Building Moisture

Field guide With practical
advice, tips
Building moisture and tricks
% RH
C td
C
2
Foreword
FOREWORD
As a manufacturer of measuring instruments for a wide range of industrial and commercial
applications, TESTO is interested not just in supplying users with a particular instrument, but also in
helping them meet their specific needs, i.e. carrying out their measuring tasks.
The field guides that TESTO has been publishing for several years have become useful sources of
reference for users of measurement technology. While the building services sector has already been
covered in this series of guides (heating engineering and air-conditioning), guides for other problems
associated with buildings, such as moisture and discomfort, have been lacking. Even before the
TESTO ACADEMY was established, demand was such that it was decided to offer seminars - for a
charge and independent of any brand - for the building industry with the aim of helping users identify
measuring tasks and carry them out properly. In these seminars, which were constantly expanded,
the hope was sometimes expressed that the learning material could be supplemented and
condensed into written form and made available as a handbook. We are happy to respond to this
request by publishing this guide.
Because of the lack of opportunity to swap experience and perform practical exercises, this guide
cannot replace any seminar. Nevertheless, we hope that this book will be widely distributed so that
measuring techniques are applied efficiently and correctly, building defects are located quickly and
the causes of damage can be clearly demonstrated.
Our speaker at the building moisture seminars and symposia, Martin Giebeler of Zwingenberg,
collaborated closely in shaping the content of this guide.
The guide is aimed at managers of apartment complexes, expert inspectors, planners and
engineers and companies providing measurement and building drying services. We would like to
encourage the use of measurement technology wherever it is helpful. That requires familiarity with
the possibilities and the limits of its proper use. This guide is intended to play its part in that process.
It also offers information that would go far beyond the scope of the operating instructions for analy-
sers.
What is missing? What has not been dealt with intensively enough? We welcome your ideas,
amendments and suggestions for how this guide can be improved. They will be considered in the
next issue.
The Board of Directors
Burkart Knospe Lothar Walleser
3
Overview
Parameter Air humidity
Design
Recording room Measuring in cavities Long-term recording Moisture content

climate on first (insulating course, of the room climate equilibrium on/in the
inspection screed joint) and ventilation building component
characteristics
Parameter Air temperature A
Design
Recording room Comfort analyses Long-term recording Wind determination

climate on first (room climate at of the room climate (meteorology)
inspection workplaces) and ventilation
characteristics
4
Overview
Material moisture
Local or Non-destructive Penetration probe:

chronological surface rapid overview;
comparative measurement brush probe:
measurements determination of the
(drying process, leak moisture horizon;
location) moisture profile in a
cross-section of
masonry
Air flow Material temperature
Throw determination Determination of the Recording of Measurement of More precise

and comfort at airtightness of a radiator running inaccessible parts of determination of
leakage points; building as a whole; times; assessment a room; rapid building component
determination of generation of an of heat bridges; location of hot water temperature on first
volume flow at artificial vacuum for clarification of leaks or heat bridges inspection
defined channel comfort analyses condensation
cross-sections of
ventilation and air-
conditioning systems
5
Contents
Field guide to building moisture: Contents

1. Parameters and measuring methods 8
1.1 Air temperature 8

1.1.1 The measuring principle 9
1.1.2 Correct and incorrect application 9
1.1.2.1 Transport/inertia of the sensor 10
1.1.2.2 Performing the measurement 12
1.1.2.3 Special applications 12
1.2 Air humidity 14

1.2.1 The measuring principle 16
1.2.2 Correct and incorrect application 17
1.2.2.1 Transport/inertia of the sensor 18
1.2.2.2 Performing the measurement 18
1.3 Material temperature 19

1.3.1 The principle of contact measurement 19
1.3.1.1 Application and performance 20
1.3.2. The principle of non-contact measurement 22
1.3.2.1 Application and performance 23
1.4 Material moisture 26

1.4.1 The different measuring processes: Possibilities and limits 28
1.4.1.1 The scatter field method 28
1.4.1.2 Conductivity 31
1.4.1.3 Moisture ratio at equilibrium 34
1.4.1.4 Other methods 39
2. The basics of measurement 41
2.1 The authority advantage 41
2.2 Blind faith in digital technology 41
2.3 The four basic elements of measurement 43

6
Contents
3. Typical applications of building practice 47
3.1 Locating leaks in pipes 47
3.2 Locating air leaks in BlowerDoor tests, assessing draughts 50
3.3 Assessing moisture damage 57

3.3.1 The problem 57
3.3.2 The procedure 59
3.4 Assessing mould damage 62

3.4.1 Procedures in an inspection 63
3.4.2 Short-term and long-term measurement 65
3.4.3 Measuring location 65
3.4.4 Recommended programming for loggers used to record room climate 67
3.4.5 Narrowing down the causes 68
3.5 Assessing heat bridges 70

3.5.1 The problem and its importance 70
3.5.2 Types of heat bridge 70
3.5.3 Recording heat bridges 73
4. Reference to other field guides 75
5. General 78
7
Parameters and measuring methods
1. Parameters and measuring methods

(See page 4 for an overview).
1.1 Air temperature

The measurement of air temperature is a fundamental measuring task. It is car-
ried out in order to control heating and ventilation, and also to assess the level
of comfort and mould damage.
The measurement of air temperature is straightforward in terms of handling
and technical requirements.
In principle:
It is always the actual temperature of the air that is measured, regard-
Helpful phrase
less of whether it is stagnant or agitated Stagnant air and agitated air
are felt in different ways.
Agitated air has a cooling effect: a breeze, for instance, makes oppres-
sive summer heat more bearable, even if it has the same temperature.
On the other hand, cold is felt more keenly the stormier it is (this is
known as the wind chill factor).
The subjective perception of cold and draught can be indicated

with the perceived temperature , which is always lower than the
actual temperature. However, empirical anthropological factors (the
sensitivity of a person) extending beyond the purely physical indica-
tion of a temperature also come into play here. Finding the right
definition is crucial when giving weather/climate information, for
sporting events and expeditions and when considering comfort
levels.
It is just as important that radiating elements change both the perceived tem-
perature and the actual temperature!
Everyone knows how the embers of a campfire on a cool autumn evening can
make you feel pleasantly warm - albeit only on one side. Similarly, an ordinary
radiator, tile stove or halogen radiator in an apartment can radiate heat and
raise the perceived temperature.
If this radiated heat meets a thermometer, the thermometer will display a higher
temperature than the ambient air actually has. This radiation component is not
normally measured as well.
8
Air thermometers should in principle be shielded from radiation (meteorological

measurements, for instance, are always performed in the shade).
If the radiation component and its effect on comfort are to be recorded,

though, there are special thermometers (e.g. globe thermometers) for this pur-
pose.
1.1.1 The measuring principle

There are a number of different ways of measuring air temperature.
The most common are measurement with a temperature-dependent electrical
resistor (high-impedance NTC or low-impedance PT100) and measurement
with a thermocouple. This thermocouple generates an electric voltage accord-
ing to the temperature.
As in other measuring tasks, there are preferred applications for the one or the
other principle depending on the temperature level to be recorded (e.g. 20 C
or 200 C?) and the requirements with regard to precision, design and speed.
Suitability and precision are indicated by the manufacturer of each device; tem-
perature sensors are often combined with air humidity sensors or an air velocity
sensor in one probe.
The accuracy of TESTO s standard sensors (combination probe) is about

0.4 K, the response times for agitated sensors about 30 sec.1
1.1.2 Correct and incorrect application

Always remember the following:
The instrument only ever records the temperature of the sensor, not the tem-
perature of the medium!
For that reason the temperature of the sensor must come as close as possible
to that of the medium to be measured.
That is why the sensor is normally detached from the handheld instrument and
accommodated in a handheld probe.2
Handheld probes must be specifically designed for measurements in air (or
more generally, in gases). They are markedly different in design from sensors
for the surfaces of solids, for bulk goods and for liquids!
1
For more about the response time, see chapter 1.1.2.1
2
For a definition of the terms sensor and probe , see Fig. 1 9
The temperature should only be recorded in that part of the space in which the
sensor is located.
Given that the layers of air that prevail in homes can produce a difference of 4 K
between near the floor and near the ceiling, the question arises as to the best
height for measuring.
If in doubt, it is better to measure at several heights and to note all measure-
ments. Otherwise it is normally sufficient to measure at chest height. This cor-
responds to a height of about 140 cm, which comfort guidelines give as the
mean measurement height.3 The middle of the room is taken as representative
of the room. If other locations are to be assessed, e.g. a balcony door that is
thought to have a draught, they must be measured separately.
Handheld unit
Sensor
Sensor/probe
Fig. 1: Components of a measuring instrument
1.1.2.1 Transport/inertia of the sensor

As already explained, the temperature of the sensor should approach the tem-
perature of the medium as quickly and without hindrance as possible.
After transportation or storage at significantly different temperatures, the sen-
sor must be given a sufficient equalisation time to be able to react to the actual
prevailing temperatures (e.g. do not keep the instrument in the car overnight
during frosty periods if you are going to perform a measurement in a home the
next morning).
3
cf. DIN 1946: Head height for seated activity 110 cm, head height for standing activity 170 cm
10
If the temperature of the handheld instrument is different, this is not as critical

as the temperature of the probe being too low.
If the probe was cooled down (or heated) when brought into the room to be
measured, however, it would need about 10 minutes lying still in order to ad-
just. The actual inert mass here is the sensor housing, not the sensor itself.
If measurement is carried out with a probe that has cooled down too much, the
sensor would fog up. This would result in lower values. If you have not waited
long enough, you can see by excessively high or low values that the reading is
wandering . Only when the reading is stable has the probe reached the equi-
librium and hence correct temperature.
In the typical design, in which the sensor sits in a slotted protective cap well ex-
posed to direct flows, a microclimate forms. With the sensor at rest, an insulat-
ing air cushion can be maintained in the cap (this is particularly true for fully en-
closed sintered caps used in dusty atmospheres). Temperature equalisation
can be accelerated by moving the probe around in the ambient air: the micro-
climate is then broken up.
Even with good flows around it, the response time of the sensor depends on its
design and especially its mass. The response time of commercial air sensors is
a matter of seconds and so has little bearing. In technical language, the re-
sponse time is expressed as a characteristic value known as t99. This is the
time taken for the displayed temperature to approach 99 % of the end value.
11
1.1.2.2 Performing the measurement

When carrying out a measurement, you must make sure that your own body
heat and especially the air that you exhale do not reach the probe. One solution
is to move the sensor around. This should not be done vigorously, but nor
should it be too gentle.
In summary, measurements should be performed as follows:

Roughly in the centre of the room
At chest height
Shield off strong sources of radiation with your body
Keep your arm stretched away from your body
Use your wrist to swing the instrument. Aim for about 1.5 m/s; this corre-
sponds to about 2 swings per second
Fig. 2: Correct handling when measuring air temperature and air

humidity
1.1.2.3 Special applications

Measurements of comfort are carried out using a globe thermometer. This is
not agitated but is instead fixed immovably in position using a stand at one of
three defined heights that are laid down in DIN 1946-2 and VDI 2080. The
globe thermometer consists of a hollow sphere painted matt black. The actual
sensor is located in the sphere.
12
Incident heat radiation (e.g. sunlight) has the effect of warming the sphere in a
similar way to how the human body would experience it. The reading approxi-
mates very closely to the average human sensitivity if the readings are calibrat-
ed on the basis of empirical experiments with a large number of test people.
The reading given by the globe thermometer cannot, however, indicate
whether the radiation was uniform all the way round or just on one side of the
sphere. That makes a huge difference with regard to comfort.
Fig. 3: Globe thermometer
Long-term recording is advisable if temperature fluctuations are to be record-

ed. This requires a programmable device with a data memory, known as a data
logger. What was said under 1.1.2.2 applies analogously for the positioning of
a probe in the room. Because the sensor is not moved around, the inertia of the
globe thermometer is theoretically greater. That is irrelevant in practice, howev-
er, as the air temperature in rooms does not vary so quickly that the sensor is
unable to keep track.
13
1.2 Air humidity

The parameter of air humidity is very important in any assessment of mould
damage. It is also a key indicator in the technical drying of buildings in order to
ascertain when a drying process can be terminated.
There are a large number of characteristic values which can be used to indicate
how much water vapour is in the air.
As regards the applications addressed in this field guide, only

g water
absolute humidity and
m3gas
g actual water
relative humidity
g max. possible water
are of interest.4
The absolute humidity describes the mass of water (vapour) which exists in one
cubic metre of ambient air (including the vapour). Strictly speaking, you would
have to make sure that the standard pressure was maintained. That is irrele-
vant in practice, however, because the instrumentation and the performance of
the actual measurement lead to greater inaccuracies.
The relative humidity describes how much of the maximum possible absorbing
capacity of the air is actually taken up. This depends on the temperature!
Flowing water
Water content of air in g/m3
Increasing
saturation
Water vapour
Air temperature in C
Dry, cool air Warm, moist air
Fig. 4: Saturation curve and dew point temperature curve
4
14 The terms vapour pressure , enthalpy and water content are preferred in some industries (air-
conditioning, production engineering). The units can be transferred using an h-x diagram ( Mollier diagram ) if
the side parameters are known.
75 %RH Troom = 20 C
Tsurface = 15 C 55 %RH
Minimum distance from wall to

measurement point for
representative room climate
measurements
Fig. 5: Temperature dependence of relative humidity

5
Absolute and relative humidity in practice
Room air at with an assumed water ...would be saturated at... and consequently has a
content of relative humidity of...
20 C 9.5 g/m 17 g/m 55 %
This would be a typical room climate in a lounge, for instance. If this air then gets into a cooled bedroom, in a corner which is
only 10 C on the surface,...
...this air cools down to... At first it still contains... ...but is already saturated In other words:
at...
10 C 9.5 g/m 9 g/m About 0.5 g, corresponding to
0.5 ml, excess condensates
out, on the cold surface first
=> mould forms!
The condensation begins from
cooling down to 10.7 C. Mould
begins to form before
condensation occurs.
Remedy: Move the furniture out, insulate the top of the ceiling, heat the bedroom better. This would help to increase the
wall temperature up to 15 C, for instance:
So this air only cools down It still contains... ...but is not saturated until... This corresponds to a relative
to... humidity at the wall of:
15 C 9.5 g/m 13 g/m 73 %. This figure is much lower
than the critical value for mould to
form, namely 85 %. => Problem
solved!
5
For the sake of simplicity, constant values were assumed in this scenario. In practice, the room climate will of 15
course vary. However, mean values can be used.
Different relative Relative humidity is the indicator most commonly used, probably due to mete-
humidities within orology and considerations of comfort levels. Relative humidity depends not
a room only on water content, but also on air temperature. Since different air tempera-
tures may prevail within a room (the temperature at floor level and on ceilings
next to external walls is smaller than in the centre of the room), a room may
have a variety of relative humidities!
That is why absolute humidity is more helpful for considerations relating to the
The dew physics of construction, which often involve condensation and drying. Well-de-
temperature signed instruments indicate both characteristic values and also provide infor-
mation on the dew temperature (often called the dew point temperature ).
This is the temperature at which condensation would begin if this ambient air
were cooled down. This parameter is very important if you want to know where
cool sections of a wall fog up in a given room climate.
1.2.1 The measuring principle

The actual sensor is usually located in a handheld probe along with a tempera-
ture sensor. It consists of an approx. 0.5 cm2-large lamina comprising three
layers and hence forming a capacitor. The middle layer is a moisture-sensitive
plastic. Depending on the ambient humidity, it brings about a different dielectric
constant, so that the capacity changes.
The change in the response of the resonant circuit is analysed electronically.
Sensors are available in different tolerance classes. Dust deposits can be

rinsed off, but mechanical stresses (scratches) or sweat from your hand can
damage the sensor.
While today s sensors are considered to have long-term stability, they are sub-
ject to unavoidable ageing. For our applications, they must be inspected every
2 years and recalibrated if necessary. This is particularly important if the accu-
racy of the determined values has a legally binding effect or if several measur-
ing instruments are used at the same time and their values are not allowed to
differ (e.g. when diagnosing heat bridges and mould, see chapter 3.5.3).
If calibration takes place in the factory, the relevant certification is provided (e.g.
a calibration certificate). This helps to allay lack of confidence with regard to the
accuracy of measurement.
The accuracy of TESTO s standard sensors is + 2 % of relative humidity (not a
% of the displayed value). The response time (for agitated combination sen-
sors) is about 30 s.
16
Fig. 6: Combination sensor
1.2.2 Correct and incorrect application

Before performing any measurement, it is essential to ask yourself this ques-
tion: what do I want to achieve with this measurement?
When it comes to measuring moisture in order to assess mould, it is often

unclear where the probe should be positioned:
Do I want to find out the air humidity in the corner that is being attacked
by mould?
Or do I want a representative moisture value for a living space in order to
assess the ventilation requirements?
Here too, the principle is that:

the measurement applies only for the place at which it was taken.
It is always advisable to carry out a measurement in each room, this being

done roughly in the centre of the room, as when measuring temperature. Hu-
midity can also then be measured in corners, behind cupboards and the like,
and these must then be noted separately in the report.
The room climate is always influenced by the measurement itself, i.e. by the
presence of the person doing the measuring. You should therefore go into the
room quickly, close the doors and perform the measurement promptly. Even
just opening the door or leaving it ajar, or staying for longer than necessary, will
change the air humidity in the room.
The report must normally show the measuring location, the time, the
weather and the air temperature, as these are indispensable for subse-
quent interpretation of the results.
17
1.2.2.1 Transport/inertia of the sensor

Waving the As with temperature sensors, humidity sensors also have a certain equalisation
sensor around period. This is because the humidity in the air must first penetrate into the plas-
reduces the tic layer of the probe. Although the plastic layer has only an ultra-thin, microp-
equalisation orous metal layer as the second pole, the process can still take from a few sec-
period onds to several minutes.
Here too, the inertia depends primarily on how exposed the sensor is to flows,
i.e. whether the sensor is moved around in the air. If the probe is hardly moved,
an equalisation period of about 10 minutes should be expected.
More rapid equalisation takes place if the instrument is agitated at approx.
1.5 m/s. To prevent condensation and reduce the response time, the instru-
ment should not have been stored in a cold place beforehand. The measure-
ment can be taken once the reading is stable.
1.2.2.2 Performing the measurement

Everything that applies for temperature measurement must also be observed
Posture during when measuring humidity: the sensor must be kept away from the body so that
measurement it is not exposed to exhaled air (which is saturated with moisture!). The sensor
should be agitated using the wrist, at chest height etc.

There are long-term recordings in humidity measurement as well. These are vi-
tal for assessing mould. The probes and instruments are positioned in the
same way as for a one-off measurement.
For measurement in cavities or screed insulating layers, particularly thin probe

types which can be pushed into drill holes or edge joints are available. The very
slim protective caps that come with them protect against dust and grains, but
prolong the response time.
Sintered metal protective caps which are permeable to gas but impermeable
for particles are available for measurements in dusty atmospheres. Again,
these prolong the equalisation period.
18
Fig. 7: Measuring in a screed edge joint
With special adapters, air humidity sensors can also be used to determine ma -
terial moisture (see chapter 1.4.1.3).
1.3 Material temperature
1.3.1 The principle of contact measurement

Here measurement is performed according to the tried and tested principle
that the sensor has to take on the temperature of the medium to be measured.
The accuracy of measurement depends on how well that succeeds.
Principle: every measuring instrument only measures the temperature of its

own sensor.
Since with solid bodies the sensor is normally placed only on the surface, it is
important that a vital intimate contact of the sensor is achieved, e.g. by having
a sufficiently large contact area. This contact area should adapt as fully as pos-
sible to the contours of the surface. The part to be placed on the surface
should also have little mass so that it equalises quickly. The measured temper-
ature is always a mixed temperature, as the air temperature is unavoidably
measured as well.
19
The accuracies are normally lower here than when measuring air temperatures.
For more details, please refer to the following section.
1.3.1.1 Application and performance

Of course, air or penetration sensors do not meet these requirements on solid
bodies and are not therefore suitable for measuring wall temperatures. This is
where disk or spring band sensors come in.
Disk sensors are only suitable for very smooth surfaces; they are used in com-
bination with magnetic adhesion for even metallic surfaces, but not for wallpa-
per, plaster, stone or concrete.
Spring band sensors are more suitable for the latter. If the surface is very rough
(e.g. rendering), the transmission of heat can be improved by using a thermal
Exact conduction paste.
measurements
only with The equalisation period for spring band sensors is always longer with poor heat
intimate contact conductors (e.g. insulating material) and can be up to 10 seconds; with good
heat conductors (e.g. metal) it is shorter.
Fig. 8: Spring band sensor
Where particular accuracy is extremely important in measurements (e.g. for ex-

pert reports), the measuring principle and the design and application must be
taken into account in measurements.
With regard to accuracy, it must be remembered that the manufacturers only
give sensor accuracies for defined surface conditions, i.e. the sensor is placed
at right angles on a smooth metal plate. Other surfaces may be taken into con-
sideration in a special calibration.
20
The standard accuracy of spring band sensors for usual room temperatures,
for instance, is 2.5 K. More precise measurements, however, are required for
applications demanding a high level of accuracy.
Calibration is possible and recommended if greater accuracy is desired in the

temperature range of 10 C (the typical heat bridge temperature). Penetration
probes which could be pushed behind a wallpaper are sometimes more accu-
rate, but also more inert; the transmission of heat is also more undefined. A
more accurate type of sensor is described in the next chapter.

