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CDMA
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UTL Technologies Ltd
Multiple Access Methods
FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple

Access )
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access ) CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access )
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FDMA
Frequency Division Multiple Access
(FDMA)
An approach to sharing a channel by

separating the simultaneous users in frequency
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FDMA
c f
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Analog Cellular Systems (FDMA Systems)
AMPS (Analog Mobile Phone Service) TACS (Total Access Communication System) NMTS (Nordic Mobile Telephone System)
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TDMA
Time division multiple access (TDMA)
Approach for allotting single-channel

usage amongst many users, by dividing the channel into slots of time during which each user has access to the medium.
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TDMA
c f
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2.17.1
TDMA/FDD
c f
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2.18.1
CDMA
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Spread spectrum technique using

high-speed pseudo random (PN) codes to scramble data words and spread spectral occupancy for added robustness.
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CDMA
c
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CDMA
Spreading and De-Spreading
The base band signal to be transmitted is

multiplied by the user specific unique code
The code word is of the order of 64 bits( to

enable generation of a large number of combinations)
Thus, the communication demands a larger

spectrum spread than a typical FDMA
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Defining Spread Spectrum A complete definition to Spread Spectrum, is the one given by Haykins.. Spread Spectrum is a means of transmission in which the data sequences occupy a minimum bandwidth necessary to send it on bandwidth which is excess to it. Spread Spectrum is accomplished before transmission through the use of a code that is independent of data sequences . The same code is used at the receiver to despread the received signal so that the original data sequence may be recovered
Advantages of Spread Spectrum
Multi path access: Number of users uses a

common channel for communication.
Random access possibilities: Users can start their

transmission at any arbitrary time.
Privacy due to unknown random codes: The

applied codes are - in principle - unknown to a hostile user. This means that it is hardly possible to detect the message of an other user.
Concept of Spread Spectrum

When the information bearing signal and a PN sequence is multiplied at a multiplier we obtain the desired modulation. The question is how do we get the increase spectrum? This is a simple Fourier Transform property. Multiplication in time domain is convolution in frequency domain. Hence by multiplying a narrow band information signal and a wide-band code sequence, the multiplied signal will have the spectrum similar to the wide-band PN code sequence.
How Spread Spectrum gives secure

communication?
The spread signal gets the characteristics of the PN code sequence. This signal appears noise like to a receiver that has no idea about the spreading code.
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Spread Spectrum Technique

Encoding Modulator Encoding Channel De-modulator Decoding
Spreading Code Pseudo Random Generator
Spreading Code Pseudo Random Generator
Input Data
Output Data
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DSSS: Transmitter
Modulator (BPSK) Spread Spectrum Signal
Data Input (Binary)
Pseudo Noise Bit Source
Spreader
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1 0 1 1
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum : Transmission 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1
B
0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0
C
0 A = Data Input B = PN Bit Stream C= A + B
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0 0 1 0101 1010
0 0 01 01
0 0 1
0 0 0 00 00 1
0 0
0 0 1
0 0
0001 1110
0101 1010
01 01 0100 01 01 01 1011 01
DSSS:Receiver
Spread Spectrum Signal Demodulator (BPSK)
Data Output (Binary) Pseudo Noise Bit Source Despreader
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Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum : Reception 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
C
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0
B
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
C = Recd.Signal B = PN Bit Stream A= C + B
1010 0101 1
01 01 0
1110 0001 1
00 00 0
1010 0101 1
01 01 1011 01 01 01 0100 01 0 0 1 0
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Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)

D Sin Wct 2 bit Serial to parallel converter B Carrier C F Pi/2 Cos Wct E Summer
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Point A : Binary input Data Stream at the rate of R=1/Tb, where Tb is the duration of an individual data bit. Point B and C : The serial input is converted into two channels with alternate bits going to B and C respectively. Thus the data rate is halved. B and C are known as in-phase and Quadrature phase channels respectively. The Data bit 1 is represented by a level +1 and the bit 0 represented by -1. Point D : The data bits from B are multiplied on one part of the carrier. Sin(Wct). Point E : The data bits from C are multiplied (modulated) on the other part of the carrier, which is shifted in phase by pi/2.
For example, if two adjacent bits are represented by +1, -1. The output at D will be [+1][SinWct] and that at E will be[-1][SinWct+pi/2] and the summer output at F will be [Sin(Wct)]+[Sin(Wct)+(pi/2)-(pi)]= Sin (Wct)+Sin[(Wct)-pi/2]= 2 sin[(Wct)-(pi/4)]Cos(pi/4). i.e., the two adjacent bits 1, 0 represented by (1,1) now combined and denoted as a phase shift of the carrier by pi/4. The following table gives all the phase shift values for a combination of two bits taken at a time.
B 1 0 0 1
QPSK
C 1 1 0 0
01 State
Phase Shift of the Carrier Pi/4 3Pi/4 -3Pi/4 -Pi/4 (as per example above)
Q 11 State
I 10 State
00 State
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Offset Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (OQPSK)

D Sin Wct 2 bit Serial to parallel converter B Carrier C F Pi/2 Cos Wct Delay E OQPSK differs from the conventional QPSK in that prior to carrier multiplication, a delay of a half-bit interval (with respect to the I path) is placed in the QLtd path. 7/4/2007 UTL Technologies Summer
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Basic Model and Concepts

Transmitter
ps
Wss
Receiver
Bit Rate = Rb
pj
Jammer Wss = Bandwidth of the spread signal Rb= Bit rate of base band signal Ps = Signal power Pj = Jammer power
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E b =Ps/Rb and Nj = Pj/Wss. E b/Nj= (Wss/Rb)/ (Pj/Ps), where Wss/Rb is

called processing gain (PG) Capacity of CDMA system : The capacity of a CDMA system depends on
E b/No Frequency Reuse Voice Activity Factor Sectorization.
For M users, we have the basic capacity equation as M-1=[PG]/[E b/No], where PG is the processing gain Wss/Rb
Considering voice activity factor (v), frequency

reuse advantage (f), and the sectorization advantage (s), the capacity equation gets modified as:
M = [PG] * [E b/No]
-1
* (1/v)*f*s.
Ex: If Rb=9600 bps, Rc=1.2288Mcps, v=40%, f=0.65 and s=2.55, find the capacity?
Features of CDMA
1. High Capacity :
More channels per carrier as against 8 in GSM. Better Traffic Handling capacity Use of vocoders increases capacity Simpler frequency planning / frequency re-use.
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2. Lower Transmit Power : The reduction in required Eb/No means that the MS has to Transmit less power. This means that the cost of the MS comes down and the battery life increases. This also results in minimum interference, which means more users can talk simultaneously. Hence, more capacity. 3. Improved privacy : The PN sequence operation, wide band signalling and certain addressee specific protection features provide very good security to the users. 7/4/2007 UTL Technologies Ltd
4. Better performance in Fading/ interference prone environment : This is derived from the basic concept of spread spectrum technique which separates signals based on specific PN sequences. The system has inherent multipath diversity features. 5. Improved capabilities:
Variable rate vocoders for different grades of
service. Interfaces to ISDN /Wireless PBXS/PCN/Cellular. Local loop applications in the PSTN.
GSM Vs. CDMA (Frequency Reuse)
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GSM
CDMA
Models of Spread Spectrum CDMA Systems There are basically 4 models of SS-CDMA Systems: One User One path One User Many paths Many Users One path Many Users Many paths
1. 2. 3. 4.
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One user one path Model

