those great affairs entirely to new men; for by ligence in such a manner as prudence may suggest.
leaving a considerable residue of the old ones in place, unifor- They who have turned their attention to the affairs of men,
mity and order, as well as a constant succession of official must have perceived that there are tides in them; tides very
information will be preserved. irregular in their duration, strength, and direction, and sel-
There are a few who will not admit that the affairs of trade dom found to run twice exactly in the same manner or mea-
and navigation should be regulated by a system cautiously sure. To discern and to profit by these tides in national affairs
formed and steadily pursued; and that both our treaties and is the business of those who preside over them; and they who
our laws should correspond with and be made to promote it. have had much experience on this head inform us, that there
It is of much consequence that this correspondence and con- frequently are occasions when days, nay, even when hours, are
formity be carefully maintained; and they who assent to the precious. The loss of a battle, the death of a prince, the re-
truth of this position will see and confess that it is well pro- moval of a minister, or other circumstances intervening to
vided for by making concurrence of the Senate necessary both change the present posture and aspect of affairs, may turn the
to treaties and to laws. most favorable tide into a course opposite to our wishes. As
It seldom happens in the negotiation of treaties, of what- in the field, so in the cabinet, there are moments to be seized
ever nature, but that perfect secrecy and immediate despatch as they pass, and they who preside in either should be left in
are sometimes requisite. These are cases where the most use- capacity to improve them. So often and so essentially have
ful intelligence may be obtained, if the persons possessing it we heretofore suffered from the want of secrecy and despatch,
can be relieved from apprehensions of discovery. Those ap- that the Constitution would have been inexcusably defective,
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if no attention had been paid to those objects. Those matters when made, certain it is, that the people may, with much
which in negotiations usually require the most secrecy and propriety, commit the power to a distinct body from the leg-
the most despatch, are those preparatory and auxiliary mea- islature, the executive, or the judicial. It surely does not fol-
sures which are not otherwise important in a national view, low, that because they have given the power of making laws
than as they tend to facilitate the attainment of the objects of to the legislature, that therefore they should likewise give them
the negotiation. For these, the President will find no diffi- the power to do every other act of sovereignty by which the
culty to provide; and should any circumstance occur which citizens are to be bound and affected.
requires the advice and consent of the Senate, he may at any Others, though content that treaties should be made in the
time convene them. Thus we see that the Constitution pro- mode proposed, are averse to their being the supreme laws of
vides that our negotiations for treaties shall have every advan- the land. They insist, and profess to believe, that treaties like
tage which can be derived from talents, information, integ- acts of assembly, should be repealable at pleasure. This idea
rity, and deliberate investigations, on the one hand, and from seems to be new and peculiar to this country, but new errors,
secrecy and despatch on the other. as well as new truths, often appear. These gentlemen would
But to this plan, as to most others that have ever appeared, do well to reflect that a treaty is only another name for a
objections are contrived and urged. bargain, and that it would be impossible to find a nation who
Some are displeased with it, not on account of any errors or would make any bargain with us, which should be binding
defects in it, but because, as the treaties, when made, are to on them absolutely, but on us only so long and so far as we
have the force of laws, they should be made only by men may think proper to be bound by it. They who make laws
invested with legislative authority. These gentlemen seem not may, without doubt, amend or repeal them; and it will not
to consider that the judgments of our courts, and the com- be disputed that they who make treaties may alter or cancel
missions constitutionally given by our governor, are as valid them; but still let us not forget that treaties are made, not by
and as binding on all persons whom they concern, as the laws only one of the contracting parties, but by both; and conse-
passed by our legislature. All constitutional acts of power, quently, that as the consent of both was essential to their for-
whether in the executive or in the judicial department, have mation at first, so must it ever afterwards be to alter or cancel
as much legal validity and obligation as if they proceeded from them. The proposed Constitution, therefore, has not in the
the legislature; and therefore, whatever name be given to the least extended the obligation of treaties. They are just as bind-
power of making treaties, or however obligatory they may be ing, and just as far beyond the lawful reach of legislative acts
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now, as they will be at any future period, or under any form families and estates will not be equally bound and affected
of government. with the rest of the community; and, having no private inter-
However useful jealousy may be in republics, yet when like ests distinct from that of the nation, they will be under no
bile in the natural, it abounds too much in the body politic, temptations to neglect the latter.
the eyes of both become very liable to be deceived by the As to corruption, the case is not supposable. He must ei-
delusive appearances which that malady casts on surrounding ther have been very unfortunate in his intercourse with the
objects. From this cause, probably, proceed the fears and ap- world, or possess a heart very susceptible of such impressions,
prehensions of some, that the President and Senate may make who can think it probable that the President and two thirds
treaties without an equal eye to the interests of all the States. of the Senate will ever be capable of such unworthy conduct.
Others suspect that two thirds will oppress the remaining third, The idea is too gross and too invidious to be entertained. But
and ask whether those gentlemen are made sufficiently re- in such a case, if it should ever happen, the treaty so obtained
sponsible for their conduct; whether, if they act corruptly, from us would, like all other fraudulent contracts, be null
they can be punished; and if they make disadvantageous trea- and void by the law of nations.
ties, how are we to get rid of those treaties? With respect to their responsibility, it is difficult to conceive
As all the States are equally represented in the Senate, and how it could be increased. Every consideration that can influ-
by men the most able and the most willing to promote the ence the human mind, such as honor, oaths, reputations, con-
interests of their constituents, they will all have an equal de- science, the love of country, and family affections and attach-
gree of influence in that body, especially while they continue ments, afford security for their fidelity. In short, as the Consti-
to be careful in appointing proper persons, and to insist on tution has taken the utmost care that they shall be men of tal-
their punctual attendance. In proportion as the United States ents and integrity, we have reason to be persuaded that the trea-
assume a national form and a national character, so will the ties they make will be as advantageous as, all circumstances con-
good of the whole be more and more an object of attention, sidered, could be made; and so far as the fear of punishment
and the government must be a weak one indeed, if it should and disgrace can operate, that motive to good behavior is am-
forget that the good of the whole can only be promoted by ply afforded by the article on the subject of impeachments.
advancing the good of each of the parts or members which
compose the whole. It will not be in the power of the Presi- Publius.
dent and Senate to make any treaties by which they and their
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FEDERALIST No. 65 with peculiar propriety be denominated political, as they re-
late chiefly to injuries done immediately to the society itself.
The Powers of the Senate Continued The prosecution of them, for this reason, will seldom fail to
agitate the passions of the whole community, and to divide it
From the New York Packet. into parties more or less friendly or inimical to the accused.
In many cases it will connect itself with the pre-existing fac-
Friday, March 7, 1788. tions, and will enlist all their animosities, partialities, influ-
ence, and interest on one side or on the other; and in such
HAMILTON cases there will always be the greatest danger that the decision
will be regulated more by the comparative strength of parties,
To the People of the State of New York: than by the real demonstrations of innocence or guilt.
The delicacy and magnitude of a trust which so deeply con-
The remaining powers which the plan of the convention al- cerns the political reputation and existence of every man en-
lots to the Senate, in a distinct capacity, are comprised in their gaged in the administration of public affairs, speak for them-
participation with the executive in the appointment to of- selves. The difficulty of placing it rightly, in a government
fices, and in their judicial character as a court for the trial of resting entirely on the basis of periodical elections, will as
impeachments. As in the business of appointments the ex- readily be perceived, when it is considered that the most con-
ecutive will be the principal agent, the provisions relating to spicuous characters in it will, from that circumstance, be too
it will most properly be discussed in the examination of that often the leaders or the tools of the most cunning or the most
department. We will, therefore, conclude this head with a numerous faction, and on this account, can hardly be expected
view of the judicial character of the Senate. to possess the requisite neutrality towards those whose con-
A well-constituted court for the trial of impeachments is duct may be the subject of scrutiny.
an object not more to be desired than difficult to be obtained The convention, it appears, thought the Senate the most fit
in a government wholly elective. The subjects of its jurisdic- depositary of this important trust. Those who can best dis-
tion are those offenses which proceed from the misconduct cern the intrinsic difficulty of the thing, will be least hasty in
of public men, or, in other words, from the abuse or viola- condemning that opinion, and will be most inclined to allow
tion of some public trust. They are of a nature which may due weight to the arguments which may be supposed to have
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produced it. Could the Supreme Court have been relied upon as an-
What, it may be asked, is the true spirit of the institution swering this description? It is much to be doubted, whether
itself? Is it not designed as a method of national inquest into the members of that tribunal would at all times be endowed
the conduct of public men? If this be the design of it, who with so eminent a portion of fortitude, as would be called for
can so properly be the inquisitors for the nation as the repre- in the execution of so difficult a task; and it is still more to be
sentatives of the nation themselves? It is not disputed that the doubted, whether they would possess the degree of credit and
power of originating the inquiry, or, in other words, of pre- authority, which might, on certain occasions, be indispens-
ferring the impeachment, ought to be lodged in the hands of able towards reconciling the people to a decision that should
one branch of the legislative body. Will not the reasons which happen to clash with an accusation brought by their immedi-
indicate the propriety of this arrangement strongly plead for ate representatives. A deficiency in the first, would be fatal to
an admission of the other branch of that body to a share of the accused; in the last, dangerous to the public tranquillity.
the inquiry? The model from which the idea of this institu- The hazard in both these respects, could only be avoided, if at
tion has been borrowed, pointed out that course to the con- all, by rendering that tribunal more numerous than would
vention. In Great Britain it is the province of the House of consist with a reasonable attention to economy. The necessity
Commons to prefer the impeachment, and of the House of of a numerous court for the trial of impeachments, is equally
Lords to decide upon it. Several of the State constitutions dictated by the nature of the proceeding. This can never be
have followed the example. As well the latter, as the former, tied down by such strict rules, either in the delineation of the
seem to have regarded the practice of impeachments as a bridle offense by the prosecutors, or in the construction of it by the
in the hands of the legislative body upon the executive ser- judges, as in common cases serve to limit the discretion of
vants of the government. Is not this the true light in which it courts in favor of personal security. There will be no jury to
ought to be regarded? stand between the judges who are to pronounce the sentence
Where else than in the Senate could have been found a tri- of the law, and the party who is to receive or suffer it. The
bunal sufficiently dignified, or sufficiently independent? What awful discretion which a court of impeachments must neces-
other body would be likely to feel confidence enough in its sarily have, to doom to honor or to infamy the most confi-
own situation, to preserve, unawed and uninfluenced, the nec- dential and the most distinguished characters of the commu-
essary impartiality between an individual accused, and the rep- nity, forbids the commitment of the trust to a small number
resentatives of the people, his accusers? of persons.
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These considerations seem alone sufficient to authorize a present, and disqualification for a future, office. It may be
conclusion, that the Supreme Court would have been an im- said, that the intervention of a jury, in the second instance,
proper substitute for the Senate, as a court of impeachments. would obviate the danger. But juries are frequently influenced
There remains a further consideration, which will not a little by the opinions of judges. They are sometimes induced to
strengthen this conclusion. It is this: The punishment which find special verdicts, which refer the main question to the
may be the consequence of conviction upon impeachment, is decision of the court. Who would be willing to stake his life
not to terminate the chastisement of the offender. After hav- and his estate upon the verdict of a jury acting under the aus-
ing been sentenced to a prepetual ostracism from the esteem pices of judges who had predetermined his guilt?
and confidence, and honors and emoluments of his country, Would it have been an improvement of the plan, to have
he will still be liable to prosecution and punishment in the united the Supreme Court with the Senate, in the formation
ordinary course of law. Would it be proper that the persons of the court of impeachments? This union would certainly
who had disposed of his fame, and his most valuable rights as have been attended with several advantages; but would they
a citizen in one trial, should, in another trial, for the same not have been overbalanced by the signal disadvantage, al-
offense, be also the disposers of his life and his fortune? Would ready stated, arising from the agency of the same judges in the
there not be the greatest reason to apprehend, that error, in double prosecution to which the offender would be liable?
the first sentence, would be the parent of error in the second To a certain extent, the benefits of that union will be ob-
sentence? That the strong bias of one decision would be apt tained from making the chief justice of the Supreme Court
to overrule the influence of any new lights which might be the president of the court of impeachments, as is proposed to
brought to vary the complexion of another decision? Those be done in the plan of the convention; while the inconve-
who know anything of human nature, will not hesitate to niences of an entire incorporation of the former into the lat-
answer these questions in the affirmative; and will be at no ter will be substantially avoided. This was perhaps the pru-
loss to perceive, that by making the same persons judges in dent mean. I forbear to remark upon the additional pretext
both cases, those who might happen to be the objects of pros- for clamor against the judiciary, which so considerable an aug-
ecution would, in a great measure, be deprived of the double mentation of its authority would have afforded.
security intended them by a double trial. The loss of life and Would it have been desirable to have composed the court
estate would often be virtually included in a sentence which, for the trial of impeachments, of persons wholly distinct from
in its terms, imported nothing more than dismission from a the other departments of the government? There are weighty
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arguments, as well against, as in favor of, such a plan. To some designing majority in the House of Representatives. Though
minds it will not appear a trivial objection, that it could tend this latter supposition may seem harsh, and might not be
to increase the complexity of the political machine, and to likely often to be verified, yet it ought not to be forgotten
add a new spring to the government, the utility of which that the demon of faction will, at certain seasons, extend his
would at best be questionable. But an objection which will sceptre over all numerous bodies of men.
not be thought by any unworthy of attention, is this: a court But though one or the other of the substitutes which have
formed upon such a plan, would either be attended with a been examined, or some other that might be devised, should
heavy expense, or might in practice be subject to a variety of be thought preferable to the plan in this respect, reported by
casualties and inconveniences. It must either consist of per- the convention, it will not follow that the Constitution ought
manent officers, stationary at the seat of government, and of for this reason to be rejected. If mankind were to resolve to
course entitled to fixed and regular stipends, or of certain of- agree in no institution of government, until every part of it
ficers of the State governments to be called upon whenever had been adjusted to the most exact standard of perfection,
an impeachment was actually depending. It will not be easy society would soon become a general scene of anarchy, and
to imagine any third mode materially different, which could the world a desert. Where is the standard of perfection to be
rationally be proposed. As the court, for reasons already given, found? Who will undertake to unite the discordant opinions
ought to be numerous, the first scheme will be reprobated by of a whole commuity, in the same judgment of it; and to
every man who can compare the extent of the public wants prevail upon one conceited projector to renounce his infal-
with the means of supplying them. The second will be es- lible criterion for the fallible criterion of his more conceited
poused with caution by those who will seriously consider the neighbor? To answer the purpose of the adversaries of the Con-
difficulty of collecting men dispersed over the whole Union; stitution, they ought to prove, not merely that particular pro-
the injury to the innocent, from the procrastinated determi- visions in it are not the best which might have been imag-
nation of the charges which might be brought against them; ined, but that the plan upon the whole is bad and pernicious.
the advantage to the guilty, from the opportunities which
delay would afford to intrigue and corruption; and in some Publius.
cases the detriment to the State, from the prolonged inaction
of men whose firm and faithful execution of their duty might
have exposed them to the persecution of an intemperate or
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FEDERALIST No. 66 the mutual defense of the several members of the govern-
ment against each other. An absolute or qualified negative in
Objections to the Power of the Senate To Set as a Court the executive upon the acts of the legislative body, is admit-
for Impeachments Further Considered ted, by the ablest adepts in political science, to be an indis-
pensable barrier against the encroachments of the latter upon
From the New York Packet. the former. And it may, perhaps, with no less reason be con-
tended, that the powers relating to impeachments are, as be-
Tuesday, March 11, 1788. fore intimated, an essential check in the hands of that body
upon the encroachments of the executive. The division of
HAMILTON them between the two branches of the legislature, assigning
to one the right of accusing, to the other the right of judging,
To the People of the State of New York: avoids the inconvenience of making the same persons both
accusers and judges; and guards against the danger of persecu-
A review of the principal objections that have appeared against tion, from the prevalency of a factious spirit in either of those
the proposed court for the trial of impeachments, will not branches. As the concurrence of two thirds of the Senate will
improbably eradicate the remains of any unfavorable impres- be requisite to a condemnation, the security to innocence,
sions which may still exist in regard to this matter. from this additional circumstance, will be as complete as it-
The first of these objections is, that the provision in ques- self can desire.
tion confounds legislative and judiciary authorities in the same It is curious to observe, with what vehemence this part of
body, in violation of that important and wellestablished the plan is assailed, on the principle here taken notice of, by
maxim which requires a separation between the different de- men who profess to admire, without exception, the constitu-
partments of power. The true meaning of this maxim has tion of this State; while that constitution makes the Senate,
been discussed and ascertained in another place, and has been together with the chancellor and judges of the Supreme Court,
shown to be entirely compatible with a partial intermixture not only a court of impeachments, but the highest judicatory
of those departments for special purposes, preserving them, in the State, in all causes, civil and criminal. The proportion,
in the main, distinct and unconnected. This partial intermix- in point of numbers, of the chancellor and judges to the sena-
ture is even, in some cases, not only proper but necessary to tors, is so inconsiderable, that the judiciary authority of New
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York, in the last resort, may, with truth, be said to reside in its If we take this course, it will lead to a more intelligible, if
Senate. If the plan of the convention be, in this respect, charge- not to a more certain result. The disposition of the power of
able with a departure from the celebrated maxim which has making treaties, which has obtained in the plan of the con-
been so often mentioned, and seems to be so little under- vention, will, then, if I mistake not, appear to be fully justi-
stood, how much more culpable must be the constitution of fied by the considerations stated in a former number, and by
New York?* others which will occur under the next head of our inquiries.
A second objection to the Senate, as a court of impeach- The expediency of the junction of the Senate with the Execu-
ments, is, that it contributes to an undue accumulation of tive, in the power of appointing to offices, will, I trust, be
power in that body, tending to give to the government a coun- placed in a light not less satisfactory, in the disquisitions un-
tenance too aristocratic. The Senate, it is observed, is to have der the same head. And I flatter myself the observations in
concurrent authority with the Executive in the formation of my last paper must have gone no inconsiderable way towards
treaties and in the appointment to offices: if, say the objec- proving that it was not easy, if practicable, to find a more fit
tors, to these prerogatives is added that of deciding in all cases receptacle for the power of determining impeachments, than
of impeachment, it will give a decided predominancy to sena- that which has been chosen. If this be truly the case, the hy-
torial influence. To an objection so little precise in itself, it is pothetical dread of the too great weight of the Senate ought
not easy to find a very precise answer. Where is the measure or to be discarded from our reasonings.
criterion to which we can appeal, for determining what will But this hypothesis, such as it is, has already been refuted in
give the Senate too much, too little, or barely the proper de- the remarks applied to the duration in office prescribed for
gree of influence? Will it not be more safe, as well as more the senators. It was by them shown, as well on the credit of
simple, to dismiss such vague and uncertain calculations, to historical examples, as from the reason of the thing, that the
examine each power by itself, and to decide, on general prin- most popular branch of every government, partaking of the
ciples, where it may be deposited with most advantage and republican genius, by being generally the favorite of the people,
least inconvenience? will be as generally a full match, if not an overmatch, for
*In that of New Jersey, also, the final judiciary authority is in every other member of the Government.
a branch of the legislature. In New Hampshire, Massachu- But independent of this most active and operative prin-
setts, Pennsylvanis, and South Carolina, one branch of the ciple, to secure the equilibrium of the national House of Rep-
legislature is the court for the trial of impeachments. resentatives, the plan of the convention has provided in its
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favor several important counterpoises to the additional au- this case, that the favoritism of the latter would always be an
thorities to be conferred upon the Senate. The exclusive privi- asylum for the misbehavior of the former. But that practice,
lege of originating money bills will belong to the House of in contradiction to this principle, proceeds upon the presump-
Representatives. The same house will possess the sole right of tion, that the responsibility of those who appoint, for the
instituting impeachments: is not this a complete counterbal- fitness and competency of the persons on whom they bestow
ance to that of determining them? The same house will be their choice, and the interest they will have in the respectable
the umpire in all elections of the President, which do not and prosperous administration of affairs, will inspire a suffi-
unite the suffrages of a majority of the whole number of elec- cient disposition to dismiss from a share in it all such who, by
tors; a case which it cannot be doubted will sometimes, if not their conduct, shall have proved themselves unworthy of the
frequently, happen. The constant possibility of the thing must confidence reposed in them. Though facts may not always
be a fruitful source of influence to that body. The more it is correspond with this presumption, yet if it be, in the main,
contemplated, the more important will appear this ultimate just, it must destroy the supposition that the Senate, who
though contingent power, of deciding the competitions of will merely sanction the choice of the Executive, should feel a
the most illustrious citizens of the Union, for the first office bias, towards the objects of that choice, strong enough to
in it. It would not perhaps be rash to predict, that as a mean blind them to the evidences of guilt so extraordinary, as to
of influence it will be found to outweigh all the peculiar at- have induced the representatives of the nation to become its
tributes of the Senate. accusers.
A third objection to the Senate as a court of impeachments, If any further arguments were necessary to evince the im-
is drawn from the agency they are to have in the appoint- probability of such a bias, it might be found in the nature of
ments to office. It is imagined that they would be too indul- the agency of the Senate in the business of appointments.
gent judges of the conduct of men, in whose official creation It will be the office of the President to nominate, and, with
they had participated. The principle of this objection would the advice and consent of the Senate, to appoint. There will,
condemn a practice, which is to be seen in all the State gov- of course, be no exertion of choice on the part of the Senate.
ernments, if not in all the governments with which we are They may defeat one choice of the Executive, and oblige him
acquainted: I mean that of rendering those who hold offices to make another; but they cannot themselves choose, they can
during pleasure, dependent on the pleasure of those who ap- only ratify or reject the choice of the President. They might
point them. With equal plausibility might it be alleged in even entertain a preference to some other person, at the very
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moment they were assenting to the one proposed, because sought for in the numbers and characters of those who are to
there might be no positive ground of opposition to him; and make them. The joint agency of the Chief Magistrate of the
they could not be sure, if they withheld their assent, that the Union, and of two thirds of the members of a body selected
subsequent nomination would fall upon their own favorite, by the collective wisdom of the legislatures of the several States,
or upon any other person in their estimation more meritori- is designed to be the pledge for the fidelity of the national
ous than the one rejected. Thus it could hardly happen, that councils in this particular. The convention might with pro-
the majority of the Senate would feel any other complacency priety have meditated the punishment of the Executive, for a
towards the object of an appointment than such as the ap- deviation from the instructions of the Senate, or a want of
pearances of merit might inspire, and the proofs of the want integrity in the conduct of the negotiations committed to
of it destroy. him; they might also have had in view the punishment of a
A fourth objection to the Senate in the capacity of a court few leading individuals in the Senate, who should have pros-
of impeachments, is derived from its union with the Execu- tituted their influence in that body as the mercenary instru-
tive in the power of making treaties. This, it has been said, ments of foreign corruption: but they could not, with more
would constitute the senators their own judges, in every case or with equal propriety, have contemplated the impeachment
of a corrupt or perfidious execution of that trust. After hav- and punishment of two thirds of the Senate, consenting to an
ing combined with the Executive in betraying the interests of improper treaty, than of a majority of that or of the other
the nation in a ruinous treaty, what prospect, it is asked, would branch of the national legislature, consenting to a pernicious
there be of their being made to suffer the punishment they or unconstitutional law, a principle which, I believe, has never
would deserve, when they were themselves to decide upon been admitted into any government. How, in fact, could a
the accusation brought against them for the treachery of which majority in the House of Representatives impeach themselves?
they have been guilty? Not better, it is evident, than two thirds of the Senate might
This objection has been circulated with more earnestness try themselves. And yet what reason is there, that a majority
and with greater show of reason than any other which has of the House of Representatives, sacrificing the interests of
appeared against this part of the plan; and yet I am deceived if the society by an unjust and tyrannical act of legislation, should
it does not rest upon an erroneous foundation. escape with impunity, more than two thirds of the Senate,
The security essentially intended by the Constitution against sacrificing the same interests in an injurious treaty with a for-
corruption and treachery in the formation of treaties, is to be eign power? The truth is, that in all such cases it is essential to
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the freedom and to the necessary independence of the delib- FEDERALIST No. 67
erations of the body, that the members of it should be ex-
empt from punishment for acts done in a collective capacity; The Executive Department
and the security to the society must depend on the care which
is taken to confide the trust to proper hands, to make it their From the New York Packet.
interest to execute it with fidelity, and to make it as difficult
as possible for them to combine in any interest opposite to Tuesday, March 11, 1788.
that of the public good.
So far as might concern the misbehavior of the Executive in HAMILTON
perverting the instructions or contravening the views of the
Senate, we need not be apprehensive of the want of a disposi- To the People of the State of New York:
tion in that body to punish the abuse of their confidence or
to vindicate their own authority. We may thus far count upon The constitution of the executive department of the proposed
their pride, if not upon their virtue. And so far even as might government, claims next our attention.
concern the corruption of leading members, by whose arts There is hardly any part of the system which could have
and influence the majority may have been inveigled into mea- been atten ed with greater difficulty in the arrangement of it
sures odious to the community, if the proofs of that corrup- than this; and there is, perhaps, none which has been inveighed
tion should be satisfactory, the usual propensity of human against with less candor or criticised with less judgment.
nature will warrant us in concluding that there would be com- Here the writers against the Constitution seem to have taken
monly no defect of inclination in the body to divert the pub- pains to signalize their talent of misrepresentation. Calculat-
lic resentment from themselves by a ready sacrifice of the au- ing upon the aversion of the people to monarchy, they have
thors of their mismanagement and disgrace. endeavored to enlist all their jealousies and apprehensions in
opposition to the intended President of the United States;
Publius. not merely as the embryo, but as the full-grown progeny, of
that detested parent. To establish the pretended affinity, they
have not scrupled to draw resources even from the regions of
fiction. The authorities of a magistrate, in few instances greater,
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in some instances less, than those of a governor of New York, sentiments which favor an indulgent construction of the con-
have been magnified into more than royal prerogatives. He duct of political adversaries to give place to a voluntary and
has been decorated with attributes superior in dignity and unreserved indignation. It is impossible not to bestow the
splendor to those of a king of Great Britain. He has been imputation of deliberate imposture and deception upon the
shown to us with the diadem sparkling on his brow and the gross pretense of a similitude between a king of Great Britain
imperial purple flowing in his train. He has been seated on a and a magistrate of the character marked out for that of the
throne surrounded with minions and mistresses, giving audi- President of the United States. It is still more impossible to
ence to the envoys of foreign potentates, in all the supercil- withhold that imputation from the rash and barefaced expe-
ious pomp of majesty. The images of Asiatic despotism and dients which have been employed to give success to the at-
voluptuousness have scarcely been wanting to crown the ex- tempted imposition.
aggerated scene. We have been taught to tremble at the ter- In one instance, which I cite as a sample of the general spirit,
rific visages of murdering janizaries, and to blush at the un- the temerity has proceeded so far as to ascribe to the President
veiled mysteries of a future seraglio. of the United States a power which by the instrument reported
Attempts so extravagant as these to disfigure or, it might is expressly allotted to the Executives of the individual States. I
rather be said, to metamorphose the object, render it neces- mean the power of filling casual vacancies in the Senate.
sary to take an accurate view of its real nature and form: in This bold experiment upon the discernment of his coun-
order as well to ascertain its true aspect and genuine appear- trymen has been hazarded by a writer who (whatever may be
ance, as to unmask the disingenuity and expose the fallacy of his real merit) has had no inconsiderable share in the applauses
the counterfeit resemblances which have been so insidiously, of his party*; and who, upon this false and unfounded sug-
as well as industriously, propagated. gestion, has built a series of observations equally false and
In the execution of this task, there is no man who would unfounded. Let him now be confronted with the evidence of
not find it an arduous effort either to behold with modera- the fact, and let him, if he be able, justify or extenuate the
tion, or to treat with seriousness, the devices, not less weak shameful outrage he has offered to the dictates of truth and
than wicked, which have been contrived to pervert the public to the rules of fair dealing.
opinion in relation to the subject. They so far exceed the usual The second clause of the second section of the second ar-
though unjustifiable licenses of party artifice, that even in a ticle empowers the President of the United States “to nomi-
disposition the most candid and tolerant, they must force the *See Cato, No. V.
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nate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, to eral mode of appointing officers of the United States, de-
appoint ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, notes it to be nothing more than a supplement to the other,
judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of United for the purpose of establishing an auxiliary method of ap-
States whose appointments are not in the Constitution other- pointment, in cases to which the general method was inad-
wise provided for, and which shall be established by law.’’ Im- equate. The ordinary power of appointment is confined to
mediately after this clause follows another in these words: the President and Senate jointly, and can therefore only be
“The President shall have power to fill up? Vacancies that may exercised during the session of the Senate; but as it would
happen during the recess of the senate, by granting commis- have been improper to oblige this body to be continually in
sions which shall expire at the end of their next session.’’ It is session for the appointment of officers and as vacancies might
from this last provision that the pretended power of the Presi- happen in their recess, which it might be necessary for the
dent to fill vacancies in the Senate has been deduced. A slight public service to fill without delay, the succeeding clause is
attention to the connection of the clauses, and to the obvious evidently intended to authorize the President, singly, to make
meaning of the terms, will satisfy us that the deduction is not temporary appointments “during the recess of the Senate, by
even colorable. granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their
The first of these two clauses, it is clear, only provides a next session.’’ Secondly. If this clause is to be considered as
mode for appointing such officers, “whose appointments are supplementary to the one which precedes, the vacancies of
not otherwised provided for in the Constitution, and which which it speaks must be construed to relate to the “officers”
shall be established by law’’; of course it cannot extend to the described in the preceding one; and this, we have seen, ex-
appointments of senators, whose appointments are otherwise cludes from its description the members of the Senate. Thirdly.
provided for in the Constitution*, and who are established by The time within which the power is to operate, “during the
the Constitution, and will not require a future establishment recess of the Senate,” and the duration of the appointments,
by law. This position will hardly be contested. “to the end of the next session” of that body, conspire to elu-
The last of these two clauses, it is equally clear, cannot be cidate the sense of the provision, which, if it had been in-
understood to comprehend the power of filling vacancies in tended to comprehend senators, would naturally have referred
the Senate, for the following reasons: First. The relation in the temporary power of filling vacancies to the recess of the
which that clause stands to the other, which declares the gen- State legislatures, who are to make the permanent appoint-
*Article I, section 3, clause I. ments, and not to the recess of the national Senate, who are
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to have no concern in those appointments; and would have before considered could have been intended to confer that
extended the duration in office of the temporary senators to power upon the President of the United States, but proves
the next session of the legislature of the State, in whose repre- that this supposition, destitute as it is even of the merit of
sentation the vacancies had happened, instead of making it to plausibility, must have originated in an intention to deceive
expire at the end of the ensuing session of the national Senate. the people, too palpable to be obscured by sophistry, too atro-
The circumstances of the body authorized to make the per- cious to be palliated by hypocrisy.
manent appointments would, of course, have governed the I have taken the pains to select this instance of misrepresen-
modification of a power which related to the temporary ap- tation, and to place it in a clear and strong light, as an un-
pointments; and as the national Senate is the body, whose equivocal proof of the unwarrantable arts which are practiced
situation is alone contemplated in the clause upon which the to prevent a fair and impartial judgment of the real merits of
suggestion under examination has been founded, the vacan- the Constitution submitted to the consideration of the people.
cies to which it alludes can only be deemed to respect those Nor have I scrupled, in so flagrant a case, to allow myself a
officers in whose appointment that body has a concurrent severity of animadversion little congenial with the general spirit
agency with the President. But lastly, the first and second of these papers. I hesitate not to submit it to the decision of
clauses of the third section of the first article, not only obvi- any candid and honest adversary of the proposed government,
ate all possibility of doubt, but destroy the pretext of mis- whether language can furnish epithets of too much asperity,
conception. The former provides, that “the Senate of the for so shameless and so prostitute an attempt to impose on
United States shall be composed of two Senators from each the citizens of America.
