Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1
Iso me ri sm → Constit uti ona l
Iso me rs a nd S te reoi so me rs
Ster eois omer s are is omer s wi th th e same
mo le cul ar formu la an d same co nnect iv it y
of at oms bu t di ffer en t ar ran ge men t of
at oms in spa ce
2
St ereoc hem is try
is the chemistry of molecules in three dimension
3
Handed nes s
Stereochemistry of organic molecules can be
understood, if we understand the meaning of
handedness
the fundamental reason for this is that our
hands are not identical, rather they are mirror
images
4
Ch ira lity
6
Mirr or I ma ge
7
Chiralit y a nd Non chir alit y
Mirror image: the reflection of an object in a
mirror
Objects that are not superposable on their mirror
images are said to be chiral, that is, they show
handedness
Objects that are superposable on their mirror
images are said to be achiral, that is, they do not
show handedness. An achiral object has at least
one element of symmetry
8
Achiral Molecules
• Do these molecules contain a Plane of Symmetry (Mirror Plane)?
9
Chiral Molecules
• The molecule labeled A and its mirror image labeled B
are not superimposable. No matter how you rotate A and
B, all the atoms never align. Thus, CHBrClF is a chiral
molecule, and A and B are different compounds.
• A and B are stereoisomers—specifically, they are
enantiomers.
• A carbon atom with four different groups is a tetrahedral
stereogenic center.
10
Chiral vs. Achiral
• With one stereogenic center, a molecule
will always be chiral.
11
Chiral vs . Ach ira l
Chiral: from the Greek, cheir, hand
an object that is not superposable on its mirror
image
Achiral: an object that lacks chirality; one that
lacks handedness
an achiral object has at least one element of
symmetry
plane of symmetry: an imaginary plane passing
through an object dividing it so that one half is
the mirror image of the other half
center of symmetry: a point so situated that
identical components are located on opposite
sides and equidistant from that point along the
axis passing through it
12
Ele ments of Sy mme try
Symmetry in objects
13
Plane of Symmetry or Mirror plane
14
TWO VIEWS OF THE PLANE OF SYMMETRY
plane of
symmetry
F F
Cl Cl
Br Cl
Br
Cl
F side edge
Cl
Br view view
Pla ne of Sy mm et ry
achiral chiral
16
Eleme nts o f Sy mmetry
Br H
Cl
Cl
H Br center of
symmetry
17
Ch ira l Cen ter
The mo st comm on ( but n ot the only)
ca use of chi ra li ty i n orga ni c mol ecules
is a tetr ah edra l atom , mo st comm on ly
ca rb on, bond ed to f our di ff erent
groups
18
STEREOGENIC CARBON ATOMS
Stere og en ic Carb on
At oms
Cl Thi s is on e ty pe of ….
stereocenter
…. others are possible
H F
Br
A stereogenic carbon is tetrahedral and
has four different groups attached.
20
Stereogenic Centers
• To locate a stereogenic center, examine the four groups
—not the four atoms—bonded to each tetrahedral
carbon atom in a molecule.
• Omit from consideration all C atoms that cannot be
tetrahedral stereogenic centers. These include
• Methylene and methyl units, i. e. CH2 and CH3 groups
respectively.
• Any sp or sp2 hybridized Carbons, e.g. triple bonds,
and double bonds in alkenes (C=C) and carbonyls
(C=O).
21
Enantiomers
22
Enantiomers
23
Drawing Enantiomers
• To draw both enantiomers of a chiral compound such as
2-butanol, use the typical convention for depicting a
tetrahedron: place two bonds in the plane, one in front of
the plane on a wedge, and one behind the plane on a
dash. Then, to form the first enantiomer, arbitrarily place
the four groups—H, OH, CH3 and CH2CH3—on any bond
to the stereogenic center. Then draw the mirror image.
24
Pairs of Enantiomers
25
Enantiomer s
Cl Cl rotate
H F F
Br Br H
this molecule
is chiral
Cl
note that the fluorine
and bromine have been
interchanged in the
H Br enantiomer
F 26
Enantiomer s
HO O O OH
Lactic acid C C
C C
HO H H OH
CH3 H3 C
27
Enantiom ers
3-Chlorocyclohexene
Cl Cl
28
Enantiom ers
OH
CH3 CHCH2 OH
1,2-propanediol
OH OH
H H
29
Enantiom ers
A nitrogen chiral center
+ +
N N
H3 C CH2 CH3 CH3 CH2 CH3
A pair of enantiomers
30
Enanti ome rs
&
Diaste reomers
31
En antiomers &
Dia stereois om er
Enantiomers: opposite configurations at
all stereogenic centers.
Diastereomers: Stereoisomers that are
not mirror images of each other.
Different configuration at some
locations.