1. The base band signal of User j is denoted by
. Bj(t). 2. The PN sequence used for spreading the spectrum is Cj(t). 3. The transmitted spectrum for user j is .. Bj(t) X Cj(t). 4. At the receiver, the signal is received after a delay Tj. i.e., Bj(t-Tj) X Cj(t-Tj). 5. We generate the PN sequence locally, with an arbitrary delay : Cj(t-T). 6. The receiver output is then described by : Bj(t-Tj) X Cj(t-Tj)X Cj(t-T).
7. If the local delay T is equal to the propagation delay Tj, then the receiver output becomes: Bj(t-Tj) X Cj(t-Tj)X Cj(t-Tj)= Bj(t-Tj) i.e. at the receiver output we get back the base band delayed by Tj. 8. If the delay T generated locally at the receiver is not equal to Tj, then the receiver output becomes : Bj(t-Tj) X Cj(t-Tj)X Cj(t-T)= Bj(t-Tj) Cj(t-Tq). This means that the receive output is still a SPREAD data. 9. Thus, all other signals arriving at the receiver appear as spread data, excepting the desired data which got decoded as Bj(t-Tj). The other signals appear as noise. 10. Here, we have taken that there is only one direct path between the transmitter and the receiver and the effects of multipath are not considered.
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One user Many path Model

The signals arrive at the receiver through a
number of paths, generated by reflections / scattering from buildings, trees, mountains, water etc. Therefore, the input to the receiver always has 2 components: a. A direct path component given by : Bj(t-Tj) X Cj(t-Tj). b. A multi path component given by : Bj(t-T jm) X Cj(t-Tjm). Where Tjm is the multipath delay for the signal from user J.
Suppose, the locally generated PN Sequence (at the receiver) is delayed by Tj. Let us look at the receiver now: Receiver input : Bj(t-T jm) X Cj(t-Tjm). Locally generated PN Code: Cj(t-Tj). Receiver output : Direct path component + Multipath component . = [ Bj(t-Tj) X Cj(t-Tj) + Bj(t-T jm) X Cj(t-Tjm)] . Cj(t-Tj). = Bj(t-Tj) + [ Bj(t-T jm) X Cj(t-Tjm) X Cj(t-Tj) ] The term inside the bracket is the interference signal appearing as a spread multipath signal.
The spread interference or the multipath signal has a (t-Tjm) component. If (t-Tjm) is less than one chip (one bit ) duration of Cj, the multipath component cannot be resolved and the demodulated output is distorted. However, if (t-Tjm) is greater than one chip period, then it could be resolved. This could be done by introducing a second receiver which has its local PN generator delayed by Tjm. i.e., the second receiver is synchronized with the multipath component. One of the most popular type of such receivers is RAKE receiver.
Many users Multi path Model

In a real life situation, there would be many users operating at the same frequency, at the same time. Each User would be spreading the signal with a unique PN Sequence. The signals sent by each user undergo multipath propagation and hence would have direct path and multipath components at the receiver. The desired signal is separated by the receiver by using a local PN sequence generator as explained in the above model. Also, if the time difference (t-Tj) is greater than one chip duration, then for each user, the multipath component could be resolved by using RAKE receiver arrangement.
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However, for each user, there would be additional interference signals in the form of signals from other users operating at the same frequency. If there are 3 users p, q and r. Then for user p, the receiver will have : A direct path component given by Bp(t-Tp) Spread interference signals pertaining to pq and pr. Components pq and pr are interfering signals from users q and r received at p. In other words, pq and pr are the co channel interference for the desired signals. i.e., Bp(t-Tp).
Rake Receiver
The rake receiver is a technique which uses several base band correlators to individually process multi path signal components. The outputs from the different correlators are combined to achieve improved reliability and performance.
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RAKE RECEIVER A rake receiver is a radio receiver designed to

counter the effects of multipath fading. It does this by using several "sub-receivers" each delayed slightly in order to tune in to the individual multipath components. Each component is decoded independently, but at a later stage combined in order to make the most use of the different transmission characteristics of each transmission path. This could very well result in higher signal-tonoise ratio (or Eb/N0) in a multipath environment. 7/4/2007 UTL Technologies Ltd
The rake receiver is so named because of its

analogous function to a garden rake, each finger collecting bit or symbol energy similarly to how tines on a rake collect leaves.
Rake receivers are common in a wide variety of

CDMA and W-CDMA radio devices such as mobile phones and wireless LAN equipment.
RAKE RECEIVER Schemetic is shown below.

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CDMA ARCHITECTURE
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CDMA IS-95A ARCHITECTURE OS

WPT 0
AUX
IWF
PSPDN
TE2
TE1
Sm
WPT1 Um
O Base Station subsystem

BTS
A bis
P L Ai D
W
BSC
A E
MSC
PSTN
DCE
R
TE2
TE2
Rm
TAP MSC
C
HLR
B
D
Mi
ISDN
S
TA
TE1
TE2
Rm
WPT 2
TE2
I I
DMH
VLR
PLMN
H EIR
MS WPT : Wireless Personal Terminal
External network G
Other VLR
AC
DCE : Data communication equipment TE : 7/4/2007 Terminal Equipment

The reference model elements are :

Mobile Station : The MS terminates with radio path on the user side and enables the user to gain access to services from the network. It can be a stand alone device or other device like PC, fax machine etc. Base station Subsystem: Base station terminates the radio path and connects to the mobile switching center (MSC). The base station subsystem is divided in to BTS and BSC.
BTS (Base Transceiver System):

BTS terminate the radio path on the network side. It may be co-located with BSC or independently placed. The BTS contains the RF components that provide the air interface for a particular cell. This is the part of the CDMA network, which communicates with the MS. The antenna is included as part of the CDMA. BTS includes Transceivers, base band sections, digital signal processing cards, power cards, Transmission cards, Antenna and filter sections etc. 7/4/2007 UTL Technologies Ltd
BSC (Base station controller):

It is the control management for one or more BTS. BSC exchanges information between BTS and MSC. The BTSs and BSC may either be located at the same cell site co-located, or located at different sites Remote. In reality most BTSs will be remote, as there are many more BTSs than BSCs in a network. Another BSS configuration is the daisy chain. A BTS need not communicate directly with the BSC which controls it, it can be connected to the BSC via a chain of BTSs.
Daisy chaining reduces the amount of cabling required to set up a network as a BTS can be connected to its nearest BTS rather than all the way to the BSC. Problems may arise when chaining BTSs, due to the transmission delay through the chain. The length of the chain must, therefore, be kept sufficiently short to prevent the round trip speech delay becoming too long.
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Network switching subsystem:

Mobile Switching Center: It is an automatic system interfaces with the user traffic from the wireless network or other wireless networks. Depending upon the function of MSC, it can be classified into different ways. 1. Provides radio contact in a call 2. Controls BTSs adjacent to location of a MS. 3. Accepts a call or a hand off
4. Directing an incoming a call towards MS. 5. Currently providing service to a call. 6. Providing only trunk connections 7. Selected for Handoff 8. Providing service to MS.
DMH (Data Message Handler) :

Uses to collect billing data.
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Home Location Register (HLR): It manages mobile subscribers information by maintaining all subscribers information. The information is like ESN, IMSI, User Profiles, and current location etc. It can be co-located or placed independently. One HLR servers multiple MSCs. Visitor Location Register (VLR): It is linked to one or more MSC. It dynamically stores subscribers information (ESN, User profiles)
These informations are obtained from HLR.