State, chosen by the legislature thereof for six years’’; and the
latter directs, that, “if vacancies in that body should happen Publius.
by resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the legislaure
of any state, the Executive thereof may make temporary ap-
pointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which
shall then fill such vacancies.’’ Here is an express power given,
in clear and unambiguous terms, to the State Executives, to
fill casual vacancies in the Senate, by temporary appointments;
which not only invalidates the supposition, that the clause
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FEDERALIST No. 68 men chosen by the people for the special purpose, and at the
particular conjuncture.
The Mode of Electing the President It was equally desirable, that the immediate election should
be made by men most capable of analyzing the qualities
From the New York Packet. adapted to the station, and acting under circumstances favor-
able to deliberation, and to a judicious combination of all the
Friday, March 14, 1788. reasons and inducements which were proper to govern their
choice. A small number of persons, selected by their fellow-
HAMILTON citizens from the general mass, will be most likely to possess
the information and discernment requisite to such compli-
To the People of the State of New York: cated investigations.
It was also peculiarly desirable to afford as little opportu-
The mode of appointment of the Chief Magistrate of the nity as possible to tumult and disorder. This evil was not least
United States is almost the only part of the system, of any to be dreaded in the election of a magistrate, who was to have
consequence, which has escaped without severe censure, or so important an agency in the administration of the govern-
which has received the slightest mark of approbation from its ment as the President of the United States. But the precau-
opponents. The most plausible of these, who has appeared in tions which have been so happily concerted in the system
print, has even deigned to admit that the election of the Presi- under consideration, promise an effectual security against this
dent is pretty well guarded.* I venture somewhat further, and mischief. The choice of several, to form an intermediate body
hesitate not to affirm, that if the manner of it be not perfect, of electors, will be much less apt to convulse the community
it is at least excellent. It unites in an eminent degree all the with any extraordinary or violent movements, than the choice
advantages, the union of which was to be wished for. of one who was himself to be the final object of the public
It was desirable that the sense of the people should operate wishes. And as the electors, chosen in each State, are to as-
in the choice of the person to whom so important a trust was semble and vote in the State in which they are chosen, this
to be confided. This end will be answered by committing the detached and divided situation will expose them much less to
right of making it, not to any preestablished body, but to heats and ferments, which might be communicated from them
*Vide Federal Farmer. to the people, than if they were all to be convened at one
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time, in one place. able a number of men, requires time as well as means. Nor
Nothing was more to be desired than that every practicable would it be found easy suddenly to embark them, dispersed as
obstacle should be opposed to cabal, intrigue, and corrup- they would be over thirteen States, in any combinations founded
tion. These most deadly adversaries of republican government upon motives, which though they could not properly be de-
might naturally have been expected to make their approaches nominated corrupt, might yet be of a nature to mislead them
from more than one querter, but chiefly from the desire in from their duty.
foreign powers to gain an improper ascendant in our councils. Another and no less important desideratum was, that the
How could they better gratify this, than by raising a creature of Executive should be independent for his continuance in of-
their own to the chief magistracy of the Union? But the con- fice on all but the people themselves. He might otherwise be
vention have guarded against all danger of this sort, with the tempted to sacrifice his duty to his complaisance for those
most provident and judicious attention. They have not made whose favor was necessary to the duration of his official con-
the appointment of the President to depend on any preexisting sequence. This advantage will also be secured, by making his
bodies of men, who might be tampered with beforehand to re-election to depend on a special body of representatives,
prostitute their votes; but they have referred it in the first in- deputed by the society for the single purpose of making the
stance to an immediate act of the people of America, to be important choice.
exerted in the choice of persons for the temporary and sole All these advantages will happily combine in the plan devised
purpose of making the appointment. And they have excluded by the convention; which is, that the people of each State shall
from eligibility to this trust, all those who from situation might choose a number of persons as electors, equal to the number of
be suspected of too great devotion to the President in office. senators and representatives of such State in the national gov-
No senator, representative, or other person holding a place of ernment, who shall assemble within the State, and vote for
trust or profit under the United States, can be of the numbers some fit person as President. Their votes, thus given, are to be
of the electors. Thus without corrupting the body of the people, transmitted to the seat of the national government, and the
the immediate agents in the election will at least enter upon the person who may happen to have a majority of the whole num-
task free from any sinister bias. Their transient existence, and ber of votes will be the President. But as a majority of the votes
their detached situation, already taken notice of, afford a satis- might not always happen to centre in one man, and as it might
factory prospect of their continuing so, to the conclusion of it. be unsafe to permit less than a majority to be conclusive, it is
The business of corruption, when it is to embrace so consider- provided that, in such a contingency, the House of Represen-
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tatives shall select out of the candidates who shall have the Representatives, in respect to the latter.
five highest number of votes, the man who in their opinion The appointment of an extraordinary person, as Vice-Presi-
may be best qualified for the office. dent, has been objected to as superfluous, if not mischievous.
The process of election affords a moral certainty, that the It has been alleged, that it would have been preferable to have
office of President will never fall to the lot of any man who is authorized the Senate to elect out of their own body an of-
not in an eminent degree endowed with the requisite qualifi- ficer answering that description. But two considerations seem
cations. Talents for low intrigue, and the little arts of popular- to justify the ideas of the convention in this respect. One is,
ity, may alone suffice to elevate a man to the first honors in a that to secure at all times the possibility of a definite resolu-
single State; but it will require other talents, and a different tion of the body, it is necessary that the President should have
kind of merit, to establish him in the esteem and confidence of only a casting vote. And to take the senator of any State from
the whole Union, or of so considerable a portion of it as would his seat as senator, to place him in that of President of the
be necessary to make him a successful candidate for the distin- Senate, would be to exchange, in regard to the State from
guished office of President of the United States. It will not be which he came, a constant for a contingent vote. The other
too strong to say, that there will be a constant probability of consideration is, that as the Vice-President may occasionally
seeing the station filled by characters pre-eminent for ability become a substitute for the President, in the supreme execu-
and virtue. And this will be thought no inconsiderable recom- tive magistracy, all the reasons which recommend the mode
mendation of the Constitution, by those who are able to esti- of election prescribed for the one, apply with great if not with
mate the share which the executive in every government must equal force to the manner of appointing the other. It is re-
necessarily have in its good or ill administration. Though we markable that in this, as in most other instances, the objec-
cannot acquiesce in the political heresy of the poet who says: tion which is made would lie against the constitution of this
“For forms of government let fools contest That which is best State. We have a Lieutenant-Governor, chosen by the people
administered is best,’’ yet we may safely pronounce, that the at large, who presides in the Senate, and is the constitutional
true test of a good government is its aptitude and tendency to substitute for the Governor, in casualties similar to those which
produce a good administration. would authorize the Vice-President to exercise the authorities
The Vice-President is to be chosen in the same manner with and discharge the duties of the President.
the President; with this difference, that the Senate is to do, in
respect to the former, what is to be done by the House of Publius.
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FEDERALIST No. 69 there is a total dissimilitude between him and a king of Great
Britain, who is an hereditary monarch, possessing the crown
The Real Character of the Executive as a patrimony descendible to his heirs forever; but there is a
close analogy between him and a governor of New York, who
From the New York Packet. is elected for three years, and is re-eligible without limitation
or intermission. If we consider how much less time would be
Friday, March 14, 1788. requisite for establishing a dangerous influence in a single State,
than for establishing a like influence throughout the United
HAMILTON States, we must conclude that a duration of four years for the
Chief Magistrate of the Union is a degree of permanency far
To the People of the State of New York: less to be dreaded in that office, than a duration of three years
for a corresponding office in a single State.
I prodeed now to trace the real characters of the proposed The President of the United States would be liable to be
Executive, as they are marked out in the plan of the conven- impeached, tried, and, upon conviction of treason, bribery,
tion. This will serve to place in a strong light the unfairness of or other high crimes or misdemeanors, removed from office;
the representations which have been made in regard to it. and would afterwards be liable to prosecution and punish-
The first thing which strikes our attention is, that the ex- ment in the ordinary course of law. The person of the king of
ecutive authority, with few exceptions, is to be vested in a Great Britain is sacred and inviolable; there is no constitu-
single magistrate. This will scarcely, however, be considered tional tribunal to which he is amenable; no punishment to
as a point upon which any comparison can be grounded; for which he can be subjected without involving the crisis of a
if, in this particular, there be a resemblance to the king of national revolution. In this delicate and important circum-
Great Britain, there is not less a resemblance to the Grand stance of personal responsibility, the President of Confeder-
Seignior, to the khan of Tartary, to the Man of the Seven ated America would stand upon no better ground than a gov-
Mountains, or to the governor of New York. ernor of New York, and upon worse ground than the gover-
That magistrate is to be elected for four years; and is to be nors of Maryland and Delaware.
re-eligible as often as the people of the United States shall The President of the United States is to have power to re-
think him worthy of their confidence. In these circumstances turn a bill, which shall have passed the two branches of the
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legislature, for reconsideration; and the bill so returned is to measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; to con-
become a law, if, upon that reconsideration, it be approved by vene, on extraordinary occasions, both houses of the legisla-
two thirds of both houses. The king of Great Britain, on his ture, or either of them, and, in case of disagreement between
part, has an absolute negative upon the acts of the two houses them with respect to the time of adjournment, to adjourn them
of Parliament. The disuse of that power for a considerable time to such time as he shall think proper; to take care that the
past does not affect the reality of its existence; and is to be laws be faithfully executed; and to commission all officers of
ascribed wholly to the crown’s having found the means of sub- the United States.’’ In most of these particulars, the power of
stituting influence to authority, or the art of gaining a majority the President will resemble equally that of the king of Great
in one or the other of the two houses, to the necessity of exert- Britain and of the governor of New York. The most material
ing a prerogative which could seldom be exerted without points of difference are these:
hazarding some degree of national agitation. The qualified nega-
tive of the President differs widely from this absolute negative First. The President will have only the occasional command
of the British sovereign; and tallies exactly with the revisionary of such part of the militia of the nation as by legislative pro-
authority of the council of revision of this State, of which the vision may be called into the actual service of the Union. The
governor is a constituent part. In this respect the power of the king of Great Britain and the governor of New York have at
President would exceed that of the governor of New York, be- all times the entire command of all the militia within their
cause the former would possess, singly, what the latter shares several jurisdictions. In this article, therefore, the power of
with the chancellor and judges; but it would be precisely the the President would be inferior to that of either the monarch
same with that of the governor of Massachusetts, whose con- or the governor.
stitution, as to this article, seems to have been the original from
which the convention have copied. Secondly. The President is to be commander-in-chief of the
The President is to be the “commander-in-chief of the army army and navy of the United States. In this respect his au-
and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several thority would be nominally the same with that of the king of
States, when called into the actual service of the United States. Great Britain, but in substance much inferior to it. It would
He is to have power to grant reprieves and pardons for of- amount to nothing more than the supreme command and
fenses against the United States, except in cases of impeach- direction of the military and naval forces, as first General and
ment; to recommend to the consideration of Congress such admiral of the Confederacy; while that of the British king
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extends to the declaring of war and to the raising and regu- Thirdly. The power of the President, in respect to pardons,
lating of fleets and armies, all which, by the Constitution un- would extend to all cases, except those of impeachment. The
der consideration, would appertain to the legislature.* The governor of New York may pardon in all cases, even in those
governor of New York, on the other hand, is by the constitu- of impeachment, except for treason and murder. Is not the
tion of the State vested only with the command of its militia power of the governor, in this article, on a calculation of po-
and navy. But the constitutions of several of the States ex- litical consequences, greater than that of the President? All
pressly declare their governors to be commanders-in-chief, as conspiracies and plots against the government, which have
well of the army as navy; and it may well be a question, whether not been matured into actual treason, may be screened from
those of New Hampshire and Massachusetts, in particular, do punishment of every kind, by the interposition of the pre-
not, in this instance, confer larger powers upon their respec- rogative of pardoning. If a governor of New York, therefore,
tive governors, than could be claimed by a President of the should be at the head of any such conspiracy, until the design
United States. had been ripened into actual hostility he could insure his ac-
*A writer in a Pennsylvania paper, under the signature of complices and adherents an entire impunity. A President of
Tamony, has asserted that the king of Great Britain oweshis the Union, on the other hand, though he may even pardon
prerogative as commander-in-chief to an annual mutiny bill. treason, when prosecuted in the ordinary course of law, could
The truth is, on the contrary, that his prerogative, in this re- shelter no offender, in any degree, from the effects of im-
spect, is immenmorial, and was only disputed, “contrary to peachment and conviction. Would not the prospect of a total
all reason and precedent,’’ as Blackstone vol. i., page 262, ex- indemnity for all the preliminary steps be a greater tempta-
presses it, by the Long Parliament of Charles I. but by the tion to undertake and persevere in an enterprise against the
statute the 13th of Charles II., chap. 6, it was declared to be public liberty, than the mere prospect of an exemption from
in the king alone, for that the sole supreme government and death and confiscation, if the final execution of the design,
command of the militia within his Majesty’s realms and do- upon an actual appeal to arms, should miscarry? Would this
minions, and of all forces by sea and land, and of all forts and last expectation have any influence at all, when the probabil-
places of strength, ever was and is the undoubted right of his ity was computed, that the person who was to afford that
Majesty and his royal predecessors, kings and queens of En- exemption might himself be involved in the consequences of
gland, and that both or either house of Parliament cannot the measure, and might be incapacitated by his agency in it
nor ought to pretend to the same. from affording the desired impunity? The better to judge of
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this matter, it will be necessary to recollect, that, by the pro- making treaties exists in the crown in its utomst plentitude;
posed Constitution, the offense of treason is limited “to levy- and that the compacts entered into by the royal authority
ing war upon the United States, and adhering to their en- have the most complete legal validity and perfection, inde-
emies, giving them aid and comfort’’; and that by the laws of pendent of any other sanction. The Parliament, it is true, is
New York it is confined within similar bounds. sometimes seen employing itself in altering the existing laws
to conform them to the stipulations in a new treaty; and this
Fourthly. The President can only adjourn the national legisla- may have possibly given birth to the imagination, that its co-
ture in the single case of disagreement about the time of ad- operation was necessary to the obligatory efficacy of the treaty.
journment. The British monarch may prorogue or even dis- But this parliamentary interposition proceeds from a differ-
solve the Parliament. The governor of New York may also ent cause: from the necessity of adjusting a most artificial and
prorogue the legislature of this State for a limited time; a intricate system of revenue and commercial laws, to the
power which, in certain situations, may be employed to very changes made in them by the operation of the treaty; and of
important purposes. adapting new provisions and precautions to the new state of
The President is to have power, with the advice and con- things, to keep the machine from running into disorder. In
sent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of this respect, therefore, there is no comparison between the
the senators present concur. The king of Great Britain is the intended power of the President and the actual power of the
sole and absolute representative of the nation in all foreign British sovereign. The one can perform alone what the other
transactions. He can of his own accord make treaties of peace, can do only with the concurrence of a branch of the legisla-
commerce, alliance, and of every other description. It has been ture. It must be admitted, that, in this instance, the power of
insinuated, that his authority in this respect is not conclusive, the federal Executive would exceed that of any State Execu-
and that his conventions with foreign powers are subject to tive. But this arises naturally from the sovereign power which
the revision, and stand in need of the ratification, of Parlia- relates to treaties. If the Confederacy were to be dissolved, it
ment. But I believe this doctrine was never heard of, until it would become a question, whether the Executives of the sev-
was broached upon the present occasion. Every jurist* of that eral States were not solely invested with that delicate and im-
kingdom, and every other man acquainted with its Constitu- portant prerogative.
tion, knows, as an established fact, that the prerogative of The President is also to be authorized to receive ambassa-
*Vide Blackstone’s “Commentaries,” vol i., p. 257. dors and other public ministers. This, though it has been a
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rich theme of declamation, is more a matter of dignity than pointment.
of authority. It is a circumstance which will be without con- If he really has the right of nominating, his authority is in
sequence in the administration of the government; and it was this respect equal to that of the President, and exceeds it in
far more convenient that it should be arranged in this man- the article of the casting vote. In the national government, if
ner, than that there should be a necessity of convening the the Senate should be divided, no appointment could be made;
legislature, or one of its branches, upon every arrival of a for- in the government of New York, if the council should be
eign minister, though it were merely to take the place of a divided, the governor can turn the scale, and confirm his own
departed predecessor. nomination.* If we compare the publicity which must neces-
The President is to nominate, and, with the advice and con- sarily attend the mode of appointment by the President and
sent of the senate, to appoint ambassadors and other public an entire branch of the national legislature, with the privacy
ministers, judges of the Supreme Court, and in general all in the mode of appointment by the governor of New York,
officers of the United States established by law, and whose closeted in a secret apartment with at most four, and frequently
appointments are not otherwise provided for by the Consti- with only two persons; and if we at the same time consider
tution. The king of Great Britain is emphatically and truly how much more easy it must be to influence the small num-
styled the fountain of honor. He not only appoints to all ber of which a council of appointment consists, than the con-
offices, but can create offices. He can confer titles of nobility siderable number of which the national Senate would con-
at pleasure; and has the disposal of an immense number of sist, we cannot hesitate to pronounce that the power of the
church preferments. There is evidently a great inferiority in chief magistrate of this State, in the disposition of offices,
the power of the President, in this particular, to that of the must, in practice, be greatly superior to that of the Chief
British king; nor is it equal to that of the governor of New *Candor, however, demands an acknowledgment that I do
York, if we are to interpret the meaning of the constitution of not think the claim of the governor to a right of nomination
the State by the practice which has obtained under it. The well founded. Yet it is always justifiable to reason from the
power of appointment is with us lodged in a council, com- practice of a government, till its propriety has been constitu-
posed of the governor and four members of the Senate, cho- tionally questioned. And independent of this claim, when we
sen by the Assembly. take into view the other considerations, and pursue them
The governor claims, and has frequently exercised, the right through all their consequences, we shall be inclined to draw
of nomination, and is entitled to a casting vote in the ap- much the same conclusion.
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Magistrate of the Union. rights incident to corporate bodies. The one can prescribe no
Hence it appears that, except as to the concurrent authority rules concerning the commerce or currency of the nation; the
of the President in the article of treaties, it would be difficult other is in several respects the arbiter of commerce, and in
to determine whether that magistrate would, in the aggre- this capacity can establish markets and fairs, can regulate
gate, possess more or less power than the Governor of New weights and measures, can lay embargoes for a limited time,
York. And it appears yet more unequivocally, that there is no can coin money, can authorize or prohibit the circulation of
pretense for the parallel which has been attempted between foreign coin. The one has no particle of spiritual jurisdiction;
him and the king of Great Britain. But to render the contrast the other is the supreme head and governor of the national
in this respect still more striking, it may be of use to throw church! What answer shall we give to those who would per-
the principal circumstances of dissimilitude into a closer group. suade us that things so unlike resemble each other?
The President of the United States would be an officer The same that ought to be given to those who tell us that
elected by the people for four years; the king of Great Britain a government, the whole power of which would be in the
is a perpetual and hereditary prince. The one would be ame- hands of the elective and periodical servants of the people, is
nable to personal punishment and disgrace; the person of the an aristocracy, a monarchy, and a despotism.
other is sacred and inviolable. The one would have a qualified
negative upon the acts of the legislative body; the other has an Publius.
absolute negative. The one would have a right to command
the military and naval forces of the nation; the other, in addi-
tion to this right, possesses that of declaring war, and of rais-
ing and regulating fleets and armies by his own authority. The
one would have a concurrent power with a branch of the leg-
islature in the formation of treaties; the other is the sole pos-
sessor of the power of making treaties. The one would have a
like concurrent authority in appointing to offices; the other is
the sole author of all appointments. The one can confer no
privileges whatever; the other can make denizens of aliens,
noblemen of commoners; can erect corporations with all the
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This is the first of two slightly different versions of No. 70. enterprises and assaults of ambition, of faction, and of anar-
chy. Every man the least conversant in Roman story, knows
FEDERALIST No. 70 how often that republic was obliged to take refuge in the
absolute power of a single man, under the formidable title of
The Executive Department Further Considered Dictator, as well against the intrigues of ambitious individu-
als who aspired to the tyranny, and the seditions of whole
From the New York Packet. classes of the community whose conduct threatened the ex-
istence of all government, as against the invasions of external
Tuesday, March 18, 1788. enemies who menaced the conquest and destruction of Rome.
There can be no need, however, to multiply arguments or
HAMILTON examples on this head. A feeble Executive implies a feeble
execution of the government. A feeble execution is but an-
To the People of the State of New York: other phrase for a bad execution; and a government ill ex-
ecuted, whatever it may be in theory, must be, in practice, a
There is an idea, which is not without its advocates, that a bad government.
vigorous Executive is inconsistent with the genius of republi- Taking it for granted, therefore, that all men of sense will
can government. The enlightened well-wishers to this species agree in the necessity of an energetic Executive, it will only
of government must at least hope that the supposition is des- remain to inquire, what are the ingredients which constitute
titute of foundation; since they can never admit its truth, this energy? How far can they be combined with those other
without at the same time admitting the condemnation of ingredients which constitute safety in the republican sense?
their own principles. Energy in the Executive is a leading char- And how far does this combination characterize the plan which
acter in the definition of good government. It is essential to has been reported by the convention?
the protection of the community against foreign attacks; it is The ingredients which constitute energy in the Executive
not less essential to the steady administration of the laws; to are, first, unity; secondly, duration; thirdly, an adequate pro-
the protection of property against those irregular and high- vision for its support; fourthly, competent powers.
handed combinations which sometimes interrupt the ordi- The ingredients which constitute safety in the repub lican
nary course of justice; to the security of liberty against the sense are, first, a due dependence on the people, secondly, a
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due responsibility. single men.* Both these methods of destroying the unity of
Those politicians and statesmen who have been the most the Executive have their partisans; but the votaries of an ex-
celebrated for the soundness of their principles and for the ecutive council are the most numerous. They are both liable,
justice of their views, have declared in favor of a single Ex- if not to equal, to similar objections, and may in most lights
ecutive and a numerous legislature. They have with great be examined in conjunction.
propriety, considered energy as the most necessary qualifica- The experience of other nations will afford little instruc-
tion of the former, and have regarded this as most appli- tion on this head. As far, however, as it teaches any thing, it
cable to power in a single hand, while they have, with equal teaches us not to be enamoured of plurality in the Executive.
propriety, considered the latter as best adapted to delibera- We have seen that the Achaeans, on an experiment of two
tion and wisdom, and best calculated to conciliate the con- Praetors, were induced to abolish one. The Roman history
fidence of the people and to secure their privileges and in- records many instances of mischiefs to the republic from the
terests. dissensions between the Consuls, and between the military
That unity is conducive to energy will not be disputed. Tribunes, who were at times substituted for the Consuls. But
Decision, activity, secrecy, and despatch will generally charac- it gives us no specimens of any peculiar advantages derived to
terize the proceedings of one man in a much more eminent the state from the circumstance of the plurality of those mag-
degree than the proceedings of any greater number; and in istrates. That the dissensions between them were not more
proportion as the number is increased, these qualities will be frequent or more fatal, is a matter of astonishment, until we
diminished. advert to the singular position in which the republic was al-
This unity may be destroyed in two ways: either by vesting most continually placed, and to the prudent policy pointed
the power in two or more magistrates of equal dignity and out by the circumstances of the state, and pursued by the
authority; or by vesting it ostensibly in one man, subject, in Consuls, of making a division of the government between
whole or in part, to the control and co-operation of others, them. The patricians engaged in a perpetual struggle with the
in the capacity of counsellors to him. Of the first, the two plebeians for the preservation of their ancient authorities and
Consuls of Rome may serve as an example; of the last, we *New York has no council except for the single purpose of
shall find examples in the constitutions of several of the States. appointing to offices; New Jersey has a council whom the
New York and New Jersey, if I recollect right, are the only governor may consult. But I think, from the terms of the
States which have intrusted the executive authority wholly to constitution, their resolutions do not bind him.
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dignities; the Consuls, who were generally chosen out of the country, consisting of a plurality of persons, they might im-
former body, were commonly united by the personal interest pede or frustrate the most important measures of the govern-
they had in the defense of the privileges of their order. In ment, in the most critical emergencies of the state. And what
addition to this motive of union, after the arms of the repub- is still worse, they might split the community into the most
lic had considerably expanded the bounds of its empire, it violent and irreconcilable factions, adhering differently to the
became an established custom with the Consuls to divide the different individuals who composed the magistracy.
administration between themselves by lot one of them re- Men often oppose a thing, merely because they have had no
maining at Rome to govern the city and its environs, the other agency in planning it, or because it may have been planned by
taking the command in the more distant provinces. This ex- those whom they dislike. But if they have been consulted, and
pedient must, no doubt, have had great influence in prevent- have happened to disapprove, opposition then becomes, in their
ing those collisions and rivalships which might otherwise have estimation, an indispensable duty of self-love. They seem to
embroiled the peace of the republic. think themselves bound in honor, and by all the motives of
But quitting the dim light of historical research, attaching personal infallibility, to defeat the success of what has been re-
ourselves purely to the dictates of reason and good se se, we solved upon contrary to their sentiments. Men of upright, be-
shall discover much greater cause to reject than to approve the nevolent tempers have too many opportunities of remarking,
idea of plurality in the Executive, under any modification with horror, to what desperate lengths this disposition is some-
whatever. times carried, and how often the great interests of society are
Wherever two or more persons are engaged in any com- sacrificed to the vanity, to the conceit, and to the obstinacy of
mon enterprise or pursuit, there is always danger of difference individuals, who have credit enough to make their passions
of opinion. If it be a public trust or office, in which they are and their caprices interesting to mankind. Perhaps the question
clothed with equal dignity and authority, there is peculiar now before the public may, in its consequences, afford melan-
danger of personal emulation and even animosity. From ei- choly proofs of the effects of this despicable frailty, or rather
ther, and especially from all these causes, the most bitter dis- detestable vice, in the human character.
sensions are apt to spring. Whenever these happen, they lessen Upon the principles of a free government, inconveniences
the respectability, weaken the authority, and distract the plans from the source just mentioned must necessarily be submit-
and operation of those whom they divide. If they should ted to in the formation of the legislature; but it is unneces-
unfortunately assail the supreme executive magistracy of a sary, and therefore unwise, to introduce them into the consti-
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tution of the Executive.It is here too that they may be most constitutionally necessary to the operations of the ostensible
pernicious. In the legislature, promptitude of decision is Executive. An artful cabal in that council would be able to
oftener an evil than a benefit. The differences of opinion, distract and to enervate the whole system of administration.
and the jarrings of parties in that department of the govern- If no such cabal should exist, the mere diversity of views and
ment, though they may sometimes obstruct salutary plans, opinions would alone be sufficient to tincture the exercise of
yet often promote deliberation and circumspection, and serve the executive authority with a spirit of habitual feebleness and
to check excesses in the majority. When a resolution too is dilatoriness.
once taken, the opposition must be at an end. That resolu- But one of the weightiest objections to a plurality in the Ex-
tion is a law, and resistance to it punishable. But no favorable ecutive, and which lies as much against the last as the first plan,
circumstances palliate or atone for the disadvantages of dis- is, that it tends to conceal faults and destroy responsibility. Re-
sension in the executive department. Here, they are pure and sponsibility is of two kinds to censure and to punishment.
unmixed. There is no point at which they cease to operate. The first is the more important of the two, especially in an
They serve to embarrass and weaken the execution of the plan elective office. Man, in public trust, will much oftener act in
or measure to which they relate, from the first step to the such a manner as to render him unworthy of being any longer
final conclusion of it. They constantly counteract those quali- trusted, than in such a manner as to make him obnoxious to
ties in the Executive which are the most necessary ingredients legal punishment. But the multiplication of the Executive
in its composition, vigor and expedition, and this without adds to the difficulty of detection in either case. It often be-
anycounterbalancing good. In the conduct of war, in which comes impossible, amidst mutual accusations, to determine
the energy of the Executive is the bulwark of the national on whom the blame or the punishment of a pernicious mea-
security, every thing would be to be apprehended from its sure, or series of pernicious measures, ought really to fall. It is
plurality. shifted from one to another with so much dexterity, and un-
It must be confessed that these observations apply with prin- der such plausible appearances, that the public opinion is left
cipal weight to the first case supposed that is, to a plurality of in suspense about the real author. The circumstances which
magistrates of equal dignity and authority a scheme, the ad- may have led to any national miscarriage or misfortune are
vocates for which are not likely to form a numerous sect; but sometimes so complicated that, where there are a number of
they apply, though not with equal, yet with considerable actors who may have had different degrees and kinds of agency,
weight to the project of a council, whose concurrence is made though we may clearly see upon the whole that there has been
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mismanagement, yet it may be impracticable to pronounce to the Executive tends to deprive the people of the two greatest
whose account the evil which may have been incurred is truly securities they can have for the faithful exercise of any del-
chargeable. “I was overruled by my council. The council were egated power, first, the restraints of public opinion, which
so divided in their opinions that it was impossible to obtain lose their efficacy, as well on account of the division of the
any better resolution on the point.’’ These and similar pretexts censure attendant on bad measures among a number, as on
are constantly at hand, whether true or false. And who is there account of the uncertainty on whom it ought to fall; and,
that will either take the trouble or incur the odium, of a strict secondly, the opportunity of discovering with facility and clear-
scrunity into the secret springs of the transaction? Should there ness the misconduct of the persons they trust, in order either
be found a citizen zealous enough to undertake the unpromis- to their removal from office or to their actual punishment in
ing task, if there happen to be collusion between the parties cases which admit of it.
concerned, how easy it is to clothe the circumstances with so In England, the king is a perpetual magistrate; and it is a
much ambiguity, as to render it uncertain what was the precise maxim which has obtained for the sake of the pub lic peace,
conduct of any of those parties? that he is unaccountable for his administration, and his per-
In the single instance in which the governor of this State is son sacred. Nothing, therefore, can be wiser in that kingdom,
coupled with a council that is, in the appointment to offices, than to annex to the king a constitutional council, who may
we have seen the mischiefs of it in the view now under con- be responsible to the nation for the advice they give. Without
sideration. Scandalous appointments to important offices have this, there would be no responsibility whatever in the execu-
been made. Some cases, indeed, have been so flagrant that all tive department an idea inadmissible in a free government.
parties have agreed in the impropriety of the thing. When But even there the king is not bound by the resolutions of his
inquiry has been made, the blame has been laid by the gover- council, though they are answerable for the advice they give.
nor on the members of the council, who, on their part, have He is the absolute master of his own conduct in the exercise
charged it upon his nomination; while the people remain al- of his office, and may observe or disregard the counsel given
together at a loss to determine, by whose influence their in- to him at his sole discretion.
terests have been committed to hands so unqualified and so But in a republic, where every magistrate ought to be per-
manifestly improper. In tenderness to individuals, I forbear sonally responsible for his behavior in office the reason which
to descend to particulars. in the British Constitution dictates the propriety of a coun-
It is evident from these considerations, that the plurality of cil, not only ceases to apply, but turns against the institution.