There is a need for long-term recording even when measuring surface temper-
ature. Expert assessors require them primarily when assessing mould or in re-
search in the determination of heating response. The equalisation period is vir-
tually irrelevant here. It is much more important that a sensor can be anchored
in position. Lamina sensors 1.5 x 4 cm in size which - with thermal conductive
paste - can be fixed to the wall using two small nails are available to this end.
The rear should be shielded from heat radiation and the air flows in the room by
means of a small piece of polystyrene.
Fig. 9: Lamina sensor
The achievable accuracy here is much greater than for a sensor simply placed
onto a surface. It is about 0.5 K for the lamina itself, which is fitted with a
PT100 sensor, and is sufficient for assessing dew. Intimate contact with the
surface is essential, which is why an air gap must be avoided and thermal con-
ductive paste must be used.
The location of measuring/mounting depends on the particular task. It is often
useful to measure at two different locations simultaneously.
For more about the procedure for mould damage, please refer to chapter
3.4. Aspects to do with assessing heat bridges can be found in chapter
3.5.3.
21
1.3.2. The principle of non-contact measurement

All bodies which are warmer than absolute zero (-273 C = 0 Kelvin) radiate
heat (also known as infrared radiation).
Infrared radiation has a long wavelength (>770 nm) and is thus in a spectral
range that the human eye cannot see. The higher the frequency, i.e. the shorter
the wavelength, the more energy-rich the radiation. It can be picked up by sen-
sors. The intensity (output) of the heat radiation is a measure of the tempera-
ture of the radiating body.
Most substances have a clean radiation behaviour that is utilised by the stan-
dard measuring instruments in the range from 8 to 14 nm.6 7
What is critical is whether the body really only gives off its own energy at the
surface or whether it reflects a considerable proportion of the ambient heat ra-
diation (rather like a polished surface does with visible light).
The proportion made up of reflected radiation is described as the emissivity co-

efficient .
It must be remembered that the reflective or transparent property of a body
may behave differently in response to radiated heat than in the case of visible
light!
What is transparent glass to the eye, for instance, may be a matt pane for a
measuring instrument. As a rule, however, surfaces which appear to be reflec-
tive are also critical for infrared measurement.
The colour that we perceive an object to have (white, black, blue etc.) is irrele-
vant for the purposes of measurement.
In principle:
Only the temperature of the surface of the solid is measured. The core
temperature and the air temperature in front of it are not displayed.8
6
Some infrared cameras also work in ranges of 3 to 5 mm
7
There are some materials (e.g. metal oxides and plastics) that give off radiation in several spectral ranges and
change their wavelength erratically when the temperature changes; they are known as coloured emitters .
These are technically more difficult to measure. However, this is not relevant for typical building applications.
8
Of course, the temperature that arises on the surface also depends on the core and air temperatures. Cold air
22 that flows in and along the wall, for instance, leads to smear-like cooling zones on the surface. The cold air
itself is not recognised , but it can be seen by the effect it achieves on the surface.
1.3.2.1 Application and performance

The correct emissivity coefficient is crucial for the accuracy of the measure-
ment. For the majority of matt building materials it is 0.93 ... 0.95. Lower-priced
devices have a fixed value. With more variable devices, the emissivity coeffi-
cient can be adjusted to requirements. The measurement of reflective surfaces
(e.g. polished stainless steel rails, anodised surfaces) can be very inaccurate
because there is very little characteristic radiation.
Glass is not always as reflective or transparent as it may appear. Whether or

not glass surfaces act like matt surfaces of building materials depends on the The reflection
wavelength range in which the instrument is operating.
Window panes can be opaque for many thermographic cameras and instead
act like a mirror for cosmic radiation. The panes then appear unnaturally cold in
the readings.
If there are no recommendations from the manufacturer or previous experi-
ence, help can be found by covering the surface in question with a matt-effect
adhesive tape (heat-resistant adhesive tape for high temperatures is available
to this end). Aluminised adhesive tapes are of course out of question. However,
the Gaffa tape used by sound engineers, or even masking tape, are also very
suitable. These allow glazed tiles, panes, mirrors, radiators, metal railings, gal-
vanised surfaces etc. to be measured more reliably.
Consideration must be given to the size of the measuring spot. With thermo-
graphic cameras the subject area that goes into the measurement is known
because the area is continuously scanned. The measuring
Handheld devices, however, make only 1-point measurements, and this is nor-
mally over a circular spot rather than on one single point. This is due to the lens
arrangement (cf. principle of a photo camera). A mean temperature value is ob-
tained for the surface to be measured.
To let you know where you are measuring, the instruments have a laser beam
that picks out the position of the measuring spot. The size of the measuring
spot is also significant, however, e.g. in corners, near water pipes or on the ad-
hesive tapes mentioned above. That is why the more convenient instruments
have additional laser beams that highlight the contours of the measuring spot.
Otherwise the size of the measuring spot must be derived from the distance to
the object as detailed in the operating instructions.
23
The surface to be measured should be viewed as far as possible at right an-

gles. Deviations of up to 30 from the vertical are irrelevant. The measuring in-
strument should be held away from the side of the body so that the reflected
radiation of body heat cannot reach the instrument. Very flat angles of observa-
tion not only impair accuracy, but also lead to a distorted, oval-shaped measur-
ing spot.
Non-contact measurement is not necessarily more accurate than contact

measurement. A direct comparison between the two methods at one and the
same location can show up differences.
The accuracy is determined not only by the resolution of the digital display, but
also by the accuracy of the emission factor, the compensation capability of the
electronics with regard to the ambient air temperature and the exactness of the
lens.
A comparison between both methods on the building site is useful in delivering
an impression of the accuracy. 9
9
Even if results coincide, this does not mean that the measurement was accurate. The deviation might be in
24 the same direction for both measurements. Nevertheless, it is vital to always employ several methods for
critical applications!
Infrared measurement Contact measurement

Criterion Possible remedy Criterion Possible remedy
Emission factor estimated Find correct value from Uneven surface? Select suitable sensor
correctly? handbook and adjust Does the sensor have a
sufficient contact surface?
Reliable surface? Apply matt adhesive tape on Rough surface? Enclosed Use thermal conductive
metals, anodised surfaces layer of air? paste
and reflective surfaces
Strong background radiation Shield with own body, Sensor type generally too
(incandescent bulb, smelting cardboard cover or umbrella inaccurate? Select different principle for
furnace, clear winter sky)? recording measurements;
select different accuracy
class; individual calibration
Lens foggy? Wait Sensor and handheld device Wait

Device at room temperature? at room temperature?
Measuring spot larger than Determine size from Probe heated up at wrong Hold probe only by the
measuring object? operating instructions or use place? handle, not by the connector
Size of measuring spot device with laser display and not by the shaft;
known? insulate leaf sensor on
room side
Dust or other non- Clean Reading stable? Wait until room temperature
homogeneous film on is reached; find more reliable
measuring object? contact surface; avoid tilting
Measuring object foggy? when positioning; check
device
No reproducibility? Surface property not No reproducibility? Surface property or contact

Sharp deviations between homogeneous! Apply Sharp deviations between surface not homogeneous!
measuring locations close adhesive tape measuring locations close Use conductive paste
together? together?
Table 1: Important criteria for the accuracy of measurement in infrared

and contact measurements
An accurate measurement also depends to a large extent on having a measur-

ing instrument that is at room temperature, particularly when measuring ob-
jects with a low emission factor.
The great advantage of infrared measuring instruments is their ease of use.

Building components which cannot be reached by hand, e.g. ceilings in sports
25
halls, coving above bedroom wardrobes and corners of rooms can be meas-
ured quickly and with sufficient accuracy. Temperature differences can be
measured with much greater accuracy than the absolute temperature, provid-
ed that the surface is identical. Joins in brickwork, piping, concrete lintels etc.
are identified by their temperature. If the current dew temperature of the room
climate is known, it is easy to find zones in which condensation is taking place
at the moment.
It is even more convenient if the dew temperature can be entered into the in-
strument as a lower threshold value so that an optical and acoustic signal is
given if this lower value is not reached.
Infrared measurement measures rough surfaces as well as inaccessible sur-
faces, something that is critical for building applications.
1.4 Material moisture

There are about a dozen different ways of determining the water content in
mineral building materials. Some of these methods are destructive, require
time-consuming calibration work, a great deal of time, a lot of electricity or ra-
dioactive substances. Not all methods are transportable and economically vi-
able for smaller firms.
All procedures must be based around a reference procedure, the Darr-W ge

(dry-and-weigh) method.
For this method a sample is taken (chiselled out), packed in an airtight and
steam-tight container and sent to a laboratory. The sample is weighed precise-
ly before all the water is expelled from the sample in a drying oven (the drying
temperature for cement building materials is 105 C). The sample is weighed
again when a constant weight is reached. The difference in weight corre-
sponds to the quantity of water contained.
The mass of this water is then compared with the dry mass of the sample:
U= m -m
moist dried
m dried
It is normally indicated as a %.
The indication U of the water content that is obtained in this way, however, re-
veals nothing about the actual saturation of a substance, i.e. whether or not it is
already saturated.
26
To draw a conclusion about that, a further step is required:

the fully dried sample is immersed in a water bath. It is left there until no further
increase in weight can be ascertained (complete saturation = maximum possi-
ble water absorption).
The quantity of water that is contained is then compared with the maximum
possible quantity (there are parallels here with the definition of relative air hu-
midity):
m contained water
Moisture penetration =
m maximum absorbable water
Please note:
Some people compare the water volume with the moist sample (in some
industries and in the English-speaking world).
There is a volume density indication (vol. %) which must not be confused
with the mass density figure (m %).
All the water is driven out of the dried sample and so it reaches a level of
dryness that would never occur under normal circumstances. A level of
dryness that is assumed in our home or ambient climate is called the
moisture content equilibrium 10. This depends on the ambient air humidi-
ty.
The Darr-W ge method takes several days due to the drying and saturation
processes, assumes air-conditioned drying ovens and precision scales and ul-
timately supplies values which are primarily of interest for research purposes
(materials science, fundamental research, calibration values for other process-
es etc.).
Other methods for determining material moisture which are primarily suited for
day-to-day use in terms of financial and practical aspects will be addressed
below. However, these methods cannot provide the moisture content U or
even the moisture penetration for unknown materials without further calibration
with the Darr-W ge method.
10
The terms moisture content equilibrium and moisture ratio at equilibrium are not differentiated properly
and consistently in the literature and are used as synonyms. For a definition in this guide, see chapter 1.4.1.3. 27
1.4.1 The different measuring processes: Possibilities and limits
1.4.1.1 The scatter field method

An electrode with coil is placed on a building component. An applied alternat-
ing low voltage generates an electrical field that - depending on the design -
penetrates the component to a greater or lesser depth. The standard forms are
a spherical head and a loop head. The depth of penetration is between 2 and
5 cm. This depends on the geometry of the component and the layer structure.
Water contained in the building material has a significant effect on the electrical
field. Field changes are therefore a measure of the water content.
The type of building material has a considerable influence on the readings.