When a roaming MS enters a new service area, MSC informs the associated VLR about the MS by querying the HLR after MS goes through a registration procedure.
Authentication Center :
It manages the information associated with the individual subscriber. It can be located with in an HLR, or MSC or located independently of both.
Equipment Identity Register:

Provides information about the mobile station for record purpose.
Inter working function :

Enables MSC to communicate with other networks.
External Networks:
They can be PSTN, ISDN, PLMN, PSPDN.
Operation subsystem (OSS) :

Responsible for overall management. Some of the functions of OSS are Event/Alarm Management. Fault Management. Performance Management. Configuration Management. Security Management.
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Interfaces between various elements of the system
BS to MSC (A-interface) :
This interface between the base station and the MSC, supports signalling and traffic (both voice and data). A-interface protocols have been defined using SS 7, ISDN BRI/PRI and frame relay transport (TIA IS-634).
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BTS to BSC interface : Abis if the base station is

segmented into a BTS and BSC, this internal interface is defined. MSC to PSTN interface : Ai. This is an analog interface, using either DTMF or MF signaling. MSC to VLR : B-interface. This interface is in the TIAIS-45 protocol specification. MSC to HLR : C-interface. This interface is in the TIAIS-45 protocol specification. HLR to VLR : D-interface. It is the signaling interface between HLR and VLR based on SS7. MSC to ISDN : Di interface. This interface is the digital interface to the PSTN and is a T1 interface.
MSC to MSC : E interface. This interface is the

traffic and signaling interface between wireless networks. MSC to EIR : F interface. VLR to VLR : G interface. When communication is needed between VLR, this interface is used. HLR to AC : H interface. DMH to MSC : I interface. MSC to IWF : I interface, this interface is defined by the interworking function. MSC to PLMN : Mi interface. It is for another wireless network. MSC to OS : O interface.
MSC to PSPDN : Pi interface. It is defined by

the packet network. BS to MS : Um interface. This is an air interface. MSC to AUX: X interface. This depends on the auxiliary equipment connected to MSC PSTN to DCE : W interface. This is the outside the scope of PCS and is defined within the PSTN system.
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CDMA Subscriber Unit Architecture
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Transmitter Section
Source Encode Channel Encode Multiple Access
Modulate
Transmitter
Speech
Receiver Section
Source Decode Channel Decode Multiple Access
Demodulate
Receiver
Reconstructed Speech
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Voice Coding:
Variable Rate Coding : Codecs used in CDMA systems are CELP (Code Excited Linear Predictor) EVRC (Enhanced Variable Rate Codec) (20 msec of speech is taken at a time for voice coding). Vocoders are source dependent coding systems. They analyse the voice signal at the transmitter end, and transmit parameters derived from the analysis. The receiver then synthesizes the voice signals according to the parameters received.
Channel coding : Channel coding maps the input data into coded symbols containing more number of bits than the original signal. Different types of Channel coding are 1. Block coding , as the name implies, code an information sequence one block at a time. 2. Convolution coding has a memory property. 3. Turbo Coding is the most recent coding system which is used in 3G systems. The principle used is based on convolution coding but, the method is used for high speed wireless communication requirements.
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After this coding, bit output from the vocoder is grouped in terms of their probability to errors and are appropriately treated with FEC codes. The output coded symbols are then spread over several data frames by the method of interleaving the data along with the FEC codes. This is done to minimize the loss of data during transmission.
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CODES IN CDMA
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EX-OR FUNCTION
EX-OR Function A
Truth Table
B 0 1 0 1
Y=A B 0 1 1 0
A B
0 0 1 1
EX-OR gate produces HIGH output, if odd number of inputs or HIGH, in all other cases, the output will be LOW.
PN SEQUENCE
PN SEQUENCE : A Pseudo Random Noise sequence is one in which the bits appear in a random manner with a specified length and the pattern is repeated for subsequent sequences. PN sequence is the best choice as it appears as noise to all other users excepting the desired receiver.
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Requirements of a PN sequence:

Be easy to generate Have random properties Have long periods Be difficult to reconstruct from a short segment.
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PN SEQUENCE GENERATION
Example : Suppose we have 4 digit words.
The natural sequence is from 0000 to 1111. Purely random sequence could be a series of 15 word sets, with the combination of words in each set being random The PN sequence is important because, the receiver needs a replica of the transmitted sequence to de spread the signals. The PN sequence has a random set of words which repeat after a specific sequence length.
Example of a PN sequence :
Consider a 4 bit sequence.. 0001.
0 1 2 0 3 0 4 1
EX-OR
The first 4 bit sequence is 0001. The next 4 bit sequence will be 1000, 1100, 1110, 1111, 0111, 1011, 0101, 1010, 1101, 0110, 0011, 1001, 0100, 0010. The next 4 bit after this again starts with 0001.
Example for PN Sequence generator is (SSRG) SIMPLE SHIFT REGISTER GENERATOR.
A generic form of a simple shift register

generator is shown below.
1 2 3 4 5 6 N
Feed back logic-exclusive OR circuits
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Properties of PN sequences:
PN Sequences exhibit the following properties: The maximal length of the sequence is 2n-1, where n is the number of stages in the shift register. The number of 1s will be 2(n-1) and that of 0s will be 2(n-1) -1. i.e., the number of 1s will be one more than the number of 0s. If a maximal SRG sequence is added to a phase shift (time shift) of it, then the resulting sequence is another phase shift of the original sequence. This is called the shift and add property of SSRGs. 7/4/2007 UTL Technologies Ltd
A 4 stage SSRG type PN sequence generator

0001 0 1 2 0 3 0 4 1 1000 1100 1110 1111 0111 EX-OR The output sequence is : 1000 1111 0101 100 It is 15 bits Long.i.e., L= 2n-1 1011 0101 1010 1101 0110 0011 1001 0100 0010
There are 8 ones and 7 zeroes In any period, half the run of continuous 1s or 0s are of length1. One fourth run are of length 2, one eighth are of length 3, and so on. Shift and Add property : If the PN sequence is shifted in time, the resulting sequence is another shift of the original sequence itself if the shift is by one bit/chip, then the original pattern repeats after 2n-1 sequence
Example :
Code : 100011110101100 100011110101100 100011110101100 Shift 1: 000111101011001 000111101011001 000111101011001 .. XOR : 100100011110101 100100011110101 100100011110101 The original code is marked with white digits in the result of XOR. By shifting the sequence successively by one bit, it can be verified that the original sequence repeats after 15 sequences (2n-1). Example 2: For the same tappings, change the initial seeding of the shift register or feedback points and obtain the output sequence. What are your observations, on the new sequence?
Alternate configuration of the 4 stage SSRG

0 1 2 0 3 0 4 1
0001 1000 0100 0010 1001 1100 0110
EX-OR
1011 0101 1010
Out put sequence : 1000 1001 1010 111.
1101 1110 1111 0111 0011 ..
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0001
Auto Correlation
This describes the extent of likeness between a
random variable and its time shifted version, it can be defined by a simplified formula: Auto Correlation =x(t) * x(t-T) dT For PN sequences this could be written as : Auto correlation = 0T C J (t) * C J(t-T)dT. The Auto correlation function of the PN sequence has a positive value = 2n -1 for zero time shift instances and has a small negative value at other instances, when the shift in time is equal to or more than one chip duration. 7/4/2007 UTL Technologies Ltd
Cross Correlation
Cross Correlation defines the likeness between
two different random variables and could be described by : Cross Correlation =x(t) * y(t-T) dT For a PN sequence, this could be re written as : Cross correlation = 0T C J (t) * C k(t-T)dT. The cross correlation function will have very small negative values.
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Auto correlation of PN sequences :

Consider the original sequence 1000 1111 0101 100. This is compared with receive sequences with time shifts T0, T1, T2 etc. T0 means zero time shift or exact synchronization between transmitted and receive sequences. To calculate the auto correlation values, we give a mark +1 for every bit that matches with the reference (original) sequence and -1 for every bit mismatch.
Ref Code : 100011110101100 Auto correlation

TS 0 TS 1 TS 2 TS 3 so on. : : : : 100011110101100 000111101011001 001111010110010 011110101100100 15 -1 -1 -1 and
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A u t o
15 14
C o r r e l a t i o n
13 12 11 10
9 8 7 6 5 4
v a 3 l 2 u 1 e -1
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0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
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Cross correlation of PN sequences:
If we change the feed back tappings for our 4

stage SSRG, we get an entirely different PN sequence. Let us take the feed back from the 3rd and 4th stage outputs with the initial loading as 0001, from left to right (as shown in the slide above). The new PN sequence is : 1000 1001 1010 111 We take a time shifted code from the original sequence 1000 1111 0101 100 and compare that with the new code generated.
This would give us the cross correlation values

between the 2 different PN sequences. It is also possible to have the comparison between the first code and a time shifted version of the second. It is observed that the cross correlation values vary from -5 to +7, depending upon the extent of similarity between the 2 sequences. The comparison between the 2 PN sequences is given below and the cross correlation function is presented pictorially in the coming slide.
Ref Code : 100010011010111 cross corelation

2nd code
TS 0 TS 1 TS 2 TS 3 TS 4 TS 5 TS 6 TS 7
: 100011110101100 : 000111101011001 : 001111010110010 : 011110101100100 : 111101011001000 : 111010110010001 : 110101100100011 : 101011001000111