32
Two Stereocenters
Cl Br Br Cl
d
H3C CH3 H3C CH3 i
a
H H H H s
t
entaiomers e
r
Cl Br Br Cl o
m
e
r
H3C H H CH3 s
H CH3 H3C H
entaiomers
33
En antiomers &
Dia ster eome rs
For a molecule with 1 stereocenter, 2
stereoisomers are possible
For a molecule with 2 stereocenters, a
maximum of 4 stereoisomers are possible
For a molecule with n stereocenters, a
maximum of 2n stereoisomers are possible
2n-1 pairs of enantiomers
34
Dia ster eome rs
2,3,4-Trihydroxybutanal
two chiral centers
22 = 4 stereoisomers exist; two pairs of
enantiomers
CHO CHO CHO CHO
H C OH HO C H H C OH HO C H
H C OH HO C H HO C H H C OH
Diastereomers:
stereoisomers that are not mirror images
refers to the relationship among two or more
objects 35
Dia stereome rs
2,3-Dihydroxybutanedioic acid (tartaric acid)
two chiral centers; 2n = 4, but only three
stereoisomers exist
H C OH HO C H H C OH HO C H
H C OH HO C H HO C H H C OH
CH3 OH HO H3 C
H H H H
cis2Methylcyclopentanol
(a pair of enantiomers) diastereomers
CH3 H H H3 C
H OH HO H
trans2Methylcyclopentanol
(a pair of enantiomers)
37
Dia stereome rs
1,2-Cyclopentanediol
OH HO OH HO
H H H H
cis-
1,2-Cyclopentanediol
(a meso compound)
diastereomers
OH H H HO
H HO OH H
trans-
1,2-Cyclopentanediol
(a pair of enantiomers)
38
Dia ster eome rs
cis-3-Methylcyclohexanol
H3 C OH HO CH3
39
Dia ster eome rs
trans-3-Methylcyclohexanol
H3 C CH3
OH HO
40
Mes o comp ou nds
Cl Cl Cl Cl
41
Mes o comp ou nds
Meso compound: achiral despite the
presence of stereogenic centers
Not optically active
Superposable on its mirror image
Has a plane of symmetry
42
The Three Stereoisomers of
2,3-dibromobutane
CH3 CH
CH3 23 = 8 stereoisomers
CONFIGURATION
ABSOLUTE CONFIGURATION ( R / S )
CONFIGURATION
1 2 counter
clockwise 2 1
clockwise
C C
4 4
3 3
view with
substituent
of lowest
priority in
back
R (rectus) S (sinister)
Rules for Labeling Stereogenic Centers with R or S
50
Priority Rules for Naming Enantiomers (R or S)
51
Priority of Isotopes on a Stereogenic Center
• If two isotopes are bonded to the stereogenic center,
assign priorities in order of decreasing mass number.
Thus, in comparing the three isotopes of hydrogen, the
order of priorities is:
52
Priority Rules for Multiple Bonds in (R or S) Labeling
• To assign a priority to an atom that is part of a multiple bond,
treat a multiply bonded atom as an equivalent number of
singly bonded atoms. For example, the C of a C=O is
considered to be bonded to two O atoms.
53
Examples Assigning Priorities
54
Ca hn-Ingold -P relog S ys tem f or
Na min g E nantiome rs R or S
55
R or S Enantiomers
56
Positioning the Molecule for R/S Assignment
57
R-enantiomer (Clockwise Rotation)
S-enantiomer (Counterclockwise Rotation)
58
Manipulation of Chiral Molecules
59
The molecule is rotated to put the lowest
priority group back
If the groups descend in priority (a,b then c) in
clockwise direction the enantiomer is R
If the groups descend in priority in
counterclockwise direction the enantiomer is S
60
R,S Con ven tion
Priority rules (Cahn, Ingold, Prelog)
Each atom bonded to the stereocenter is
assigned a priority, based on atomic
number. The higher the atomic number,
the higher the priority
1 6 7 8 16 17 35 53
H CH 3 NH 2 OH SH Cl Br I
Increasing Priority
61
R,S Con ven tion
If priority cannot be assigned on the basis
of the atoms bonded to the stereocenter,
look to the next set of atoms. Priority is
assigned at the first point of difference.
1 6 7 8
CH 2 H CH 2 CH 3 CH 2 NH 2 CH 2 OH
Increasing Priority
62
R,S Con ven tion
Atoms participating in a double or triple
bond are considered to be bonded to an
equivalent number of similar atoms by
single bonds
C C
is treated as
-CH=CH2 -CH-CH2
O O C
is treated as
-CH C O
H
C C
is treated as
C CH C C H
C C
63
Priorit ie s
-OH H
HO COOH
-COOH C
-CH3 CH3
-H (R)-(-)-lactic acid
H
HOOC OH
C
CH3
(S)-(+)-lactic acid 64
Bromochlorofluoroiodomethane
1 1
I I
4 4
F C C
2 F
Cl Br Br Cl
3 3
2
R S
Enantiomers 65
R and S Assignments in Compounds
with Two or More Stereogenic Centers.