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In the monarchy of Great Britain, it furnishes a substitute for must be more formidable to liberty, than the credit and in-
the prohibited responsibility of the chief magistrate, which fluence of either of them separately. When power, there-
serves in some degree as a hostage to the national justice for fore, is placed in the hands of so small a number of men, as
his good behavior. In the American republic, it would serve to admit of their interests and views being easily combined
to destroy, or would greatly diminish, the intended and nec- in a common enterprise, by an artful leader, it becomes more
essary responsibility of the Chief Magistrate himself. liable to abuse, and more dangerous when abused, than if it
The idea of a council to the Executive, which has so gener- be lodged in the hands of one man; who, from the very
ally obtained in the State constitutions, has been derived from circumstance of his being alone, will be more narrowly
that maxim of republican jealousy which considers power as watched and more readily suspected, and who cannot unite
safer in the hands of a number of men than of a single man. If so great a mass of influence as when he is associated with
the maxim should be admitted to be applicable to the case, I others. The Decemvirs of Rome, whose name denotes their
should contend that the advantage on that side would not number,* were more to be dreaded in their usurpation than
counterbalance the numerous disadvantages on the opposite any one of them would have been. No person would think
side. But I do not think the rule at all applicable to the execu- of proposing an Executive much more numerous than that
tive power. I clearly concur in opinion, in this particular, with body; from six to a dozen have been suggested for the num-
a writer whom the celebrated Junius pronounces to be “deep, ber of the council. The extreme of these numbers, is not
solid, and ingenious,” that “the executive power is more easily too great for an easy combination; and from such a combi-
confined when it is one’’;* that it is far more safe there should nation America would have more to fear, than from the
be a single object for the jealousy and watchfulness of the ambition of any single individual. A council to a magis-
people; and, in a word, that all multiplication of the Execu- trate, who is himself responsible for what he does, are gen-
tive is rather dangerous than friendly to liberty. erally nothing better than a clog upon his good intentions,
A little consideration will satisfy us, that the species of are often the instruments and accomplices of his bad and
security sought for in the multiplication of the Executive, is are almost always a cloak to his faults.
nattainable. Numbers must be so great as to render combi- I forbear to dwell upon the subject of expense; though it be
nation difficult, or they are rather a source of danger than of evident that if the council should be numerous enough to
security. The united credit and influence of several individuals answer the principal end aimed at by the institution, the sala-
*De Lolme. *Ten.
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The Federalist Papers
ries of the members, who must be drawn from their homes This is the second of two slightly different versions of
to reside at the seat of government, would form an item in No. 70.
the catalogue of public expenditures too serious to be incurred
for an object of equivocal utility. I will only add that, prior to FEDERALIST No. 70
the appearance of the Constitution, I rarely met with an in-
telligent man from any of the States, who did not admit, as The Executive Department Further Considered
the result of experience, that the unity of the executive of this
State was one of the best of the distinguishing features of our From the New York Packet.
constitution.
Tuesday, March 18, 1788.
Publius.
HAMILTON

To the People of the State of New York:

There is an idea, which is not without its advocates, that a


vigorous Executive is inconsistent with the genius of republi-
can government. The enlightened well-wishers to this species
of government must at least hope that the supposition is des-
titute of foundation; since they can never admit its truth,
without at the same time admitting the condemnation of
their own principles. Energy in the Executive is a leading char-
acter in the definition of good government. It is essential to
the protection of the community against foreign attacks; it is
not less essential to the steady administration of the laws; to
the protection of property against those irregular and high-
handed combinations which sometimes interrupt the ordi-
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nary course of justice; to the security of liberty against the sense are, first, a due dependence on the people, secondly, a
enterprises and assaults of ambition, of faction, and of anar- due responsibility.
chy. Every man the least conversant in Roman story, knows Those politicians and statesmen who have been the most
how often that republic was obliged to take refuge in the celebrated for the soundness of their principles and for the
absolute power of a single man, under the formidable title of justice of their views, have declared in favor of a single Execu-
Dictator, as well against the intrigues of ambitious individu- tive and a numerous legislature. They have with great propri-
als who aspired to the tyranny, and the seditions of whole ety, considered energy as the most necessary qualification of
classes of the community whose conduct threatened the ex- the former, and have regarded this as most applicable to power
istence of all government, as against the invasions of external in a single hand, while they have, with equal propriety, con-
enemies who menaced the conquest and destruction of Rome. sidered the latter as best adapted to deliberation and wisdom,
There can be no need, however, to multiply arguments or and best calculated to conciliate the confidence of the people
examples on this head. A feeble Executive implies a feeble and to secure their privileges and interests.
execution of the government. A feeble execution is but an- That unity is conducive to energy will not be disputed.
other phrase for a bad execution; and a government ill ex- Decision, activity, secrecy, and despatch will generally charac-
ecuted, whatever it may be in theory, must be, in practice, a terize the proceedings of one man in a much more eminent
bad government. degree than the proceedings of any greater number; and in
Taking it for granted, therefore, that all men of sense will proportion as the number is increased, these qualities will be
agree in the necessity of an energetic Executive, it will only diminished.
remain to inquire, what are the ingredients which constitute This unity may be destroyed in two ways: either by vesting
this energy? How far can they be combined with those other the power in two or more magistrates of equal dignity and
ingredients which constitute safety in the republican sense? authority; or by vesting it ostensibly in one man, subject, in
And how far does this combination characterize the plan which whole or in part, to the control and co-operation of others,
has been reported by the convention? in the capacity of counsellors to him. Of the first, the two
The ingredients which constitute energy in the Executive Consuls of Rome may serve as an example; of the last, we
are, first, unity; secondly, duration; thirdly, an adequate pro- shall find examples in the constitutions of several of the States.
vision for its support; fourthly, competent powers. New York and New Jersey, if I recollect right, are the only
The ingredients which constitute safety in the repub lican States which have intrusted the executive authority wholly to
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The Federalist Papers
single men.* Both these methods of destroying the unity of dignities; the Consuls, who were generally chosen out of the
the Executive have their partisans; but the votaries of an ex- former body, were commonly united by the personal interest
ecutive council are the most numerous. They are both liable, they had in the defense of the privileges of their order. In
if not to equal, to similar objections, and may in most lights addition to this motive of union, after the arms of the repub-
be examined in conjunction. lic had considerably expanded the bounds of its empire, it
The experience of other nations will afford little instruc- became an established custom with the Consuls to divide the
tion on this head. As far, however, as it teaches any thing, it administration between themselves by lot one of them re-
teaches us not to be enamoured of plurality in the Executive. maining at Rome to govern the city and its environs, the other
We have seen that the Achaeans, on an experiment of two taking the command in the more distant provinces. This ex-
Praetors, were induced to abolish one. The Roman history pedient must, no doubt, have had great influence in prevent-
records many instances of mischiefs to the republic from the ing those collisions and rivalships which might otherwise have
dissensions between the Consuls, and between the military embroiled the peace of the republic.
Tribunes, who were at times substituted for the Consuls. But But quitting the dim light of historical research, attaching
it gives us no specimens of any peculiar advantages derived to ourselves purely to the dictates of reason and good se se, we
the state from the circumstance of the plurality of those mag- shall discover much greater cause to reject than to approve the
istrates. That the dissensions between them were not more idea of plurality in the Executive, under any modification
frequent or more fatal, is a matter of astonishment, until we whatever.
advert to the singular position in which the republic was al- Wherever two or more persons are engaged in any com-
most continually placed, and to the prudent policy pointed mon enterprise or pursuit, there is always danger of difference
out by the circumstances of the state, and pursued by the of opinion. If it be a public trust or office, in which they are
Consuls, of making a division of the government between clothed with equal dignity and authority, there is peculiar
them. The patricians engaged in a perpetual struggle with the danger of personal emulation and even animosity. From ei-
plebeians for the preservation of their ancient authorities and ther, and especially from all these causes, the most bitter dis-
*New York has no council except for the single purpose of sensions are apt to spring. Whenever these happen, they lessen
appointing to offices; New Jersey has a council whom the the respectability, weaken the authority, and distract the plans
governor may consult. But I think, from the terms of the and operation of those whom they divide. If they should
constitution, their resolutions do not bind him. unfortunately assail the supreme executive magistracy of a
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The Federalist Papers
country, consisting of a plurality of persons, they might im- tution of the Executive.It is here too that they may be most
pede or frustrate the most important measures of the govern- pernicious. In the legislature, promptitude of decision is
ment, in the most critical emergencies of the state. And what oftener an evil than a benefit. The differences of opinion, and
is still worse, they might split the community into the most the jarrings of parties in that department of the government,
violent and irreconcilable factions, adhering differently to the though they may sometimes obstruct salutary plans, yet of-
different individuals who composed the magistracy. ten promote deliberation and circumspection, and serve to
Men often oppose a thing, merely because they have had no check excesses in the majority. When a resolution too is once
agency in planning it, or because it may have been planned by taken, the opposition must be at an end. That resolution is a
those whom they dislike. But if they have been consulted, and law, and resistance to it punishable. But no favorable circum-
have happened to disapprove, opposition then becomes, in their stances palliate or atone for the disadvantages of dissension in
estimation, an indispensable duty of self-love. They seem to the executive department. Here, they are pure and unmixed.
think themselves bound in honor, and by all the motives of There is no point at which they cease to operate. They serve
personal infallibility, to defeat the success of what has been re- to embarrass and weaken the execution of the plan or mea-
solved upon contrary to their sentiments. Men of upright, be- sure to which they relate, from the first step to the final con-
nevolent tempers have too many opportunities of remarking, clusion of it. They constantly counteract those qualities in
with horror, to what desperate lengths this disposition is some- the Executive which are the most necessary ingredients in its
times carried, and how often the great interests of society are composition, vigor and expedition, and this without
sacrificed to the vanity, to the conceit, and to the obstinacy of anycounterbalancing good. In the conduct of war, in which
individuals, who have credit enough to make their passions the energy of the Executive is the bulwark of the national
and their caprices interesting to mankind. Perhaps the question security, every thing would be to be apprehended from its
now before the public may, in its consequences, afford melan- plurality.
choly proofs of the effects of this despicable frailty, or rather It must be confessed that these observations apply with prin-
detestable vice, in the human character. cipal weight to the first case supposed that is, to a plurality of
Upon the principles of a free government, inconveniences magistrates of equal dignity and authority a scheme, the ad-
from the source just mentioned must necessarily be submit- vocates for which are not likely to form a numerous sect; but
ted to in the formation of the legislature; but it is unneces- they apply, though not with equal, yet with considerable
sary, and therefore unwise, to introduce them into the consti- weight to the project of a council, whose concurrence is made
321
The Federalist Papers
constitutionally necessary to the operations of the ostensible that there has been mismanagement, yet it may be impracti-
Executive. An artful cabal in that council would be able to cable to pronounce to whose account the evil which may have
distract and to enervate the whole system of administration. been incurred is truly chargeable. “I was overruled by my coun-
If no such cabal should exist, the mere diversity of views and cil. The council were so divided in their opinions that it was
opinions would alone be sufficient to tincture the exercise of impossible to obtain any better resolution on the point.’’ These
the executive authority with a spirit of habitual feebleness and and similar pretexts are constantly at hand, whether true or
dilatoriness. false. And who is there that will either take the trouble or incur
But one of the weightiest objections to a plurality in the Ex- the odium, of a strict scrunity into the secret springs of the
ecutive, and which lies as much against the last as the first plan, transaction? Should there be found a citizen zealous enough to
is, that it tends to conceal faults and destroy responsibility. undertake the unpromising task, if there happen to be collu-
Responsibility is of two kinds to censure and to punish- sion between the parties concerned, how easy it is to clothe the
ment. The first is the more important of the two, especially circumstances with so much ambiguity, as to render it uncer-
in an elective office. Man, in public trust, will much oftener tain what was the precise conduct of any of those parties?
act in such a manner as to render him unworthy of being any In the single instance in which the governor of this State is
longer trusted, than in such a manner as to make him obnox- coupled with a council that is, in the appointment to offices,
ious to legal punishment. But the multiplication of the Ex- we have seen the mischiefs of it in the view now under con-
ecutive adds to the difficulty of detection in either case. It sideration. Scandalous appointments to important offices have
often becomes impossible, amidst mutual accusations, to de- been made. Some cases, indeed, have been so flagrant that all
termine on whom the blame or the punishment of a perni- parties have agreed in the impropriety of the thing. When
cious measure, or series of pernicious measures, ought really inquiry has been made, the blame has been laid by the gover-
to fall. It is shifted from one to another with so much dexter- nor on the members of the council, who, on their part, have
ity, and under such plausible appearances, that the public opin- charged it upon his nomination; while the people remain al-
ion is left in suspense about the real author. The circumstances together at a loss to determine, by whose influence their in-
which may have led to any national miscarriage or misfor- terests have been committed to hands so unqualified and so
tune are sometimes so complicated that, where there are a manifestly improper. In tenderness to individuals, I forbear
number of actors who may have had different degrees and to descend to particulars.
kinds of agency, though we may clearly see upon the whole It is evident from these considerations, that the plurality of
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The Federalist Papers
the Executive tends to deprive the people of the two greatest In the monarchy of Great Britain, it furnishes a substitute for
securities they can have for the faithful exercise of any del- the prohibited responsibility of the chief magistrate, which
egated power, first, the restraints of public opinion, which serves in some degree as a hostage to the national justice for
lose their efficacy, as well on account of the division of the his good behavior. In the American republic, it would serve
censure attendant on bad measures among a number, as on to destroy, or would greatly diminish, the intended and nec-
account of the uncertainty on whom it ought to fall; and, essary responsibility of the Chief Magistrate himself.
secondly, the opportunity of discovering with facility and clear- The idea of a council to the Executive, which has so gener-
ness the misconduct of the persons they trust, in order either ally obtained in the State constitutions, has been derived from
to their removal from office or to their actual punishment in that maxim of republican jealousy which considers power as
cases which admit of it. safer in the hands of a number of men than of a single man. If
In England, the king is a perpetual magistrate; and it is a the maxim should be admitted to be applicable to the case, I
maxim which has obtained for the sake of the pub lic peace, should contend that the advantage on that side would not
that he is unaccountable for his administration, and his per- counterbalance the numerous disadvantages on the opposite
son sacred. Nothing, therefore, can be wiser in that kingdom, side. But I do not think the rule at all applicable to the execu-
than to annex to the king a constitutional council, who may tive power. I clearly concur in opinion, in this particular, with
be responsible to the nation for the advice they give. Without a writer whom the celebrated Junius pronounces to be “deep,
this, there would be no responsibility whatever in the execu- solid, and ingenious,” that “the executive power is more easily
tive department an idea inadmissible in a free government. confined when it is one’’;* that it is far more safe there should
But even there the king is not bound by the resolutions of his be a single object for the jealousy and watchfulness of the
council, though they are answerable for the advice they give. people; and, in a word, that all multiplication of the Execu-
He is the absolute master of his own conduct in the exercise tive is rather dangerous than friendly to liberty.
of his office, and may observe or disregard the counsel given A little consideration will satisfy us, that the species of secu-
to him at his sole discretion. rity sought for in the multiplication of the Executive, is
But in a republic, where every magistrate ought to be per- nattainable. Numbers must be so great as to render combina-
sonally responsible for his behavior in office the reason which tion difficult, or they are rather a source of danger than of
in the British Constitution dictates the propriety of a coun- security. The united credit and influence of several individu-
cil, not only ceases to apply, but turns against the institution. *De Lolme.
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The Federalist Papers
als must be more formidable to liberty, than the credit and to reside at the seat of government, would form an item in
influence of either of them separately. When power, there- the catalogue of public expenditures too serious to be incurred
fore, is placed in the hands of so small a number of men, as to for an object of equivocal utility. I will only add that, prior to
admit of their interests and views being easily combined in a the appearance of the Constitution, I rarely met with an in-
common enterprise, by an artful leader, it becomes more li- telligent man from any of the States, who did not admit, as
able to abuse, and more dangerous when abused, than if it be the result of experience, that the unity of the executive of this
lodged in the hands of one man; who, from the very circum- State was one of the best of the distinguishing features of our
stance of his being alone, will be more narrowly watched and constitution.
more readily suspected, and who cannot unite so great a mass
of influence as when he is associated with others. The Publius.
Decemvirs of Rome, whose name denotes their number,* were
more to be dreaded in their usurpation than any one of them
would have been. No person would think of proposing an
Executive much more numerous than that body; from six to
a dozen have been suggested for the number of the council.
The extreme of these numbers, is not too great for an easy
combination; and from such a combination America would
have more to fear, than from the ambition of any single indi-
vidual. A council to a magistrate, who is himself responsible
for what he does, are generally nothing better than a clog upon
his good intentions, are often the instruments and accom-
plices of his bad and are almost always a cloak to his faults.
I forbear to dwell upon the subject of expense; though it be
evident that if the council should be numerous enough to
answer the principal end aimed at by the institution, the sala-
ries of the members, who must be drawn from their homes
*Ten.
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The Federalist Papers
FEDERALIST No. 71 This remark is not less applicable to a political privilege, or
honor, or trust, than to any article of ordinary property. The
The Duration in Office of the Executive inference from it is, that a man acting in the capacity of chief
magistrate, under a consciousness that in a very short time he
From the New York Packet. must lay down his office, will be apt to feel himself too little
interested in it to hazard any material censure or perplexity,
Tuesday, March 18, 1788. from the independent exertion of his powers, or from en-
countering the ill-humors, however transient, which may hap-
HAMILTON pen to prevail, either in a considerable part of the society it-
self, or even in a predominant faction in the legislative body.
To the People of the State of New York: If the case should only be, that he might lay it down, unless
continued by a new choice, and if he should be desirous of
Duration in office has been mentioned as the second requisite being continued, his wishes, conspiring with his fears, would
to the energy of the Executive authority. This has relation to tend still more powerfully to corrupt his integrity, or debase
two objects: to the personal firmness of the executive magis- his fortitude. In either case, feebleness and irresolution must
trate, in the employment of his constitutional powers; and to be the characteristics of the station.
the stability of the system of administration which may have There are some who would be inclined to regard the servile
been adopted under his auspices. With regard to the first, it pliancy of the Executive to a prevailing current, either in the
must be evident, that the longer the duration in office, the community or in the legislature, as its best recommendation.
greater will be the probability of obtaining so important an But such men entertain very crude notions, as well of the
advantage. It is a general principle of human nature, that a purposes for which government was instituted, as of the true
man will be interested in whatever he possesses, in propor- means by which the public happiness may be promoted. The
tion to the firmness or precariousness of the tenure by which republican principle demands that the deliberate sense of the
he holds it; will be less attached to what he holds by a mo- community should govern the conduct of those to whom
mentary or uncertain title, than to what he enjoys by a du- they intrust the management of their affairs; but it does not
rable or certain title; and, of course, will be willing to risk require an unqualified complaisance to every sudden breeze
more for the sake of the one, than for the sake of the other. of passion, or to every transient impulse which the people
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may receive from the arts of men, who flatter their prejudices the people may be entirely neutral. In either supposition, it is
to betray their interests. It is a just observation, that the people certainly desirable that the Executive should be in a situation
commonly intend the public good. This often applies to their to dare to act his own opinion with vigor and decision.
very errors. But their good sense would despise the adulator The same rule which teaches the propriety of a partition
who should pretend that they always reason right about the between the various branches of power, teaches us likewise
means of promoting it. They know from experience that they that this partition ought to be so contrived as to render the
sometimes err; and the wonder is that they so seldom err as one independent of the other. To what purpose separate the
they do, beset, as they continually are, by the wiles of para- executive or the judiciary from the legislative, if both the ex-
sites and sycophants, by the snares of the ambitious, the ava- ecutive and the judiciary are so constituted as to be at the
ricious, the desperate, by the artifices of men who possess absolute devotion of the legislative? Such a separation must
their confidence more than they deserve it, and of those who be merely nominal, and incapable of producing the ends for
seek to possess rather than to deserve it. When occasions present which it was established. It is one thing to be subordinate to
themselves, in which the interests of the people are at variance the laws, and another to be dependent on the legislative body.
with their inclinations, it is the duty of the persons whom The first comports with, the last violates, the fundamental
they have appointed to be the guardians of those interests, to principles of good government; and, whatever may be the
withstand the temporary delusion, in order to give them time forms of the Constitution, unites all power in the same hands.
and opportunity for more cool and sedate reflection. Instances The tendency of the legislative authority to absorb every other,
might be cited in which a conduct of this kind has saved the has been fully displayed and illustrated by examples in some
people from very fatal consequences of their own mistakes, preceding numbers. In governments purely republican, this
and has procured lasting monuments of their gratitude to the tendency is almost irresistible. The representatives of the
men who had courage and magnanimity enough to serve them people, in a popular assembly, seem sometimes to fancy that
at the peril of their displeasure. they are the people themselves, and betray strong symptoms
But however inclined we might be to insist upon an un- of impatience and disgust at the least sign of opposition from
bounded complaisance in the Executive to the inclinations of any other quarter; as if the exercise of its rights, by either the
the people, we can with no propriety contend for a like com- executive or judiciary, were a breach of their privilege and an
plaisance to the humors of the legislature. The latter may some- outrage to their dignity. They often appear disposed to exert
times stand in opposition to the former, and at other times an imperious control over the other departments; and as they
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commonly have the people on their side, they always act with proposed; but it would contribute towards it in a degree which
such momentum as to make it very difficult for the other would have a material influence upon the spirit and character
members of the government to maintain the balance of the of the government. Between the commencement and termi-
Constitution. nation of such a period, there would always be a considerable
It may perhaps be asked, how the shortness of the duration interval, in which the prospect of annihilation would be suf-
in office can affect the independence of the Executive on the ficiently remote, not to have an improper effect upon the
legislature, unless the one were possessed of the power of ap- conduct of a man indued with a tolerable portion of forti-
pointing or displacing the other. One answer to this inquiry tude; and in which he might reasonably promise himself, that
may be drawn from the principle already remarked that is, there would be time enough before it arrived, to make the
from the slender interest a man is apt to take in a short-lived community sensible of the propriety of the measures he might
advantage, and the little inducement it affords him to expose incline to pursue. Though it be probable that, as he approached
himself, on account of it, to any considerable inconvenience the moment when the public were, by a new election, to sig-
or hazard. Another answer, perhaps more obvious, though nify their sense of his conduct, his confidence, and with it his
not more conclusive, will result from the consideration of firmness, would decline; yet both the one and the other would
the influence of the legislative body over the people; which derive support from the opportunities which his previous
might be employed to prevent the re-election of a man who, continuance in the station had afforded him, of establishing
by an upright resistance to any sinister project of that body, himself in the esteem and good-will of his constituents. He
should have made himself obnoxious to its resentment. might, then, hazard with safety, in proportion to the proofs
It may be asked also, whether a duration of four years would he had given of his wisdom and integrity, and to the title he
answer the end proposed; and if it would not, whether a less had acquired to the respect and attachment of his fellow-citi-
period, which would at least be recommended by greater se- zens. As, on the one hand, a duration of four years will con-
curity against ambitious designs, would not, for that reason, tribute to the firmness of the Executive in a sufficient degree
be preferable to a longer period, which was, at the same time, to render it a very valuable ingredient in the composition; so,
too short for the purpose of inspiring the desired firmness on the other, it is not enough to justify any alarm for the
and independence of the magistrate. public liberty. If a British House of Commons, from the most
It cannot be affirmed, that a duration of four years, or any feeble beginnings, from the mere power of assenting or disagree-
other limited duration, would completely answer the end ing to the imposition of a new tax, have, by rapid strides, re-
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duced the prerogatives of the crown and the privileges of the FEDERALIST No. 72
nobility within the limits they conceived to be compatible
with the principles of a free government, while they raised The Same Subject Continued, and Re-Eligibility of the
themselves to the rank and consequence of a coequal branch Executive Considered
of the legislature; if they have been able, in one instance, to
abolish both the royalty and the aristocracy, and to overturn From the New York Packet.
all the ancient establishments, as well in the Church as State;
if they have been able, on a recent occasion, to make the Friday, March 21, 1788.
monarch tremble at the prospect of an innovation* attempted
by them, what would be to be feared from an elective magis- HAMILTON
trate of four years’ duration, with the confined authorities of
a President of the United States? What, but that he might be To the People of the State of New York:
unequal to the task which the Constitution assigns him? I
shall only add, that if his duration be such as to leave a doubt The administration of government, in its largest sense, com-
of his firmness, that doubt is inconsistent with a jealousy of prehends all the operations of the body politic, whether legis-
his encroachments. lative, executive, or judiciary; but in its most usual, and per-
haps its most precise signification. it is limited to executive
Publius. details, and falls peculiarly within the province of the execu-
tive department. The actual conduct of foreign negotiations,
the preparatory plans of finance, the application and disburse-
ment of the public moneys in conformity to the general ap-
propriations of the legislature, the arrangement of the army
and navy, the directions of the operations of war, these, and
*This was the case with respect to Mr. Fox’s India bill, which other matters of a like nature, constitute what seems to be
was carried in the House of Commons, and rejected in the most properly understood by the administration of govern-
House of Lords, to the entire satisfaction, as it is said, of the ment. The persons, therefore, to whose immediate manage-
people. ment these different matters are committed, ought to be con-
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sidered as the assistants or deputies of the chief magistrate, conduct, to continue him in his station, in order to prolong
and on this account, they ought to derive their offices from the utility of his talents and virtues, and to secure to the gov-
his appointment, at least from his nomination, and ought to ernment the advantage of permanency in a wise system of
be subject to his superintendence. This view of the subject administration.
will at once suggest to us the intimate connection between Nothing appears more plausible at first sight, nor more ill-
the duration of the executive magistrate in office and the sta- founded upon close inspection, than a scheme which in rela-
bility of the system of administration. To reverse and undo tion to the present point has had some respectable advocates,
what has been done by a predecessor, is very often considered I mean that of continuing the chief magistrate in office for a
by a successor as the best proof he can give of his own capac- certain time, and then excluding him from it, either for a
ity and desert; and in addition to this propensity, where the limited period or forever after. This exclusion, whether tem-
alteration has been the result of public choice, the person sub- porary or perpetual, would have nearly the same effects, and
stituted is warranted in supposing that the dismission of his these effects would be for the most part rather pernicious
predecessor has proceeded from a dislike to his measures; and than salutary.
that the less he resembles him, the more he will recommend One ill effect of the exclusion would be a diminution of
himself to the favor of his constituents. These considerations, the inducements to good behavior. There are few men who
and the influence of personal confidences and attachments, would not feel much less zeal in the discharge of a duty when
would be likely to induce every new President to promote a they were conscious that the advantages of the station with
change of men to fill the subordinate stations; and these causes which it was connected must be relinquished at a determinate
together could not fail to occasion a disgraceful and ruinous period, than when they were permitted to entertain a hope of
mutability in the administration of the government. obtaining, by meriting, a continuance of them. This position
With a positive duration of considerable extent, I connect will not be disputed so long as it is admitted that the desire of
the circumstance of re-eligibility. The first is necessary to give reward is one of the strongest incentives of human conduct;
to the officer himself the inclination and the resolution to act or that the best security for the fidelity of mankind is to make
his part well, and to the community time and leisure to ob- their interests coincide with their duty. Even the love of fame,
serve the tendency of his measures, and thence to form an the ruling passion of the noblest minds, which would prompt
experimental estimate of their merits. The last is necessary to a man to plan and undertake extensive and arduous enter-
enable the people, when they see reason to approve of his prises for the public benefit, requiring considerable time to
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mature and perfect them, if he could flatter himself with the inevitable annihilation, his avarice would be likely to get the
prospect of being allowed to finish what he had begun, would, victory over his caution, his vanity, or his ambition.
on the contrary, deter him from the undertaking, when he An ambitious man, too, when he found himself seated on
foresaw that he must quit the scene before he could accom- the summit of his country’s honors, when he looked forward
plish the work, and must commit that, together with his own to the time at which he must descend from the exalted emi-
reputation, to hands which might be unequal or unfriendly nence for ever, and reflected that no exertion of merit on his
to the task. The most to be expected from the generality of part could save him from the unwelcome reverse; such a man,
men, in such a situation, is the negative merit of not doing in such a situation, would be much more violently tempted to
harm, instead of the positive merit of doing good. embrace a favorable conjuncture for attempting the prolonga-
Another ill effect of the exclusion would be the temptation tion of his power, at every personal hazard, than if he had the
to sordid views, to peculation, and, in some instances, to usur- probability of answering the same end by doing his duty.
pation. An avaricious man, who might happen to fill the of- Would it promote the peace of the community, or the sta-
fice, looking forward to a time when he must at all events bility of the government to have half a dozen men who had
yield up the emoluments he enjoyed, would feel a propen- had credit enough to be raised to the seat of the supreme
sity, not easy to be resisted by such a man, to make the best magistracy, wandering among the people like discontented
use of the opportunity he enjoyed while it lasted, and might ghosts, and sighing for a place which they were destined never
not scruple to have recourse to the most corrupt expedients more to possess?
to make the harvest as abundant as it was transitory; though A third ill effect of the exclusion would be, the depriving
the same man, probably, with a different prospect before him, the community of the advantage of the experience gained by
might content himself with the regular perquisites of his situ- the chief magistrate in the exercise of his office. That experi-
ation, and might even be unwilling to risk the consequences ence is the parent of wisdom, is an adage the truth of which is
of an abuse of his opportunities. His avarice might be a guard recognized by the wisest as well as the simplest of mankind.
upon his avarice. Add to this that the same man might be What more desirable or more essential than this quality in the
vain or ambitious, as well as avaricious. And if he could ex- governors of nations? Where more desirable or more essential
pect to prolong his honors by his good conduct, he might than in the first magistrate of a nation? Can it be wise to put
hesitate to sacrifice his appetite for them to his appetite for this desirable and essential quality under the ban of the Con-
gain. But with the prospect before him of approaching an stitution, and to declare that the moment it is acquired, its
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possessor shall be compelled to abandon the station in which sures. It is not generally to be expected, that men will vary and
it was acquired, and to which it is adapted? This, neverthe- measures remain uniform. The contrary is the usual course of
less, is the precise import of all those regulations which ex- things. And we need not be apprehensive that there will be too
clude men from serving their country, by the choice of their much stability, while there is even the option of changing; nor
fellowcitizens, after they have by a course of service fitted them- need we desire to prohibit the people from continuing their
selves for doing it with a greater degree of utility. confidence where they think it may be safely placed, and where,
A fourth ill effect of the exclusion would be the banishing by constancy on their part, they may obviate the fatal inconve-
men from stations in which, in certain emergencies of the niences of fluctuating councils and a variable policy.
state, their presence might be of the greatest moment to the These are some of the disadvantages which would flow from
public interest or safety. There is no nation which has not, at the principle of exclusion. They apply most forcibly to the
one period or another, experienced an absolute necessity of scheme of a perpetual exclusion; but when we consider that
the services of particular men in particular situations; perhaps even a partial exclusion would always render the readmission
it would not be too strong to say, to the preservation of its of the person a remote and precarious object, the observa-
political existence. How unwise, therefore, must be every such tions which have been made will apply nearly as fully to one
self-denying ordinance as serves to prohibit a nation from case as to the other.
making use of its own citizens in the manner best suited to its What are the advantages promised to counterbalance these
exigencies and circumstances! Without supposing the personal disadvantages? They are represented to be: 1st, greater indepen-
essentiality of the man, it is evident that a change of the chief dence in the magistrate; 2d, greater security to the people. Unless
magistrate, at the breaking out of a war, or at any similar the exclusion be perpetual, there will be no pretense to infer the
crisis, for another, even of equal merit, would at all times be first advantage. But even in that case, may he have no object
detrimental to the community, inasmuch as it would substi- beyond his present station, to which he may sacrifice his inde-
tute inexperience to experience, and would tend to unhinge pendence? May he have no connections, no friends, for whom
and set afloat the already settled train of the administration. he may sacrifice it? May he not be less willing by a firm con-
A fifth ill effect of the exclusion would be, that it would duct, to make personal enemies, when he acts under the im-
operate as a constitutional interdiction of stability in the ad- pression that a time is fast approaching, on the arrival of which
ministration. By necessitating a change of men, in the first of- he not only may, but must, be exposed to their resentments,
fice of the nation, it would necessitate a mutability of mea- upon an equal, perhaps upon an inferior, footing? It is not an
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easy point to determine whether his independence would be FEDERALIST No. 73
most promoted or impaired by such an arrangement.