-1 -1 -1 -5 -5 +1 -5 +2
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Ref Code : 100010011010111 cross corelation

2nd code
TS 08 : 010110010001111 +1 TS 09 : 101100100011110 -1 TS 10 : 011001000111101 -5 TS 11 : 110010001111010 +1 TS 12 : 100100011110101 +7 TS 13 : 001000111101011 -1 TS 14 : 010001111010110 -1 ------------------------------------------------------TS 0 : 100011110101100 -1 Note that the cross correlation values vary from -5 to +7.
c r o s 8 s 7 C o r r e l a t i o n v a l u e 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
-1 -2 -3 -4 -5 -6
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0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
2 3 4
Classification of PN Codes :
PN codes are classified into 2 types. 1. PN Long code 2. PN Short code PN Long Code : It is used for Mobile Identification in reverse link and data scrambling in forward link PN short code : It is used for base station identification in forward link and orthogonal modification in reverse link.
PN long code : It is having 42 bit length (242)

and generated at a rate of 1.2288 Mcps. The code sequence repeats after 41.2 days. 242=4.39X1012. Chip Duration = 1/(1.2288X106) = 0.8138 Sec. Hence code duration = 4.39X1012X 0.8138X10-6 = 3.579 X 106 sec = (3.579X106)/(24X60X60) = 41.2 days.
In forward link, long code is used to encrypt

user ID, in reverse link long code is used (ESN Electronic serial number). The code mask is done by using ESN.
Both Base station and respective user have

knowledge of PN sequence at any given instant of time as a specified private code mask is exchanged between them.
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PN short code :
This sequence uses 15 bits and code is
generated at 1.2288 Mcps. The code repeats with a period of 26.67 m sec. 215 = 32.768X103 Chip duration = 1/(1.2288X106) = 0.8138 Sec Hence, the code duration = 32.768X103X 0.8138X10-6 = 26.67 m sec.
The code is used by Base station and is

used for final spreading of signal in the forward channel and is also transmitted as a pilot sequence by Base Station.
All the base station use the same short

code by distinct off-set time for identification. i.e., PN offsets are used for BTS identity.
ORTHOGONAL CODES
Two codes are said to be orthogonal, if the
product (Ex-or) of the two codes produces equal number of 1s and 0s. Ex : if A= 111010 and B=011001, then Xoring A and B gives the answer as 100011, which has three number of 1s and three number of 0s. Conventionally, 1 is mapped as +1 and 0 as -1. Example for orthogonal codes are WALSH CODES.
WALSH CODES
Most commonly used orthogonal codes in
CDMA systems A set of length n consists of n rows of nXn Walsh matrix. W1= (0). In general, W2n= [ Wn, Wn, Wn, Wn ], where n is the dimension of the matrix. The over score denotes the logical NOT of the bits in the matrix.
The matrix has the property that every

row is orthogonal to every other row and also to the logical NOT of every other row. W2x2 = 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
W4x4 =
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W2nx2n =
wn wn wn wn
Walsh Code Generation :

0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0
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0 1 0 1
1 1 1 1
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1
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HAND OFFS IN CDMA
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Handoff Process in CDMA

What is hand off?
In cellular telecommunications, the term handoff refers to the process of transferring an ongoing call or data session from one channel connected to the core network to another.
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In a cellular telephone network, handoff is the

transition for any given user of signal transmission from one base station to a geographically adjacent base station as the user moves around. In an ideal cellular telephone network, each end user's telephone set or modem (the subscriber's hardware) is always within range of a base station. The region covered by each base station is known as its cell. The size and shape of each cell in a network depends on the nature of the terrain in the region, the number of base stations, and the transmit/receive range of each base station. In theory, the cells in a network overlap; for much of the time, a subscriber's hardware is within range of more than one base station. The network must decide, from moment to moment, which base station will handle the signals to and from each and every subscriber's hardware. 7/4/2007 UTL Technologies Ltd
Each time a mobile or portable cellular subscriber

passes from one cell into another, the network automatically switches coverage responsibility from one base station to another. Each base-station transition, as well as the switching process or sequence itself, is called handoff. In a properly functioning network, handoff occurs smoothly, without gaps in communications and without confusion about which base station should be dealing with the subscriber. Subscribers to a network need not do anything to make handoff take place, nor should they have to think about the process or about which base station is dealing with the signals at any given moment.
v e R
e s r e
Base Station Base Station
rd a orw
Control Equipment PSTN
Network Interface
Handoff
Control Base Station
Base Station
Cell Boundary
Base Station
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Types of Hand off

Soft Hand off Soft Soft Hand off Softer Hand off Hard Hand off
All types of soft hand offs are called as make before break connections, and these are done only between cells having the same CDMA channel (frequency) assignments. Hard hand off is called as break before make connection and these are done between cells having different CDMA channel frequencies. UTL Technologies Ltd 7/4/2007
Soft Hand off :

This is the condition when two cells in a mobile network are in simultaneous communication with the mobile receiver. This situation will continue till one of the pilot signals from a particular base station falls below a chosen threshold level. From this, the mobile will be transferred to the remaining base station.
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Soft Soft Hand off :

The situation here is the same as that described above. However, the number of cells involved in this case are 3. This number is dictated by the provision of rake receiver in the mobile. This has 3 fingers for the separate reception and processing of three stations at a given time.
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Softer Hand off :

This hand off procedure is similar to the soft hand off. But, comes into picture when the mobile transition is from one sector to another in the same cell area. The mobile is served by two sectors simultaneously till one drops off.
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Hard Hand off :

Needing frequency transition This is similar to GSM. This occurs only when the mobile transit from one area to another where the allocated / used channel frequency happens to be different.
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Pilot sets in Hand off Procedure

Hand offs are done by measuring pilot
signal strengths from neighboring cells.
Measurement message sent to base

station when a pilot of adequate strength, not belonging to the mobiles current assignment of traffic channels is detected.
Hand off process is dependent on pilot

searches.
Pilots can be grouped into 4 sets.

1. ACTIVE SET 2. CANDIDATE SET 3. NEIGHBOURING SET 4. REMAINING SET
1. Active Set : The pilots associated with the forward traffic channels assigned to the mobile station. 2. Candidate Set : These pilots which are NOT in the current Active Set but have sufficient signal strength to qualify for hand-off.
3. Neighbour Set : This contains a list of neighbouring pilots whose signal strengths are strong enough to make them candidate pilots. This list is entered through the data base. Even if a pilot from an adjoining cell is very strong, the mobile will not look at if it is NOT mentioned in the neighbor list. 4. Remaining Set : The set of all pilots other than the three types mentioned above.
ACTIVE SET
Candidate Set
Neighbour Set
Remaining Set
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Parameters used in Hand-Offs

The following Parameters are very important in Hand-off situations: 1. T_ADDs : Suggested value : -13 dB (Range : -31.5 to 0dB). T_ADD is the Pilot Detection Threshold.
2. T_COMPs : Suggested Value : 2.5 dB ( Range : 0 to 7.5 dB ) This is the ACTIVE SET Vs CANDIDATE SET COMPARISION THRESHOLD.
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3. T_DROPs : Suggested Value : -15 dB ( Range : -31.5 to 0 dB) This is the PILOT DROP THRESHOLD. 4. T_TDROPs : Suggested Value : 2 seconds ( Range : 0 to 15 seconds ) This is the PILOT DROP TIMER VALUE.
Search for Pilot
Neighbour Set
Remaining Set
No P exceeds T_ADD yes 1. Move the pilot to candidate set 2. Send Measurement report to base station
No
P exceeds an active pilot by T_Comp X0.5
YES
Send measurement report Receive H/O Direction message
Keep pilot in candidate set

Move Pilot to Active set Send Hand off completion Message
POWER CONTROL IN CDMA
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Ideal CDMA System
Near-Far Effect
PT 1 PT 2 PT 2
MS1
PT 1
MS1
MS2 MS2
d/2 d P P d
PR 2 =
PR1 PR2
1.25 MHz
PR1 = PR 2
f
1 P (d / 2 )4 R 1
C PR1 = =1 I PR 2
PR2 = 16PR1
1.25 MHz
PR 1
f
1 PR 2 16 C P 1 = R1 = I PR 2 16
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What is Power Control?