Metals in the substrate (e.g. reinforcing iron and water pipes) lead to sharp
changes (cf. functional principle of cable search devices). Different densities
can lead to varying readings even in identical types of building material, e.g.
bricks.
In addition, lack of homogeneity (cavities, mortar in joints, mixed masonry) re-
sults in fluctuations and mixed values . It is understandable, then, that the
measuring instruments do not supply the water content directly, but instead
measure only an output voltage. This is usually converted into dimensionless
units or digits or indicates that conditions are dry , moist or wet using
LEDs.
High-end devices enable individual scaling by the user.
Although it is possible to determine the moisture content U from the value dis-
played, this presupposes prior laboratory calibration for the material used, with
its own specific density, according to the Darr-W ge method.
In practice, these instruments are often used to locate leaks, as they can pene-
trate tiles, for instance. Water in the substrate can be narrowed down to a par-
ticular area, even under (thin) screeds, rubber floorcoverings or laminate floors.
The second advantage, the absence of destruction, is useful in the case of very
hard, dense or valuable surfaces (mosaic, frescoes, paving stones).
The instruments also enable conclusions about the development of damage to

be drawn, e.g. whether building components are tending to dry out, remain
just as moist or become increasingly moist. Two or three measurements taken
several weeks apart are performed to this end. The location of the measure-
ment points and the readings must be recorded very precisely.
A grid is drawn on the building component so that the repeat measurements
are performed at exactly the same spots.
28
Caution: Depending on the shape, the position of the probe (tilted or straight,
pressed on firmly or just placed on lightly) also has an effect on the reading!
Placing the probe on one location several times givens an indication of whether
the measurement was correct. Ideally, identical values will be obtained. Repro-
ducibility can be improved by having a strictly defined probe position. The
probe can be laid flat on the surface, for instance, in order to exclude a variety
of angles when applying the probe from above.
Fig. 10: How to hold a loop head probe
29
Fig. 11: Marking enables repeat measurements
Since, as already indicated, the slightest movements (or changes of angle) of

the probe have a considerable influence on the reading, corners, coving and
rough/uneven surfaces are very difficult to measure precisely. Because of the
concentration of masses, corners tend to produce higher readings that usually
only simulate an increased water content.
Any consideration of accuracy is superfluous with this measuring method be-
cause the handling differences outlined above and the lack of homogeneity of
the substrate yields far greater fluctuations than the equipment itself. That is
why many manufacturers dispense with indicating the accuracy.
30
1.4.1.2 Conductivity
Water conducts electricity and, through its resistance, influences the electrical
conductivity of a building material that contains water. This fact can be utilised
in measuring the water content.
Two electrodes must be introduced into the building component, or at least

placed on top. This can be done using
brush probes inserted into previously drilled holes (in concrete and brick-
work)
drive-in probes that are driven in with blows of a hammer (primarily for
analyses in wood)
needle points that are pushed in (plasters and screeds).
Fig. 12: Probe types for measuring conductivity
The reading is slightly affected by temperature, but this can be compensated

through technical means. The penetration depth of the needles or brush
probes and their spacing also have an influence on the reading that can be
compensated. If the spacing of the holes is not already prescribed by the de-
sign, it must be taken from the operating instructions.
In the case of drilled holes, the heat of the drilling process causes a certain
amount of drying that has to be compensated through a sufficiently long wait-
ing time. The drill hole must be kept closed for that period. This is easily done
31
using plastic adhesive tape.
The biggest unknown in the whole measurement is the chemical composition

of the building component. This means that the conductivity - given an identical
water content - differs from one material to another: clinker, concrete, sand-
lime blocks, mortar etc. behave in different ways depending on their density.
If the instruments are being used to diagnose damage, it must also be remem-
bered that moisture that has been in the component for some time may have
released and relocated salts. Salts conduct electricity, i.e. increased salt loads
increase conductivity relative to the standard salt content of the building mate-
rial, in some cases many times over. Salts are always carried with the water
flow to the evaporation surface. Measurement usually takes place on this evap-
oration surface (interior plaster). This can lead to a higher water content being
displayed than actually exists.11
Instruments with contact gauges have proven to enable rapid diagnosis in

practice. The main application here is assessing whether wall stains indicate a
previous but rectified case or acute damage.
If the instrument indicates dry , the wall - at least on the surface - is actually
dry. If the instrument indicates moist , water and/or salts may be present: ei-
ther a lot of water with a few salts or a little water with a lot of salts.
Highly reliable conclusions can be drawn by observation (is the plaster dis-
coloured or fragmented?) and another, separate, method of measurement. If
the instruments indicates complete wetness , it must be assumed that the
building material is actually wet.
When measuring thoroughly moist plaster, the force required to push the in-
strument in often says a lot about the damage: moist plaster which has already
been thoroughly penetrated by moisture for a longer period is fragmented and
offers no resistance to the gauges.
If you always get an end-of-scale reading at different locations, you should
check whether an aluminium-backed wallpaper was put up!
Moist wallpapers should be removed for the purposes of measuring anyway,
as their hygroscopicity means that they retain water well and cause high dis-
play readings.
11
It is true that salts have a direct influence on the reading, especially in the conductivity measurement method.
32 However, there is a second relationship that applies for all methods: an increased salt concentration causes
moisture to be absorbed from the air (hygroscopicity of the salts). These building materials thus have a higher
moisture content equilibrium and are never as dry as uncontaminated material under a particular ambient
climate. See also chapter 1.4.1.3.
The conductivity response can - in conjunction with the approx. 30 cm long Inconsistencies
brush probes - also be used to determine moisture profiles, for instance in terms
at various heights (with constant depth) or
at various depths in the brickwork (in only one drill hole pair).
This allows a conclusion to be drawn e.g. about whether the moisture is com-
ing from outside or is rising moisture. In the ideal scenario, mathematically
clean curves would be produced. In practice, however, lack of homogeneity
(different types of brick used in wall, joins in the brickwork, cavities) lead to very
different curves from which only trends can be ascertained. Inhomogeneity can
be identified in advance by the resistance felt when drilling and the colour of the
boring dust that is produced.
The procedure can also be used to assess readiness for a floorcovering, sub-
ject to three conditions:
1. It must be possible to define the recipe of the building material to be as-
sessed (e.g. screed ZE 20)
2. Set or limit values must have been elaborated for this recipe (i.e. this re-
quires one-off calibration in the laboratory using the Darr-W ge method)
3. The immersion path of the brush probes must be defined by a limit stop
or similar
If the above requirements for calibration are not met, the conductivity method
will not supply any direct moisture figures either, merely indicators for classifica-
tion. This dry-moist-wet statement applies for mineral and industrial building
materials.
With wood, the situation is different: this is because although the types of wood
differ, there is very little deviation among woods of one particular type, so good
reference values exist and can be used to determine the moisture content
more accurately.
Example: Fir has a different conductivity to beech. However, fir that comes
from Scandinavia does not differ to any meaningful extent from fir that comes
from the Black Forest.12
12
It is not proposed to go into more detail with regard to measuring wood moisture since the method can be
taken from the manufacturers operating instructions. 33
1.4.1.3 Moisture ratio at equilibrium

This method is a special case because, instead of being measured directly, the
moisture of the material is measured indirectly via the air humidity.
The air humidity is that which occurs on contact with the building component
to be examined. The reason is clear from the above explanation of the other
methods: in terms of technology, measuring air humidity is very reliable and can
be achieved at little expense!
Definitions and terms...

Although the term equilibrium is used in both MOISTURE RATIO AT EQUI-
LIBRIUM and MOISTURE CONTENT EQUILIBRIUM, for the purposes of
this guide a distinction should be made:
The moisture ratio at equilibrium is the air humidity that corresponds to any
particular water content of the building material, i.e. forms a stable equilibrium
with it (see below). The unit is % RH or g/m .
The moisture content equilibrium is the material moisture that occurs in contact
with a normal average room or indoor climate. The unit is usually M %.
It must be remembered that these terms are used in different ways in the litera-
ture.
Other common terms related to these physical phenomena are:
moisture equalisation method, hydrometer method, water activity, hygroscopic
moisture.
A closed system in miniature must be created if this air humidity (known as the
moisture ratio at equilibrium) is to be determined.
Either a sealed volume on the surface of the building component. Such a
test chamber can be created, for instance, by using film that is glued
down all the way round or a funnel that is applied tightly.
Or a chamber can be created in the building component itself by drilling a
hole which is then sealed up.
There are handy aids for both variations.
34
Sample
Sample
Material moisture
greater than
relative air Material
humidity of the moisture less
Sample
environment than relative air
Drying out humidity of the
environment Moisture
equilibrium
Moistening
Fig. 13: Moistening, drying, equalisation
Surface Immersion
measurement measurement
Air humidity sensor Air humidity sensor
Funnel as surface Dowel for reliable

adapter sealing of the hole
Fig. 14: Schematic diagram of a sealed volume

35
Assuming a sealed volume, there is a physical relationship:

Every material moisture can be assigned an air humidity that occurs at the
building material.
Or vice versa: storing a building material in a certain climate leads to a cer-
tain material moisture.
This relationship can be mapped by curves known as sorption isotherms. Each

sorption isotherm applies only for the specific building material with which it
was determined, because every building material has a different sorptive (ab-
sorbent) characteristic. Sorption isotherms can be obtained from the literature,
or in some cases from the manufacturer of the building materials or equipment.
% RH Moisture content In the material
Desorption
Adsorption Relative
air humidity
% RH
In the drill hole
Fig. 15: Example of a sorption isotherm
36
Salinisation will lead to an increase in the moisture content equilibrium!
In the diagram the line of a sorption isotherm influenced by salt goes higher
than a comparable isotherm for unsalinised material.
What this means in reverse is that theoretically much drier ambient air is need-
ed in order to dry salinised components. Salinised brickwork causes problems
for painting and conventional plastering. Stains become evident within a very
short space of time.
Salts can be determined qualitatively and semi-quantitatively on site, and in the
laboratory fully quantitatively as well. This is only important for complex cases,
e.g. the restoration of historical building fabric with special plasters.
Measuring the moisture ratio at equilibrium is straightforward in terms of equip-

ment and does not depend on the make. The disadvantage, however, is the
relatively long equalisation period, which is about 1 minute in practice with
small funnels on the surface. The air cushion first has to be enriched with dif-
fused moisture. The larger the cushion of air, the longer this process takes. In
the case of larger air cushions, e.g. under films or in drill holes (which must be
allowed to cool down first), the additional waiting time is at least 30 minutes.
Because of this equalisation period and the longer waiting time that may be re-
quired, this method is not practical for leak location. The long time taken to
scan many points makes the solution unprofitable. On the other hand, the
method is very suitable for:
Diagnosing mould, addressing the question of: is the air moistening the
wall, or is the wall moistening the air?
Verifying a different method (where resistance is measured first, for in-
stance, and if the result is not clear the moisture content equilibrium is
then measured)
Monitoring checks of technical building drying under screeds as well as
on plaster
Examining readiness for floorcoverings. Only measurement on the surface
of the screed is non-destructive, but drilling a hole is more conclusive. The
recipe of the material being investigated must be based on a sorption
isotherm (determined in the laboratory with the Darr-W ge method) or on
own field experience. Complete drying out is identified in residential build-
ings even without sorption curves, but residual moisture can only be as-
sessed with a sorption curve.
37
Always remember the following:

For funnel measurements:
The funnel must offer tight, all-round contact. Tilting or raising it leads to a
partial exchange of air, which can prolong the equalisation period. Rough
and uneven surfaces cannot normally be measured using a funnel.
The funnel must not be warmed up with the hand. However, the effect of
the temperature can be negated if the air humidity sensor is used to de-
termine the absolute air humidity rather than the relative air humidity.
For drill holes:

The heating and drying caused by the drilling process must have abated
completely. A waiting period of 1 to 2 hours is recommended. Unless seri-
al drilling/measurements are being carried out on a lot of holes one after
the other, a further visit will normally be required.
The sealing dowel must have a tight fit.
In general:
It is normally advisable to note the absolute and relative humidity along
with the relevant temperature. The humidity of the room air should also be
recorded.
If jointing compounds are used to hermetically seal the measuring cham-
ber, these must not give off any water (e.g. chewing gum or water-based
jointing compounds are not suitable). Permanently flexible mastic (e.g. as
used by the sanitary trade) is very suitable.
38
1.4.1.4 Other methods

Although the thermal method of infrared measurement that is frequently men-
tioned (thermography or a non-contact thermometer) is indispensable for lo-
cating hot water leaks, the method is not suitable for assessing water con-
tent.13
In the chemical CM method, a piece about the size of the thumb is chiselled
out of the building material, crushed in a defined procedure, mixed with a
reagent and poured into a pressure bottle. Through shaking, the water that is
released from the ground sample reacts with the reagent (calcium carbide) and
produces the gas acetylene. The pressure rise that this generates in the bottle
is a measure of the water it contains. The water contents determined using the
CM device are generally lower than those determined using the Darr-W ge
method. This fact is already taken into account in the standard limits and val-
ues, e.g. for screeds. Limit values are identified as CM % and can only be
used in combination with the CM method.
For fundamental reasons not all the water contained comes into reaction or the
reaction takes place only slowly. That is why the shaking and reading times
must be strictly observed. The device must also be examined regularly for
pressure tightness and precision of indication; special reagent test capsules
can be filled in for this purpose.
The CM method is a method that we in Germany all know and recognise (un-
like in Scandinavia). This is probably due to its early introduction on the market.
Disadvantages are the consumption of reagent, the time-consuming proce-
dure and - if insufficient care is taken - differences in results obtained by a vari-
ety of users.
As with other consuming processes, the reading is not strictly reproducible (a

second material sample which does not necessarily have to be identical with
the first is required for verification).
Other measuring procedures have the potential to satisfy the required function
with the same level of reliability.
13
There are industrial applications in which infrared measurement is used to determine the water content on
surfaces. However, there are no instruments of this kind that would be suitable for use on building sites 39
(weight, size, costs).
The best prospects are offered by the moisture content equilibrium method,
since this is cost-efficient, does not depend on designs and shows little side
sensitivities. As experience grows, the necessary calibration curves are being
produced (such as the CM limit values we know today).
The microwave method is similar to the scatter field method in its effect, but
works with different frequencies and produces greater penetration depths. The
probes are roughly the size and shape of a large flashlight and, depending on
design, give different penetration depths ranging from 5 to 30 cm. This method
too reacts to the properties of the building material (recipe, density) as well as
the water content. Metals and the interfaces between building material and air
distort the measurement. This means that vertically perforated bricks, with the
numerous chambers they contain, cannot be measured. Reinforcing rods can
be identified by the higher readings that keep occurring at certain intervals.
A microwave measuring instrument has roughly the same dimensions as other

handheld units, but is more expensive.
Finally, the very cost-intensive neutron probe (Troxler probe) should also be
mentioned in passing. It is used with weakly radioactive material and the corre-
sponding handling and transport authorisation documents and is very compli-
cated. Because of the high penetration depth and its shape (similar to an up-
right vacuum cleaner), it is very suitable for revealing water distribution on flat
roofs.
40
The basics of measurement
2. The basics of measurement
2.1 The authority advantage

A convincing representation and interpretation of important facts requires a
solid basis of data. This solid basis of data is provided by verifiable
measurements properly carried out by an expert.
Only if the exact and verifiable data and measurements that are obtained are
combined with professional presentation and communication of the results,
however, will they find broad acceptance across all sections of the population.
This acceptance signifies an advantage in authority which can nevertheless

only be maintained if the conclusions that are given are actually underpinned by
the technology, i.e. there are no gaps in the arguments or data.
It is therefore essential
to perform the measurements properly in terms of the systems used,
to handle the measuring instruments expertly,
to document the results clearly and comprehensibly,
and to interpret them with the required degree of caution.
2.2 Blind faith in digital technology

Even an expert runs the risk of believing what his measuring instruments tell
him without reservation. This is even more marked where instruments have
digital displays than with traditional pointer devices, because readings given to
decimal places give an impression of exactness that does not actually exist. In
addition, fluctuations are harder for the eye to pick up than a needle that is
swinging back and forth.
When performing a measurement, you must always ask yourself:

Is the reading obtained at all plausible?
Is there a clear explanation for the value?
Was it expected to be at that level?
Is this value at all physically possible?
Am I making a glaring error in how I am conducting the measurement?
Can the measurement be reproduced in the event of doubt?
41
If different readings are obtained when a material moisture sensor, for instance,
is repeatedly applied to the same part of the wall, the individual measurement
cannot be used.
The probable reason is that the position of the sensor is not exactly the same,
the surface is too rough, the sensor is not held still, etc. If these chances are to
be excluded statistically, a lot of repeat measurements would have to be
performed and the mean and standard deviation then calculated.
What tolerances can be expected?
Inaccuracies can be traced back to several sources:

- the sensor
- the handheld device
- side influences (temperature, salts)
- handling differences.
- How does the accuracy of measurement compare with the accuracy of
the display?
What tolerances Example: If a moisture indication of 21 %RH has an error of 5 %RH, it makes
can be little sense to give a decimal place, especially not if this measurement is carried
expected? out on a random basis which could deliver very different readings one hour
later. No expert should on any account offer a conclusion based on such a
value.
42
2.3 The four basic elements of measurement

There is more to diagnosis of a building structure than simply measurements.
There are four basic elements to it:
Interview Measurement
Observation Combination
Fig. 16: A jigsaw puzzle comprising observation, interview, measurement,

combination
Observation
Experienced inspectors can often deduce the cause of damage from its
appearance (observation). Of course, the recognition effect means there is also
a risk of coming to a premature conclusion without having examined and then
ruled out other possible causes.
Measuring technology can offer the critical assistance here that enables a
suspicion to be confirmed and other causes to be rejected.
Interview
The answers provided by the developers are also of great psychological
importance. It is better if those concerned feel included. In addition,
establishing the timescale over which the damage occurred can often provide
valuable information. If interviewees say, for instance, that a damp patch
occurred after a very cold period, the possibility of frost damage to the pipes
will be investigated and analysed more closely.
43
Typical questions might be:

When did the damage occur?
Under what external influences and weather conditions did the damage
occur?
If there are several symptoms: in what order did they occur?
Is the phenomenon continuous or repetitive?
If the phenomena reoccur: at what intervals of time or on what occasions?
If this interview is carried out, it will often give initial approaches for the best way
to carry out the measurements.
Combination
If the findings are combined together, an all-round picture should finally be
obtained. It is not always possible to put the jigsaw puzzle of findings together
on site; it often takes several days of intensive consideration for thinking to
ripen . In many cases this will also lead to a decision as to how the problem
can ultimately be clarified and a solution found during a second visit to the
location.
Measurement
Before measurement begins, it must be clear what the actual problem is. This
is often determined intuitively.
It is highly advantageous if you are clear in advance as to the readings that your
experience tells you to expect and what measurements would prove or
contradict a theory.
For most cases, it is highly recommended that the readings are recorded
exactly. This can be done using a handwritten report, a log produced on a
laptop or a paper printout from the measuring instrument.
The important details are: date, apartment/room/building component,
parameter and ambient climate.
Preprinted log forms are very useful. These ensure that nothing is forgotten and
mean that the facts are always set down in the same format. You can design
these forms yourself, or ready-made forms can be obtained (from the author).
44
Fig. 17: Excerpt from a preprinted moisture measurement log form
45
Supplementary photographs help to recall the process even after a few months
and enable further expert processing (this also gives legal certainty in critical
legal scenarios). Sufficient experience is essential for many readings to be
interpreted. Premature conclusions given to those involved in the process
should be avoided.
5 INTERPRETATION
4 RECORDING
3 PERFORMANCE
2 LIMIT VALUES
1 PROBLEM
Fig. 18: Process chain : problem, limit value definition, performance,

recording, interpretation
46
Typical applications of building practice
3. Typical applications of building practice
3.1 Locating leaks in pipes

If large quantities of water escape from pipes, these are normally quickly
identified: the water soaks through the wall or floor within a matter of days.
If only a little water escapes, it can take several weeks for the moisture to
spread. Such small quantities of water can escape if pipes drip water due to
corrosion or soldered joints that have since become detached. Drinking water
pipes that are under several bars of pressure often show an ultra-thin, barely
visible jet on exposure (the diameter is thinner than that of a pin).
Nevertheless, it is not unusual for walls to be completely saturated up to 2 m in
height and across the entire cross-section. Once the whole wall is moist, it is
very difficult to narrow down the leakage area by measurement. The measuring
instrument simply indicates completely moist at every measurement point.
If the damaged pipe is located inside a wall, the moisture zone will spread
roughly concentrically around the actual leak. If the pipe is in the floor, moisture
will penetrate the insulating layer or separating layer from the screed. The water
will consequently rise in the walls with a fundamentally horizontal moisture line
that can be observed on interior and exterior walls.
Leaks in hot water pipes can be easily located using infrared technology. Here
the infrared camera is the instrument of choice so that a lot of time does not
have to be spent scanning all the surfaces.
The coloured printouts (known as thermograms) also illustrate the distribution
of the water in a very vivid way (see Fig. 19). The heated zones normally show
up clearly. This presupposes, of course, that hot water leaked out.
In the case of underfloor heating, it is best to let the screed cool down
overnight and start the heating up again about 1 hour before visiting the site.
The location of the leaks can then be more easily seen against the cold surface
of the floor than if the screed were already uniformly warmed through.
47
Fig. 19: Thermogram for hot water leaks
For cold water pipes, the location of the leak is best narrowed down by using a
compact conductivity measuring instrument (e.g. testo 606). There is little need
to worry about salt distorting the result in this type of measurement because
the period of moisture penetration following a pipe burst is no more than a few
weeks.
If a moisture pattern on walls indicates moisture under the screed, this can be
confirmed by measuring the air humidity in the edge joint. If there is free water
below the screed the readings will be in excess of 95 %. Further localisation is
impossible using this method as water and water vapour spread in roughly the
same way under the screed.
48
Fig. 20: Measurement in a test hole of a tiled floor
If no further localisation is possible (perhaps because a measuring instrument

gives an end-of-scale reading everywhere), it is best to trust to instinct and
understanding of structural engineering. Now and then there are surprises,
especially in old buildings, because pipes run at places no one would ever have
suspected. Drawings of the building can be helpful in searching for particular
piping in this case.
With a drinking water pipe, initial localisation can be carried out by observing
the water meter. The loss may of course be slight, e.g. only a few litres per
week. That is why it is only possible to establish whether a loss is being caused
by a damaged pipe or the like if the building is not occupied for several days
and the consumers are switched off. It is important to read the water meter
carefully, right down to the last decimal place. If only a slight loss is found,
dripping water taps and leaky sink inlets must be ruled out as a cause of the
loss (it would be sensible to shut off the corner valves at the start of the
observation period).
49
If the water meter does not show any consumption, but the heating system
suffers a constant loss of pressure and needs to keep being topped up, further
investigation is required. However, low water quantities being lost can also be
an indication of leaky pumps or cracked boilers!
Caution: In the case of basement flats, moisture under the screed is not always
caused by a leaking pipe! It may be that water is also being forced up from the
ground, e.g. through the joint between the wall and the floor, the sole plate or
even leaking sewage pipes (floor outlets from laundry rooms or the like).
All in all, leaks in pipes that are subject to pressure are relatively easy to locate.
The plumbing industry offers some special processes such as sound
localisation and trace gas snifting devices for the very tough nuts .
3.2 Locating air leaks in BlowerDoor tests, assessing draughts