As to the second supposed advantage, there is still greater The Provision For The Support of the Executive, and the
reason to entertain doubts concerning it. If the exclusion were Veto Power
to be perpetual, a man of irregular ambition, of whom alone
there could be reason in any case to entertain apprehension, From the New York Packet.
would, with infinite reluctance, yield to the necessity of tak-
ing his leave forever of a post in which his passion for power Friday, March 21, 1788.
and pre-eminence had acquired the force of habit. And if he
had been fortunate or adroit enough to conciliate the good- HAMILTON
will of the people, he might induce them to consider as a very
odious and unjustifiable restraint upon themselves, a provi- To the People of the State of New York:
sion which was calculated to debar them of the right of giv-
ing a fresh proof of their attachment to a favorite. There may The third ingredient towards constituting the vigor of the
be conceived circumstances in which this disgust of the people, executive authority, is an adequate provision for its support.
seconding the thwarted ambition of such a favorite, might It is evident that, without proper attention to this article, the
occasion greater danger to liberty, than could ever reasonably separation of the executive from the legislative department
be dreaded from the possibility of a perpetuation in office, by would be merely nominal and nugatory. The legislature, with
the voluntary suffrages of the community, exercising a con- a discretionary power over the salary and emoluments of the
stitutional privilege. Chief Magistrate, could render him as obsequious to their
There is an excess of refinement in the idea of disabling the will as they might think proper to make him. They might, in
people to continue in office men who had entitled themselves, most cases, either reduce him by famine, or tempt him by
in their opinion, to approbation and confidence; the advan- largesses, to surrender at discretion his judgment to their in-
tages of which are at best speculative and equivocal, and are clinations. These expressions, taken in all the latitude of the
overbalanced by disadvantages far more certain and decisive. terms, would no doubt convey more than is intended. There
are men who could neither be distressed nor won into a sacri-
Publius. fice of their duty; but this stern virtue is the growth of few
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soils; and in the main it will be found that a power over a dence intended for him by the Constitution.
man’s support is a power over his will. If it were necessary to The last of the requisites to energy, which have been enu-
confirm so plain a truth by facts, examples would not be merated, are competent powers. Let us proceed to consider
wanting, even in this country, of the intimidation or seduc- those which are proposed to be vested in the President of the
tion of the Executive by the terrors or allurements of the pe- United States.
cuniary arrangements of the legislative body. The first thing that offers itself to our observation, is the
It is not easy, therefore, to commend too highly the judi- qualified negative of the President upon the acts or resolu-
cious attention which has been paid to this subject in the tions of the two houses of the legislature; or, in other words,
proposed Constitution. It is there provided that “The Presi- his power of returning all bills with objections, to have the
dent of the United States shall, at stated times, receive for his effect of preventing their becoming laws, unless they should
services a compensation which shall neither be increased nor afterwards be ratified by two thirds of each of the component
diminished during the period for which he shall have been members of the legislative body.
elected; and he shall not receive within that period any other The propensity of the legislative department to intrude upon
emolument from the United States, or any of them.’’ It is the rights, and to absorb the powers, of the other depart-
impossible to imagine any provision which would have been ments, has been already suggested and repeated; the insuffi-
more eligible than this. The legislature, on the appointment ciency of a mere parchment delineation of the boundaries of
of a President, is once for all to declare what shall be the com- each, has also been remarked upon; and the necessity of fur-
pensation for his services during the time for which he shall nishing each with constitutional arms for its own defense, has
have been elected. This done, they will have no power to alter been inferred and proved. From these clear and indubitable
it, either by increase or diminution, till a new period of ser- principles results the propriety of a negative, either absolute
vice by a new election commences. They can neither weaken or qualified, in the Executive, upon the acts of the legislative
his fortitude by operating on his necessities, nor corrupt his branches. Without the one or the other, the former would be
integrity by appealing to his avarice. Neither the Union, nor absolutely unable to defend himself against the depredations
any of its members, will be at liberty to give, nor will he be at of the latter. He might gradually be stripped of his authorities
liberty to receive, any other emolument than that which may by successive resolutions, or annihilated by a single vote. And
have been determined by the first act. He can, of course, have in the one mode or the other, the legislative and executive
no pecuniary inducement to renounce or desert the indepen- powers might speedily come to be blended in the same hands.
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If even no propensity had ever discovered itself in the legisla- ment may sometimes hurry it into measures which itself, on
tive body to invade the rights of the Executive, the rules of maturer reflexion, would condemn. The primary inducement
just reasoning and theoretic propriety would of themselves to conferring the power in question upon the Executive is, to
teach us, that the one ought not to be left to the mercy of the enable him to defend himself; the secondary one is to in-
other, but ought to possess a constitutional and effectual power crease the chances in favor of the community against the pass-
of selfdefense. ing of bad laws, through haste, inadvertence, or design. The
But the power in question has a further use. It not only oftener the measure is brought under examination, the greater
serves as a shield to the Executive, but it furnishes an addi- the diversity in the situations of those who are to examine it,
tional security against the enaction of improper laws. It estab- the less must be the danger of those errors which flow from
lishes a salutary check upon the legislative body, calculated to want of due deliberation, or of those missteps which proceed
guard the community against the effects of faction, precipi- from the contagion of some common passion or interest. It
tancy, or of any impulse unfriendly to the public good, which is far less probable, that culpable views of any kind should
may happen to influence a majority of that body. infect all the parts of the government at the same moment
The propriety of a negative has, upon some occasions, been and in relation to the same object, than that they should by
combated by an observation, that it was not to be presumed turns govern and mislead every one of them.
a single man would possess more virtue and wisdom than a It may perhaps be said that the power of preventing bad
number of men; and that unless this presumption should be laws includes that of preventing good ones; and may be used
entertained, it would be improper to give the executive mag- to the one purpose as well as to the other. But this objection
istrate any species of control over the legislative body. will have little weight with those who can properly estimate
But this observation, when examined, will appear rather the mischiefs of that inconstancy and mutability in the laws,
specious than solid. The propriety of the thing does not turn which form the greatest blemish in the character and genius
upon the supposition of superior wisdom or virtue in the of our governments. They will consider every institution cal-
Executive, but upon the supposition that the legislature will culated to restrain the excess of law-making, and to keep things
not be infallible; that the love of power may sometimes be- in the same state in which they happen to be at any given
tray it into a disposition to encroach upon the rights of other period, as much more likely to do good than harm; because it
members of the government; that a spirit of faction may some- is favorable to greater stability in the system of legislation.
times pervert its deliberations; that impressions of the mo- The injury which may possibly be done by defeating a few
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The Federalist Papers
good laws, will be amply compensated by the advantage of of a government wholly and purely republican?
preventing a number of bad ones. It is evident that there would be greater danger of his not
Nor is this all. The superior weight and influence of the using his power when necessary, than of his using it too of-
legislative body in a free government, and the hazard to the ten, or too much. An argument, indeed, against its expedi-
Executive in a trial of strength with that body, afford a satis- ency, has been drawn from this very source. It has been repre-
factory security that the negative would generally be employed sented, on this account, as a power odious in appearance, use-
with great caution; and there would oftener be room for a less in practice. But it will not follow, that because it might
charge of timidity than of rashness in the exercise of it. A king be rarely exercised, it would never be exercised. In the case for
of Great Britain, with all his train of sovereign attributes, and which it is chiefly designed, that of an immediate attack upon
with all the influence he draws from a thousand sources, the constitutional rights of the Executive, or in a case in which
would, at this day, hesitate to put a negative upon the joint the public good was evidently and palpably sacrificed, a man
resolutions of the two houses of Parliament. He would not of tolerable firmness would avail himself of his constitutional
fail to exert the utmost resources of that influence to strangle means of defense, and would listen to the admonitions of
a measure disagreeable to him, in its progress to the throne, duty and responsibility. In the former supposition, his forti-
to avoid being reduced to the dilemma of permitting it to tude would be stimulated by his immediate interest in the
take effect, or of risking the displeasure of the nation by an power of his office; in the latter, by the probability of the
opposition to the sense of the legislative body. Nor is it prob- sanction of his constituents, who, though they would natu-
able, that he would ultimately venture to exert his preroga- rally incline to the legislative body in a doubtful case, would
tives, but in a case of manifest propriety, or extreme necessity. hardly suffer their partiality to delude them in a very plain
All well-informed men in that kingdom will accede to the case. I speak now with an eye to a magistrate possessing only
justness of this remark. A very considerable period has elapsed a common share of firmness. There are men who, under any
since the negative of the crown has been exercised. circumstances, will have the courage to do their duty at every
If a magistrate so powerful and so well fortified as a British hazard.
monarch, would have scruples about the exercise of the power But the convention have pursued a mean in this business, which
under consideration, how much greater caution may be rea- will both facilitate the exercise of the power vested in this respect
sonably expected in a President of the United States, clothed in the executive magistrate, and make its efficacy to depend on
for the short period of four years with the executive authority the sense of a considerable part of the legislative body. Instead of
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an absolute negative, it is proposed to give the Executive the may come from a quarter which they cannot control, they
qualified negative already described. This is a power which will often be restrained by the bare apprehension of opposi-
would be much more readily exercised than the other. A man tion, from doing what they would with eagerness rush into,
who might be afraid to defeat a law by his single veto, might if no such external impediments were to be feared.
not scruple to return it for reconsideration; subject to being This qualified negative, as has been elsewhere remarked, is
finally rejected only in the event of more than one third of in this State vested in a council, consisting of the governor,
each house concurring in the sufficiency of his objections. He with the chancellor and judges of the Supreme Court, or any
would be encouraged by the reflection, that if his opposition two of them. It has been freely employed upon a variety of
should prevail, it would embark in it a very respectable pro- occasions, and frequently with success. And its utility has be-
portion of the legislative body, whose influence would be come so apparent, that persons who, in compiling the Con-
united with his in supporting the propriety of his conduct in stitution, were violent opposers of it, have from experience
the public opinion. A direct and categorical negative has some- become its declared admirers.*
thing in the appearance of it more harsh, and more apt to I have in another place remarked, that the convention, in
irritate, than the mere suggestion of argumentative objections the formation of this part of their plan, had departed from
to be approved or disapproved by those to whom they are the model of the constitution of this State, in favor of that of
addressed. In proportion as it would be less apt to offend, it Massachusetts. Two strong reasons may be imagined for this
would be more apt to be exercised; and for this very reason, it preference. One is that the judges, who are to be the inter-
may in practice be found more effectual. It is to be hoped preters of the law, might receive an improper bias, from hav-
that it will not often happen that improper views will govern ing given a previous opinion in their revisionary capacities;
so large a proportion as two thirds of both branches of the the other is that by being often associated with the Executive,
legislature at the same time; and this, too, in spite of the they might be induced to embark too far in the political views
counterposing weight of the Executive. It is at any rate far less of that magistrate, and thus a dangerous combination might
probable that this should be the case, than that such views by degrees be cemented between the executive and judiciary
should taint the resolutions and conduct of a bare majority. A departments. It is impossible to keep the judges too distinct
power of this nature in the Executive, will often have a silent from every other avocation than that of expounding the laws.
and unperceived, though forcible, operation. When men, en- *Mr. Abraham Yates, a warm opponent of the plan of the
gaged in unjustifiable pursuits, are aware that obstructions convention is of this number.
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It is peculiarly dangerous to place them in a situation to be FEDERALIST No. 74
either corrupted or influenced by the Executive.
The Command of the Military and Naval Forces, and
Publius. the Pardoning Power of the Executive

From the New York Packet.

Tuesday, March 25, 1788.

HAMILTON

To the People of the State of New York:

The President of the United States is to be “commander-in-


chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the
militia of the several States when called into the actual service
of the United States.’’ The propriety of this provision is so
evident in itself, and it is, at the same time, so consonant to
the precedents of the State constitutions in general, that little
need be said to explain or enforce it. Even those of them which
have, in other respects, coupled the chief magistrate with a
council, have for the most part concentrated the military au-
thority in him alone. Of all the cares or concerns of govern-
ment, the direction of war most peculiarly demands those
qualities which distinguish the exercise of power by a single
hand. The direction of war implies the direction of the com-
mon strength; and the power of directing and employing the
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common strength, forms a usual and essential part in the defi- be less sensible to the apprehension of suspicion or censure
nition of the executive authority. “The President may require for an injudicious or affected clemency. On these accounts,
the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the one man appears to be a more eligible dispenser of the mercy
executive departments, upon any subject relating to the du- of government, than a body of men.
ties of their respective officers.’’ This I consider as a mere re- The expediency of vesting the power of pardoning in the
dundancy in the plan, as the right for which it provides would President has, if I mistake not, been only contested in rela-
result of itself from the office. tion to the crime of treason. This, it has been urged, ought to
He is also to be authorized to grant “reprieves and pardons have depended upon the assent of one, or both, of the branches
for offenses against the United States, except in cases of im- of the legislative body. I shall not deny that there are strong
peachment.’’ Humanity and good policy conspire to dictate, reasons to be assigned for requiring in this particular the con-
that the benign prerogative of pardoning should be as little as currence of that body, or of a part of it. As treason is a crime
possible fettered or embarrassed. The criminal code of every levelled at the immediate being of the society, when the laws
country partakes so much of necessary severity, that without have once ascertained the guilt of the offender, there seems a
an easy access to exceptions in favor of unfortunate guilt, jus- fitness in referring the expediency of an act of mercy towards
tice would wear a countenance too sanguinary and cruel. As him to the judgment of the legislature. And this ought the
the sense of responsibility is always strongest, in proportion rather to be the case, as the supposition of the connivance of
as it is undivided, it may be inferred that a single man would the Chief Magistrate ought not to be entirely excluded. But
be most ready to attend to the force of those motives which there are also strong objections to such a plan. It is not to be
might plead for a mitigation of the rigor of the law, and least doubted, that a single man of prudence and good sense is
apt to yield to considerations which were calculated to shelter better fitted, in delicate conjunctures, to balance the motives
a fit object of its vengeance. The reflection that the fate of a which may plead for and against the remission of the punish-
fellow-creature depended on his sole fiat, would naturally in- ment, than any numerous body whatever. It deserves particu-
spire scrupulousness and caution; the dread of being accused lar attention, that treason will often be connected with sedi-
of weakness or connivance, would beget equal circumspec- tions which embrace a large proportion of the community;
tion, though of a different kind. On the other hand, as men as lately happened in Massachusetts. In every such case, we
generally derive confidence from their numbers, they might might expect to see the representation of the people tainted
often encourage each other in an act of obduracy, and might with the same spirit which had given birth to the offense.
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And when parties were pretty equally matched, the secret sym- to be construed into an argument of timidity or of weakness,
pathy of the friends and favorers of the condemned person, and would have a tendency to embolden guilt.
availing itself of the good-nature and weakness of others, might
frequently bestow impunity where the terror of an example Publius.
was necessary. On the other hand, when the sedition had pro-
ceeded from causes which had inflamed the resentments of
the major party, they might often be found obstinate and
inexorable, when policy demanded a conduct of forbearance
and clemency. But the principal argument for reposing the
power of pardoning in this case to the Chief Magistrate is
this: in seasons of insurrection or rebellion, there are often
critical moments, when a welltimed offer of pardon to the
insurgents or rebels may restore the tranquillity of the com-
monwealth; and which, if suffered to pass unimproved, it
may never be possible afterwards to recall. The dilatory pro-
cess of convening the legislature, or one of its branches, for
the purpose of obtaining its sanction to the measure, would
frequently be the occasion of letting slip the golden opportu-
nity. The loss of a week, a day, an hour, may sometimes be
fatal. If it should be observed, that a discretionary power, with
a view to such contingencies, might be occasionally conferred
upon the President, it may be answered in the first place, that
it is questionable, whether, in a limited Constitution, that
power could be delegated by law; and in the second place,
that it would generally be impolitic beforehand to take any
step which might hold out the prospect of impunity. A pro-
ceeding of this kind, out of the usual course, would be likely
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FEDERALIST No. 75 thirds of the members present. As I flatter myself the observa-
tions made in a preceding number upon this part of the plan
The Treaty-Making Power of the Executive must have sufficed to place it, to a discerning eye, in a very
favorable light, I shall here content myself with offering only
For the Independent Journal. some supplementary remarks, principally with a view to the
objections which have been just stated.
HAMILTON With regard to the intermixture of powers, I shall rely upon
the explanations already given in other places, of the true sense
To the People of the State of New York: of the rule upon which that objection is founded; and shall
take it for granted, as an inference from them, that the union
The President is to have power, “by and with the advice and of the Executive with the Senate, in the article of treaties, is
consent of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds no infringement of that rule. I venture to add, that the par-
of the senators present concur.’’ ticular nature of the power of making treaties indicates a pe-
Though this provision has been assailed, on different culiar propriety in that union. Though several writers on the
grounds, with no small degree of vehemence, I scruple not to subject of government place that power in the class of execu-
declare my firm persuasion, that it is one of the best digested tive authorities, yet this is evidently an arbitrary disposition;
and most unexceptionable parts of the plan. One ground of for if we attend carefully to its operation, it will be found to
objection is the trite topic of the intermixture of powers; some partake more of the legislative than of the executive character,
contending that the President ought alone to possess the power though it does not seem strictly to fall within the definition
of making treaties; others, that it ought to have been exclu- of either of them. The essence of the legislative authority is to
sively deposited in the Senate. Another source of objection is enact laws, or, in other words, to prescribe rules for the regu-
derived from the small number of persons by whom a treaty lation of the society; while the execution of the laws, and the
may be made. Of those who espouse this objection, a part are employment of the common strength, either for this pur-
of opinion that the House of Representatives ought to have pose or for the common defense, seem to comprise all the
been associated in the business, while another part seem to functions of the executive magistrate. The power of making
think that nothing more was necessary than to have substi- treaties is, plainly, neither the one nor the other. It relates nei-
tuted two thirds of all the members of the Senate, to two ther to the execution of the subsisting laws, nor to the enaction
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of new ones; and still less to an exertion of the common from which he was taken, might sometimes be under temp-
strength. Its objects are contracts with foreign nations, which tations to sacrifice his duty to his interest, which it would
have the force of law, but derive it from the obligations of require superlative virtue to withstand. An avaricious man
good faith. They are not rules prescribed by the sovereign to might be tempted to betray the interests of the state to the
the subject, but agreements between sovereign and sovereign. acquisition of wealth. An ambitious man might make his own
The power in question seems therefore to form a distinct aggrandizement, by the aid of a foreign power, the price of
department, and to belong, properly, neither to the legislative his treachery to his constituents. The history of human con-
nor to the executive. The qualities elsewhere detailed as indis- duct does not warrant that exalted opinion of human virtue
pensable in the management of foreign negotiations, point which would make it wise in a nation to commit interests of
out the Executive as the most fit agent in those transactions; so delicate and momentous a kind, as those which concern its
while the vast importance of the trust, and the operation of intercourse with the rest of the world, to the sole disposal of
treaties as laws, plead strongly for the participation of the whole a magistrate created and circumstanced as would be a Presi-
or a portion of the legislative body in the office of making dent of the United States.
them. To have intrusted the power of making treaties to the Sen-
However proper or safe it may be in governments where ate alone, would have been to relinquish the benefits of the
the executive magistrate is an hereditary monarch, to commit constitutional agency of the President in the conduct of for-
to him the entire power of making treaties, it would be ut- eign negotiations. It is true that the Senate would, in that
terly unsafe and improper to intrust that power to an elective case, have the option of employing him in this capacity, but
magistrate of four years’ duration. It has been remarked, upon they would also have the option of letting it alone, and pique
another occasion, and the remark is unquestionably just, that or cabal might induce the latter rather than the former. Be-
an hereditary monarch, though often the oppressor of his sides this, the ministerial servant of the Senate could not be
people, has personally too much stake in the government to expected to enjoy the confidence and respect of foreign pow-
be in any material danger of being corrupted by foreign pow- ers in the same degree with the constitutional representatives
ers. But a man raised from the station of a private citizen to of the nation, and, of course, would not be able to act with
the rank of chief magistrate, possessed of a moderate or slen- an equal degree of weight or efficacy. While the Union would,
der fortune, and looking forward to a period not very remote from this cause, lose a considerable advantage in the manage-
when he may probably be obliged to return to the station ment of its external concerns, the people would lose the addi-
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tional security which would result from the co-operation of concurrence of so many different bodies, would of itself af-
the Executive. Though it would be imprudent to confide in ford a solid objection. The greater frequency of the calls upon
him solely so important a trust, yet it cannot be doubted that the House of Representatives, and the greater length of time
his participation would materially add to the safety of the which it would often be necessary to keep them together when
society. It must indeed be clear to a demonstration that the convened, to obtain their sanction in the progressive stages of
joint possession of the power in question, by the President a treaty, would be a source of so great inconvenience and ex-
and Senate, would afford a greater prospect of security, than pense as alone ought to condemn the project.
the separate possession of it by either of them. And whoever The only objection which remains to be canvassed, is that
has maturely weighed the circumstances which must concur which would substitute the proportion of two thirds of all
in the appointment of a President, will be satisfied that the the members composing the senatorial body, to that of two
office will always bid fair to be filled by men of such charac- thirds of the members present. It has been shown, under the
ters as to render their concurrence in the formation of treaties second head of our inquiries, that all provisions which re-
peculiarly desirable, as well on the score of wisdom, as on quire more than the majority of any body to its resolutions,
that of integrity. have a direct tendency to embarrass the operations of the gov-
The remarks made in a former number, which have been ernment, and an indirect one to subject the sense of the ma-
alluded to in another part of this paper, will apply with con- jority to that of the minority. This consideration seems suffi-
clusive force against the admission of the House of Represen- cient to determine our opinion, that the convention have gone
tatives to a share in the formation of treaties. The fluctuating as far in the endeavor to secure the advantage of numbers in
and, taking its future increase into the account, the multitu- the formation of treaties as could have been reconciled either
dinous composition of that body, forbid us to expect in it with the activity of the public councils or with a reasonable
those qualities which are essential to the proper execution of regard to the major sense of the community. If two thirds of
such a trust. Accurate and comprehensive knowledge of for- the whole number of members had been required, it would,
eign politics; a steady and systematic adherence to the same in many cases, from the non-attendance of a part, amount in
views; a nice and uniform sensibility to national character; practice to a necessity of unanimity. And the history of every
decision, secrecy, and despatch, are incompatible with the ge- political establishment in which this principle has prevailed,
nius of a body so variable and so numerous. The very com- is a history of impotence, perplexity, and disorder. Proofs of
plication of the business, by introducing a necessity of the this position might be adduced from the examples of the
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Roman Tribuneship, the Polish Diet, and the States-General operation of the President, we shall not hesitate to infer that
of the Netherlands, did not an example at home render for- the people of America would have greater security against an
eign precedents unnecessary. improper use of the power of making treaties, under the new
To require a fixed proportion of the whole body would Constitution, than they now enjoy under the Confederation.
not, in all probability, contribute to the advantages of a nu- And when we proceed still one step further, and look for-
merous agency, better then merely to require a proportion of ward to the probable augmentation of the Senate, by the erec-
the attending members. The former, by making a determi- tion of new States, we shall not only perceive ample ground
nate number at all times requisite to a resolution, diminishes of confidence in the sufficiency of the members to whose
the motives to punctual attendance. The latter, by making agency that power will be intrusted, but we shall probably be
the capacity of the body to depend on a proportion which led to conclude that a body more numerous than the Senate
may be varied by the absence or presence of a single member, would be likely to become, would be very little fit for the
has the contrary effect. And as, by promoting punctuality, it proper discharge of the trust.
tends to keep the body complete, there is great likelihood
that its resolutions would generally be dictated by as great a Publius.
number in this case as in the other; while there would be
much fewer occasions of delay. It ought not to be forgotten
that, under the existing Confederation, two members may,
and usually do, represent a State; whence it happens that Con-
gress, who now are solely invested with all the powers of the
Union, rarely consist of a greater number of persons than
would compose the intended Senate. If we add to this, that as
the members vote by States, and that where there is only a
single member present from a State, his vote is lost, it will
justify a supposition that the active voices in the Senate, where
the members are to vote individually, would rarely fall short
in number of the active voices in the existing Congress. When,
in addition to these considerations, we take into view the co-
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FEDERALIST No. 76 States contained in the foregoing clauses, must, when exam-
ined, be allowed to be entitled to particular commendation.
The Appointing Power of the Executive It is not easy to conceive a plan better calculated than this to
promote a judicious choice of men for filling the offices of
From the New York Packet. the Union; and it will not need proof, that on this point
must essentially depend the character of its administration.