Power control refers to the strategies or techniques required in order to adjust, correct and manage the power from the BS/MS in both directions (i.e. uplink and downlink) in an efficient manner.
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Power control is essential to the smooth operation of a CDMA system. Because all users share the same RF band through the use of PN codes, each user looks like random noise to other users. The power of each individual user, therefore, must be carefully controlled so that no one user is unnecessarily interfering with others who are sharing the same band.
To illustrate how power control is essential

in CDMA, we consider a single cell that has two users. User 2 is much closer to the base station than user 1. If there is no power control, both users would transmit a fixed amount of power pt. However, because of the difference in distance, the received power from user 2 or pr2 would be much larger than the received power from user1 or pr1. This would be a great disadvantage.
Power control is implemented to overcome the near-far problem and to improve the quality and reduce the interference. Power control is where the transmit power from each user is controlled such that the received power of each user at the base station is equal to one another.
pr1 pt
pr2 pt
User 1 User 2
A base station with two users, each user is transmitting to the base station a fixed amount 7/4/2007 of power pt UTL Technologies Ltd
pr1 pt1
pr2
pt2
User 1 User 2
A base station with two users, each user is transmitting to the base station with different the distance Ltd from 7/4/2007 powers, depending on UTL Technologies the base station. (power control)
Solution for Near far problem

One Problem that has to be immediately
solved in power control is the initial mobile transmit power. Before the mobile establishes contact with the base station, the mobile cannot be power controlled by the base station. when the mobile first attempts to access the base station, what power level should the mobile use to transmit? At this point, the base station has not yet made contact with the mobile user, and the base station has no idea as to the location of the mobile user. 7/4/2007 UTL Technologies Ltd
There are two options for this.

The first option is that the mobile can attempt to access the base station with a high transmit power. Such high power increases the probability that the base station will receive that mobiles access request. But, the disadvantage of a high initial transmit power is that such high power represents interference to other users currently served by that cell.
The second option is that the mobile can request access from the base station with a low transmit power. such low power decreases the probability that the base station will receive the mobiles access request. But, the advantage is that the mobile wont cause much interference to other users.
ACCESS PROBES
Access probes are a series of transmissions of progressively higher power. The mobile transmits its first access probe at a relatively low power, then it will wait for a response back from the base station. If after a random time interval the mobile does not receive an acknowledgement from the base station, then the mobile transmits a second access probe at a slightly higher power.
The process repeats until the mobile receives an acknowledgement back from the base station. The power difference between the current access probe and the previous access probe is called an access probe correction. The step size for a single access probe correction is specified by the system parameter PWR_STEP. Pt initial = -Pr -73 +NOM_PWR + INIT_PWR Where NOM_PWR = normal power INIT_PWR = Initial power.
Mobile Transmit Power Second access Probe correction First access Probe correction
Initial transmit power
Random Time intervals

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Time
UTL Technologies Ltd : A series of access probes by the mobile to access the system.
TYPES OF POWER CONTROL

Basically, there are 2 methods of power control available in cdma 1. Open Loop Power Control : This is purely a mobile unit function. It gives open estimation. This is done only during the initial stage as soon as the mobile is turned ON. After the call is established and mobile moves around within a cell, the path losses between MS and BS will continue to change. 7/4/2007 UTL Technologies Ltd
As a result the received power at mobile will change and open loop power control will continue to monitor mobile received power and adjusts the mobile transmit power according to the following equation. Pt initial= - Pr -73 +NOM_PWR + INIT_PWR +sum of all access probes correction.
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2. closed loop power control : This involves both base station and the mobile unit and gives a closed loop power correction. BS continuously monitors Eb/No on reverse link. If Eb/No is very high, the BS commands the mobile to decrease the transmit power of mobile. If Eb/No is low, i.e., below a threshold value, it commands the mobile to increase transmit power of mobile.
The mobile should use the power level it receives from the base station to estimate how much to initially transmit. In other words, if the mobile sees a strong signal from the base station, then it assumes that the base station is nearby and thus transmits initially at a relatively low level. If the mobile sees a weak signal from the base station, then it assumes that the base station is far away and thus transmits initially at a relatively high level.
CHANNELS IN CDMA
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CDMA channels can be divided in to two

types of links. 1. Forward Link : It is from BTS to Mobile Station. Frequency Range : 869 894 MHz. 2. Reverse Link : It is from Mobile Station to BTS. Frequency Range : 824 - 849 MHz.
IS-95 Standard
Forward Link
Pilot Channel Sync Channel Paging Channels (max. 7) Traffic Channels
Reverse Link
Access Channels Traffic Channels
Forward CDMA Channel

Forward link consists of up to 64 logical channels
(code channels) The code channels are distinguished by a set of 64
Walsh functions
Walsh function code number zero is always reserved

as the pilot
Short Code (with period 215, 27.667 ms at 1.2288 MHz)

spreading the CDMA Forward Channel used in conjunction with the Long Code for spreading the CDMA Reverse Channel
Long Code (with period 242 - 1)

spreading the CDMA Reverse Channel Long Code Mask serves as a reverse link address 7/4/2007 UTL Technologies Ltd
Logical Forward CDMA Channel

Forward CDMA Channel
Pilot Chan W0
Sync Paging Chan Ch 1 W32 W1
...
Up to
Paging Traffic Ch 7 Ch 1 W7 W8
...
Traffic Ch N
...
Up to
Traffic Traffic Ch 24 Ch 25 W31 W33
...
Up to
Traffic Ch 55 W63
Traffic Data
Mobile Power Control Sub-Channel
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CDMA Channel Structure (Forward Link)

1.2288 MHz 0 1 7 8 9
0- Pilot Channel Paging Channel Paging Channel Traffic Channel Traffic Channel
W0 W1
W7 W8
31 32 33
Traffic Channel Synchronisation Channel Traffic Channel
W31 W32 W33
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63
Traffic Channel UTL Technologies Ltd
W63
Pilot Channel
Unmodulated signal Unique per sector/cell Signal level is 4~6 dB higher than traffic
channel Perfect phase/time/signal strength reference for MS
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Used in initial system acquisition and

handoff for MS DS at 1.2288 Mcps Every cell uses the same PN sequence (period 2 15 or 26.67ms) and is identified by a pre-defined offset (64 x n chips) QPSK modulation
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PILOT CHANNEL
I- Pilot PN Sequence @1.2288MCPS
Walsh Function W0 @ 1.2288Mcps (All 0s)
BBF
A To QPSK Modulator
BBF
Q- Pilot PN Sequence @1.2288MCPS
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QPSK MODULATOR
C A Sin Wc t
carrier
SUMMER E
Pi/2 Cos Wc t B D
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The PILOT Channel is identified by Walsh

function 0 (W0). The Channel itself contains no base band information. The base band is stream of zeroes, that are spread by Walsh function zero, which is also a sequence of all zeroes. The resulting sequence still all zeroes, is then spread are multiplied by a pair of quadrature sequence. The pilot channel is effectively PN-Sequence itself.
Both Walsh function zero and PN-Sequence

are running at a rate of 1.2288 Mcps. The pilot channel is transmitted continuously by Base Station Sector. It provides the mobile with timing and phase reference. The mobile measurements of signal to noise ratio of pilot channel also gives an indication of which is strongest serving sector of that mobile. Pilot power is 4 to 6 dB higher than traffic channel.
SYNC CHANNEL
Walsh Function W32 @ 1.2288Mcps
Sync channel bits Convolutional Encoder R=1/2
1.2kbps 2.4kbps
BBF
Symbol Repetition
4,8kbps
A To QPSK Modulator
Block interleaver
4,8kbps 1.2288 Mcps
BBF
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QPSK MODULATOR
C A Sin Wc t
carrier
SUMMER E
Pi/2 Cos Wc t B D
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Sync Channel
Sync channel operates at a fixed bit rate
of 1200 bps. Used for the mobile to get timing and long code references. It is not scrambled It does not carry the power control bits Uses the same pilot PN offset as the pilot channel
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Unlike the pilot channel, the sync channel

carries base band information. The information contained in sync channel message that notifies the mobile of important information about system synchronization and parameters. To convey pilot PN sequence offset, time of day, and long code state to allow immediate sync of MS to the network
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The sync data is passed through

convolutional coder. Output of convolutional coder is 2400 bps and this is passed through code repetition circuit to get 4800 bps. The output of repetition circuit is then block interleaved and subjected to direct sequence spreading using Walsh code 32 and then given to Quadrature spreading circuit.
SYNC CHANNEL FRAME STRUCTURE