This chapter is concerned with the medium of air. The issues of ventilation heat
losses, heatability, draughts, cold air fogging and comfort frequently have to be
clarified, particularly where lofts have been converted. Loft conversions have
been practically always permeable to air over the last few decades because no
attention was paid to the airtight laying of foil.
If proper measurement evidence is to be collected in every single case, the

problem must be defined precisely beforehand. This depends primarily on the
legal position which the customer finds himself in (e.g. buyer, tenant, landlord,
developer, planner). It also hinges on whether claims under private law are to
be clarified (warranty periods, deficiencies in construction) or infringements
under public law (building regulations, German energy conservation laws).
In practice, three questions in particular arise:
a) Does the shell of the building conform to the generally recognised rules
of structural engineering and rules on energy conservation in terms of
airtightness? (This question is often asked in an acceptance inspection
focusing on quality assurance).
50
b) Are the draughts or coldness which the occupant is complaining

about verifiable and reproducible?
In other words, is there a technical reason for them, or is it a matter of
oversensitivity? (This question usually arises in disputes between
landlord and tenant).
c) If apartments cannot be heated properly:
- Does the cause lie in the heating system (radiators too small)?
- in the building shell (workmanship of air membrane, windows etc.)?
- or in the design (arrangement of concrete columns, wide areas of
glazing, open-plan floors etc.)?
The subsidiary questions under c) often refer back to b) and are aimed at
finding those who are responsible (planners, craftsmen etc.).
This subject area is actually very complex. For that reason only the basic
principles and the application of flow measuring techniques will be explained
here.
The requirement: the entire shell must be made airtight. This is taken to mean
that, assuming the usual differences in pressure between the inside and the
outside, no significant air flows will penetrate or escape through walls, ceilings,
windows and doors. Air that escapes while the building is being heated results
in loss of energy and condensation damage. Air that penetrates brings a
perceptible draught and a layer of cold air on the floor (the trend towards
airtight structures arose out of energy considerations).
The fresh air required for hygiene should be provided through conscientious
shock ventilation or even a ventilation system.
Airtightness can only be determined for the building as a whole. The only
measuring device suitable for the purpose is what is known as a BlowerDoor. It
determines the leakage flow quantitatively at an artificially high pressure
difference so that natural weather conditions have less of an effect on the
reproducibility of the measurement. A certain level of leakage must of course
be allowed for given the tolerances used in construction work. The question
asked under a) above can normally be answered with the help of a BlowerDoor.
The limit values required for such assessments have been laid down in law.
51
Fig. 21: Fitted BlowerDoor
If question b) is to be answered, the places where the air comes in must be

known. Here too, a BlowerDoor (see Fig. 21) is useful. It generates the vacuum
required for a forced draught (something that only naturally occurs in very
strong winds). The inlet points of the air can usually be localised fairly easily by
hand: at sockets, underneath sills, flaps in the dividing wall, built-in radiators,
roof windows, screed edge joints.
Fig. 22: Smoke pipe/air flow at a socket
52
Once the inlets have been found, it needs to be assessed whether the draught
can have an actual impact on the level of comfort. A superficial assessment
can have massive financial consequences ( just think of the court cases
concerning very high renovation costs).
Several factors must be taken into consideration:

The temperature of the incoming air
The position of the leakage point (hall or corner of the lounge, by the bed
or in the shower, height, distance from people)
The geometry of the leakage point (slit, nozzle, perforation)
The size/distribution of the leakage point(s)
The amount of leakage, i.e. the volume flow.
As yet there are not practicable means of determining the volume flow of a
leak. The form of a leak in window frames or similar locations usually prevents
measurement with flow funnels such as can be carried out at geometrically
properly defined places (e.g. room air outlets of air-conditioning systems). In
addition, the volume flows are too small to be identified as differences in a
BlowerDoor measurement.
All that can be done, then, is to measure the temperature and the flow velocity.
Although these measurements supply an inadequate description, given the
lack of alternatives they are applied in the majority of cases.
Rule:
Air flows have a negative effect on comfort when
people are standing still nearby, or even unclothed (the draught from the
push knob of the WC cistern is a classic example); critical distance from
the throw is approx. 0.5 m
the air comes in unbraked from the outside
the draught exceeds a flow velocity of 2 .. 3 m/s (assuming a significant
volume flow and a differential pressure of 50 pascal)
the incoming air is cold and is not heated up as it passes through that part
of the building (temperature on entry more than 10 K below the room
temperature)
a leakage place, if only isolated or even in nozzle form, is of a significant
size (about the size of a thumb)
a leakage place in the shape of a slit is of significant length (e.g. length of a
window casement)
53
the leakage place lets in large quantities of air, albeit it braked, spread out
and warmed up (e.g. unplastered floating brick)
the incoming air cools down large areas through flushing (e.g. panels in
front of sanitary installations, bathtubs or ceiling lining)
the air comes in at an outside wall exposed to the wind.
The more these assessment criteria accumulate, the more critical the draught
is for the comfort level. It does not generally matter whether the actual
occupant feels uncomfortable! What does matter is whether an impairment of
comfort is felt by the average occupant as described by the guidelines on
comfort!14
Even if all the limit values are observed, there will always be some people who
tend to complain, whether through greater sensitivity or simply attitude.
Fig. 23: Hot-ball and hot-wire designs
14
Although comfort guidelines such as VDI 2080 and DIN 1946 for homes are not binding, the limits they lay
54 down can be useful when it comes to assessing a domestic situation. The measurement points and heights
defined in these standards are of particular interest.
Fig. 24: Measurement at a window joint
The velocity of the incoming air is measured with anemometers. Vane

anemometers such as those used in meteorology and on air-conditioning
ducts are too insensitive and too much concerned with direction for the above
applications. Only hot-wire or hot-ball anemometers can be used for
assessments of comfort levels. In addition to the flow velocity, they also supply
the second important parameter, the air temperature.
The geometry of most leakage places cannot be clearly defined. Usually, for
instance, it is unclear exactly where and at what distance the maximum velocity
occurs. The probe should be moved around slowly until the highest display
value is shown. In practice, however, it is hard to keep the display value
constant since it is not possible to hold the probe in a constant position. For
this reason the decimal places are rounded up or down to half figures.
Direct contact with solid materials must be avoided. This causes the spherical
head to cool down and give an incorrectly greater flow velocity. Nor should the
front part of the probes be enclosed with the hand because this is where a
thermal sensor for the comparative measurement is located.
The conditions for measurement are important if the reading is to be
interpreted correctly. The log must take this into consideration.
55
Example of a log
23.08.2003, Schmidt apartment, leakage place 1 = lounge

balcony door, closing joint at bottom
Measurement at 50 pascal differential pressure, generated by BlowerDoor
installed in lounge door
Readings between 2.0 and 3.5 m/s, measured directly on the frame
Joint length 70 cm
Maximum reading in corner up to 4.2 m/s, measured at distance of
approx. 2 cm
Outside temperature 2 C, RT 20 C
Throw subjectively perceptible by hand at an inlet temperature of 7 C
approx. 10 cm
Reading there still 0.7 m/s
All other joints practically tight (readings below 1 m/s)

Position in balcony niche facing south
Nearest seating 1.5 m away
Underfloor heating
=> No impairment of comfort expected

=> Remedy by adjusting height of door.
In practice, slight leaks (e.g. on window frames) can usually be remedied by

simple measures such as silicone sealant or readjustment. More serious
phenomena, on the other hand, are normally the result of moisture barrier foils
not having been properly sealed. With such major breaches of building
regulations, the cause and the blame can generally be easily proven. In these
cases extensive renovation work must be requested. Minor improvements
would not bring any significant success.
Moisture occurs where escaping warm air forms condensation in the roof layer
structure or in frame profiles of windows. Moisture penetration is usually
localised. In insulating material, an air humidity sensor can be used to prod
for moisture in the fibre layer, the moisture barrier foil having previously been
perforated. Air humidity readings approaching 100 % are a sure sign of free
water, particularly in structures which are not well ventilated. An endoscope
can also be introduced through the same hole to provide a visual check for drip
formation and commercially available gripping pliers can be inserted to pick
some insulating material.
The biggest mental hurdle here is the destruction or dismantling of the lagging.
56
Once this step has been decided on, it is best to cut generously into the
moisture barrier foil so that you can reach the relevant places with your hand.
Any absence of bonding along the sides of the course - or any other cause, for
that matter - must be documented. When cutting into the course, a sufficiently
wide margin should be left so that the cut can be closed up again afterwards
using special adhesive tape.
3.3 Assessing moisture damage
3.3.1 The problem

Many households have to combat moisture phenomena such as chalking
paint, disintegrating plaster, salt efflorescence, mildew odours, rotting wood
and mould, especially in cellars.
Fig. 25: Example of moisture damage
57
In the event of damage, the same typical questions keep needing to be asked:
Is the damage old damage or acute damage?