Tuesday, April 1, 1788. It will be agreed on all hands, that the power of appoint-
ment, in ordinary cases, ought to be modified in one of three
HAMILTON ways. It ought either to be vested in a single man, or in a select
assembly of a moderate number; or in a single man, with the
To the People of the State of New York: concurrence of such an assembly. The exercise of it by the
people at large will be readily admitted to be impracticable; as
The President is “to nominate, and, by and with the advice waiving every other consideration, it would leave them little
and consent of the Senate, to appoint ambassadors, other time to do anything else. When, therefore, mention is made
public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, in the subsequent reasonings of an assembly or body of men,
and all other officers of the United States whose appoint- what is said must be understood to relate to a select body or
ments are not otherwise provided for in the Constitution. assembly, of the description already given. The people collec-
But the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such tively, from their number and from their dispersed situation,
inferior officers as they think proper, in the President alone, cannot be regulated in their movements by that systematic
or in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. The spirit of cabal and intrigue, which will be urged as the chief
President shall have power to fill up all vacancies which may objections to reposing the power in question in a body of
happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commis- men.
sions which shall expire at the end of their next session.’’ Those who have themselves reflected upon the subject, or
It has been observed in a former paper, that “the true test of who have attended to the observations made in other parts of
a good government is its aptitude and tendency to produce a these papers, in relation to the appointment of the President,
good administration.’’ If the justness of this observation be will, I presume, agree to the position, that there would al-
admitted, the mode of appointing the officers of the United ways be great probability of having the place supplied by a
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man of abilities, at least respectable. Premising this, I proceed made under such circumstances, will of course be the result
to lay it down as a rule, that one man of discernment is better either of a victory gained by one party over the other, or of a
fitted to analyze and estimate the peculiar qualities adapted to compromise between the parties. In either case, the intrinsic
particular offices, than a body of men of equal or perhaps merit of the candidate will be too often out of sight. In the
even of superior discernment. first, the qualifications best adapted to uniting the suffrages
The sole and undivided responsibility of one man will natu- of the party, will be more considered than those which fit the
rally beget a livelier sense of duty and a more exact regard to person for the station. In the last, the coalition will com-
reputation. He will, on this account, feel himself under stron- monly turn upon some interested equivalent: “Give us the
ger obligations, and more interested to investigate with care man we wish for this office, and you shall have the one you
the qualities requisite to the stations to be filled, and to prefer wish for that.’’ This will be the usual condition of the bar-
with impartiality the persons who may have the fairest pre- gain. And it will rarely happen that the advancement of the
tensions to them. He will have fewer personal attachments to public service will be the primary object either of party victo-
gratify, than a body of men who may each be supposed to ries or of party negotiations.
have an equal number; and will be so much the less liable to The truth of the principles here advanced seems to have
be misled by the sentiments of friendship and of affection. A been felt by the most intelligent of those who have found
single well-directed man, by a single understanding, cannot fault with the provision made, in this respect, by the conven-
be distracted and warped by that diversity of views, feelings, tion. They contend that the President ought solely to have
and interests, which frequently distract and warp the resolu- been authorized to make the appointments under the federal
tions of a collective body. There is nothing so apt to agitate government. But it is easy to show, that every advantage to be
the passions of mankind as personal considerations whether expected from such an arrangement would, in substance, be
they relate to ourselves or to others, who are to be the objects derived from the power of nomination, which is proposed to
of our choice or preference. Hence, in every exercise of the be conferred upon him; while several disadvantages which
power of appointing to offices, by an assembly of men, we might attend the absolute power of appointment in the hands
must expect to see a full display of all the private and party of that officer would be avoided. In the act of nomination,
likings and dislikes, partialities and antipathies, attachments his judgment alone would be exercised; and as it would be his
and animosities, which are felt by those who compose the sole duty to point out the man who, with the approbation of
assembly. The choice which may at any time happen to be the Senate, should fill an office, his responsibility would be as
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complete as if he were to make the final appointment. There expected from such an arrangement would, in substance, be
can, in this view, be no difference others, who are to be the derived from the power of nomination, which is proposed to
objects of our choice or preference. Hence, in every exercise be conferred upon him; while several disadvantages which
of the power of appointing to offices, by an assembly of men, might attend the absolute power of appointment in the hands
we must expect to see a full display of all the private and party of that officer would be avoided. In the act of nomination,
likings and dislikes, partialities and antipathies, attachments his judgment alone would be exercised; and as it would be his
and animosities, which are felt by those who compose the sole duty to point out the man who, with the approbation of
assembly. The choice which may at any time happen to be the Senate, should fill an office, his responsibility would be as
made under such circumstances, will of course be the result complete as if he were to make the final appointment. There
either of a victory gained by one party over the other, or of a can, in this view, be no difference between nominating and
compromise between the parties. In either case, the intrinsic appointing. The same motives which would influence a proper
merit of the candidate will be too often out of sight. In the discharge of his duty in one case, would exist in the other.
first, the qualifications best adapted to uniting the suffrages And as no man could be appointed but on his previous nomi-
of the party, will be more considered than those which fit the nation, every man who might be appointed would be, in fact,
person for the station. In the last, the coalition will com- his choice.
monly turn upon some interested equivalent: “Give us the But might not his nomination be overruled? I grant it might,
man we wish for this office, and you shall have the one you yet this could only be to make place for another nomination
wish for that.’’ This will be the usual condition of the bar- by himself. The person ultimately appointed must be the ob-
gain. And it will rarely happen that the advancement of the ject of his preference, though perhaps not in the first degree.
public service will be the primary object either of party victo- It is also not very probable that his nomination would often
ries or of party negotiations. be overruled. The Senate could not be tempted, by the pref-
The truth of the principles here advanced seems to have erence they might feel to another, to reject the one proposed;
been felt by the most intelligent of those who have found because they could not assure themselves, that the person they
fault with the provision made, in this respect, by the conven- might wish would be brought forward by a second or by any
tion. They contend that the President ought solely to have subsequent nomination. They could not even be certain, that
been authorized to make the appointments under the federal a future nomination would present a candidate in any degree
government. But it is easy to show, that every advantage to be more acceptable to them; and as their dissent might cast a
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kind of stigma upon the individual rejected, and might have be both ashamed and afraid to bring forward, for the most
the appearance of a reflection upon the judgment of the chief distinguished or lucrative stations, candidates who had no
magistrate, it is not likely that their sanction would often be other merit than that of coming from the same State to which
refused, where there were not special and strong reasons for he particularly belonged, or of being in some way or other
the refusal. personally allied to him, or of possessing the necessary insig-
To what purpose then require the co-operation of the Sen- nificance and pliancy to render them the obsequious instru-
ate? I answer, that the necessity of their concurrence would ments of his pleasure.
have a powerful, though, in general, a silent operation. It would To this reasoning it has been objected that the President, by
be an excellent check upon a spirit of favoritism in the Presi- the influence of the power of nomination, may secure the
dent, and would tend greatly to prevent the appointment of complaisance of the Senate to his views. This supposition of
unfit characters from State prejudice, from family connec- universal venalty in human nature is little less an error in po-
tion, from personal attachment, or from a view to popular- litical reasoning, than the supposition of universal rectitude.
ity. In addition to this, it would be an efficacious source of The institution of delegated power implies, that there is a
stability in the administration. portion of virtue and honor among mankind, which may be
It will readily be comprehended, that a man who had him- a reasonable foundation of confidence; and experience justi-
self the sole disposition of offices, would be governed much fies the theory. It has been found to exist in the most corrupt
more by his private inclinations and interests, than when he periods of the most corrupt governments. The venalty of the
was bound to submit the propriety of his choice to the dis- British House of Commons has been long a topic of accusa-
cussion and determination of a different and independent tion against that body, in the country to which they belong as
body, and that body an entier branch of the legislature. The well as in this; and it cannot be doubted that the charge is, to
possibility of rejection would be a strong motive to care in a considerable extent, well founded. But it is as little to be
proposing. The danger to his own reputation, and, in the case doubted, that there is always a large proportion of the body,
of an elective magistrate, to his political existence, from be- which consists of independent and public-spirited men, who
traying a spirit of favoritism, or an unbecoming pursuit of have an influential weight in the councils of the nation. Hence
popularity, to the observation of a body whose opinion would it is (the present reign not excepted) that the sense of that
have great weight in forming that of the public, could not fail body is often seen to control the inclinations of the monarch,
to operate as a barrier to the one and to the other. He would both with regard to men and to measures. Though it might
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therefore be allowable to suppose that the Executive might FEDERALIST No. 77
occasionally influence some individuals in the Senate, yet the
supposition, that he could in general purchase the integrity of The Appointing Power Continued and Other Powers of
the whole body, would be forced and improbable. A man the Executive Considered
disposed to view human nature as it is, without either flatter-
ing its virtues or exaggerating its vices, will see sufficient ground From the New York Packet.
of confidence in the probity of the Senate, to rest satisfied,
not only that it will be impracticable to the Executive to cor- Friday, April 4, 1788.
rupt or seduce a majority of its members, but that the neces-
sity of its co-operation, in the business of appointments, will HAMILTON
be a considerable and salutary restraint upon the conduct of
that magistrate. Nor is the integrity of the Senate the only To the People of the State of New York:
reliance. The Constitution has provided some important
guards against the danger of executive influence upon the leg- It has been mentioned as one of the advantages to be expected
islative body: it declares that “No senator or representative from the co-operation of the Senate, in the business of ap-
shall during the time for which he was elected, be appointed pointments, that it would contribute to the stability of the
to any civil office under the United States, which shall have administration. The consent of that body would be necessary
been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been in- to displace as well as to appoint. A change of the Chief Mag-
creased, during such time; and no person, holding any office istrate, therefore, would not occasion so violent or so general
under the United States, shall be a member of either house a revolution in the officers of the government as might be
during his continuance in office.’’ expected, if he were the sole disposer of offices. Where a man
in any station had given satisfactory evidence of his fitness for
Publius. it, a new President would be restrained from attempting a
change in favor of a person more agreeable to him, by the
apprehension that a discountenance of the Senate might frus-
trate the attempt, and bring some degree of discredit upon
himself. Those who can best estimate the value of a steady
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administration, will be most disposed to prize a provision manner of employing their right of negative upon his nomi-
which connects the official existence of public men with the nations? If it be said they might sometimes gratify him by an
approbation or disapprobation of that body which, from the acquiescence in a favorite choice, when public motives might
greater permanency of its own composition, will in all prob- dictate a different conduct, I answer, that the instances in which
ability be less subject to inconstancy than any other member the President could be personally interested in the result, would
of the government. be too few to admit of his being materially affected by the
To this union of the Senate with the President, in the ar- compliances of the Senate. The power which can originate the
ticle of appointments, it has in some cases been suggested disposition of honors and emoluments, is more likely to at-
that it would serve to give the President an undue influence tract than to be attracted by the power which can merely ob-
over the Senate, and in others that it would have an opposite struct their course. If by influencing the President be meant
tendency, a strong proof that neither suggestion is true. restraining him, this is precisely what must have been intended.
To state the first in its proper form, is to refute it. It amounts And it has been shown that the restraint would be salutary, at
to this: the President would have an improper influence over the same time that it would not be such as to destroy a single
the Senate, because the Senate would have the power of re- advantage to be looked for from the uncontrolled agency of
straining him. This is an absurdity in terms. It cannot admit that Magistrate. The right of nomination would produce all
of a doubt that the entire power of appointment would en- the good of that of appointment, and would in a great mea-
able him much more effectually to establish a dangerous em- sure avoid its evils. Upon a comparison of the plan for the
pire over that body, than a mere power of nomination subject appointment of the officers of the proposed government with
to their control. that which is established by the constitution of this State, a
Let us take a view of the converse of the proposition: “the decided preference must be given to the former. In that plan
Senate would influence the Executive.’’ As I have had occa- the power of nomination is unequivocally vested in the Ex-
sion to remark in several other instances, the indistinctness of ecutive. And as there would be a necessity for submitting each
the objection forbids a precise answer. In what manner is this nomination to the judgment of an entire branch of the legis-
influence to be exerted? In relation to what objects? The power lature, the circumstances attending an appointment, from the
of influencing a person, in the sense in which it is here used, mode of conducting it, would naturally become matters of
must imply a power of conferring a benefit upon him. How notoriety; and the public would be at no loss to determine
could the Senate confer a benefit upon the President by the what part had been performed by the different actors. The
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blame of a bad nomination would fall upon the President not impossible to get rid of their opposition by regulating the
singly and absolutely. The censure of rejecting a good one times of meeting in such a manner as to render their attendance
would lie entirely at the door of the Senate; aggravated by the inconvenient; and that from whatever cause it may proceed, a
consideration of their having counteracted the good inten- great number of very improper appointments are from time to
tions of the Executive. If an ill appointment should be made, time made. Whether a governor of this State avails himself of
the Executive for nominating, and the Senate for approving, the ascendant he must necessarily have, in this delicate and im-
would participate, though in different degrees, in the oppro- portant part of the administration, to prefer to offices men
brium and disgrace. who are best qualified for them, or whether he prostitutes that
The reverse of all this characterizes the manner of appoint- advantage to the advancement of persons whose chief merit is
ment in this State. The council of appointment consists of their implicit devotion to his will, and to the support of a des-
from three to five persons, of whom the governor is always picable and dangerous system of personal influence, are ques-
one. This small body, shut up in a private apartment, impen- tions which, unfortunately for the community, can only be the
etrable to the public eye, proceed to the execution of the trust subjects of speculation and conjecture.
committed to them. It is known that the governor claims the Every mere council of appointment, however constituted,
right of nomination, upon the strength of some ambiguous will be a conclave, in which cabal and intrigue will have their
expressions in the constitution; but it is not known to what full scope. Their number, without an unwarrantable increase
extent, or in what manner he exercises it; nor upon what oc- of expense, cannot be large enough to preclude a facility of
casions he is contradicted or opposed. The censure of a bad combination. And as each member will have his friends and
appointment, on account of the uncertainty of its author, connections to provide for, the desire of mutual gratification
and for want of a determinate object, has neither poignancy will beget a scandalous bartering of votes and bargaining for
nor duration. And while an unbounded field for cabal and places. The private attachments of one man might easily be
intrigue lies open, all idea of responsibility is lost. The most satisfied; but to satisfy the private attachments of a dozen, or
that the public can know, is that the governor claims the right of twenty men, would occasion a monopoly of all the princi-
of nomination; that two out of the inconsiderable number of pal employments of the government in a few families, and
four men can too often be managed without much difficulty; would lead more directly to an aristocracy or an oligarchy
that if some of the members of a particular council should than any measure that could be contrived. If, to avoid an ac-
happen to be of an uncomplying character, it is frequently cumulation of offices, there was to be a frequent change in
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the persons who were to compose the council, this would union, and infinite delays and embarrassments would be oc-
involve the mischiefs of a mutable administration in their casioned. The example of most of the States in their local
full extent. Such a council would also be more liable to ex- constitutions encourages us to reprobate the idea.
ecutive influence than the Senate, because they would be fewer The only remaining powers of the Executive are compre-
in number, and would act less immediately under the public hended in giving information to Congress of the state of the
inspection. Such a council, in fine, as a substitute for the plan Union; in recommending to their consideration such mea-
of the convention, would be productive of an increase of ex- sures as he shall judge expedient; in convening them, or either
pense, a multiplication of the evils which spring from favor- branch, upon extraordinary occasions; in adjourning them
itism and intrigue in the distribution of public honors, a de- when they cannot themselves agree upon the time of adjourn-
crease of stability in the administration of the government, ment; in receiving ambassadors and other public ministers; in
and a diminution of the security against an undue influence faithfully executing the laws; and in commissioning all the
of the Executive. And yet such a council has been warmly officers of the United States.
contended for as an essential amendment in the proposed Except some cavils about the power of convening either
Constitution. house of the legislature, and that of receiving ambassadors,
I could not with propriety conclude my observations on no objection has been made to this class of authorities; nor
the subject of appointments without taking notice of a scheme could they possibly admit of any. It required, indeed, an insa-
for which there have appeared some, though but few advo- tiable avidity for censure to invent exceptions to the parts
cates; I mean that of uniting the House of Representatives in which have been excepted to. In regard to the power of con-
the power of making them. I shall, however, do little more vening either house of the legislature, I shall barely remark,
than mention it, as I cannot imagine that it is likely to gain that in respect to the Senate at least, we can readily discover a
the countenance of any considerable part of the community. good reason for it. AS this body has a concurrent power with
A body so fluctuating and at the same time so numerous, can the Executive in the article of treaties, it might often be neces-
never be deemed proper for the exercise of that power. sary to call it together with a view to this object, when it
Its unfitness will appear manifest to all, when it is recol- would be unnecessary and improper to convene the House of
lected that in half a century it may consist of three or four Representatives. As to the reception of ambassadors, what I
hundred persons. All the advantages of the stability, both of have said in a former paper will furnish a sufficient answer.
the Executive and of the Senate, would be defeated by this We have now completed a survey of the structure and pow-
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ers of the executive department, which, I have endeavored to FEDERALIST No. 78
show, combines, as far as republican principles will admit, all
the requisites to energy. The remaining inquiry is: Does it The Judiciary Department
also combine the requisites to safety, in a republican sense, a
due dependence on the people, a due responsibility? The an- From McLean’s Edition, New York.
swer to this question has been anticipated in the investigation
of its other characteristics, and is satisfactorily deducible from HAMILTON
these circumstances; from the election of the President once
in four years by persons immediately chosen by the people To the People of the State of New York:
for that purpose; and from his being at all times liable to
impeachment, trial, dismission from office, incapacity to serve We proceed now to an examination of the judiciary depart-
in any other, and to forfeiture of life and estate by subsequent ment of the proposed government.
prosecution in the common course of law. But these precau- In unfolding the defects of the existing Confederation, the
tions, great as they are, are not the only ones which the plan utility and necessity of a federal judicature have been clearly
of the convention has provided in favor of the public secu- pointed out. It is the less necessary to recapitulate the consid-
rity. In the only instances in which the abuse of the executive erations there urged, as the propriety of the institution in the
authority was materially to be feared, the Chief Magistrate of abstract is not disputed; the only questions which have been
the United States would, by that plan, be subjected to the raised being relative to the manner of constituting it, and to
control of a branch of the legislative body. What more could its extent. To these points, therefore, our observations shall
be desired by an enlightened and reasonable people? be confined.
The manner of constituting it seems to embrace these sev-
Publius. eral objects: 1st. The mode of appointing the judges. 2d. The
tenure by which they are to hold their places. 3d. The parti-
tion of the judiciary authority between different courts, and
their relations to each other.

First. As to the mode of appointing the judges; this is the


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same with that of appointing the officers of the Union in power must perceive, that, in a government in which they are
general, and has been so fully discussed in the two last num- separated from each other, the judiciary, from the nature of
bers, that nothing can be said here which would not be use- its functions, will always be the least dangerous to the politi-
less repetition. cal rights of the Constitution; because it will be least in a
capacity to annoy or injure them. The Executive not only
Second. As to the tenure by which the judges are to hold dispenses the honors, but holds the sword of the community.
their places; this chiefly concerns their duration in office; the The legislature not only commands the purse, but prescribes
provisions for their support; the precautions for their respon- the rules by which the duties and rights of every citizen are to
sibility. be regulated. The judiciary, on the contrary, has no influence
over either the sword or the purse; no direction either of the
According to the plan of the convention, all judges who strength or of the wealth of the society; and can take no active
may be appointed by the United States are to hold their of- resolution whatever. It may truly be said to have neither force
fices during good behavior; which is conformable to the most nor will, but merely judgment; and must ultimately depend
approved of the State constitutions and among the rest, to upon the aid of the executive arm even for the efficacy of its
that of this State. Its propriety having been drawn into ques- judgments.
tion by the adversaries of that plan, is no light symptom of This simple view of the matter suggests several important
the rage for objection, which disorders their imaginations and consequences. It proves incontestably, that the judiciary is
judgments. The standard of good behavior for the continu- beyond comparison the weakest of the three departments of
ance in office of the judicial magistracy, is certainly one of the power*; that it can never attack with success either of the other
most valuable of the modern improvements in the practice two; and that all possible care is requisite to enable it to de-
of government. In a monarchy it is an excellent barrier to the fend itself against their attacks. It equally proves, that though
despotism of the prince; in a republic it is a no less excellent individual oppression may now and then proceed from the
barrier to the encroachments and oppressions of the represen- courts of justice, the general liberty of the people can never be
tative body. And it is the best expedient which can be devised endangered from that quarter; I mean so long as the judiciary
in any government, to secure a steady, upright, and impartial * The celebrated Montesquieu, speaking of them, says: “Of
administration of the laws. the three powers above mentioned, the judiciary is next to
Whoever attentively considers the different departments of nothing.’’ “Spirit of Laws.” vol. i., page 186.
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remains truly distinct from both the legislature and the Ex- Some perplexity respecting the rights of the courts to pro-
ecutive. For I agree, that “there is no liberty, if the power of nounce legislative acts void, because contrary to the Consti-
judging be not separated from the legislative and executive tution, has arisen from an imagination that the doctrine would
powers.’’* And it proves, in the last place, that as liberty can imply a superiority of the judiciary to the legislative power. It
have nothing to fear from the judiciary alone, but would have is urged that the authority which can declare the acts of an-
every thing to fear from its union with either of the other other void, must necessarily be superior to the one whose acts
departments; that as all the effects of such a union must en- may be declared void. As this doctrine is of great importance
sue from a dependence of the former on the latter, notwith- in all the American constitutions, a brief discussion of the
standing a nominal and apparent separation; that as, from the ground on which it rests cannot be unacceptable.
natural feebleness of the judiciary, it is in continual jeopardy There is no position which depends on clearer principles,
of being overpowered, awed, or influenced by its co-ordinate than that every act of a delegated authority, contrary to the
branches; and that as nothing can contribute so much to its tenor of the commission under which it is exercised, is void.
firmness and independence as permanency in office, this qual- No legislative act, therefore, contrary to the Constitution,
ity may therefore be justly regarded as an indispensable ingre- can be valid. To deny this, would be to affirm, that the deputy
dient in its constitution, and, in a great measure, as the citadel is greater than his principal; that the servant is above his mas-
of the public justice and the public security. ter; that the representatives of the people are superior to the
The complete independence of the courts of justice is pecu- people themselves; that men acting by virtue of powers, may
liarly essential in a limited Constitution. By a limited Consti- do not only what their powers do not authorize, but what
tution, I understand one which contains certain specified ex- they forbid.
ceptions to the legislative authority; such, for instance, as that If it be said that the legislative body are themselves the con-
it shall pass no bills of attainder, no ex-post-facto laws, and the stitutional judges of their own powers, and that the construc-
like. Limitations of this kind can be preserved in practice no tion they put upon them is conclusive upon the other depart-
other way than through the medium of courts of justice, whose ments, it may be answered, that this cannot be the natural
duty it must be to declare all acts contrary to the manifest tenor presumption, where it is not to be collected from any par-
of the Constitution void. Without this, all the reservations of ticular provisions in the Constitution. It is not otherwise to
particular rights or privileges would amount to nothing. be supposed, that the Constitution could intend to enable
*Idem, page 181. the representatives of the people to substitute their will to
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that of their constituents. It is far more rational to suppose, expression. In such a case, it is the province of the courts to
that the courts were designed to be an intermediate body be- liquidate and fix their meaning and operation. So far as they
tween the people and the legislature, in order, among other can, by any fair construction, be reconciled to each other, rea-
things, to keep the latter within the limits assigned to their son and law conspire to dictate that this should be done; where
authority. The interpretation of the laws is the proper and this is impracticable, it becomes a matter of necessity to give
peculiar province of the courts. A constitution is, in fact, and effect to one, in exclusion of the other. The rule which has
must be regarded by the judges, as a fundamental law. It there- obtained in the courts for determining their relative validity
fore belongs to them to ascertain its meaning, as well as the is, that the last in order of time shall be preferred to the first.
meaning of any particular act proceeding from the legislative But this is a mere rule of construction, not derived from any
body. If there should happen to be an irreconcilable variance positive law, but from the nature and reason of the thing. It is
between the two, that which has the superior obligation and a rule not enjoined upon the courts by legislative provision,
validity ought, of course, to be preferred; or, in other words, but adopted by themselves, as consonant to truth and propri-
the Constitution ought to be preferred to the statute, the in- ety, for the direction of their conduct as interpreters of the
tention of the people to the intention of their agents. law. They thought it reasonable, that between the interfering
Nor does this conclusion by any means suppose a superiority acts of an equal authority, that which was the last indication
of the judicial to the legislative power. It only supposes that the of its will should have the preference.
power of the people is superior to both; and that where the will But in regard to the interfering acts of a superior and subor-
of the legislature, declared in its statutes, stands in opposition dinate authority, of an original and derivative power, the na-
to that of the people, declared in the Constitution, the judges ture and reason of the thing indicate the converse of that rule
ought to be governed by the latter rather than the former. They as proper to be followed. They teach us that the prior act of a
ought to regulate their decisions by the fundamental laws, rather superior ought to be preferred to the subsequent act of an
than by those which are not fundamental. inferior and subordinate authority; and that accordingly, when-
This exercise of judicial discretion, in determining between ever a particular statute contravenes the Constitution, it will
two contradictory laws, is exemplified in a familiar instance. be the duty of the judicial tribunals to adhere to the latter and
It not uncommonly happens, that there are two statutes ex- disregard the former.
isting at one time, clashing in whole or in part with each It can be of no weight to say that the courts, on the pretense
other, and neither of them containing any repealing clause or of a repugnancy, may substitute their own pleasure to the
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constitutional intentions of the legislature. This might as well with its enemies,* in questioning that fundamental principle
happen in the case of two contradictory statutes; or it might of republican government, which admits the right of the people
well happen in every adjudication upon any single statute. to alter or abolish the established Constitution, whenever they
The courts must declare the sense of the law; and if they should find it inconsistent with their happiness, yet it is not to be in-
be disposed to exercise will instead of judgement, the conse- ferred from this principle, that the representatives of the people,
quence would equally be the substitution of their pleasure to whenever a momentary inclination happens to lay hold of a
that of the legislative body. The observation, if it prove any majority of their constituents, incompatible with the provisions
thing, would prove that there ought to be no judges distinct in the existing Constitution, would, on that account, be justifi-
from that body. able in a violation of those provisions; or that the courts would
If, then, the courts of justice are to be considered as the be under a greater obligation to connive at infractions in this
bulwarks of a limited Constitution against legislative encroach- shape, than when they had proceeded wholly from the cabals of
ments, this consideration will afford a strong argument for the representative body. Until the people have, by some solemn
the permanent tenure of judicial offices, since nothing will and authoritative act, annulled or changed the established form,
contribute so much as this to that independent spirit in the it is binding upon themselves collectively, as well as individually;
judges which must be essential to the faithful performance of and no presumption, or even knowledge, of their sentiments,
so arduous a duty. can warrant their representatives in a departure from it, prior to
This independence of the judges is equally requisite to guard such an act. But it is easy to see, that it would require an uncom-
the Constitution and the rights of individuals from the ef- mon portion of fortitude in the judges to do their duty as faith-
fects of those ill humors, which the arts of designing men, or ful guardians of the Constitution, where legislative invasions of
the influence of particular conjunctures, sometimes dissemi- it had been instigated by the major voice of the community.
nate among the people themselves, and which, though they But it is not with a view to infractions of the Constitution
speedily give place to better information, and more deliberate only, that the independence of the judges may be an essential
reflection, have a tendency, in the meantime, to occasion dan- safeguard against the effects of occasional ill humors in the
gerous innovations in the government, and serious oppres- society. These sometimes extend no farther than to the injury
sions of the minor party in the community. Though I trust of the private rights of particular classes of citizens, by unjust
the friends of the proposed Constitution will never concur *Vide “Protest of the Minority of the Convention of Penn-
sylvania,’’ Martin’s Speech, etc.
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and partial laws. Here also the firmness of the judicial magis- commission. Periodical appointments, however regulated, or
tracy is of vast importance in mitigating the severity and con- by whomsoever made, would, in some way or other, be fatal
fining the operation of such laws. It not only serves to moder- to their necessary independence. If the power of making them
ate the immediate mischiefs of those which may have been was committed either to the Executive or legislature, there
passed, but it operates as a check upon the legislative body in would be danger of an improper complaisance to the branch
passing them; who, perceiving that obstacles to the success of which possessed it; if to both, there would be an unwilling-
iniquitous intention are to be expected from the scruples of the ness to hazard the displeasure of either; if to the people, or to
courts, are in a manner compelled, by the very motives of the persons chosen by them for the special purpose, there would
injustice they meditate, to qualify their attempts. This is a cir- be too great a disposition to consult popularity, to justify a
cumstance calculated to have more influence upon the charac- reliance that nothing would be consulted but the Constitu-
ter of our governments, than but few may be aware of. The tion and the laws.
benefits of the integrity and moderation of the judiciary have There is yet a further and a weightier reason for the perma-
already been felt in more States than one; and though they may nency of the judicial offices, which is deducible from the na-
have displeased those whose sinister expectations they may have ture of the qualifications they require. It has been frequently
disappointed, they must have commanded the esteem and ap- remarked, with great propriety, that a voluminous code of
plause of all the virtuous and disinterested. Considerate men, laws is one of the inconveniences necessarily connected with
of every description, ought to prize whatever will tend to beget the advantages of a free government. To avoid an arbitrary
or fortify that temper in the courts: as no man can be sure that discretion in the courts, it is indispensable that they should be
he may not be to-morrow the victim of a spirit of injustice, by bound down by strict rules and precedents, which serve to
which he may be a gainer to-day. And every man must now define and point out their duty in every particular case that
feel, that the inevitable tendency of such a spirit is to sap the comes before them; and it will readily be conceived from the
foundations of public and private confidence, and to introduce variety of controversies which grow out of the folly and wick-
in its stead universal distrust and distress. edness of mankind, that the records of those precedents must
That inflexible and uniform adherence to the rights of the unavoidably swell to a very considerable bulk, and must de-
Constitution, and of individuals, which we perceive to be mand long and laborious study to acquire a competent knowl-
indispensable in the courts of justice, can certainly not be ex- edge of them. Hence it is, that there can be but few men in
pected from judges who hold their offices by a temporary the society who will have sufficient skill in the laws to qualify
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them for the stations of judges. And making the proper de- FEDERALIST No. 79
ductions for the ordinary depravity of human nature, the
number must be still smaller of those who unite the requisite The Judiciary Continued
integrity with the requisite knowledge. These considerations
apprise us, that the government can have no great option be- From Mclean’s Edition, New York.
tween fit character; and that a temporary duration in office,
which would naturally discourage such characters from quit- HAMILTON
ting a lucrative line of practice to accept a seat on the bench,
would have a tendency to throw the administration of justice To the People of the State of New York:
into hands less able, and less well qualified, to conduct it with
utility and dignity. In the present circumstances of this coun- Next to permanency in office, nothing can contribute more
try, and in those in which it is likely to be for a long time to to the independence of the judges than a fixed provision for
come, the disadvantages on this score would be greater than their support. The remark made in relation to the President
they may at first sight appear; but it must be confessed, that is equally applicable here. In the general course of human na-
they are far inferior to those which present themselves under ture, a power over a man’s subsistence amounts to a power over
the other aspects of the subject. his will. And we can never hope to see realized in practice, the
Upon the whole, there can be no room to doubt that the complete separation of the judicial from the legislative power,
convention acted wisely in copying from the models of those in any system which leaves the former dependent for pecuni-
constitutions which have established good behavior as the ten- ary resources on the occasional grants of the latter. The en-
ure of their judicial offices, in point of duration; and that so lightened friends to good government in every State, have
far from being blamable on this account, their plan would seen cause to lament the want of precise and explicit precau-
have been inexcusably defective, if it had wanted this impor- tions in the State constitutions on this head. Some of these
tant feature of good government. The experience of Great indeed have declared that permanent* salaries should be es-
Britain affords an illustrious comment on the excellence of tablished for the judges; but the experiment has in some in-
the institution. stances shown that such expressions are not sufficiently defi-
*Vide “Constitution of Massachusetts,” chapter 2, section I,
Publius. article 13.
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nite to preclude legislative evasions. Something still more posi- only not be diminished. This probably arose from the differ-
tive and unequivocal has been evinced to be requisite. The ence in the duration of the respective offices. As the President
plan of the convention accordingly has provided that the judges is to be elected for no more than four years, it can rarely hap-
of the United States “shall at stated times receive for their pen that an adequate salary, fixed at the commencement of
services a compensation which shall not be diminished dur- that period, will not continue to be such to its end. But with
ing their continuance in office.’’ regard to the judges, who, if they behave properly, will be
This, all circumstances considered, is the most eligible pro- secured in their places for life, it may well happen, especially
vision that could have been devised. It will readily be under- in the early stages of the government, that a stipend, which
stood that the fluctuations in the value of money and in the would be very sufficient at their first appointment, would
state of society rendered a fixed rate of compensation in the become too small in the progress of their service.