80 msec, 96 bits Sync ch super frame ------------Sync ch super frame
26.66 msec
Sync ch frame
Sync ch frame
Sync ch frame
------
Sync ch frame
Sync ch frame
Sync ch frame
1 S O M
SOM = Start Of Message 0 0 S S O O M M
---
0 S O M
0 S O M
0 S O M
Sync channel message capsule = 96 X Ns, Ns is the no of super frames needed., Sync channel message MSG_LENGTH
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Padding bits CRC 30 bits + Padding bits if needed
Message Body 2-1146 bits
8 bits
SYNC CHANNEL FRAME STRUCTURE
Sync channel is sent in super frames of 96

bits in 80 msec duration. Each super frame has 3 frames of 26.66.. Msec each. A number of super frames form a sync channel message capsule. A capsule has a message length indicator, Message body and CRC, Message length in octets.
It also has padding bits set to 0; the

number of padding bits is to make the total number of bits equal to an integer multiple of 96 bits. The beginning of a super frame has an SOM bit set to 1 for the first frame and set to 0 for other frames.
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Sync Channel Frame Structure

Sync channel message has length of 96 x
N bits
Message length (8 bits) Data (2 to 1146 bits) CRC (10bits) Padding bits all 0s
Sent in N super frames:

1 super frame (96 bits, 80 ms) = 3 sync channel frames 1 frame (32 bits, 26.67 ms) = 1-bit SOM + 31-bit data SOM = 1 : start of message
Sync Channel Message contains:

system identification (SID) and network identification (NID) PN sequence offset and long code state system time, leap seconds, offset from UTC, etc. paging channel data rate (PRAT).
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Only the Sync Channel Message is sent

on the sync channel. MS
obtains information from Sync Channel
Message
adjusts its timing to normal system timing begins monitoring its Paging Channel
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Paging Channel
Data rate: 4800, 9600 bps One 9600 bps Paging Channel can support
180 pages/sec. Does not carry power control sub channels Use the same PN sequence offset as the pilot channel Up to 7 paging channels are possible, the first one taking Walsh code number W1
Paging Channel conveys four major types of

messages:
overhead paging order channel assignment
Configuration of the system is conveyed in

four overhead messages:
System Parameter Message Access Parameter Message Neighbor List Message CDMA Channel List Message 7/4/2007 UTL Technologies Ltd
Overhead Messages
System Parameter Message:
configuration of the Paging Channel registration parameters parameters to aid pilot acquisition
Access Parameter Message

configuration of the Access Channel control parameters used to stabilize the Access Channel
Neighbor List Message

time offset of the pilot basic neighbor configuration
CDMA Channel List Message

CDMA frequency assignment that contain Paging Channels
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Paging Channel Messages

Page Message:
contains pages to one or more mobile stations.
Order Message:
a broad class of messages used to control a particular MS.
Channel Assignment Message:

let BS to assign a MS to the traffic channel change Paging Channel Assignment direct the MS to use the analog FM system
PAGING CHANNEL

Walsh Function W1-7 @ 1.2288Mcps
BBF
Convolutional Encoder R=1/2
4.8kbps 9.6 kbps
Symbol Repetition
19.2ksps
Block interleaver
19.2ksps 1.2288 Mcps
BBF
Long code Mask for paging channel
Long code Generator
Decimator 64:1

19.2ksps
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QPSK MODULATOR
C A Sin Wc t
carrier
SUMMER E
Pi/2 Cos Wc t B D
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Like Sync channel, paging channel also

carries base band information. But, unlike sync channel, the paging channel transmits at a higher rate. It can transmit at either 4.8 or 9.6 kbps. PRAT field in the sync message inform the mobile of data rate of paging channel. Once the mobile acquires timing & synchronization using sync channel, the mobile begins to monitor paging channel. Although there can be up to 7 paging channels per sector, each mobile only monitors one paging channel.
From the above figure, the base band

information is error protected then if the data rate is at 4.8kbps, the bits are repeated once, after that interleaving will be taken place. The data is first scrambled by a decimated long PN sequence, then it is spread by a specific Walsh function and further spread by short PN sequence assigned to serving sector.
PAGING CHANNEL FRAME STRUCTURE

Max. Paging Channel Slot Cycle (80 msec)
PCH slot 2047
PCH slot 0
PCH slot 1
PCH slot 2 192 bits 20 msec
PCH slot 3
----------------------------------------------
PCH frame
PCH frame 96bits 10msec
PCH frame
PCH frame
PCH half frame
PCH half frame
PCH PCH half half frame frame
PCH half frame
PCH half frame
PCH half frame
PCH half frame
S C I
S C I
S C I
S C I
S C I
S C I
S C I
S C I
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SCI : Synchronised Capsule Indicator
Paging Channel Frame Structure

Synchronized paging channel message has length of
47 x N or 95 x N bits
Message length (8 bits) Data (2 to 1146 bits) CRC (10bits) Padding bits all 0s
Sent in N paging channel slots:

1 slot (80 ms) = 8 paging channel half-frames 1 half-frame (10 ms, 48 or 96 bits) = 1-bit SCI + 47 (or 95)bit data SCI = 1 : start of a paging channel message
Message contains:
system parameters access parameter (for access channel) channel assignment TMSI (temporary MS identification) assignment
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FORWARD TRAFFIC CHANNEL

PCB 80bps
1.2 kbps 2.4 kbps 4.8 kbps 9.6 kbps 2.4 kbps
Walsh Function @ 1.2288Mcps
BBF
mux
Symbol Repetition
19.2ksps
Block interleaver
19.2ksps
BBF
1.2288 Mcps
Long code Mask Soecific user ESN
Long code Generator
Decimator 64:1
Decimator 24:1
19.2ksps
1.2288 MCps
The forward traffic channel at variable spreads

up to 9600 bps with one pilot channel, one sync channel and seven paging channels. We can have a maximum of 55 traffic channels. From the figure of forward traffic channel, the signals are passed through a convolutional encoder R=1/2. for every input bit, we get 2 bits at output. The symbol repeater after the convolutional encoder repeats the symbol twice for 4800 bps speed, 4 times for 2400 bps and 8 times at 1200 bps.
The block interleaver output is scrambled

using a decimator. The scrambling is done by modulo 2 addition (Ex-or) of interleaved output with binary value of long code chip. The resulting PN Sequence is same as long code as 1.2288 MHz clock rate where only the first output of every 64kbps is used for scrambling data. The scrambled data (19.2kbps) is then passed through multiplexers, whereas power control bits are added. For scrambling power control bits, the output of 64:1 decimator to produce a bit rate of 800 bps.
The multiplexer output is then subjected

to orthogonal modulation by Walsh codes and then are quadrature spread.
The Walsh code table is same as in case

of reverse channel. The major difference is that in forward channel, the 64 bit Walsh code is send for every code symbol, whereas in reverse channel, the Walsh code is send for every 6 symbols (chips).
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In forward traffic channel, there are 2

types of rate sets.
Rate set 1 supports 4 data rates. They

are 9.6,4.8,2.4 and 1.2 kbps.
Rate set 2 supports the data rates of 14.4,

7.2, 3.6, 1.8 kbps.
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9600 bps frame structure 192 bits (20 m sec) 172 4800 bps frame structure 96 bits (20 m sec) 80 2400 bps frame structure 48 bits (20 m sec) 40 1200 bps frame structure 24 bits (20 m sec) 16 F : Frame quality indicator (CRC)
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12 F
8 T
8 F
8 T
8 T
T : Encoder Tail Bits
Forward Link Channel Parameters