Where is the water coming from?
How long does it take to dry out?
How high is the probability of reoccurrence?
The question Where is the water coming from in particular has many different
aspects and raises further questions:
Are any pipes leaking? (Since this is usually evident from the damage
picture, refer to chapter 3.1 for how to proceed)
Is the water ground water, moisture from the earth, percolating water,
stratum water or just water temporarily blocked?
If it is surface water or water from the soil, does it come from sewage or
gutter pipes, stair gullies or leaky cisterns?
Is water coming in from the outside, or is it being absorbed upwards from
underneath ( rising moisture )?
Is the water penetrating through a leaking contact joint (between the floor
slab and the wall), through the wall itself or only through the sole plate, or
when the ground is permeated?
Does condensation also play a role?
These questions can only be answered with

in-depth knowledge of the usual methods of construction and sealing
(and their possible failings);
fundamental knowledge of soil and water load types;
sufficient experience.
Complicating factors are that

there may be a combination of causes;
water ingresses cannot usually be reproduced exactly;
access is often difficult.
Provided that you have the knowledge listed above, the following information
should help you to narrow down possible causes using measuring techniques.
58
3.3.2 The procedure

The first step is to have details of how the damage arose explained. An external
inspection is then carried out and all statements and observations are noted.
Normally a suspicion as to the cause and the structural defects will already be
starting to develop in this stage.
The next action is to determine the moisture condition. This is done most easily
and quickly by a pin-type conductivity measuring instrument. The pins of the
measuring instrument are pressed into the plaster. The important thing here is
to ensure a uniform depth of impression. If the pins are suspiciously easy to
press in, it can be assumed that the plaster is highly fatigued and that the water
has been having an effect for a long time.
Additional measurements are carried out at several places in order to ascertain
the wall height up to which noticeably high readings are obtained.
In most cases, for instance, the measuring instrument will indicate the same
level of moisture at 5, 10, 15 and 18 cm, but this will suddenly decrease from
20 cm. This height is then marked. A moisture horizon can then be drawn by
combing the markings of several adjacent measuring columns . Normally the
moisture horizon that is determined in this way corresponds to the visible
moisture horizon (darkish colouring, flaking paint etc.). If the measured Moisture horizon
moisture horizon is lower than the visible one, it can be assumed that the wall is
in the process of drying out. It is rare for the measured horizon to be above the
visible one.
Fig. 26: Measurement points and moisture horizon
59
To be able to assess whether the moisture is drying out or increasing, it is best

to repeat the measurement in 2 weeks. The readings must of course be
recorded. They can be noted down either in a log or directly on the plaster
(unless renovation is to begin immediately). The measurement points remain
visible due to the punctures. When measuring a second time, push the pins in
immediately beside the old impressions, not into them.
This measuring technique is not suitable in the case of severe salt

efflorescence and wet wallpapers (or even aluminium-backed wallpapers). To
get measurements that are at all reliable in such cases, the wallpaper should be
stripped, the salt fluff brushed off and flaky plaster removed. It may be that the
measurements are unusable anyway due to constant end-of-scale readings.
There is then no other choice than to use the scatter field method.
Because of their hardness, cement plaster or joint mortar often do not allow the
pins to be pushed in far enough. Here too, the scatter field method is
recommended.
The scatter field method is based on a grid pattern. It is important to record the
measuring grid and the orientation of the probe precisely in the log or directly
on the wall. Several consecutive measurements should be performed at one
and the same measurement point in order to determine the scatter. The
substrate may be too uneven for reproducibility to be achieved!
Wallpaper should always be removed.
It has proved to be useful to scale the measuring instrument accordingly. This

scaling must be recorded and reproducible. A good zero point can be obtained
by holding the probe freely in the air and giving this situation a reading of 0 . Pa
The other extreme, 10 , can be obtained by holding the probe in a full bottle of
mineral water.
With such a scale gypsum plaster will then produce readings of between 1.0
(dry) and 6.0 (moist).
Since the room climate and the weather also have an influence on the moisture
of the plaster, every grid measurement should be accompanied by a
comparative reading taken at a dry section of wall of the same material.
60
Important!
Measurements are distorted by:
1. Inhomogeneity in the substrate material
2. Measuring in corners or along edges
Fig. 27: Grid measurement on a wall
Ventilation grille
Direction of
measurement Direction of measurement
Left wall Right wall
Partition wall
Partition wall
Hairline
crack
Bath
tub
Shower pan Shower pan
* hollow, lying
Fig. 28: Grid measurement analysis table with colour scales

61
Grid measurements covering wide areas can easily produce more than 30
measurement points. It may then be helpful to use a spreadsheet software
based e.g. on EXCEL for the purposes of recording and analysis. Worksheets
can then be superimposed on each other in order to highlight the differences in
colour. Drying-out areas can be shaded green, for instance, areas becoming
more moist shaded red, and readings remaining the same indicated with
yellow. The moisture pattern and drying-out process can then be seen at a
glance (see Fig. 28).
Readings that remain the same after initial drying out indicate that the wall has
dried out as much as it can under actual building conditions.
The optimal solution is to combine both measuring techniques, conductivity

and the scatter field method. Drying-out and moistening processes are clear if
they are reflected in the readings obtained through both methods.
In addition to dividing into grids and repeat measurements, it is also possible to

create a moisture profile both for height and in wall cross-sections.
This is done using brush probes and the conductivity method. The assessment
requires a sufficient number of holes to be drilled, with the brush probes being
pushed in progressively. This allows the moisture distribution at different depths
to be established. It can then be illustrated by colour coding in a table or
diagram. This measurement can be repeated at a later date in order to pick up
any trend over time. The holes must always be sealed tight between the
measuring dates.
3.4 Assessing mould damage

The assessment of mould damage is one of the most complex tasks to do with
moisture and its measurement. Absolute care in applying the system,
conscientious logging and plenty of experience are essential requirements for
reliable reports.
The consideration below is limited to aspects relating to the physics of
construction. The health aspects of mould damage can only be assessed on
an interdisciplinary basis, i.e. in conjunction with a structural biologist and a
doctor. The cases in which this is required, however, are few and far between.15
15
For an initial assessment of whether the number of spores in the room is hazardous, leave a petri dish set
62 open for 1 hour. The number of mildew patches that form is counted later and can also be analyzed by type.
3.4.1 Procedures in an inspection

At this point it is again referred back to the information provided in chapter 2.3.
Observation and questioning are invaluable sources of information without
which no serious assessment can be made.
In addition to the measurement, for instance, it is important to know: the
occupation density of the flat, the lifestyles of the occupants, the number of
house plants, weather phases, the direction the flat is facing, structural heat
bridges, the timing of structural measures or incidents.
Good preprinted log forms are highly recommended. They will ensure that the
important things are not forgotten. If you do not want to produce them yourself,
ready-made ones can be bought (from the author).
The details that should be asked for and observed can be established in
TESTO building moisture seminars and symposia for experts!
Fig. 29a: Extract from mould report, page 1

63
Fig. 29b: Extract from mould report, page 2
A first inspection can be carried out at any time of year. Should it prove to be
the case, however, that mould is the result of condensation rather than
moisture penetrating from the outside (broken pipes, faulty washing machine
or the like), measurements can only be performed during cold parts of the year
(i.e. when heating is switched on).
The following sections explain how the measuring technique can be applied
methodically.
64
3.4.2 Short-term and long-term measurement

The aim is to record the ventilation conditions of the apartment through
measurement in as representative a way as possible. This means that the
rooms must be measured when in a condition typical for the lifestyle of the
occupants. In other words, the presence of the person doing the measuring
should not have a significant impact on the moisture balance.
How should you proceed?

Ideally, visits will be unannounced;
If they have to be announced in advance, note whether ventilation was
provided specially for your visit;
Close the front door behind you immediately;
Start measuring at once, before the air humidity is altered by your
presence. Remember the time the probes need to acclimatise, though.
Measurement should be performed on every visit in order to gain an impression

of the situation at that moment in time. However, only long-term
measurements, which should take place over at least 2 and preferably 3
weeks, are really conclusive, especially when it comes to legal disputes.
Untypical occasions should be avoided, e.g. Christmas, holidays, when visitors
are staying.
If it is only an assessment of the ventilation and average air humidity that is
required, the measurement can be carried out in November, a period of
increased mould occurrence. If, however, heat bridges are also to be recorded,
the measurement must be performed during a period of frost lasting for several
days. Of course, the planning is dependent on the weather.
3.4.3 Measuring location

When measuring with handheld devices, it is no great problem to measure in
several rooms. There are significant temperature and moisture differences
between bathrooms, kitchens, lounges and bedrooms, and these differences
can be crucial.
Long-term recording is only carried out in rooms under attack from mould
because the normal user does not have an unlimited number of data loggers.
In most cases the bedroom is the critical room. 1 or 2 loggers should always be
located here.
65
If I want to establish whether there is a risk of condensation in a corner or on

the floor, I have to measure at exactly these points.
In the case of mould, the positioning of the probe in the room is obvious as it
marks condensation by visual means only. Any moisture penetration from the
outside must be ruled out.
A further interesting question is whether the occupants keep to specifications

or average values for air humidity. Recommended values for air humidity and
air temperature always relate to a height of about 1.40m in the centre of the
room. This is taken from the comfort standards referred to in chapter 1.1.2. If
the actual is to be compared with the target , it is therefore essential to
measure in the centre of the room. This applies for both one-off and constant
measurements.
A centre of the room can be taken to mean any place that is further than
50 cm from the wall. Poorly ventilated niches or similar locations should not be
taken into account.
The following side constraints must be borne in mind when positioning

the air probes:
Positioning probes on or even in cabinets or cupboards delays the
recording of measurements because of the temperature inertia of that
piece of furniture and the restricted circulation of air. However, the
readings that are obtained can still be used to form mean values.
Temperature and humidity peaks and ventilation phases are not
recognised, though.
Heat or moisture sources nearby distort the result. Probes should not be
attached to lamps or near computers, radiators, dog baskets, aquariums
or the like.
No sunlight should fall on the sensor at any time of day.
If the measurement is for diagnostic purposes, the device should be
located in as inconspicuous a place as possible. If the measurement is for
indicative/informative purposes, the sensor can remain visible.
66
3.4.4 Recommended programming for loggers used to record

room climate
Measuring instruments for long-term recording are also called data loggers.
They may be programmed to your requirements, e.g. with regard to measuring
limits, clock rates, number of readings, start and end of measurement.
The programming, and especially the analysis, are demonstrated thoroughly in
TESTO s 2-day seminars.
Measurement should start when the instrument is put in position. Since

experience has shown that occupants tend to make more effort at ventilation in
the first couple of days and then fall back into old habits, measurement can
also start 2 or 3 days later.
The end of measurement should be when the instrument is collected. To avoid
any distortion of the mean values that can be determined using the software, it
must be ensured that no data not relating to the apartment (e.g. on a long
journey back or in the office) are recorded after the actual measurement period.
The advantage of an open-ended measurement period is that the device can
be left in place for a little longer, e.g. to wait for a frosty period.
The clock rate depends on the particular problem. If only the average air
humidity prevailing in the apartment is of interest, hourly measurement is
always enough.
If ventilation periods (times when the window is open) are to be recorded, a
clock rate of 2 minutes is recommended.
If only the periods when the window is open are to be recorded, the air sensor
can be located immediately beside the window. The differences in the readings
will then be larger and more sudden.
The measurement limits are set to reflect the living conditions, e.g. in the
temperature range of 0 to 30 C or the humidity range of 20 to 85 % RH.
The choice of sensor will also depend on the particular task. If heat bridges are
to be assessed, or the hours of operation of the radiator, sensors for recording
surface temperature are located in the coldest corner or on the radiator.
67
Fig. 30: Mounting of a lamina sensor
3.4.5 Narrowing down the causes

It takes experience and analytical thinking to interpret the measuring results.
The following questions in particular must be answered:

In the case of excess air humidity: Where is it coming from? From the
occupants (presence, showers, drying clothes etc.), from house plants
etc.?
Why is the humidity increasing? Is the room not ventilated often enough?
Only with the window in a tilted position? No through-ventilation? Does
the rhythm of life make it more difficult to have regular ventilation periods?
Why is the condensation occurring? Are the walls as cool as can be
expected from an intact building fabric, or much colder? Would
condensation occur even if the building was well insulated, because the
air humidity is extremely high?
The last block of questions is extremely important for legal cases, especially
with regard to the rectification of defects, reductions in rent, the assumption of
court costs, rights of termination etc.
The problem of heat bridges will be examined in more detail in the next chapter.
68
The key question:
Is it the case that

1. given conscientious ventilation and heating (such as is appropriate and
reasonable for homes) and
2. given the usual winter weather (such as is typical for this region), the
building component is indisputably taking several days or even longer to
cool down, and in such a way that the temperature of the surface of the
building component comes to within less than 3 K of the dew point
temperature?
An assessment of this question demands the extensive measuring and

recording of
the frequency and duration of the ventilation periods (or the functional
capability of a ventilation system);
the type of window ventilation (tilting or swivelling, through-ventilation or
individual aeration);
the average air humidity and air temperature in the centre of the room;
the operating times and temperature of radiator(s);
the influence of furniture on the additional cooling of wall surfaces behind
them;
the (inside) surface temperature of the critical building component zones;
the air temperature outside;
the (outside) surface temperature of the critical building component zones
(only on east, west or south-facing sides, as the effect of sunlight there
can lead to heating up to above the air temperature).
This measuring task cannot be performed using one single data logger. That is
why two or three loggers are used instead. Of course, these will have to be
synchronised first and calibrated in exactly the same way. The measuring
curves can be combined in the software.
69
3.5 Assessing heat bridges
3.5.1 The problem and its importance

In the case of mould damage, the standard question can be summed as
follows: Who is at fault?
Is it the occupants, with their ventilation habits?
Or is it the landlord/vendor, with the deficient building fabric of the building?
For these questions to be answered, heat bridges must be recorded and

evaluated.
3.5.2 Types of heat bridge

Heat bridges are taken to mean places in the building fabric which become
particularly cold under winter conditions. Every wall and every floor has areas
which are colder than the rest of the surface. These are normally edge and
corner areas.
This is where better heat dissipation from the inside to the outside takes place,
with 2 results:
The temperature on the outside of the building component rises, greater
heat is given off into the environment and energy losses increase heating
costs.
The temperature on the inside of the building component falls, the cold
surface tends to form mould and condensation and the comfort level is
diminished.
Different types of heat bridge must be distinguished:

dimension-related heat bridges: these are places at which the building
component has thinner dimensions, e.g. radiator niches, roller blind cases
with only thin cover plates.
material-related heat bridges: these are places at which an unsuitable
building material (i.e. that dissipates heat well) was used, e.g. steel
girders, concrete columns, brick noggings of former window openings,
gaps in masonry filled in with concrete.16
geometry-related heat bridges: these are places which have a cooling rib
form in the widest sense, i.e. their outer surface is larger than their inner
surface. Where this is the case, the heat radiated to the outside exceeds
the heat absorbed from the room, e.g. on cantilever plates, fascias,
window lintels and embrasures and eaves. Essentially, every corner of a
house is a geometric heat bridge!
16
Strictly speaking, these even include all brickwork joints, as thermography demonstrates. However, these are
70 irrelevant in practice.
Geometry and material-related heat bridges usually occur in combination.

Where parts jut out, they are normally made from steel or reinforced concrete!
Fig. 31: Geometric heat bridge under attack from mould
Fig. 32: Geometric heat bridge, 2-dimensional (schematic diagram)

71
In practice, the critical heat bridges are:

cantilever plates on balconies (especially if they are not thermally isolated);
projecting concrete roofs
underground garage ceilings with only screed insulation, but no insulating
layer on the garage side (see Fig. 33);
concrete post and lintel constructions with brick-lined compartments.
Cooling down
Heat dissipation
Fig. 33: Underground garage ceiling with heat flow
72
3.5.3 Recording heat bridges

How can heat bridges be quantified?
There are three possible ways:

1. If it is a standard heat bridge, then values that have already been
calculated in a heat bridge atlas can be referred to. A large number of
standard solutions have been worked out for wooden constructions and
sand-lime brick structures. These are no longer critical in practice
because they have already been optimised. The situation with old
buildings, though, rarely or never fits in with such standardisation. It is
also difficult to record the situation for an old building in any case (cross-
sections, apparent densities, lambda values) or to identify whether it
corresponds to a standard situation.
2. The critical cross-section of the building component is recorded and the Destructive
materials used are determined. These findings are then used to prepare analysis
a CAD model by which the cooling can be determined by computer. The
difficulty here is computing not just for 2 dimensions, but at greater
expense for 3 dimensions. There are heat bridge programs which can
do this, but calculations and CAD conversion take several hours to
organise. Computer
There is also the issue of what inaccuracies there will be. This is because simulation
simulations use material data which likewise have tolerances and do not
necessarily correspond to the material as it was actually consumed in
the building (the material controls and product quality for old buildings
cannot be compared with the situation as it is today!).
Care must also be taken to ensure that the correct inside and outside air
temperatures are included in the calculations.
Should standard values for the outside temperature be assumed?
Or realistic values for the particular region?
What inside temperature should be applied?
Those that are used in DIN 4108 or the actual temperature, which depends on
the position of furniture, the arrangement of radiators, intake temperatures,
floorcoverings etc.?
Finally, there is the question: does a stationary calculation come sufficiently

close to real life, or should non-stationary calculations, i.e. with day/night
fluctuations, be performed?
73
Given the complexity of the issues, the author tends towards the following
solution:
3. Measurement on the living object. Here the surface temperatures as

they occur under typical winter weather conditions are recorded.
The main advantage: There is no need to survey and analyze the
building components. Determining the cross-sections and building
materials is actually normally destructive (core drilling, removal of bricks)!
It also avoids the discrepancy that occurs between the standard
situation and the actual regional or local climatic situation. What use is it
if standard conditions say that no condensation occurs, if it does
actually occur in practice?
The main disadvantage:

Measurement It is essential to find a suitable measuring period in which
under ideal a) the living situation is typical, and
conditions b) the weather is typical for the winter.
The extent to which a measurement carried out in warmer weather can be

extrapolated down to colder weather would be an interesting subject for a
thesis or student research project!
Assessment of the heat bridge, however quantitatively it is described, is

another whole area of debate. Standards offer insufficient means for assessing
heat bridges in old buildings in particular. Only recently, in DIN 4108, have heat
bridges even been described. The status of standards does not always
coincide with common practice, which is of course of considerable importance
when establishing the generally recognised rules of the art . The assessment
of heat bridges is thus a typical task for an expert inspector and goes beyond
the scope of this guide.
Whether one ultimately prefers simulation or measurement, it is important
always to be clear about the lack of precision. It is not proper to assign cause
and guilt on the basis of decimal places or half a degree Celsius if the
underlying assumptions or boundary conditions can only be described
roughly . In practice, unfortunately, disputes about heat bridges always come
down to a matter of just a few degrees Celsius!
This does not of course mean there is no point in calculating and measuring. If
building experts do not measure, the level of uncertainty will be all the greater,
helping no one. Being aware of our limits should encourage us to carry out all
Author: investigations and measurements using suitable equipment and the requisite
Martin Giebeler degree of care!
74
Reference to other field guides
4. Reference to other field guides

For measuring air flows and surface temperatures and for requirements relating
to heating, we recommend the other user guides from this series:
Ambient Air Measurement for Practical Users
Ambient Air Measurement

for Practical Users
°C
% RH
td
g/kg
hPa
m/s
m3/h
ppm
CO
ppm
tes
CO2
to
tes
to
rpm
to
tes
to
tes
45
to
.14
tes
mA
8
063
a edición
21st edition mV
revisada
75
Manual for Infrared Measuring Technology
Manual for Infrared Measuring Technology
°C
76
Heating Measurement Technology
Practical Handbook
Full of useful
Heating Measurement information
Technology
°C
O2
CO
NO
NO2
NOx
λ/qA
Efficiency
3rd Edition
77
General
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Telephone
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Date, signature
I would like more information about the following products:
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We are grateful for any suggestion for improvement that will help us keep this building moisture
guide up to date and adapt it to the requirements of the industry.
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78
Notice
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Notice
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Notice
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Notice
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The current addresses of our subsidiaries and agents worldwide can be found at www.testo.com.

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Field guide With practical

The Board of Directors

Burkart Knospe Lothar Walleser

Parameter Air humidity

Recording room Measuring in cavities Long-term recording Moisture content

Parameter Air temperature A

Recording room Comfort analyses Long-term recording Wind determination

Local or Non-destructive Penetration probe:

Air flow Material temperature

Throw determination Determination of the Recording of Measurement of More precise

Field guide to building moisture: Contents

1.1 Air temperature 8

1.2 Air humidity 14

1.3 Material temperature 19

1.4 Material moisture 26

2. The basics of measurement 41

2.1 The authority advantage 41

2.2 Blind faith in digital technology 41

2.3 The four basic elements of measurement 43

3. Typical applications of building practice 47

3.1 Locating leaks in pipes 47

3.2 Locating air leaks in BlowerDoor tests, assessing draughts 50

3.3 Assessing moisture damage 57

3.4 Assessing mould damage 62

3.5 Assessing heat bridges 70

4. Reference to other field guides 75

1. Parameters and measuring methods

1.1 Air temperature

The subjective perception of cold and draught can be indicated

Air thermometers should in principle be shielded from radiation (meteorological

If the radiation component and its effect on comfort are to be recorded,

1.1.1 The measuring principle

The accuracy of TESTO s standard sensors (combination probe) is about

1.1.2 Correct and incorrect application

Fig. 1: Components of a measuring instrument

1.1.2.1 Transport/inertia of the sensor

If the temperature of the handheld instrument is different, this is not as critical

1.1.2.2 Performing the measurement

In summary, measurements should be performed as follows:

Fig. 2: Correct handling when measuring air temperature and air

1.1.2.3 Special applications

Fig. 3: Globe thermometer

Long-term recording is advisable if temperature fluctuations are to be record-

1.2 Air humidity

As regards the applications addressed in this field guide, only

Fig. 4: Saturation curve and dew point temperature curve

Minimum distance from wall to

Fig. 5: Temperature dependence of relative humidity

1.2.1 The measuring principle

Sensors are available in different tolerance classes. Dust deposits can be

Fig. 6: Combination sensor

1.2.2 Correct and incorrect application

When it comes to measuring moisture in order to assess mould, it is often

Here too, the principle is that:

It is always advisable to carry out a measurement in each room, this being

1.2.2.1 Transport/inertia of the sensor

1.2.2.2 Performing the measurement

1.2.2.3 Special applications

For measurement in cavities or screed insulating layers, particularly thin probe

Fig. 7: Measuring in a screed edge joint

1.3 Material temperature

1.3.1 The principle of contact measurement

Principle: every measuring instrument only measures the temperature of its

1.3.1.1 Application and performance