Constitution inadmissible. What might be extravagant to- This provision for the support of the judges bears every
day, might in half a century become penurious and inadequate. mark of prudence and efficacy; and it may be safely affirmed
It was therefore necessary to leave it to the discretion of the that, together with the permanent tenure of their offices, it
legislature to vary its provisions in conformity to the varia- affords a better prospect of their independence than is discov-
tions in circumstances, yet under such restrictions as to put it erable in the constitutions of any of the States in regard to
out of the power of that body to change the condition of the their own judges.
individual for the worse. A man may then be sure of the The precautions for their responsibility are comprised in
ground upon which he stands, and can never be deterred from the article respecting impeachments. They are liable to be im-
his duty by the apprehension of being placed in a less eligible peached for malconduct by the House of Representatives, and
situation. The clause which has been quoted combines both tried by the Senate; and, if convicted, may be dismissed from
advantages. The salaries of judicial officers may from time to office, and disqualified for holding any other. This is the only
time be altered, as occasion shall require, yet so as never to provision on the point which is consistent with the necessary
lessen the allowance with which any particular judge comes independence of the judicial character, and is the only one
into office, in respect to him. It will be observed that a differ- which we find in our own Constitution in respect to our
ence has been made by the convention between the compen- own judges.
sation of the President and of the judges, That of the former The want of a provision for removing the judges on ac-
can neither be increased nor diminished; that of the latter can count of inability has been a subject of complaint. But all
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considerate men will be sensible that such a provision would served their country long and usefully, on which they depend
either not be practiced upon or would be more liable to abuse for subsistence, and from which it will be too late to resort to
than calculated to answer any good purpose. The mensuration any other occupation for a livelihood, ought to have some
of the faculties of the mind has, I believe, no place in the cata- better apology to humanity than is to be found in the imagi-
logue of known arts. An attempt to fix the boundary between nary danger of a superannuated bench.
the regions of ability and inability, would much oftener give
scope to personal and party attachments and enmities than ad- Publius.
vance the interests of justice or the public good. The result,
except in the case of insanity, must for the most part be arbi-
trary; and insanity, without any formal or express provision,
may be safely pronounced to be a virtual disqualification.
The constitution of New York, to avoid investigations that
must forever be vague and dangerous, has taken a particular
age as the criterion of inability. No man can be a judge be-
yond sixty. I believe there are few at present who do not dis-
approve of this provision. There is no station, in relation to
which it is less proper than to that of a judge. The deliberat-
ing and comparing faculties generally preserve their strength
much beyond that period in men who survive it; and when,
in addition to this circumstance, we consider how few there
are who outlive the season of intellectual vigor, and how im-
probable it is that any considerable portion of the bench,
whether more or less numerous, should be in such a situation
at the same time, we shall be ready to conclude that limita-
tions of this sort have little to recommend them. In a repub-
lic, where fortunes are not affluent, and pensions not expedi-
ent, the dismission of men from stations in which they have
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The Federalist Papers
FEDERALIST No. 80 The first point depends upon this obvious consideration,
that there ought always to be a constitutional method of giv-
The Powers of the Judiciary ing efficacy to constitutional provisions. What, for instance,
would avail restrictions on the authority of the State legisla-
From McLean’s Edition, New York. tures, without some constitutional mode of enforcing the ob-
servance of them? The States, by the plan of the convention,
HAMILTON are prohibited from doing a variety of things, some of which
are incompatible with the interests of the Union, and others
To the People of the State of New York: with the principles of good government. The imposition of
duties on imported articles, and the emission of paper money,
To judge with accuracy of the proper extent of the federal are specimens of each kind. No man of sense will believe,
judicature, it will be necessary to consider, in the first place, that such prohibitions would be scrupulously regarded, with-
what are its proper objects. out some effectual power in the government to restrain or
It seems scarcely to admit of controversy, that the judicary correct the infractions of them. This power must either be a
authority of the Union ought to extend to these several de- direct negative on the State laws, or an authority in the fed-
scriptions of cases: 1st, to all those which arise out of the laws eral courts to overrule such as might be in manifest contra-
of the United States, passed in pursuance of their just and vention of the articles of Union. There is no third course that
constitutional powers of legislation; 2d, to all those which I can imagine. The latter appears to have been thought by the
concern the execution of the provisions expressly contained convention preferable to the former, and, I presume, will be
in the articles of Union; 3d, to all those in which the United most agreeable to the States.
States are a party; 4th, to all those which involve the peace of As to the second point, it is impossible, by any argument or
the confederacy, whether they relate to the intercourse between comment, to make it clearer than it is in itself. If there are
the United States and foreign nations, or to that between the such things as political axioms, the propriety of the judicial
States themselves; 5th, to all those which originate on the power of a government being coextensive with its legislative,
high seas, and are of admiralty or maritime jurisdiction; and, may be ranked among the number. The mere necessity of
lastly, to all those in which the State tribunals cannot be sup- uniformity in the interpretation of the national laws, decides
posed to be impartial and unbiased. the question. Thirteen independent courts of final jurisdic-
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tion over the same causes, arising upon the same laws, is a be an aggression upon his sovereign, as well as one which vio-
hydra in government, from which nothing but contradiction lated the stipulations of a treaty or the general law of nations.
and confusion can proceed. And a still greater objection to the distinction would result
Still less need be said in regard to the third point. Contro- from the immense difficulty, if not impossibility, of a practi-
versies between the nation and its members or citizens, can cal discrimination between the cases of one complexion and
only be properly referred to the national tribunals. Any other those of the other. So great a proportion of the cases in which
plan would be contrary to reason, to precedent, and to deco- foreigners are parties, involve national questions, that it is by
rum. far most safe and most expedient to refer all those in which
The fourth point rests on this plain proposition, that the they are concerned to the national tribunals.
peace of the whole ought not to be left at the disposal of a The power of determining causes between two States, be-
part. The Union will undoubtedly be answerable to foreign tween one State and the citizens of another, and between the
powers for the conduct of its members. And the responsibil- citizens of different States, is perhaps not less essential to the
ity for an injury ought ever to be accompanied with the fac- peace of the Union than that which has been just examined.
ulty of preventing it. As the denial or perversion of justice by History gives us a horrid picture of the dissensions and pri-
the sentences of courts, as well as in any other manner, is with vate wars which distracted and desolated Germany prior to
reason classed among the just causes of war, it will follow that the institution of the Imperial Chamber by Maximilian, to-
the federal judiciary ought to have cognizance of all causes in wards the close of the fifteenth century; and informs us, at
which the citizens of other countries are concerned. This is the same time, of the vast influence of that institution in ap-
not less essential to the preservation of the public faith, than peasing the disorders and establishing the tranquillity of the
to the security of the public tranquillity. A distinction may empire. This was a court invested with authority to decide
perhaps be imagined between cases arising upon treaties and finally all differences among the members of the Germanic
the laws of nations and those which may stand merely on the body.
footing of the municipal law. The former kind may be sup- A method of terminating territorial disputes between the
posed proper for the federal jurisdiction, the latter for that of States, under the authority of the federal head, was not unat-
the States. But it is at least problematical, whether an unjust tended to, even in the imperfect system by which they have
sentence against a foreigner, where the subject of controversy been hitherto held together. But there are many other sources,
was wholly relative to the lex loci, would not, if unredressed, besides interfering claims of boundary, from which bickerings
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and animosities may spring up among the members of the likely to feel any bias inauspicious to the principles on which
Union. To some of these we have been witnesses in the course it is founded.
of our past experience. It will readily be conjectured that I The fifth point will demand little animadversion. The most
allude to the fraudulent laws which have been passed in too bigoted idolizers of State authority have not thus far shown a
many of the States. And though the proposed Constitution disposition to deny the national judiciary the cognizances of
establishes particular guards against the repetition of those maritime causes. These so generally depend on the laws of
instances which have heretofore made their appearance, yet it nations, and so commonly affect the rights of foreigners, that
is warrantable to apprehend that the spirit which produced they fall within the considerations which are relative to the
them will assume new shapes, that could not be foreseen nor public peace. The most important part of them are, by the
specifically provided against. Whatever practices may have a present Confederation, submitted to federal jurisdiction.
tendency to disturb the harmony between the States, are proper The reasonableness of the agency of the national courts in
objects of federal superintendence and control. cases in which the State tribunals cannot be supposed to be
It may be esteemed the basis of the Union, that “the citizens impartial, speaks for itself. No man ought certainly to be a
of each State shall be entitled to all the privileges and immu- judge in his own cause, or in any cause in respect to which he
nities of citizens of the several States.’’ And if it be a just prin- has the least interest or bias. This principle has no inconsider-
ciple that every government ought to possess the means of ex- able weight in designating the federal courts as the proper
ecuting its own provisions by its own authority, it will follow, tribunals for the determination of controversies between dif-
that in order to the inviolable maintenance of that equality of ferent States and their citizens. And it ought to have the same
privileges and immunities to which the citizens of the Union operation in regard to some cases between citizens of the same
will be entitled, the national judiciary ought to preside in all State. Claims to land under grants of different States, founded
cases in which one State or its citizens are opposed to another upon adverse pretensions of boundary, are of this description.
State or its citizens. To secure the full effect of so fundamen- The courts of neither of the granting States could be expected
tal a provision against all evasion and subterfuge, it is neces- to be unbiased. The laws may have even prejudged the ques-
sary that its construction should be committed to that tribu- tion, and tied the courts down to decisions in favor of the
nal which, having no local attachments, will be likely to be grants of the State to which they belonged. And even where
impartial between the different States and their citizens, and this had not been done, it would be natural that the judges, as
which, owing its official existence to the Union, will never be men, should feel a strong predilection to the claims of their
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own government. plained. All the restrictions upon the authority of the State
Having thus laid down and discussed the principles which legislatures furnish examples of it. They are not, for instance,
ought to regulate the constitution of the federal judiciary, we to emit paper money; but the interdiction results from the
will proceed to test, by these principles, the particular powers Constitution, and will have no connection with any law of
of which, according to the plan of the convention, it is to be the United States. Should paper money, notwithstanding, be
composed. It is to comprehend “all cases in law and equity emited, the controversies concerning it would be cases arising
arising under the Constitution, the laws of the United States, under the Constitution and not the laws of the United States,
and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their au- in the ordinary signification of the terms. This may serve as a
thority; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public min- sample of the whole.
isters, and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime ju- It has also been asked, what need of the word “equity What
risdiction; to controversies to which the United States shall equitable causes can grow out of the Constitution and laws
be a party; to controversies between two or more States; be- of the United States? There is hardly a subject of litigation
tween a State and citizens of another State; between citizens between individuals, which may not involve those ingredi-
of different States; between citizens of the same State claim- ents of fraud, accident, trust, or hardship, which would render
ing lands and grants of different States; and between a State the matter an object of equitable rather than of legal jurisdic-
or the citizens thereof and foreign states, citizens, and sub- tion, as the distinction is known and established in several of
jects.’’ This constitutes the entire mass of the judicial author- the States. It is the peculiar province, for instance, of a court
ity of the Union. Let us now review it in detail. It is, then, to of equity to relieve against what are called hard bargains: these
extend: are contracts in which, though there may have been no direct
fraud or deceit, sufficient to invalidate them in a court of law,
First. To all cases in law and equity, arising under the Consti- yet there may have been some undue and unconscionable ad-
tution and the laws of the United States. This corresponds vantage taken of the necessities or misfortunes of one of the
with the two first classes of causes, which have been enumer- parties, which a court of equity would not tolerate. In such
ated, as proper for the jurisdiction of the United States. It has cases, where foreigners were concerned on either side, it would
been asked, what is meant by “cases arising under the Consti- be impossible for the federal judicatories to do justice with-
tution,” in contradiction from those “arising under the laws out an equitable as well as a legal jurisdiction. Agreements to
of the United States’’? The difference has been already ex- convey lands claimed under the grants of different States, may
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afford another example of the necessity of an equitable juris- last class, and are the only instances in which the proposed con-
diction in the federal courts. This reasoning may not be so stitution directly contemplates the cognizance of disputes between
palpable in those States where the formal and technical dis- the citizens of the same state.
tinction between law and equity is not maintained, as in this
State, where it is exemplified by every day’s practice. Seventh. To cases between a State and the citizens thereof,
The judiciary authority of the Union is to extend: and foreign States, citizens, or subjects. These have been al-
ready explained to belong to the fourth of the enumerated
Second. To treaties made, or which shall be made, under the classes, and have been shown to be, in a peculiar manner, the
authority of the United States, and to all cases affecting am- proper subjects of the national judicature.
bassadors, other public ministers, and consuls. These belong From this review of the particular powers of the federal
to the fourth class of the enumerated cases, as they have an judiciary, as marked out in the Constitution, it appears that
evident connection with the preservation of the national peace. they are all conformable to the principles which ought to have
governed the structure of that department, and which were
Third. To cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction. These necessary to the perfection of the system. If some partial
form, altogether, the fifth of the enumerated classes of causes inconviences should appear to be connected with the incor-
proper for the cognizance of the national courts. poration of any of them into the plan, it ought to be recol-
lected that the national legislature will have ample authority
Fourth. To controversies to which the United States shall be to make such exceptions, and to prescribe such regulations as
a party. These constitute the third of those classes. will be calculated to obviate or remove these inconveniences.
The possibility of particular mischiefs can never be viewed,
Fifth. To controversies between two or more States; between by a wellinformed mind, as a solid objection to a general prin-
a State and citizens of another State; between citizens of dif- ciple, which is calculated to avoid general mischiefs and to
ferent States. These belong to the fourth of those classes, and obtain general advantages.
partake, in some measure, of the nature of the last.
Publius.
Sixth. To cases between the citizens of the same State, claim-
ing lands under grants of different states. These fall within the
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FEDERALIST. No. 81 improper intermixture of powers, advocate, by implication
at least, the propriety of vesting the ultimate decision of all
The Judiciary Continued, and the Distribution of the causes, in the whole or in a part of the legislative body.
Judicial Authority The arguments, or rather suggestions, upon which this
charge is founded, are to this effect: “The authority of the
From McLean’s Edition, New York. proposed Supreme Court of the United States, which is to be
a separate and independent body, will be superior to that of
HAMILTON the legislature. The power of construing the laws according
to the spirit of the Constitution, will enable that court to
To the People of the State of New York: mould them into whatever shape it may think proper; espe-
cially as its decisions will not be in any manner subject to the
Let us now return to the partition of the judiciary authority revision or correction of the legislative body. This is as un-
between different courts, and their relations to each other, precedented as it is dangerous. In Britain, the judical power,
“The judicial power of the United States is” (by the plan of in the last resort, resides in the House of Lords, which is a
the convention) “to be vested in one Supreme Court, and in branch of the legislature; and this part of the British govern-
such inferior courts as the Congress may, from time to time, ment has been imitated in the State constitutions in general.
ordain and establish.’’* The Parliament of Great Britain, and the legislatures of the
That there ought to be one court of supreme and final ju- several States, can at any time rectify, by law, the exception-
risdiction, is a proposition which is not likely to be contested. able decisions of their respective courts. But the errors and
The reasons for it have been assigned in another place, and are usurpations of the Supreme Court of the United States will
too obvious to need repetition. The only question that seems be uncontrollable and remediless.’’ This, upon examination,
to have been raised concerning it, is, whether it ought to be a will be found to be made up altogether of false reasoning
distinct body or a branch of the legislature. The same contra- upon misconceived fact.
diction is observable in regard to this matter which has been In the first place, there is not a syllable in the plan under
remarked in several other cases. The very men who object to consideration which directly empowers the national courts to
the Senate as a court of impeachments, on the ground of an construe the laws according to the spirit of the Constitution,
*Article 3, sec. I. or which gives them any greater latitude in this respect than
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may be claimed by the courts of every State. I admit, however, had even a partial agency in passing bad laws, we could rarely
that the Constitution ought to be the standard of construction expect a disposition to temper and moderate them in the ap-
for the laws, and that wherever there is an evident opposition, plication. The same spirit which had operated in making them,
the laws ought to give place to the Constitution. But this doc- would be too apt in interpreting them; still less could it be
trine is not deducible from any circumstance peculiar to the expected that men who had infringed the Constitution in the
plan of the convention, but from the general theory of a lim- character of legislators, would be disposed to repair the breach
ited Constitution; and as far as it is true, is equally applicable to in the character of judges. Nor is this all. Every reason which
most, if not to all the State governments. There can be no recommends the tenure of good behavior for judicial offices,
objection, therefore, on this account, to the federal judicature militates against placing the judiciary power, in the last re-
which will not lie against the local judicatures in general, and sort, in a body composed of men chosen for a limited period.
which will not serve to condemn every constitution that at- There is an absurdity in referring the determination of causes,
tempts to set bounds to legislative discretion. in the first instance, to judges of permanent standing; in the
But perhaps the force of the objection may be thought to last, to those of a temporary and mutable constitution. And
consist in the particular organization of the Supreme Court; there is a still greater absurdity in subjecting the decisions of
in its being composed of a distinct body of magistrates, in- men, selected for their knowledge of the laws, acquired by
stead of being one of the branches of the legislature, as in the long and laborious study, to the revision and control of men
government of Great Britain and that of the State. To insist who, for want of the same advantage, cannot but be deficient
upon this point, the authors of the objection must renounce in that knowledge. The members of the legislature will rarely
the meaning they have labored to annex to the celebrated be chosen with a view to those qualifications which fit men
maxim, requiring a separation of the departments of power. for the stations of judges; and as, on this account, there will
It shall, nevertheless, be conceded to them, agreeably to the be great reason to apprehend all the ill consequences of defec-
interpretation given to that maxim in the course of these pa- tive information, so, on account of the natural propensity of
pers, that it is not violated by vesting the ultimate power of such bodies to party divisions, there will be no less reason to
judging in a part of the legislative body. But though this be fear that the pestilential breath of faction may poison the foun-
not an absolute violation of that excellent rule, yet it verges so tains of justice. The habit of being continually marshalled on
nearly upon it, as on this account alone to be less eligible than opposite sides will be too apt to stifle the voice both of law
the mode preferred by the convention. From a body which and of equity.
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These considerations teach us to applaud the wisdom of of the subject.
those States who have committed the judicial power, in the It may in the last place be observed that the supposed dan-
last resort, not to a part of the legislature, but to distinct and ger of judiciary encroachments on the legislative authority,
independent bodies of men. Contrary to the supposition of which has been upon many occasions reiterated, is in reality a
those who have represented the plan of the convention, in phantom. Particular misconstructions and contraventions of
this respect, as novel and unprecedented, it is but a copy of the will of the legislature may now and then happen; but they
the constitutions of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Penn- can never be so extensive as to amount to an inconvenience,
sylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South or in any sensible degree to affect the order of the political
Carolina, and Georgia; and the preference which has been given system. This may be inferred with certainty, from the general
to those models is highly to be commended. nature of the judicial power, from the objects to which it
It is not true, in the second place, that the Parliament of relates, from the manner in which it is exercised, from its
Great Britain, or the legislatures of the particular States, can comparative weakness, and from its total incapacity to sup-
rectify the exceptionable decisions of their respective courts, port its usurpations by force. And the inference is greatly for-
in any other sense than might be done by a future legislature tified by the consideration of the important constitutional
of the United States. The theory, neither of the British, nor check which the power of instituting impeachments in one
the State constitutions, authorizes the revisal of a judicial sen- part of the legislative body, and of determining upon them in
tence by a legislative act. Nor is there any thing in the pro- the other, would give to that body upon the members of the
posed Constitution, more than in either of them, by which it judicial department. This is alone a complete security. There
is forbidden. In the former, as well as in the latter, the impro- never can be danger that the judges, by a series of deliberate
priety of the thing, on the general principles of law and rea- usurpations on the authority of the legislature, would hazard
son, is the sole obstacle. A legislature, without exceeding its the united resentment of the body intrusted with it, while
province, cannot reverse a determination once made in a par- this body was possessed of the means of punishing their pre-
ticular case; though it may prescribe a new rule for future sumption, by degrading them from their stations. While this
cases. This is the principle, and it applies in all its consequences, ought to remove all apprehensions on the subject, it affords,
exactly in the same manner and extent, to the State govern- at the same time, a cogent argument for constituting the Sen-
ments, as to the national government now under consider- ate a court for the trial of impeachments.
ation. Not the least difference can be pointed out in any view Having now examined, and, I trust, removed the objec-
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tions to the distinct and independent organization of the Su- confer the power of determining such causes upon the exist-
preme Court, I proceed to consider the propriety of the power ing courts of the several States, would perhaps be as much “to
of constituting inferior courts,* and the relations which will constitute tribunals,” as to create new courts with the like
subsist between these and the former. power. But ought not a more direct and explicit provision to
The power of constituting inferior courts is evidently cal- have been made in favor of the State courts? There are, in my
culated to obviate the necessity of having recourse to the Su- opinion, substantial reasons against such a provision: the most
preme Court in every case of federal cognizance. It is intended discerning cannot foresee how far the prevalency of a local
to enable the national government to institute or authorize, spirit may be found to disqualify the local tribunals for the
in each State or district of the United States, a tribunal com- jurisdiction of national causes; whilst every man may discover,
petent to the determination of matters of national jurisdic- that courts constituted like those of some of the States would
tion within its limits. be improper channels of the judicial authority of the Union.
But why, it is asked, might not the same purpose have been State judges, holding their offices during pleasure, or from
accomplished by the instrumentality of the State courts? This year to year, will be too little independent to be relied upon
admits of different answers. Though the fitness and compe- for an inflexible execution of the national laws. And if there
tency of those courts should be allowed in the utmost lati- was a necessity for confiding the original cognizance of causes
tude, yet the substance of the power in question may still be arising under those laws to them there would be a correspon-
regarded as a necessary part of the plan, if it were only to dent necessity for leaving the door of appeal as wide as pos-
empower the national legislature to commit to them the cog- sible. In proportion to the grounds of confidence in, or dis-
nizance of causes arising out of the national Constitution. To trust of, the subordinate tribunals, ought to be the facility or
*This power has been absurdly represented as intended to difficulty of appeals. And well satisfied as I am of the propri-
abolish all the county courts in the several States, which are ety of the appellate jurisdiction, in the several classes of causes
commonly called inferior courts. But the expressions of the to which it is extended by the plan of the convention. I should
Constitution are, to constitute “tribunals inferior to the Su- consider every thing calculated to give, in practice, an unre-
preme Court”; and the evident design of the provision is to strained course to appeals, as a source of public and private
enable the institution of local courts, subordinate to the Su- inconvenience.
preme, either in States or larger districts. It is ridiculous to I am not sure, but that it will be found highly expedient
imagine that county courts were in contemplation. and useful, to divide the United States into four or five or
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half a dozen districts; and to institute a federal court in each tion is in a great measure applicable to them. In cases in which
district, in lieu of one in every State. The judges of these courts, a State might happen to be a party, it would ill suit its dignity
with the aid of the State judges, may hold circuits for the trial to be turned over to an inferior tribunal. Though it may rather
of causes in the several parts of the respective districts. Justice be a digression from the immediate subject of this paper, I shall
through them may be administered with ease and despatch; take occasion to mention here a supposition which has excited
and appeals may be safely circumscribed within a narrow com- some alarm upon very mistaken grounds. It has been suggested
pass. This plan appears to me at present the most eligible of that an assignment of the public securities of one State to the
any that could be adopted; and in order to it, it is necessary citizens of another, would enable them to prosecute that State
that the power of constituting inferior courts should exist in in the federal courts for the amount of those securities; a sug-
the full extent in which it is to be found in the proposed gestion which the following considerations prove to be with-
Constitution. out foundation.
These reasons seem sufficient to satisfy a candid mind, that It is inherent in the nature of sovereignty not to be ame-
the want of such a power would have been a great defect in the nable to the suit of an individual without its consent. This is
plan. Let us now examine in what manner the judicial author- the general sense, and the general practice of mankind; and
ity is to be distributed between the supreme and the inferior the exemption, as one of the attributes of sovereignty, is now
courts of the Union. The Supreme Court is to be invested with enjoyed by the government of every State in the Union. Un-
original jurisdiction, only “in cases affecting ambassadors, other less, therefore, there is a surrender of this immunity in the
public ministers, and consuls, and those in which a state shall plan of the convention, it will remain with the States, and the
be a party.’’ Public ministers of every class are the immediate danger intimated must be merely ideal. The circumstances
representatives of their sovereigns. All questions in which they which are necessary to produce an alienation of State sover-
are concerned are so directly connected with the public peace, eignty were discussed in considering the article of taxation,
that, as well for the preservation of this, as out of respect to the and need not be repeated here. A recurrence to the principles
sovereignties they represent, it is both expedient and proper there established will satisfy us, that there is no color to pre-
that such questions should be submitted in the first instance to tend that the State governments would, by the adoption of
the highest judicatory of the nation. Though consuls have not that plan, be divested of the privilege of paying their own
in strictness a diplomatic character, yet as they are the public debts in their own way, free from every constraint but that
agents of the nations to which they belong, the same observa- which flows from the obligations of good faith. The con-
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tracts between a nation and individuals are only binding on sense has been affixed to the term “appellate,” which, in our
the conscience of the sovereign, and have no pretensions to a law parlance, is commonly used in reference to appeals in the
compulsive force. They confer no right of action, indepen- course of the civil law. But if I am not misinformed, the same
dent of the sovereign will. To what purpose would it be to meaning would not be given to it in any part of New En-
authorize suits against States for the debts they owe? How gland. There an appeal from one jury to another, is familiar
could recoveries be enforced? It is evident, it could not be both in language and practice, and is even a matter of course,
done without waging war against the contracting State; and until there have been two verdicts on one side. The word
to ascribe to the federal courts, by mere implication, and in “appellate,” therefore, will not be understood in the same sense
destruction of a pre-existing right of the State governments, a in New England as in New York, which shows the impropri-
power which would involve such a consequence, would be ety of a technical interpretation derived from the jurispru-
altogether forced and unwarrantable. dence of any particular State. The expression, taken in the
Let us resume the train of our observations. We have seen abstract, denotes nothing more than the power of one tribu-
that the original jurisdiction of the Supreme Court would be nal to review the proceedings of another, either as to the law
confined to two classes of causes, and those of a nature rarely or fact, or both. The mode of doing it may depend on an-
to occur. In all other cases of federal cognizance, the original cient custom or legislative provision (in a new government it
jurisdiction would appertain to the inferior tribunals; and the must depend on the latter), and may be with or without the
Supreme Court would have nothing more than an appellate aid of a jury, as may be judged advisable. If, therefore, the re-
jurisdiction, “with such exceptions and under such regulations examination of a fact once determined by a jury, should in
as the Congress shall make.’’ any case be admitted under the proposed Constitution, it may
The propriety of this appellate jurisdiction has been scarcely be so regulated as to be done by a second jury, either by re-
called in question in regard to matters of law; but the clamors manding the cause to the court below for a second trial of the
have been loud against it as applied to matters of fact. Some fact, or by directing an issue immediately out of the Supreme
well-intentioned men in this State, deriving their notions from Court.
the language and forms which obtain in our courts, have been But it does not follow that the re-examination of a fact
induced to consider it as an implied supersedure of the trial once ascertained by a jury, will be permitted in the Supreme
by jury, in favor of the civil-law mode of trial, which prevails Court. Why may not it be said, with the strictest propriety,
in our courts of admiralty, probate, and chancery. A technical when a writ of error is brought from an inferior to a superior
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court of law in this State, that the latter has jurisdiction of the jurisdiction should, in certain cases, extend in the broadest
fact as well as the law? It is true it cannot institute a new sense to matters of fact. It will not answer to make an express
inquiry concerning the fact, but it takes cognizance of it as it exception of cases which shall have been originally tried by a
appears upon the record, and pronounces the law arising upon jury, because in the courts of some of the States all causes are
it.* This is jurisdiction of both fact and law; nor is it even tried in this mode*; and such an exception would preclude
possible to separate them. Though the common-law courts the revision of matters of fact, as well where it might be proper,
of this State ascertain disputed facts by a jury, yet they un- as where it might be improper. To avoid all inconveniencies,
questionably have jurisdiction of both fact and law; and ac- it will be safest to declare generally, that the Supreme Court
cordingly when the former is agreed in the pleadings, they shall possess appellate jurisdiction both as to law and fact, and
have no recourse to a jury, but proceed at once to judgment. that this jurisdiction shall be subject to such exceptions and
I contend, therefore, on this ground, that the expressions, “ap- regulations as the national legislature may prescribe. This will
pellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact,” do not necessar- enable the government to modify it in such a manner as will
ily imply a re-examination in the Supreme Court of facts de- best answer the ends of public justice and security.
cided by juries in the inferior courts. This view of the matter, at any rate, puts it out of all doubt
The following train of ideas may well be imagined to have that the supposed abolition of the trial by jury, by the opera-
influenced the convention, in relation to this particular pro- tion of this provision, is fallacious and untrue. The legislature
vision. The appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court (it of the United States would certainly have full power to pro-
may have been argued) will extend to causes determinable in vide, that in appeals to the Supreme Court there should be
different modes, some in the course of the common law, oth- no re-examination of facts where they had been tried in the
ers in the course of the civil law. In the former, the revision of original causes by juries. This would certainly be an autho-
the law only will be, generally speaking, the proper province rized exception; but if, for the reason already intimated, it
of the Supreme Court; in the latter, the re-examination of the should be thought too extensive, it might be qualified with a
fact is agreeable to usage, and in some cases, of which prize limitation to such causes only as are determinable at com-
causes are an example, might be essential to the preservation mon law in that mode of trial.
of the public peace. It is therefore necessary that the appellate *I hold that the States will have concurrent jurisdiction with
* This word is composed of jus and dicto, juris dictio or a the subordinate federal judicatories, in many cases of federal
speaking and pronouncing of the law. cognizance, as will be explained in my next paper.
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The amount of the observations hitherto made on the au- FEDERALIST No. 82
thority of the judicial department is this: that it has been care-
fully restricted to those causes which are manifestly proper The Judiciary Continued
for the cognizance of the national judicature; that in the par-
tition of this authority a very small portion of original juris- From McLean’s Edition, New York.
diction has been preserved to the Supreme Court, and the
rest consigned to the subordinate tribunals; that the Supreme HAMILTON
Court will possess an appellate jurisdiction, both as to law
and fact, in all the cases referred to them, both subject to any To the People of the State of New York:
exceptions and regulations which may be thought advisable;
that this appellate jurisdiction does, in no case, abolish the The erection of a new government, whatever care or wisdom
trial by jury; and that an ordinary degree of prudence and may distinguish the work, cannot fail to originate questions
integrity in the national councils will insure us solid advan- of intricacy and nicety; and these may, in a particular manner,
tages from the establishment of the proposed judiciary, with- be expected to flow from the establishment of a constitution
out exposing us to any of the inconveniences which have been founded upon the total or partial incorporation of a number
predicted from that source. of distinct sovereignties. ‘T is time only that can mature and
perfect so compound a system, can liquidate the meaning of
Publius. all the parts, and can adjust them to each other in a harmoni-
ous and consistent whole.