• When a compound has more than one stereogenic
center, the R and S configuration must be assigned to
each of them.
66
St ereois om eris m of Cyc li c
Compo un ds
1,4-dimethylcyclohexane
Neither the cis not trans isomers is optically active
Each has a plane of symmetry
67
1,3-dimethylcyclohexane
The trans and cis compounds each have two
stereogenic centers
The cis compound has a plane of symmetry
and is meso
The trans compound exists as a pair of
enantiomers
68
Prop ert ies of St ereois om ers
69
Prop ert ies of Stere oiso mers
Enantiomers have identical physical and
chemical properties in achiral
environments
Diastereomers are different compounds
and have different physical and
chemical properties
meso tartaric acid, for example, has
different physical and chemical properties
from its enantiomers (see Table 3.1)
70
Pla ne-P olarized L ig ht
71
Pla ne-P olarized L ig ht
plane-polarized light is the vector sum of
left and right circularly polarized light
circularly polarized light reacts one way
with an R chiral center, and the opposite
way with its enantiomer
the result of interaction of plane-polarized
light with a chiral compound is rotation of
the plane of polarization
72
Pla ne-P olarized L ig ht
73
Optica l Act iv it y
ob serv ed rotation : th e num ber of deg re es , α,
th rou gh which a comp ou nd rotate s th e plan e of
pol ariz ed li ght
dex tro rota tor y (+) : refers to a comp ou nd that
rotates the pl ane of polari zed li ght to the ri gh t
levorotatory (-): re fers to a comp ou nd that rota tes
of the pl ane of polari zed li ght to the lef t
specif ic rotati on: ob serv ed rotation when a pure
samp le is pl ac ed in a tu be 1.0 dm in l eng th and
con ce ntration in g/mL ( den sity); for a sol uti on,
con ce ntration is ex pres sed in g/ 100 mL
COOH COOH
C H H C
H3 C OH CH3
HO
(S)(+)Lactic acid (R)()Lactatic acid
21 21
[α]D = +2.6° [α]D = 2.6°
74
Opti cal Purit y
Optical purity: a way of describing the
composition of a mixture of enantiomers
[α ]sam ple
Percent optical purity = x 100
[α ]pure enantio mer
Enantiomeric excess: the difference between
the percentage of two enantiomers in a
mixture
[R] [S]
Enantiomeric excess (ee) = x 100 = %R %S
[R] + [S]
75
Res olu ti on
76
Racemates
• An equal amount of two enantiomers is called a
racemate or a racemic mixture. A racemic mixture is
optically inactive. Because two enantiomers rotate
plane-polarized light to an equal extent but in opposite
directions, the rotations cancel, and no rotation is
observed.
77
Specific Rotation
• Specific rotation is a standardized physical constant for
the amount that a chiral compound rotates plane-
polarized light. Specific rotation is denoted by the
symbol [α] and defined using a specific sample tube
length (l, in dm), concentration (c in g/mL), temperature
(25 0C) and wavelength (589 nm).
78
Dis cov er y o f E nantiome rs
“There is no doubt
that in dextro - +
COO Na
tartaric acid there
exists an H C OH
assymetric
arrangement HO C H
having a
nonsuperimposible - +
COO Na
image.”
79
OH OH meso
HOOC COOH
H
Tartaric Acid
H
OH OH OH OH
HOOC H H COOH
H COOH HOOC H
81
Diastereomers
Threonine: 2 pairs of H
COOH
NH2 COOH
H 2N H
enantiomers C C
C C
H OH HO H
CH3 H3C
2R,3R 2S,3S 2R,3S & 2S,3R 2R, 3R 2S, 3S
2S,3S 2R,3R 2R,3S & 2S,3R COOH COOH
2R,3S 2S,3R 2R,3R & 2S,3S H C NH2 H 2N C H
2S,3R 2R,3S 2R,3R & 2S,3S C C
HO H H OH
H3C CH3
2R, 3S 2S, 3R
82
Enantiomers & Diastereomers
For tartaric acid, the three possible
stereoisomers are one meso compound
and a pair of enantiomers.