Such questions, accordingly, have arisen upon the plan pro-
posed by the convention, and particularly concerning the ju-
diciary department. The principal of these respect the situa-
tion of the State courts in regard to those causes which are to
be submitted to federal jurisdiction. Is this to be exclusive, or
are those courts to possess a concurrent jurisdiction? If the
latter, in what relation will they stand to the national tribu-
nals? These are inquiries which we meet with in the mouths
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of men of sense, and which are certainly entitled to attention. note, that the organs of the national judiciary should be one
The principles established in a former paper* teach us that Supreme Court, and as many subordinate courts as Congress
the States will retain all pre-existing authorities which may should think proper to appoint; or in other words, that the
not be exclusively delegated to the federal head; and that this United States should exercise the judicial power with which
exclusive delegation can only exist in one of three cases: where they are to be invested, through one supreme tribunal, and a
an exclusive authority is, in express terms, granted to the certain number of inferior ones, to be instituted by them.
Union; or where a particular authority is granted to the Union, The first excludes, the last admits, the concurrent jurisdiction
and the exercise of a like authority is prohibited to the States; of the State tribunals; and as the first would amount to an
or where an authority is granted to the Union, with which a alienation of State power by implication, the last appears to
similar authority in the States would be utterly incompatible. me the most natural and the most defensible construction.
Though these principles may not apply with the same force But this doctrine of concurrent jurisdiction is only clearly
to the judiciary as to the legislative power, yet I am inclined applicable to those descriptions of causes of which the State
to think that they are, in the main, just with respect to the courts have previous cognizance. It is not equally evident in
former, as well as the latter. And under this impression, I shall relation to cases which may grow out of, and be peculiar to, the
lay it down as a rule, that the State courts will retain the juris- Constitution to be established; for not to allow the State courts
diction they now have, unless it appears to be taken away in a right of jurisdiction in such cases, can hardly be considered as
one of the enumerated modes. the abridgment of a pre-existing authority. I mean not there-
The only thing in the proposed Constitution, which wears fore to contend that the United States, in the course of legisla-
the appearance of confining the causes of federal cognizance tion upon the objects intrusted to their direction, may not com-
to the federal courts, is contained in this passage: “The judi- mit the decision of causes arising upon a particular regulation
cial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme to the federal courts solely, if such a measure should be deemed
Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress shall from expedient; but I hold that the State courts will be divested of
time to time ordain and establish.’’ This might either be con- no part of their primitive jurisdiction, further than may relate
strued to signify, that the supreme and subordinate courts of to an appeal; and I am even of opinion that in every case in
the Union should alone have the power of deciding those which they were not expressly excluded by the future acts of
causes to which their authority is to extend; or simply to de- the national legislature, they will of course take cognizance of
*No. 31. the causes to which those acts may give birth. This I infer from
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the nature of judiciary power, and from the general genius of cern, else the judiciary authority of the Union may be eluded
the system. The judiciary power of every government looks at the pleasure of every plaintiff or prosecutor. Neither of
beyond its own local or municipal laws, and in civil cases lays these consequences ought, without evident necessity, to be
hold of all subjects of litigation between parties within its juris- involved; the latter would be entirely inadmissible, as it would
diction, though the causes of dispute are relative to the laws of defeat some of the most important and avowed purposes of
the most distant part of the globe. Those of Japan, not less the proposed government, and would essentially embarrass
than of New York, may furnish the objects of legal discussion its measures. Nor do I perceive any foundation for such a
to our courts. When in addition to this we consider the State supposition. Agreeably to the remark already made, the na-
governments and the national governments, as they truly are, tional and State systems are to be regarded as one whole. The
in the light of kindred systems, and as parts of one whole, the courts of the latter will of course be natural auxiliaries to the
inference seems to be conclusive, that the State courts would execution of the laws of the Union, and an appeal from them
have a concurrent jurisdiction in all cases arising under the laws will as naturally lie to that tribunal which is destined to unite
of the Union, where it was not expressly prohibited. and assimilate the principles of national justice and the rules
Here another question occurs: What relation would subsist of national decisions. The evident aim of the plan of the con-
between the national and State courts in these instances of vention is, that all the causes of the specified classes shall, for
concurrent jurisdiction? I answer, that an appeal would cer- weighty public reasons, receive their original or final determi-
tainly lie from the latter, to the Supreme Court of the United nation in the courts of the Union. To confine, therefore, the
States. The Constitution in direct terms gives an appellate general expressions giving appellate jurisdiction to the Supreme
jurisdiction to the Supreme Court in all the enumerated cases Court, to appeals from the subordinate federal courts, in-
of federal cognizance in which it is not to have an original stead of allowing their extension to the State courts, would
one, without a single expression to confine its operation to be to abridge the latitude of the terms, in subversion of the
the inferior federal courts. The objects of appeal, not the tri- intent, contrary to every sound rule of interpretation.
bunals from which it is to be made, are alone contemplated. But could an appeal be made to lie from the State courts to
From this circumstance, and from the reason of the thing, it the subordinate federal judicatories? This is another of the
ought to be construed to extend to the State tribunals. Either questions which have been raised, and of greater difficulty
this must be the case, or the local courts must be excluded than the former. The following considerations countenance
from a concurrent jurisdiction in matters of national con- the affirmative. The plan of the convention, in the first place,
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authorizes the national legislature “to constitute tribunals EDERALIST No. 83
inferior to the Supreme Court.’’* It declares, in the next
place, that “the judicial power of the United States shall be The Judiciary Continued in Relation to Trial by Jury
vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as
Congress shall ordain and establish’’; and it then proceeds to From Mclean’s Edition, New York.
enumerate the cases to which this judicial power shall ex-
tend. It afterwards divides the jurisdiction of the Supreme HAMILTON
Court into original and appellate, but gives no definition of
that of the subordinate courts. The only outlines described
To the People of the State of New York:
for them, are that they shall be “inferior to the Supreme
Court,” and that they shall not exceed the specified limits
The objection to the plan of the convention, which has met
of the federal judiciary. Whether their authority shall be origi-
nal or appellate, or both, is not declared. All this seems to with most success in this State, and perhaps in several of the
be left to the discretion of the legislature. And this being the other States, is that relative to the want of a constitutional
case, I perceive at present no impediment to the establish- provision for the trial by jury in civil cases. The disingenuous
ment of an appeal from the State courts to the subordinate form in which this objection is usually stated has been repeat-
national tribunals; and many advantages attending the power edly adverted to and exposed, but continues to be pursued in
of doing it may be imagined. It would diminish the mo- all the conversations and writings of the opponents of the
tives to the multiplication of federal courts, and would ad- plan. The mere silence of the Constitution in regard to civil
mit of arrangements calculated to contract the appellate ju- causes, is represented as an abolition of the trial by jury, and
risdiction of the Supreme Court. The State tribunals may the declamations to which it has afforded a pretext are art-
then be left with a more entire charge of federal causes; and fully calculated to induce a persuasion that this pretended
appeals, in most cases in which they may be deemed proper, abolition is complete and universal, extending not only to
instead of being carried to the Supreme Court, may be made every species of civil, but even to criminal causes. To argue
to lie from the State courts to district courts of the Union. with respect to the latter would, however, be as vain and fruit-
less as to attempt the serious proof of the existence of matter,
Publius. or to demonstrate any of those propositions which, by their
*Sec. 8th art. 1st. own internal evidence, force conviction, when expressed in
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language adapted to convey their meaning. thing commanded to be done? If such a supposition would
With regard to civil causes, subtleties almost too contempt- be unnatural and unreasonable, it cannot be rational to main-
ible for refutation have been employed to countenance the tain that an injunction of the trial by jury in certain cases is an
surmise that a thing which is only not provided for, is entirely interdiction of it in others.
abolished. Every man of discernment must at once perceive A power to constitute courts is a power to prescribe the
the wide difference between silence and abolition. But as the mode of trial; and consequently, if nothing was said in the
inventors of this fallacy have attempted to support it by cer- Constitution on the subject of juries, the legislature would be
tain legal maxims of interpretation, which they have perverted at liberty either to adopt that institution or to let it alone.
from their true meaning, it may not be wholly useless to ex- This discretion, in regard to criminal causes, is abridged by
plore the ground they have taken. the express injunction of trial by jury in all such cases; but it
The maxims on which they rely are of this nature: “A speci- is, of course, left at large in relation to civil causes, there being
fication of particulars is an exclusion of generals’’; or, “The a total silence on this head. The specification of an obligation
expression of one thing is the exclusion of another.” Hence, to try all criminal causes in a particular mode, excludes in-
say they, as the Constitution has established the trial by jury deed the obligation or necessity of employing the same mode
in criminal cases, and is silent in respect to civil, this silence is in civil causes, but does not abridge the power of the legisla-
an implied prohibition of trial by jury in regard to the latter. ture to exercise that mode if it should be thought proper. The
The rules of legal interpretation are rules of common sense, pretense, therefore, that the national legislature would not be
adopted by the courts in the construction of the laws. The at full liberty to submit all the civil causes of federal cogni-
true test, therefore, of a just application of them is its confor- zance to the determination of juries, is a pretense destitute of
mity to the source from which they are derived. This being all just foundation.
the case, let me ask if it is consistent with common-sense to From these observations this conclusion results: that the
suppose that a provision obliging the legislative power to com- trial by jury in civil cases would not be abolished; and that
mit the trial of criminal causes to juries, is a privation of its the use attempted to be made of the maxims which have been
right to authorize or permit that mode of trial in other cases? quoted, is contrary to reason and common-sense, and there-
Is it natural to suppose, that a command to do one thing is a fore not admissible. Even if these maxims had a precise tech-
prohibition to the doing of another, which there was a previ- nical sense, corresponding with the idea of those who employ
ous power to do, and which is not incompatible with the them upon the present occasion, which, however, is not the
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case, they would still be inapplicable to a constitution of gov- Let us suppose that by the laws of this State a married
ernment. In relation to such a subject, the natural and obvi- woman was incapable of conveying her estate, and that the
ous sense of its provisions, apart from any technical rules, is legislature, considering this as an evil, should enact that she
the true criterion of construction. might dispose of her property by deed executed in the pres-
Having now seen that the maxims relied upon will not bear ence of a magistrate. In such a case there can be no doubt but
the use made of them, let us endeavor to ascertain their proper the specification would amount to an exclusion of any other
use and true meaning. This will be best done by examples. mode of conveyance, because the woman having no previous
The plan of the convention declares that the power of Con- power to alienate her property, the specification determines
gress, or, in other words, of the national legislature, shall ex- the particular mode which she is, for that purpose, to avail
tend to certain enumerated cases. This specification of par- herself of. But let us further suppose that in a subsequent part
ticulars evidently excludes all pretension to a general legisla- of the same act it should be declared that no woman should
tive authority, because an affirmative grant of special powers dispose of any estate of a determinate value without the con-
would be absurd, as well as useless, if a general authority was sent of three of her nearest relations, signified by their signing
intended. the deed; could it be inferred from this regulation that a mar-
In like manner the judicial authority of the federal judica- ried woman might not procure the approbation of her rela-
tures is declared by the Constitution to comprehend certain tions to a deed for conveying property of inferior value? The
cases particularly specified. The expression of those cases marks position is too absurd to merit a refutation, and yet this is
the precise limits, beyond which the federal courts cannot precisely the position which those must establish who con-
extend their jurisdiction, because the objects of their cogni- tend that the trial by juries in civil cases is abolished, because
zance being enumerated, the specification would be nugatory it is expressly provided for in cases of a criminal nature.
if it did not exclude all ideas of more extensive authority. From these observations it must appear unquestionably true,
These examples are sufficient to elucidate the maxims which that trial by jury is in no case abolished by the proposed Con-
have been mentioned, and to designate the manner in which stitution, and it is equally true, that in those controversies
they should be used. But that there may be no misapprehen- between individuals in which the great body of the people are
sions upon this subject, I shall add one case more, to demon- likely to be interested, that institution will remain precisely
strate the proper use of these maxims, and the abuse which in the same situation in which it is placed by the State consti-
has been made of them. tutions, and will be in no degree altered or influenced by the
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adoption of the plan under consideration. The foundation of representative republic, or how much more merit it may be
this assertion is, that the national judiciary will have no cog- entitled to, as a defense against the oppressions of an heredi-
nizance of them, and of course they will remain determinable tary monarch, than as a barrier to the tyranny of popular
as heretofore by the State courts only, and in the manner which magistrates in a popular government. Discussions of this kind
the State constitutions and laws prescribe. All land causes, would be more curious than beneficial, as all are satisfied of
except where claims under the grants of different States come the utility of the institution, and of its friendly aspect to lib-
into question, and all other controversies between the citizens erty. But I must acknowledge that I cannot readily discern the
of the same State, unless where they depend upon positive inseparable connection between the existence of liberty, and
violations of the articles of union, by acts of the State legisla- the trial by jury in civil cases. Arbitrary impeachments, arbi-
tures, will belong exclusively to the jurisdiction of the State trary methods of prosecuting pretended offenses, and arbi-
tribunals. Add to this, that admiralty causes, and almost all trary punishments upon arbitrary convictions, have ever ap-
those which are of equity jurisdiction, are determinable un- peared to me to be the great engines of judicial despotism;
der our own government without the intervention of a jury, and these have all relation to criminal proceedings. The trial
and the inference from the whole will be, that this institu- by jury in criminal cases, aided by the habeas-corpus act, seems
tion, as it exists with us at present, cannot possibly be affected therefore to be alone concerned in the question. And both of
to any great extent by the proposed alteration in our system these are provided for, in the most ample manner, in the plan
of government. of the convention.
The friends and adversaries of the plan of the convention, if It has been observed, that trial by jury is a safeguard against
they agree in nothing else, concur at least in the value they set an oppressive exercise of the power of taxation. This observa-
upon the trial by jury; or if there is any difference between tion deserves to be canvassed.
them it consists in this: the former regard it as a valuable safe- It is evident that it can have no influence upon the legisla-
guard to liberty; the latter represent it as the very palladium ture, in regard to the amount of taxes to be laid, to the objects
of free government. For my own part, the more the opera- upon which they are to be imposed, or to the rule by which
tion of the institution has fallen under my observation, the they are to be apportioned. If it can have any influence, there-
more reason I have discovered for holding it in high estima- fore, it must be upon the mode of collection, and the con-
tion; and it would be altogether superfluous to examine to duct of the officers intrusted with the execution of the rev-
what extent it deserves to be esteemed useful or essential in a enue laws.
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As to the mode of collection in this State, under our own who have the nomination of special juries, are themselves
Constitution, the trial by jury is in most cases out of use. The standing officers, and, acting individually, may be supposed
taxes are usually levied by the more summary proceeding of more accessible to the touch of corruption than the judges,
distress and sale, as in cases of rent. And it is acknowledged on who are a collective body. It is not difficult to see, that it
all hands, that this is essential to the efficacy of the revenue would be in the power of those officers to select jurors who
laws. The dilatory course of a trial at law to recover the taxes would serve the purpose of the party as well as a corrupted
imposed on individuals, would neither suit the exigencies of bench. In the next place, it may fairly be supposed, that there
the public nor promote the convenience of the citizens. It would be less difficulty in gaining some of the jurors promis-
would often occasion an accumulation of costs, more bur- cuously taken from the public mass, than in gaining men who
densome than the original sum of the tax to be levied. had been chosen by the government for their probity and
And as to the conduct of the officers of the revenue, the good character. But making every deduction for these con-
provision in favor of trial by jury in criminal cases, will afford siderations, the trial by jury must still be a valuable check
the security aimed at. Wilful abuses of a public authority, to upon corruption. It greatly multiplies the impediments to its
the oppression of the subject, and every species of official success. As matters now stand, it would be necessary to cor-
extortion, are offenses against the government, for which the rupt both court and jury; for where the jury have gone evi-
persons who commit them may be indicted and punished dently wrong, the court will generally grant a new trial, and it
according to the circumstances of the case. would be in most cases of little use to practice upon the jury,
The excellence of the trial by jury in civil cases appears to unless the court could be likewise gained. Here then is a double
depend on circumstances foreign to the preservation of lib- security; and it will readily be perceived that this complicated
erty. The strongest argument in its favor is, that it is a security agency tends to preserve the purity of both institutions. By
against corruption. As there is always more time and better increasing the obstacles to success, it discourages attempts to
opportunity to tamper with a standing body of magistrates seduce the integrity of either. The temptations to prostitu-
than with a jury summoned for the occasion, there is room tion which the judges might have to surmount, must cer-
to suppose that a corrupt influence would more easily find its tainly be much fewer, while the co-operation of a jury is nec-
way to the former than to the latter. The force of this consid- essary, than they might be, if they had themselves the exclu-
eration is, however, diminished by others. The sheriff, who sive determination of all causes.
is the summoner of ordinary juries, and the clerks of courts, Notwithstanding, therefore, the doubts I have expressed, as
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to the essentiality of trial by jury in civil cases to liberty, I of the canon or civil law, without the aid of a jury.* In New
admit that it is in most cases, under proper regulations, an Jersey, there is a court of chancery which proceeds like ours,
excellent method of determining questions of property; and but neither courts of admiralty nor of probates, in the sense
that on this account alone it would be entitled to a constitu- in which these last are established with us. In that State the
tional provision in its favor if it were possible to fix the limits courts of common law have the cognizance of those causes
within which it ought to be comprehended. There is, how- which with us are determinable in the courts of admiralty
ever, in all cases, great difficulty in this; and men not blinded and of probates, and of course the jury trial is more extensive
by enthusiasm must be sensible that in a federal government, in New Jersey than in New York. In Pennsylvania, this is per-
which is a composition of societies whose ideas and institu- haps still more the case, for there is no court of chancery in
tions in relation to the matter materially vary from each other, that State, and its common-law courts have equity jurisdic-
that difficulty must be not a little augmented. For my own tion. It has a court of admiralty, but none of probates, at least
part, at every new view I take of the subject, I become more on the plan of ours. Delaware has in these respects imitated
convinced of the reality of the obstacles which, we are au- Pennsylvania. Maryland approaches more nearly to New York,
thoritatively informed, prevented the insertion of a provision as does also Virginia, except that the latter has a plurality of
on this head in the plan of the convention. chancellors. North Carolina bears most affinity to Pennsylva-
The great difference between the limits of the jury trial in nia; South Carolina to Virginia. I believe, however, that in
different States is not generally understood; and as it must some of those States which have distinct courts of admiralty,
have considerable influence on the sentence we ought to pass the causes depending in them are triable by juries. In Georgia
upon the omission complained of in regard to this point, an there are none but common-law courts, and an appeal of course
explanation of it is necessary. In this State, our judicial estab- lies from the verdict of one jury to another, which is called a
lishments resemble, more nearly than in any other, those of special jury, and for which a particular mode of appointment
Great Britain. We have courts of common law, courts of pro- is marked out. In Connecticut, they have no distinct courts
bates (analogous in certain matters to the spiritual courts in *It has been erroneously insinuated. with regard to the court
England), a court of admiralty and a court of chancery. In the of chancery, that this court generally tries disputed facts by a
courts of common law only, the trial by jury prevails, and jury. The truth is, that references to a jury in that court rarely
this with some exceptions. In all the others a single judge happen, and are in no case necessary but where the validity of
presides, and proceeds in general either according to the course a devise of land comes into question.
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either of chancery or of admiralty, and their courts of pro- difficulty of the thing. The minority of Pennsylvania have
bates have no jurisdiction of causes. Their common-law courts proposed this mode of expression for the purpose “Trial by
have admiralty and, to a certain extent, equity jurisdiction. In jury shall be as heretofore’’ and this I maintain would be sense-
cases of importance, their General Assembly is the only court less and nugatory. The United States, in their united or col-
of chancery. In Connecticut, therefore, the trial by jury ex- lective capacity, are the object to which all general provisions
tends in practice further than in any other State yet mentioned. in the Constitution must necessarily be construed to refer.
Rhode Island is, I believe, in this particular, pretty much in Now it is evident that though trial by jury, with various limi-
the situation of Connecticut. Massachusetts and New Hamp- tations, is known in each State individually, yet in the United
shire, in regard to the blending of law, equity, and admiralty States, as such, it is at this time altogether unknown, because
jurisdictions, are in a similar predicament. In the four Eastern the present federal government has no judiciary power what-
States, the trial by jury not only stands upon a broader foun- ever; and consequently there is no proper antecedent or previ-
dation than in the other States, but it is attended with a pecu- ous establishment to which the term heretofore could relate.
liarity unknown, in its full extent, to any of them. There is an It would therefore be destitute of a precise meaning, and in-
appeal of course from one jury to another, till there have been operative from its uncertainty.
two verdicts out of three on one side. As, on the one hand, the form of the provision would not
From this sketch it appears that there is a material diversity, fulfil the intent of its proposers, so, on the other, if I apprehend
as well in the modification as in the extent of the institution that intent rightly, it would be in itself inexpedient. I presume
of trial by jury in civil cases, in the several States; and from it to be, that causes in the federal courts should be tried by jury,
this fact these obvious reflections flow: first, that no general if, in the State where the courts sat, that mode of trial would
rule could have been fixed upon by the convention which obtain in a similar case in the State courts; that is to say, admi-
would have corresponded with the circumstances of all the ralty causes should be tried in Connecticut by a jury, in New
States; and secondly, that more or at least as much might York without one. The capricious operation of so dissimilar a
have been hazarded by taking the system of any one State for method of trial in the same cases, under the same government,
a standard, as by omitting a provision altogether and leaving is of itself sufficient to indispose every wellregulated judgment
the matter, as has been done, to legislative regulation. towards it. Whether the cause should be tried with or without
The propositions which have been made for supplying the a jury, would depend, in a great number of cases, on the acci-
omission have rather served to illustrate than to obviate the dental situation of the court and parties.
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But this is not, in my estimation, the greatest objection. I systems a standard for the national government in the article
feel a deep and deliberate conviction that there are many cases under consideration, and the danger of encumbering the gov-
in which the trial by jury is an ineligible one. I think it so ernment with any constitutional provisions the propriety of
particularly in cases which concern the public peace with for- which is not indisputable.
eign nations that is, in most cases where the question turns My convictions are equally strong that great advantages re-
wholly on the laws of nations. Of this nature, among others, sult from the separation of the equity from the law jurisdic-
are all prize causes. Juries cannot be supposed competent to tion, and that the causes which belong to the former would
investigations that require a thorough knowledge of the laws be improperly committed to juries. The great and primary
and usages of nations; and they will sometimes be under the use of a court of equity is to give relief in extraordinary cases,
influence of impressions which will not suffer them to pay which are exceptions* to general rules. To unite the jurisdic-
sufficient regard to those considerations of public policy which tion of such cases with the ordinary jurisdiction, must have a
ought to guide their inquiries. There would of course be al- tendency to unsettle the general rules, and to subject every
ways danger that the rights of other nations might be infringed case that arises to a special determination; while a separation
by their decisions, so as to afford occasions of reprisal and of the one from the other has the contrary effect of rendering
war. Though the proper province of juries be to determine one a sentinel over the other, and of keeping each within the
matters of fact, yet in most cases legal consequences are com- expedient limits. Besides this, the circumstances that consti-
plicated with fact in such a manner as to render a separation tute cases proper for courts of equity are in many instances so
impracticable. nice and intricate, that they are incompatible with the genius
It will add great weight to this remark, in relation to prize of trials by jury. They require often such long, deliberate, and
causes, to mention that the method of determining them has critical investigation as would be impracticable to men called
been thought worthy of particular regulation in various trea- from their occupations, and obliged to decide before they
ties between different powers of Europe, and that, pursuant were permitted to return to them. The simplicity and expedi-
to such treaties, they are determinable in Great Britain, in the tion which form the distinguishing characters of this mode
last resort, before the king himself, in his privy council, where *It is true that the principles by which that relief is governed
the fact, as well as the law, undergoes a re-examination. This are now reduced to a regular system; but it is not the less true
alone demonstrates the impolicy of inserting a fundamental that they are in the main applicable to special circumstances,
provision in the Constitution which would make the State which form exceptions to general rules.
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of trial require that the matter to be decided should be re- ent States, every issue of fact, arising in actions at common
duced to some single and obvious point; while the litigations law, may be tried by a jury if the parties, or either of them
usual in chancery frequently comprehend a long train of request it.’’
minute and independent particulars. This, at best, is a proposition confined to one description
It is true that the separation of the equity from the legal of causes; and the inference is fair, either that the Massachu-
jurisdiction is peculiar to the English system of jurisprudence: setts convention considered that as the only class of federal
which is the model that has been followed in several of the causes, in which the trial by jury would be proper; or that if
States. But it is equally true that the trial by jury has been desirous of a more extensive provision, they found it imprac-
unknown in every case in which they have been united. And ticable to devise one which would properly answer the end. If
the separation is essential to the preservation of that institu- the first, the omission of a regulation respecting so partial an
tion in its pristine purity. The nature of a court of equity will object can never be considered as a material imperfection in
readily permit the extension of its jurisdiction to matters of the system. If the last, it affords a strong corroboration of the
law; but it is not a little to be suspected, that the attempt to extreme difficulty of the thing.
extend the jurisdiction of the courts of law to matters of eq- But this is not all: if we advert to the observations already
uity will not only be unproductive of the advantages which made respecting the courts that subsist in the several States of
may be derived from courts of chancery, on the plan upon the Union, and the different powers exercised by them, it will
which they are established in this State, but will tend gradu- appear that there are no expressions more vague and indeter-
ally to change the nature of the courts of law, and to under- minate than those which have been employed to characterize
mine the trial by jury, by introducing questions too compli- that species of causes which it is intended shall be entitled to
cated for a decision in that mode. a trial by jury. In this State, the boundaries between actions at
These appeared to be conclusive reasons against incorporat- common law and actions of equitable jurisdiction, are ascer-
ing the systems of all the States, in the formation of the na- tained in conformity to the rules which prevail in England
tional judiciary, according to what may be conjectured to have upon that subject. In many of the other States the boundaries
been the attempt of the Pennsylvania minority. Let us now are less precise. In some of them every cause is to be tried in a
examine how far the proposition of Massachusetts is calcu- court of common law, and upon that foundation every ac-
lated to remedy the supposed defect. tion may be considered as an action at common law, to be
It is in this form: “In civil actions between citizens of differ- determined by a jury, if the parties, or either of them, choose
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it. Hence the same irregularity and confusion would be intro- whole had been thought of in the convention, it is to be pre-
duced by a compliance with this proposition, that I have al- sumed that the adoption of it in that body would have been
ready noticed as resulting from the regulation proposed by rendered difficult by the predilection of each representation
the Pennsylvania minority. In one State a cause would receive in favor of its own government; and it must be uncertain
its determination from a jury, if the parties, or either of them, which of the States would have been taken as the model. It
requested it; but in another State, a cause exactly similar to has been shown that many of them would be improper ones.
the other, must be decided without the intervention of a jury, And I leave it to conjecture, whether, under all circumstances,
because the State judicatories varied as to common-law juris- it is most likely that New York, or some other State, would
diction. have been preferred. But admit that a judicious selection could
It is obvious, therefore, that the Massachusetts proposition, have been effected in the convention, still there would have
upon this subject cannot operate as a general regulation, until been great danger of jealousy and disgust in the other States,
some uniform plan, with respect to the limits of common- at the partiality which had been shown to the institutions of
law and equitable jurisdictions, shall be adopted by the dif- one. The enemies of the plan would have been furnished with
ferent States. To devise a plan of that kind is a task arduous in a fine pretext for raising a host of local prejudices against it,
itself, and which it would require much time and reflection which perhaps might have hazarded, in no inconsiderable de-
to mature. It would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, gree, its final establishment.
to suggest any general regulation that would be acceptable to To avoid the embarrassments of a definition of the cases
all the States in the Union, or that would perfectly quadrate which the trial by jury ought to embrace, it is sometimes
with the several State institutions. suggested by men of enthusiastic tempers, that a provision
It may be asked, Why could not a reference have been made might have been inserted for establishing it in all cases what-
to the constitution of this State, taking that, which is allowed soever. For this I believe, no precedent is to be found in any
by me to be a good one, as a standard for the United States? I member of the Union; and the considerations which have
answer that it is not very probable the other States would been stated in discussing the proposition of the minority of
entertain the same opinion of our institutions as we do our- Pennsylvania, must satisfy every sober mind that the estab-
selves. It is natural to suppose that they are hitherto more lishment of the trial by jury in all cases would have been an
attached to their own, and that each would struggle for the unpardonable error in the plan.
preference. If the plan of taking one State as a model for the In short, the more it is considered the more arduous will
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appear the task of fashioning a provision in such a form as are continually happening in the affairs of society may render
not to express too little to answer the purpose, or too much a different mode of determining questions of property pref-
to be advisable; or which might not have opened other sources erable in many cases in which that mode of trial now prevails.
of opposition to the great and essential object of introducing For my part, I acknowledge myself to be convinced that even
a firm national government. in this State it might be advantageously extended to some
I cannot but persuade myself, on the other hand, that the cases to which it does not at present apply, and might as ad-
different lights in which the subject has been placed in the vantageously be abridged in others. It is conceded by all rea-
course of these observations, will go far towards removing in sonable men that it ought not to obtain in all cases. The ex-
candid minds the apprehensions they may have entertained amples of innovations which contract its ancient limits, as well
on the point. They have tended to show that the security of in these States as in Great Britain, afford a strong presumption
liberty is materially concerned only in the trial by jury in crimi- that its former extent has been found inconvenient, and give
nal cases, which is provided for in the most ample manner in room to suppose that future experience may discover the pro-
the plan of the convention; that even in far the greatest pro- priety and utility of other exceptions. I suspect it to be impos-
portion of civil cases, and those in which the great body of sible in the nature of the thing to fix the salutary point at which
the community is interested, that mode of trial will remain the operation of the institution ought to stop, and this is with
in its full force, as established in the State constitutions, un- me a strong argument for leaving the matter to the discretion
touched and unaffected by the plan of the convention; that it of the legislature.
is in no case abolished* by that plan; and that there are great if This is now clearly understood to be the case in Great Brit-
not insurmountable difficulties in the way of making any ain, and it is equally so in the State of Connecticut; and yet it
precise and proper provision for it in a Constitution for the may be safely affirmed that more numerous encroachments
United States. have been made upon the trial by jury in this State since the
The best judges of the matter will be the least anxious for a Revolution, though provided for by a positive article of our
constitutional establishment of the trial by jury in civil cases, constitution, than has happened in the same time either in
and will be the most ready to admit that the changes which Connecticut or Great Britain. It may be added that these en-
*Vide No. 81, in which the supposition of its being abol- croachments have generally originated with the men who en-
ished by the appellate jurisdiction in matters of fact being deavor to persuade the people they are the warmest defenders
vested in the Supreme Court, is examined and refuted. of popular liberty, but who have rarely suffered constitutional
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obstacles to arrest them in a favorite career. The truth is that FEDERALIST No. 84
the general genius of a government is all that can be substan-
tially relied upon for permanent effects. Particular provisions, Certain General and Miscellaneous Objections to the
though not altogether useless, have far less virtue and efficacy Constitution Considered and Answered
than are commonly ascribed to them; and the want of them
will never be, with men of sound discernment, a decisive ob- From McLean’s Edition, New York.
jection to any plan which exhibits the leading characters of a
good government. HAMILTON
It certainly sounds not a little harsh and extraordinary to
affirm that there is no security for liberty in a Constitution To the People of the State of New York:
which expressly establishes the trial by jury in criminal cases,
because it does not do it in civil also; while it is a notorious In the course of the foregoing review of the Constitution, I
fact that Connecticut, which has been always regarded as the have taken notice of, and endeavored to answer most of the
most popular State in the Union, can boast of no constitu- objections which have appeared against it. There, however,
tional provision for either. remain a few which either did not fall naturally under any
particular head or were forgotten in their proper places. These
Publius. shall now be discussed; but as the subject has been drawn into
great length, I shall so far consult brevity as to comprise all
my observations on these miscellaneous points in a single
paper.