83
Symmetry Plane
2R, 3S and 2S, 3R COOH COOH
HO H
are identical H C OH C
C C
Molecule has a plane HO H H OH
COOH COOH
of symmetry 2R, 3R 2S, 3S
perpendicular to C-C COOH COOH
and is therefore H C OH HO
C
H
achira C C
H OH HO H
COOH COOH
2R, 3S 2S, 3R
84
Symmetry Plane
2R, 3S and 2S, 3R COOH COOH
H
are identical H C OH HO
C
Molecule has a plane HO
C
H H
C
OH
of symmetry COOH COOH
perpendicular to C-C 2R, 3R 2S, 3S
85
CH3CHCHCH3
Cl Br
2-Bromo-3-chlorobutane
mirror
Cl Br Br Cl
S R S R
CH3 CH3 CH3 CH3
H H H H
enantiomers 1
diastereomers
Cl Br Br Cl
S S R R
CH3 H H CH3
H CH3 CH3 H
enantiomers 2
86
CH3CHCHCH3
Cl Cl
2,3-Dichlorobutane
Cl Cl Cl Cl
S R mirror image
CH3 CH3 CH3 is identical CH3
H H H H
meso
diastereomers
Cl Cl Cl Cl
S S R R
CH3 H H CH3
H CH3 CH3 H
enantiomers
87
Tartaric Acid
(-) - tartaric acid (+) - tartaric acid
[α ]D = -12.0o [α ]D = +12.0o
mp 168 - 170o mp 168 - 170o
solubility of 1 g solubility of 1 g
0.75 mL H2O 0.75 mL H2O
1.7 mL methanol 1.7 mL methanol
250 mL ether 250 mL ether
insoluble CHCl3 insoluble CHCl3
d = 1.758 g/mL d = 1.758 g/mL
89
CH3
H OH
90
Fis ch er Pr oject ion s
COOH COOH
C H OH
H
OH CH3 CH3
How?
(R)-lactic acid
91
Fisc her Pro ject ion s
COOH COOH
H C H OH
OH CH3 CH3
92
Fis ch er Pr oject ion s
COOH COOH
H OH H OH
CH3 CH3
93
Fis ch er Pr oject ion s
95
Assigning R,S Configuration
4
H
2
3 H 3C COOH
OH
1 s-lactic acid
96
Rules of Motion
Can rotate 180°, but not 90° because
90° disobeys the Fischer projection.
Same groups go in and out of plane
97
Rules of Motion
Can rotate 180°, but not 90° because
90° disobeys the Fischer projection.
Different groups go in and out of plane
This generates an enantiomeric structure
COOH COOH H
H
H OH 90 H3C COOH
=H OH H3C COOH =
CH3 CH3 OH OH
98
Rules of Motion
One group can be held steady and the
others rotated.
COOH COOH
H OH same as HO CH3
CH3 H
99
Rules of Motion
To determine if two Fischer projections
represent the same enantiomer carry
out allowed motions.
H C 2H 5 OH
H 3C C 2H 5 HO H H CH3
OH CH3 C2H 5
A B C
100
H C2H 5 OH
H 3C C2H 5 HO H H CH3
OH CH 3 C2H 5
Rules of Motion A B C
B A
101
H C2H 5 OH
H 3C C2H 5 HO H H CH3
OH CH 3 C2H 5
Rules of Motion A B C
OH CH 2CH3 H
H CH 3 180 H OH CH 3
H 3C CH 2CH
90
CH 2CH3 OH OH
C not A
102
Priorities
HOOC
NH2 CH3
H
H 2N H HOOC NH2
COOH CH3 CH3
CH3
H
H H HOOC
HOOC NH2 HOOC NH2
CH3 CH3 H 2N H
CH3
S - stereochemistry 103
1-Bromo-2-chlorocyclohexane
Br Cl Cl Br cis
enantiomers
diastereomers
Br Br tran s
Cl Cl
enantiomers
104
1-Bromo-2-chlorocyclopropane
Br R Cl Cl R Br
S S
cis
enantiomers
diastereomers
Br Br
R R S S
tra ns
Cl Cl
enantiomers
105
1,2-Dibromocyclopropane
mirror image identical
Br Br Br Br
ci s
meso
diastereomers
Br Br
tra ns
Br Br
enantiomers 106
Biol ogi cal Signif ic ance of St ereois om ers
Example
•Pasteur’s plant mold metabolized (+)-tartaric acid but not (-)-tartaric acid
107
Bio logi ca l Si gn ifi canc e of Stereois om ers
Th alido mi de
O
•Marketed in 50 countries 1956-1962
Sedative for “hysterical” pregnant women
N O
Antiemetic to combat morning sickness
N
•Caused thousands of birth defects
O O H
108
Biol ogi cal Si gn ific ance of
St ereois om ers
Another Biological Effect: Odor
O O
enantiomers
H H
(R)-(-)-carvone (S)-(+)-carvone
smells like spearmint smells like caraway
OH
•Enzymes and receptors are proteins; built from amino acids: H2N
O
•Most amino acids are chiral, so protein cavity is also chiral
•Metaphor: Stereoisomer = left hand or right hand
Protein hole = left glove or right glove
Left hand fits left glove but not right glove
Left hand triggers “left protein” but not “right protein”
•(R)-carvone triggers spearmint smell receptor but not caraway smell
receptor
110
111