The most considerable of the remaining objections is that
the plan of the convention contains no bill of rights. Among
other answers given to this, it has been upon different occa-
sions remarked that the constitutions of several of the States
are in a similar predicament. I add that New York is of the
number. And yet the opposers of the new system, in this State,
who profess an unlimited admiration for its constitution, are
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among the most intemperate partisans of a bill of rights. To fice, or title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or
justify their zeal in this matter, they allege two things: one is foreign state.’’ Article 3, section 2, clause 3 “The trial of all
that, though the constitution of New York has no bill of rights crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and
prefixed to it, yet it contains, in the body of it, various provi- such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall
sions in favor of particular privileges and rights, which, in sub- have been committed; but when not committed within any
stance amount to the same thing; the other is, that the Consti- State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress
tution adopts, in their full extent, the common and statute law may by law have directed.’’ Section 3, of the same article “Trea-
of Great Britain, by which many other rights, not expressed in son against the United States shall consist only in levying war
it, are equally secured. against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid
To the first I answer, that the Constitution proposed by the and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason, unless
convention contains, as well as the constitution of this State, a on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or
number of such provisions. on confession in open court.’’ And clause 3, of the same sec-
Independent of those which relate to the structure of the gov- tion “The Congress shall have power to declare the punish-
ernment, we find the following: Article 1, section 3, clause 7 ment of treason; but no attainder of treason shall work cor-
“Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further ruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the
than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold person attainted.’’ It may well be a question, whether these
and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United are not, upon the whole, of equal importance with any which
States; but the party convicted shall, nevertheless, be liable are to be found in the constitution of this State. The estab-
and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment lishment of the writ of habeas corpus, the prohibition of ex-
according to law.’’ Section 9, of the same article, clause 2 “The post-facto laws, and of titles of nobility, to which we have no
privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, corresponding provision in our constitution, are perhaps greater
unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety securities to liberty and republicanism than any it contains.
may require it.’’ Clause 3 “No bill of attainder or ex-post- The creation of crimes after the commission of the fact, or, in
facto law shall be passed.’’ Clause 7 “No title of nobility shall other words, the subjecting of men to punishment for things
be granted by the United States; and no person holding any which, when they were done, were breaches of no law, and
office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the con- the practice of arbitrary imprisonments, have been, in all ages,
sent of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, of- the favorite and most formidable instruments of tyranny. The
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observations of the judicious Blackstone,* in reference to the was to recognize the ancient law and to remove doubts which
latter, are well worthy of recital: “To bereave a man of life, might have been occasioned by the Revolution. This conse-
Usays he,e or by violence to confiscate his estate, without quently can be considered as no part of a declaration of rights,
accusation or trial, would be so gross and notorious an act of which under our constitutions must be intended as limita-
despotism, as must at once convey the alarm of tyranny tions of the power of the government itself.
throughout the whole nation; but confinement of the per- It has been several times truly remarked that bills of rights
son, by secretly hurrying him to jail, where his sufferings are are, in their origin, stipulations between kings and their sub-
unknown or forgotten, is a less public, a less striking, and jects, abridgements of prerogative in favor of privilege, reser-
therefore a more dangerous engine of arbitrary government.’’ vations of rights not surrendered to the prince. Such was
And as a remedy for this fatal evil he is everywhere peculiarly Magna Charta, obtained by the barons, sword in hand, from
emphatical in his encomiums on the habeas-corpus act, which King John. Such were the subsequent confirmations of that
in one place he calls “the bulwark of the British Constitu- charter by succeeding princes. Such was the Petition of Right
tion.’’** assented to by Charles I., in the beginning of his reign. Such,
Nothing need be said to illustrate the importance of the also, was the Declaration of Right presented by the Lords and
prohibition of titles of nobility. This may truly be denomi- Commons to the Prince of Orange in 1688, and afterwards
nated the corner-stone of republican government; for so long thrown into the form of an act of parliament called the Bill
as they are excluded, there can never be serious danger that the of Rights. It is evident, therefore, that, according to their primi-
government will be any other than that of the people. tive signification, they have no application to constitutions
To the second that is, to the pretended establishment of the professedly founded upon the power of the people, and ex-
common and state law by the Constitution, I answer, that ecuted by their immediate representatives and servants. Here,
they are expressly made subject “to such alterations and provi- in strictness, the people surrender nothing; and as they retain
sions as the legislature shall from time to time make concern- every thing they have no need of particular reservations. “We,
ing the same.’’ They are therefore at any moment liable to the people of the United States, to secure the blessings of lib-
repeal by the ordinary legislative power, and of course have erty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish
no constitutional sanction. The only use of the declaration this Constitution for the United States of America.’’ Here is a
*Vide Blackstone’s “Commentaries,” vol. 1., p. 136. better recognition of popular rights, than volumes of those
** Vide Blackstone’s “Commentaries,” vol. iv., p. 438. aphorisms which make the principal figure in several of our
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State bills of rights, and which would sound much better in a of an authority which was not given, and that the provision
treatise of ethics than in a constitution of government. against restraining the liberty of the press afforded a clear im-
But a minute detail of particular rights is certainly far less plication, that a power to prescribe proper regulations con-
applicable to a Constitution like that under consideration, cerning it was intended to be vested in the national govern-
which is merely intended to regulate the general political in- ment. This may serve as a specimen of the numerous handles
terests of the nation, than to a constitution which has the which would be given to the doctrine of constructive powers,
regulation of every species of personal and private concerns. by the indulgence of an injudicious zeal for bills of rights.
If, therefore, the loud clamors against the plan of the conven- On the subject of the liberty of the press, as much as has
tion, on this score, are well founded, no epithets of reproba- been said, I cannot forbear adding a remark or two: in the
tion will be too strong for the constitution of this State. But first place, I observe, that there is not a syllable concerning it
the truth is, that both of them contain all which, in relation in the constitution of this State; in the next, I contend, that
to their objects, is reasonably to be desired. whatever has been said about it in that of any other State,
I go further, and affirm that bills of rights, in the sense and amounts to nothing. What signifies a declaration, that “the
to the extent in which they are contended for, are not only liberty of the press shall be inviolably preserved’’? What is the
unnecessary in the proposed Constitution, but would even liberty of the press? Who can give it any definition which
be dangerous. They would contain various exceptions to pow- would not leave the utmost latitude for evasion? I hold it to
ers not granted; and, on this very account, would afford a be impracticable; and from this I infer, that its security, what-
colorable pretext to claim more than were granted. For why ever fine declarations may be inserted in any constitution re-
declare that things shall not be done which there is no power specting it, must altogether depend on public opinion, and
to do? Why, for instance, should it be said that the liberty of on the general spirit of the people and of the government.*
the press shall not be restrained, when no power is given by And here, after all, as is intimated upon another occasion,
which restrictions may be imposed? I will not contend that must we seek for the only solid basis of all our rights.
such a provision would confer a regulating power; but it is There remains but one other view of this matter to con-
evident that it would furnish, to men disposed to usurp, a clude the point. The truth is, after all the declamations we
plausible pretense for claiming that power. They might urge have heard, that the Constitution is itself, in every rational
with a semblance of reason, that the Constitution ought not sense, and to every useful purpose, a bill of rights. The several
to be charged with the absurdity of providing against the abuse *See note at end of No. 84.
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bills of rights in Great Britain form its Constitution, and con- on, is of this nature: “It is improper Usay the objectorse to
versely the constitution of each State is its bill of rights. And confer such large powers, as are proposed, upon the national
the proposed Constitution, if adopted, will be the bill of rights government, because the seat of that government must of
of the Union. Is it one object of a bill of rights to declare and necessity be too remote from many of the States to admit of
specify the political privileges of the citizens in the structure a proper knowledge on the part of the constituent, of the
and administration of the government? This is done in the conduct of the representative body.’’ This argument, if it proves
most ample and precise manner in the plan of the conven- any thing, proves that there ought to be no general govern-
tion; comprehending various precautions for the public secu- ment whatever. For the powers which, it seems to be agreed
rity, which are not to be found in any of the State constitu- on all hands, ought to be vested in the Union, cannot be
tions. Is another object of a bill of rights to define certain safely intrusted to a body which is not under every requisite
immunities and modes of proceeding, which are relative to control. But there are satisfactory reasons to show that the
personal and private concerns? This we have seen has also been objection is in reality not well founded. There is in most of
attended to, in a variety of cases, in the same plan. Adverting the arguments which relate to distance a palpable illusion of
therefore to the substantial meaning of a bill of rights, it is the imagination. What are the sources of information by which
absurd to allege that it is not to be found in the work of the the people in Montgomery County must regulate their judg-
convention. It may be said that it does not go far enough, ment of the conduct of their representatives in the State legis-
though it will not be easy to make this appear; but it can with lature? Of personal observation they can have no benefit. This
no propriety be contended that there is no such thing. It is confined to the citizens on the spot. They must therefore
certainly must be immaterial what mode is observed as to the depend on the information of intelligent men, in whom they
order of declaring the rights of the citizens, if they are to be confide; and how must these men obtain their information?
found in any part of the instrument which establishes the Evidently from the complexion of public measures, from the
government. And hence it must be apparent, that much of public prints, from correspondences with theirrepresentatives,
what has been said on this subject rests merely on verbal and and with other persons who reside at the place of their delib-
nominal distinctions, entirely foreign from the substance of erations. This does not apply to Montgomery County only,
the thing. but to all the counties at any considerable distance from the
Another objection which has been made, and which, from seat of government.
the frequency of its repetition, it is to be presumed is relied It is equally evident that the same sources of information
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would be open to the people in relation to the conduct of Among the many curious objections which have appeared
their representatives in the general government, and the im- against the proposed Constitution, the most extraordinary
pediments to a prompt communication which distance may and the least colorable is derived from the want of some pro-
be supposed to create, will be overbalanced by the effects of vision respecting the debts due to the United States. This has
the vigilance of the State governments. The executive and leg- been represented as a tacit relinquishment of those debts, and
islative bodies of each State will be so many sentinels over the as a wicked contrivance to screen public defaulters. The news-
persons employed in every department of the national ad- papers have teemed with the most inflammatory railings on
ministration; and as it will be in their power to adopt and this head; yet there is nothing clearer than that the suggestion
pursue a regular and effectual system of intelligence, they can is entirely void of foundation, the offspring of extreme igno-
never be at a loss to know the behavior of those who repre- rance or extreme dishonesty. In addition to the remarks I have
sent their constituents in the national councils, and can readily made upon the subject in another place, I shall only observe
communicate the same knowledge to the people. Their dis- that as it is a plain dictate of common-sense, so it is also an
position to apprise the community of whatever may preju- established doctrine of political law, that “States neither lose
dice its interests from another quarter, may be relied upon, if any of their rights, nor are discharged from any of their obliga-
it were only from the rivalship of power. And we may con- tions, by a change in the form of their civil government.’’ The
clude with the fullest assurance that the people, through that last objection of any consequence, which I at present recol-
channel, will be better informed of the conduct of their na- lect, turns upon the article of expense. If it were even true,
tional representatives, than they can be by any means they that the adoption of the proposed government would occa-
now possess of that of their State representatives. sion a considerable increase of expense, it would be an objec-
It ought also to be remembered that the citizens who in- tion that ought to have no weight against the plan.
habit the country at and near the seat of government will, in The great bulk of the citizens of America are with reason
all questions that affect the general liberty and prosperity, have convinced, that Union is the basis of their political happiness.
the same interest with those who are at a distance, and that Men of sense of all parties now, with few exceptions, agree
they will stand ready to sound the alarm when necessary, and that it cannot be preserved under the present system, nor with-
to point out the actors in any pernicious project. The public out radical alterations; that new and extensive powers ought
papers will be expeditious messengers of intelligence to the to be granted to the national head, and that these require a
most remote inhabitants of the Union. different organization of the federal government a single body
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being an unsafe depositary of such ample authorities. In con- persons to be employed in the collection of the revenues, it is
ceding all this, the question of expense must be given up; for unquestionably true that these will form a very considerable
it is impossible, with any degree of safety, to narrow the foun- addition to the number of federal officers; but it will not
dation upon which the system is to stand. The two branches follow that this will occasion an increase of public expense. It
of the legislature are, in the first instance, to consist of only will be in most cases nothing more than an exchange of State
sixty-five persons, which is the same number of which Con- for national officers. In the collection of all duties, for in-
gress, under the existing Confederation, may be composed. It stance, the persons employed will be wholly of the latter de-
is true that this number is intended to be increased; but this is scription. The States individually will stand in no need of any
to keep pace with the progress of the population and resources for this purpose. What difference can it make in point of
of the country. It is evident that a less number would, even in expense to pay officers of the customs appointed by the State
the first instance, have been unsafe, and that a continuance of or by the United States? There is no good reason to suppose
the present number would, in a more advanced stage of popu- that either the number or the salaries of the latter will be
lation, be a very inadequate representation of the people. greater than those of the former.
Whence is the dreaded augmentation of expense to spring? Where then are we to seek for those additional articles of
One source indicated, is the multiplication of offices under expense which are to swell the account to the enormous size
the new government. Let us examine this a little. that has been represented to us? The chief item which occurs
It is evident that the principal departments of the adminis- to me respects the support of the judges of the United States.
tration under the present government, are the same which I do not add the President, because there is now a president of
will be required under the new. There are now a Secretary of Congress, whose expenses may not be far, if any thing, short
War, a Secretary of Foreign Affairs, a Secretary for Domestic of those which will be incurred on account of the President
Affairs, a Board of Treasury, consisting of three persons, a of the United States. The support of the judges will clearly be
Treasurer, assistants, clerks, etc. These officers are indispens- an extra expense, but to what extent will depend on the par-
able under any system, and will suffice under the new as well ticular plan which may be adopted in regard to this matter.
as the old. As to ambassadors and other ministers and agents But upon no reasonable plan can it amount to a sum which
in foreign countries, the proposed Constitution can make no will be an object of material consequence.
other difference than to render their characters, where they Let us now see what there is to counterbalance any extra
reside, more respectable, and their services more useful. As to expense that may attend the establishment of the proposed
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government. The first thing which presents itself is that a great hitherto performed what under the new system will be done
part of the business which now keeps Congress sitting through in the first instance by sixty-five persons, and probably at no
the year will be transacted by the President. Even the manage- future period by above a fourth or fifth of that number. The
ment of foreign negotiations will naturally devolve upon him, Congress under the proposed government will do all the busi-
according to general principles concerted with the Senate, and ness of the United States themselves, without the interven-
subject to their final concurrence. Hence it is evident that a tion of the State legislatures, who thenceforth will have only
portion of the year will suffice for the session of both the to attend to the affairs of their particular States, and will not
Senate and the House of Representatives; we may suppose have to sit in any proportion as long as they have heretofore
about a fourth for the latter and a third, or perhaps half, for done. This difference in the time of the sessions of the State
the former. The extra business of treaties and appointments legislatures will be clear gain, and will alone form an article of
may give this extra occupation to the Senate. From this cir- saving, which may be regarded as an equivalent for any addi-
cumstance we may infer that, until the House of Representa- tional objects of expense that may be occasioned by the adop-
tives shall be increased greatly beyond its present number, there tion of the new system.
will be a considerable saving of expense from the difference The result from these observations is that the sources of
between the constant session of the present and the tempo- additional expense from the establishment of the proposed
rary session of the future Congress. Constitution are much fewer than may have been imagined;
But there is another circumstance of great importance in that they are counterbalanced by considerable objects of sav-
the view of economy. The business of the United States has ing; and that while it is questionable on which side the scale
hitherto occupied the State legislatures, as well as Congress. will preponderate, it is certain that a government less expen-
The latter has made requisitions which the former have had sive would be incompetent to the purposes of the Union.
to provide for. Hence it has happened that the sessions of the
State legislatures have been protracted greatly beyond what Publius.
was necessary for the execution of the mere local business of
the States. More than half their time has been frequently * To show that there is a power in the Constitution by which
employed in matters which related to the United States. Now the liberty of the press may be affected, recourse has been had
the members who compose the legislatures of the several States to the power of taxation. It is said that duties may be laid
amount to two thousand and upwards, which number has upon the publications so high as to amount to a prohibition.

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I know not by what logic it could be maintained, that the FEDERALIST No. 85
declarations in the State constitutions, in favor of the free-
dom of the press, would be a constitutional impediment to Concluding Remarks
the imposition of duties upon publications by the State legis-
latures. It cannot certainly be pretended that any degree of From McLean’s Edition, New York.
duties, however low, would be an abridgment of the liberty
of the press. We know that newspapers are taxed in Great HAMILTON
Britain, and yet it is notorious that the press nowhere enjoys
greater liberty than in that country. And if duties of any kind To the People of the State of New York:
may be laid without a violation of that liberty, it is evident
that the extent must depend on legislative discretion, respect- According to the formal division of the subject of these pa-
ing the liberty of the press, will give it no greater security than pers, announced in my first number, there would appear still
it will have without them. The same invasions of it may be to remain for discussion two points: “the analogy of the pro-
effected under the State constitutions which contain those posed government to your own State constitution,’’ and “the
declarations through the means of taxation, as under the pro- additional security which its adoption will afford to republi-
posed Constitution, which has nothing of the kind. It would can government, to liberty, and to property.’’ But these heads
be quite as significant to declare that government ought to be have been so fully anticipated and exhausted in the progress
free, that taxes ought not to be excessive, etc., as that the lib- of the work, that it would now scarcely be possible to do any
erty of the press ought not to be restrained. thing more than repeat, in a more dilated form, what has
been heretofore said, which the advanced stage of the ques-
tion, and the time already spent upon it, conspire to forbid.
It is remarkable, that the resemblance of the plan of the
convention to the act which organizes the government of this
State holds, not less with regard to many of the supposed
defects, than to the real excellences of the former. Among the
pretended defects are the re-eligibility of the Executive, the
want of a council, the omission of a formal bill of rights, the
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omission of a provision respecting the liberty of the press. precautions against the repetition of those practices on the
These and several others which have been noted in the course part of the State governments which have undermined the
of our inquiries are as much chargeable on the existing consti- foundations of property and credit, have planted mutual dis-
tution of this State, as on the one proposed for the Union; trust in the breasts of all classes of citizens, and have occa-
and a man must have slender pretensions to consistency, who sioned an almost universal prostration of morals.
can rail at the latter for imperfections which he finds no dif- Thus have I, fellow-citizens, executed the task I had assigned
ficulty in excusing in the former. Nor indeed can there be a to myself; with what success, your conduct must determine.
better proof of the insincerity and affectation of some of the I trust at least you will admit that I have not failed in the
zealous adversaries of the plan of the convention among us, assurance I gave you respecting the spirit with which my en-
who profess to be the devoted admirers of the government deavors should be conducted. I have addressed myself purely
under which they live, than the fury with which they have to your judgments, and have studiously avoided those asperi-
attacked that plan, for matters in regard to which our own ties which are too apt to disgrace political disputants of all
constitution is equally or perhaps more vulnerable. parties, and which have been not a little provoked by the lan-
The additional securities to republican government, to lib- guage and conduct of the opponents of the Constitution.
erty and to property, to be derived from the adoption of the The charge of a conspiracy against the liberties of the people,
plan under consideration, consist chiefly in the restraints which which has been indiscriminately brought against the advo-
the preservation of the Union will impose on local factions cates of the plan, has something in it too wanton and too
and insurrections, and on the ambition of powerful individu- malignant, not to excite the indignation of every man who
als in single States, who may acquire credit and influence feels in his own bosom a refutation of the calumny. The per-
enough, from leaders and favorites, to become the despots of petual changes which have been rung upon the wealthy, the
the people; in the diminution of the opportunities to foreign well-born, and the great, have been such as to inspire the dis-
intrigue, which the dissolution of the Confederacy would gust of all sensible men. And the unwarrantable concealments
invite and facilitate; in the prevention of extensive military and misrepresentations which have been in various ways prac-
establishments, which could not fail to grow out of wars be- ticed to keep the truth from the public eye, have been of a
tween the States in a disunited situation; in the express guar- nature to demand the reprobation of all honest men. It is not
anty of a republican form of government to each; in the abso- impossible that these circumstances may have occasionally
lute and universal exclusion of titles of nobility; and in the betrayed me into intemperances of expression which I did
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not intend; it is certain that I have frequently felt a struggle adoption, and that I am unable to discern any real force in
between sensibility and moderation; and if the former has in those by which it has been opposed. I am persuaded that it is
some instances prevailed, it must be my excuse that it has the best which our political situation, habits, and opinions
been neither often nor much. will admit, and superior to any the revolution has produced.
Let us now pause and ask ourselves whether, in the course Concessions on the part of the friends of the plan, that it
of these papers, the proposed Constitution has not been satis- has not a claim to absolute perfection, have afforded matter
factorily vindicated from the aspersions thrown upon it; and of no small triumph to its enemies. “Why,” say they, “should
whether it has not been shown to be worthy of the public we adopt an imperfect thing? Why not amend it and make it
approbation, and necessary to the public safety and prosper- perfect before it is irrevocably established?’’ This may be plau-
ity. Every man is bound to answer these questions to himself, sible enough, but it is only plausible. In the first place I re-
according to the best of his conscience and understanding, mark, that the extent of these concessions has been greatly
and to act agreeably to the genuine and sober dictates of his exaggerated. They have been stated as amounting to an ad-
judgment. This is a duty from which nothing can give him a mission that the plan is radically defective, and that without
dispensation. ‘T is one that he is called upon, nay, constrained material alterations the rights and the interests of the com-
by all the obligations that form the bands of society, to dis- munity cannot be safely confided to it. This, as far as I have
charge sincerely and honestly. No partial motive, no particu- understood the meaning of those who make the concessions,
lar interest, no pride of opinion, no temporary passion or is an entire perversion of their sense. No advocate of the mea-
prejudice, will justify to himself, to his country, or to his sure can be found, who will not declare as his sentiment, that
posterity, an improper election of the part he is to act. Let the system, though it may not be perfect in every part, is,
him beware of an obstinate adherence to party; let him reflect upon the whole, a good one; is the best that the present views
that the object upon which he is to decide is not a particular and circumstances of the country will permit; and is such an
interest of the community, but the very existence of the na- one as promises every species of security which a reasonable
tion; and let him remember that a majority of America has people can desire.
already given its sanction to the plan which he is to approve I answer in the next place, that I should esteem it the ex-
or reject. treme of imprudence to prolong the precarious state of our
I shall not dissemble that I feel an entire confidence in the national affairs, and to expose the Union to the jeopardy of
arguments which recommend the proposed system to your successive experiments, in the chimerical pursuit of a perfect
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The Federalist Papers
plan. I never expect to see a perfect work from imperfect man. State. To its complete establishment throughout the Union, it
The result of the deliberations of all collective bodies must will therefore require the concurrence of thirteen States. If, on
necessarily be a compound, as well of the errors and preju- the contrary, the Constitution proposed should once be rati-
dices, as of the good sense and wisdom, of the individuals of fied by all the States as it stands, alterations in it may at any
whom they are composed. The compacts which are to em- time be effected by nine States. Here, then, the chances are as
brace thirteen distinct States in a common bond of amity and thirteen to nine* in favor of subsequent amendment, rather
union, must as necessarily be a compromise of as many dis- than of the original adoption of an entire system.
similar interests and inclinations. How can perfection spring This is not all. Every Constitution for the United States
from such materials? must inevitably consist of a great variety of particulars, in which
The reasons assigned in an excellent little pamphlet lately thirteen independent States are to be accommodated in their
published in this city,* are unanswerable to show the utter interests or opinions of interest. We may of course expect to
improbability of assembling a new convention, under circum- see, in any body of men charged with its original formation,
stances in any degree so favorable to a happy issue, as those in very different combinations of the parts upon different points.
which the late convention met, deliberated, and concluded. I Many of those who form a majority on one question, may
will not repeat the arguments there used, as I presume the become the minority on a second, and an association dissimi-
production itself has had an extensive circulation. It is cer- lar to either may constitute the majority on a third. Hence
tainly well worthy the perusal of every friend to his country. the necessity of moulding and arranging all the particulars
There is, however, one point of light in which the subject of which are to compose the whole, in such a manner as to sat-
amendments still remains to be considered, and in which it isfy all the parties to the compact; and hence, also, an im-
has not yet been exhibited to public view. I cannot resolve to mense multiplication of difficulties and casualties in obtain-
conclude without first taking a survey of it in this aspect. ing the collective assent to a final act. The degree of that
It appears to me susceptible of absolute demonstration, that multiplication must evidently be in a ratio to the number of
it will be far more easy to obtain subsequent than previous particulars and the number of parties.
amendments to the Constitution. The moment an alteration But every amendment to the Constitution, if once estab-
is made in the present plan, it becomes, to the purpose of adop- lished, would be a single proposition, and might be brought
tion, a new one, and must undergo a new decision of each *It may rather be said ten, for though two thirds may set on
*Entitled “An Address to the People of the State of New York.’’ foot the measure, three fourths must ratify.
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The Federalist Papers
forward singly. There would then be no necessity for man- whenever nine States concur, will have no option upon the
agement or compromise, in relation to any other point no subject. By the fifth article of the plan, the Congres will be
giving nor taking. The will of the requisite number would at obliged “on the application of the legislatures of two thirds of
once bring the matter to a decisive issue. And consequently, the States Uwhich at present amount to ninee, to call a con-
whenever nine, or rather ten States, were united in the desire vention for proposing amendments, which shall be valid, to
of a particular amendment, that amendment must infallibly all intents and purposes, as part of the Constitution, when
take place. There can, therefore, be no comparison between ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the States, or by
the facility of affecting an amendment, and that of establish- conventions in three fourths thereof.’’ The words of this ar-
ing in the first instance a complete Constitution. ticle are peremptory. The Congress “shall call a convention.”
In opposition to the probability of subsequent amendments, Nothing in this particular is left to the discretion of that body.
it has been urged that the persons delegated to the adminis- And of consequence, all the declamation about the disincli-
tration of the national government will always be disinclined nation to a change vanishes in air. Nor however difficult it
to yield up any portion of the authority of which they were may be supposed to unite two thirds or three fourths of the
once possessed. For my own part I acknowledge a thorough State legislatures, in amendments which may affect local in-
conviction that any amendments which may, upon mature terests, can there be any room to apprehend any such diffi-
consideration, be thought useful, will be applicable to the culty in a union on points which are merely relative to the
organization of the government, not to the mass of its pow- general liberty or security of the people. We may safely rely
ers; and on this account alone, I think there is no weight in on the disposition of the State legislatures to erect barriers
the observation just stated. I also think there is little weight in against the encroachments of the national authority.
it on another account. The intrinsic difficulty of governing If the foregoing argument is a fallacy, certain it is that I am
thirteen States at any rate, independent of calculations upon myself deceived by it, for it is, in my conception, one of those
an ordinary degree of public spirit and integrity, will, in my rare instances in which a political truth can be brought to the
opinion constantly impose on the national rulers the neces- test of a mathematical demonstration. Those who see the
sity of a spirit of accommodation to the reasonable expecta- matter in the same light with me, however zealous they may
tions of their constituents. But there is yet a further consider- be for amendments, must agree in the propriety of a previous
ation, which proves beyond the possibility of a doubt, that adoption, as the most direct road to their own object.
the observation is futile. It is this that the national rulers, The zeal for attempts to amend, prior to the establishment
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The Federalist Papers
of the Constitution, must abate in every man who is ready to rules of prudence to let go the hold we now have, in so ardu-
accede to the truth of the following observations of a writer ous an enterprise, upon seven out of the thirteen States, and
equally solid and ingenious: “To balance a large state or soci- after having passed over so considerable a part of the ground,
ety Usays hee, whether monarchical or republican, on general to recommence the course. I dread the more the consequences
laws, is a work of so great difficulty, that no human genius, of new attempts, because I know that powerful individuals,
however comprehensive, is able, by the mere dint of reason in this and in other States, are enemies to a general national
and reflection, to effect it. The judgments of many must unite government in every possible shape.
in the work; experience must guide their labor; time must
bring it to perfection, and the feeling of inconveniences must Publius.
correct the mistakes which they inevitably fall into in their
first trials and experiments.”*These judicious reflections con-
tain a lesson of moderation to all the sincere lovers of the
Union, and ought to put them upon their guard against
hazarding anarchy, civil war, a perpetual alienation of the States
from each other, and perhaps the military despotism of a vic- To return to the Electronic Classics Series
torious demagogue, in the pursuit of what they are not likely
page, go to
to obtain, but from time and experience. It may be in me a
defect of political fortitude, but I acknowledge that I cannot http://www.hn.psu.edu/faculty/jmanis/
entertain an equal tranquillity with those who affect to treat jimspdf.htm
the dangers of a longer continuance in our present situation as
imaginary. A nation, without a national government, is, in To return to the Political Documents page,
my view, an awful spectacle. The establishment of a Consti- go to
tution, in time of profound peace, by the voluntary ocnsent
http://www.hn.psu.edu/faculty/jmanis/
of a whole people, is a prodigy, to the completion of which I
look forward with trembling anxiety. I can reconcile it to no document.htm
*Hume’s “Essays,” vol. i., page 128: “The Rise of Arts and
Sciences.’’
400

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