Channel
Data rate Code repetition Modulation symbol rate PN chips/ modulation symbol PN chips/bit
Sync
1200 2 4800 256 1024
Paging
4800 2 9600 1 1200 8
Traffic
2400 4 4800 9600 bps 2 1
19,200 19,200 19,200 19,200 19,200 19,200 sps 64 256 64 128 64 1024 64 512 64 256 64 128
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CDMA Channel Structure (Reverse Link)

1.2288 MHz 1 2
Access Channel Access Channel
32 1 2 3
Access Channel Traffic Channel Traffic Channel Traffic Channel
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62
UTL Technologies Traffic Channel Ltd
Logical Reverse CDMA Channel

Reverse CDMA Channel
Access Ch 1
...
n 32
Access Ch n
Traffic Ch 1
m 62
Traffic Ch m
Address by Long Code PNs
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Access Channel
Access Channel provides communications
from MS to BS when MS is not using a Traffic Channel. All Access Channel use 4800 bps mode Access Channel Message:
call origination response to pages orders registrations
Access Channels
To access the system, respond the page,
make call origination and process other messages between the MS and the BS 4.8 kbps slotted random access channel MS is identified by orthogonal long code
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ACCESS CHANNEL
BBF
4.8kbps
A To QPSK Modulator
Symbol Repetition
14.4 kbps
Block interleaver
28.8ksps
64-ary Orthogonal modulator
28.8ksps
D
1.2288 Mcps
BBF
Long code Mask for paging channel
Long code Generator
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The Access channel is used by the mobile

to communicate with the base station when the mobile doesnt have a traffic channel assigned. The mobile uses this channel to make call originations and respond to pages and orders. The base band data rate of the access channel is fixed at 4.8 kbps.
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The base band information is first error

protected by an R=1/3 convolutional encoder. The lower encoding rate makes error protection more robust on the reverse link. The symbol repetition function repeats the symbol once, giving a code symbol rate of 28.8ksps. The data is then interleaved. Following interleaving, the data is coded by a 64-ary orthogonal modulator.
The orthogonal modulated date is then

spread by the long PN sequence. The long PN sequence is running at 1.2288Mcps, and the bandwidth of the data after spreading is 1.2288 Mcps. The data is further scrambled in the in phase and quadrature phase paths by the short PN sequences defined . Because the reverse link uses OQPSK modulation, the data in the Q path is delayed by one half a PN Chip.
Reverse Traffic Channel
BBF
1.2kbps 2.4 kbps 4.8kbps 9.6kbps
Symbol Repetition
Block interleaver
64-ary Orthogonal modulator
Data Burst Randomizer
To QPSK Modulator D BBF B
3.6kbps 7.2 kbps 14.4kbps 28.8kbps
28.8ksps
28.8ksps
Long code Mask
Long code Generator

1.2288 MCps
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The reverse traffic channel is used to transmit

user data and voice. Signaling messages are also sent over traffic channel structure of reverse channel and is similar to that of access channel. The major difference is that reverse traffic channel contains a burst randomizer. The orthogonally modulated data is fed to data burst randomizer. The function of data burst randomizer is to take advantage of voice activity factor of reverse link. There are two rate sets. Rate set1 has 1.2,2.4,4.8 and 9.6 kbps rates where as rate set 2 has 1.8,3.6,7.2 and 14.4 kbps rates.
CDMA CALL PROCESSING
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To process a call, MS goes through the following stages to get traffic channel.
SYSTEM INITIALISATION STATE SYSTEM IDLE STATE SYSTEM ACCESS STATE TRAFFIC CHANNEL STATE
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CALL PROCESSING Tune to CDMA Carrier System initialization state Mobile acquires pilot channel and sync channel Idle state Mobile acquires paging channel and monitors for messages Access State Mobile sends messages on access channel, BS sends messages on paging channel. Traffic channel state Speech communication on forward and reverse traffic channel, Power control on forward link
CALL PROCESSING STATE: In system initialization state the mobile acquires a pilot channel by searching the PN off sets and selects the strongest pilot signal. Then it acquires synchronization channel using W32 and detecting timing offset of pilot channel. Then mobile acquires the system configuration and timing information. Then the MS enters the system idle state where it monitors the paging channel. Now the mobile can receive necessary message to initiate or receive a call.
If a call is placed or received, MS enters the

system access state exchanging necessary parameters. MS transmits its response on access channel and BS transmits on paging channel. On access, the MS enters traffic channel state and communicate. It also transmits control messages replacing speech by signaling. Power control messages are sent on forward link channel.
SYSTEM INITIALIZATION STATE

Power up and mobile enters initialization state
Begin analog mode
Analog initialization
Enter idle state
System determinatio n sub state
Pilot acquisition sub state
Sync channel acquisition sub state
Timing change sub state
CDMA system is selected
Pilot channel is acquired
Sync channel is acquired
System timing is acquired
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System determination sub state :

Mobile can select analog or CDMA, if the system selects CDMA, the mobile sets the CDMA channel parameters to channel number. Pilot channel acquisition sub state: Mobile acquires pilot channel of CDMA system and tunes to CDMA channel and sets its code channel for the pilot channel and searches for pilot channel within 20 msec, the mobile should acquire pilot channel, else mobile enters system determination sub state indicating failure.
Synchronization acquisition sub state :

Mobile acquires the sync channel and obtains system configuration and timing information for CDMA system and sets its code channel for sync channel if mobile does not receive a sync channel message within 21 msec, mobile enters the sync determination sub state with a protocol mismatch indication. If it receives within 21 msec, mobile stores system configuration and timing information.
Timing change sub state :

If a mobile synchronizes its long code timing of system timing to those of CDMA system after receiving and processing sync messages. After sync channel is acquired and sync message is received, it stores the following information like protocol revision message, system identification, network identification, pilot PN offset, system time, long code at system time, paging channel data rate etc..
Idle State
CDMA initialization
Acquires primary paging channel (W1)
monitors paging channel Authentication Idle hand off Page Response Mobile origination Receives an incoming call Registration
Idle State : Mobile monitors paging channel. Mobile can receive messages from base station to initiate or receive a call. It can also initiate a registration process, message transmission. After entering idle state, mobile sets its Walsh code to the primary paging channel and sets its rate to the rate obtained from sync message. Paging channel is subdivided into 80 msec slots are called paging channel slots.
In slotted mode, the mobile monitors only

certain assigned slots. When paging channel is not monitored, mobile can stop or reduce its processing activities to save battery power. In the non slotted mode, paging and control data can be received on any of this slot. The mobile monitors all the slots on continuous basis.
7/4/2007
Idle Hand off :

Idle hand off or change of paging channel occurs when a mobile has moved from coverage of one base station to coverage of another, during idle state. Hand off should occur when it detects new pilot that is stronger than current pilot. Pilots are identified by short PN offsets. These pilot sets are maintained by active, candidate, neighbor, remaining. If neighbor set or remaining set is stronger than active set and candidate set, pilot hand off is performed in the non slotted mode. On receiving new message, from new paging channel, it resumes 7/4/2007 UTL Technologies Ltd operations.
SYSTEM ACCESS STATE: It includes following sub states. 1. Update overhead information 2. Mobile State origination Attempt 3. Page Response 4. Registration Access sub state 5. Mobile Station Transmission
7/4/2007
Traffic channel sub state:

Speech communication takes associated with control messages. There are 5 sub states in this. 1. Traffic Channel initialization : In this state, mobile verifies it can receive forward traffic channel and starts transmit on reverse link. 2. Waiting for order sub state: In this, MS waits for an alert with information message.
3. Waiting for MS answer sub state: In this state, the MS waits for user to answer the call. 4. Conversation sub state: Here, the MS exchange primary traffic data packets with base station. 5. Release Sub state: In this case, MS disconnects a call.
7/4/2007
CDMA REGISTRATION
Registration is a process in which the MS tells the base station about the whereabouts. It notifies base station of its location status, identification, slot cycle and other characteristics. Purpose of registration is to enable the base station to page the mobile in case of an incoming call.
7/4/2007
CDMA supports 9 types of registration. 1. Power up registration : The mobile registers, when it powers up. 2. Power down registration : The mobile registers, when it powers down informing the system that it is no longer active. 3. Time based registration : the mobile registers at regular intervals of time. Its use also alerts the system to automatically deregister mobile stations that did not perform a successful power down registration. 4. Distance based registration : Mobile performs a registration when distance between current base station and the base station which it has previous registered exceeds the threshold.
5. Zone based registration : Mobile registers when it enters a new zone. 6. Parameter changed registration : Mobile does a registration when it enters a new system or some of its stored parameters change. 7. Ordered registration : mobile registers when a base station asks for it. 8. Implicit registration : When a MS sends a successful origination message or page response message, base station can ask a mobile of its location. 9. Traffic channel registration : Base station tells the mobile, it is registered. Only power up, power down registrations are presently supported.
CALL PROCESSING (Mobile Station to Base Station) Mobile originated call

MS
Sends origination message Receive Paging Channel Sets up reverse traffic ch Starts sending Traffic Ch preamble Receives Ack from BS Starts sending null traffic data Sends origination continuation message Receives ring back tone Ring Stops Conversation 7/4/2007 Rev traffic Ch Rev traffic Ch Fwd traffic Ch Fwd traffic Ch Fwd/Rev traffic Ch
Access Channel Paging Channel Rev traffic Ch Fwd traffic Ch
BTS
Receives origination message Sets up Traffic Channel, starts sending null traffic data Acquires reverse traffic Ch Sends BS Acknowledgement Receives data from Mobile Receives the message Sends Alert with info msg Called subscriber answers, alert tone off. Conversation
CALL PROCESSING (Base Station to Mobile Station) Mobile Terminated call

BS Sends page message Receive Paging Response Sets up traffic ch Starts sending null Traffic data Sends channel assignment Acquires rev tfc ch sends bs ack order Sends alert with info msg Receives connect order Conversation
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Paging Channel Access Channel Paging Ch Rev traffic Ch Fwd traffic Ch Fwd traffic Ch Rev traffic Ch Fwd/Rev traffic Ch
MS Receives page message Sends paging Response message Receives traffic data frames Sets up reverse traffic ch, sends traffic channel preamble Process primary traffic data Starts ringing, user answers, stops ringing Sends connect order Conversation
Mobile initiated call disconnect

MS Rev Tfc Ch Detects user initiated , sends Release order BS
Enters system determination sub state, of mobile station initialization state
Fwd Tfc Ch
Sends release order
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Base Station initiated call disconnect

BS MS
Detects user initiated , sends Release order
Fwd Tfc Ch
Rev Tfc Ch
Enters system determination sub state, of mobile station initialization state
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CALL PROCESSING DURING SOFT HAND OFF Mobile Station < User conversation using A > Pilot B level exceeds T_ADD sends pilot strength Measurement Report RTCH Base Station < User conversation using A > A receives measurement report, B starts sending data
Receives hand off direction FTCH message ( Starts using active set A&B) Sends hand off completion message Hand off drop timer for pilot A expires RTCH RTCH
acquires reverse traffic channel, A and B send hand off direction message to use A&B A&B receive completion message A&B receive measurement report Continued.
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CALL PROCESSING DURING SOFT HAND OFF Mobile Station Mobile sends measurement report Receives hand off direction message Sends hand off completion message RTCH FTCH Base Station
A&B send hand off direction message to use pilot B only A&B receive completion message A stops transmitting on fwd ch and receiving on rev traffic channel
RTCH
F/RTCH < User conversation using B >
< User conversation using B >
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AUTHENICATION
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Authentication is a process by which Base station confirms the identity of mobile station. There is 128 bit data called Shared Secret Data (SSD), which is stored in semi permanent memory of mobile. We can say authentication is successful only when MS and BS pocess same SSD.
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Authentication parameters
The parameters of Authentication are as follows: Random challenge number (RAND) Electronic Serial Number (ESN) Mobile Identification Number (MIN) Shared Secret Data (SSD) Call history parameters (count s.p)
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
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1. Random challenge Number(RAND) : It is a 32 bit sequence send by Base Station. This is sent on access parameter in paging channel used along SSD and other parameters for authenticating mobile.
7/4/2007
2. Electronic serial Number (ESN) : It is a 32 bit sequence that uniquely defines mobile. Its bits (0 to 17) are for serial number. Bits (18 to 23) are reserved, and remaining bits (24 to 31) are manufacturer code.
31 24 23 Reserved 18 17 Serial number 0
Manufacturer code
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3. Mobile Identification Number (MIN) : It is a 34 bit sequence. First 24 bits (LSBs) are called MIN1 and remaining bits (MSBs) are called MIN2.
33 MIN 2
24
23 MIN 1
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4. Shared Secret Data (SSD) : It is 128 bit data stored in MS, similar to K i in GSM. The first subset of 64 bits are called SSD-A, and are used for authentication purpose. The next 64 bits are called SSD-B, and are used for supporting ciphering procedure.
SSD A (64 bits) SSD B (64 bits)
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5. Call History parameters (Count s.p): This is a modulo-64 count held in a semi permanent memory of mobile and is updated upon receipt of a parameter update order from Base Station.
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Authentication procedure
Field AUTH in the system parameter message is set to 1 for enabling standard Authentication mode. Mobile uses Random number (RAND), ESN, MIN, SSDA, MIN-1 data for AUC process. It runs Authentication procedure to generate an 18 bit long AUC signature, through the AUTHR field in registration message.
The mobile sends AUTHR and RAND C (8 MSB) of RAND to Base Station. Base Station compares the RAND C received from mobile with its internally stored value of RAND, infact it is derived from RAND C coming from mobile. Base Station also retrieves the ESN & MIN of mobile from its data base based on count value received from mobile. It runs authentication process locally by using the internally stored SSD-A and generates its own AUTH R, AUTHRbase
If AUC response AUTHRmobile matches AUC response of base AUTHRbase , then Authentication is successful. If AUC fails, then Base Station may either do a Unique Challenge response or initiate an SSD Update.
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Mobile Station End RAND ESN SSD-A RAND
Base Station End
MIN1
ESN
MIN1
SSD-A
Authentication algorithm
AUTHRmobile
(18 Bits)
RANDC RANDC
AUTHRbase
(18 Bits)
YES AUTHRm=AUTHRb ? Authentication Successful
NO
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Perform Unique Challenge response or SSD Update UTL Technologies Ltd Procedure
Unique Challenge response : Initiated by Base Station in the event of unsuccessful authentication attempt. This can be done either on paging or access or forward or reverse Traffic channel. The base Station sends to MS an Authentication Challenge message. It generates 24 bit data called RANDU and sends it on challenge message. The mobile sets AUC parameters using 24 MSBs of RANDU and 8 MSBs of MIN2 in its RAND field.
The mobile performs an AUC procedure and returns AUTHR to Base Station. The base station also does a similar calculation using internal parameters including SSD-A. If comparison fails, then Base Station may either deny further access to mobile or drop the call in progress or initiates an SSD procedure.
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Mobile Station End RANDU MIN2 ESN MIN1 SSD-A
Base Station End RANDU MIN2 ESN MIN1 SSD-A
AUTHRmobile
(18 Bits)
AUTHRbase
(18 Bits)
YES AUTHRm=AUTHRb ? Authentication Successful
NO
Deny access or drop call in progress or initiate SSD update.

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SSD Update Procedure: When Authentication fails, initiated by Base station, as SSD update procedure is used along with mobile specific data and authentication key. The authentication key of mobile is 64 bits long and is unique to mobile. It is known only to mobile and HLR, similar to Ki in GSM. The Base Station sends an SSD Update message either on paging channel or forward traffic channel . It generates RAND, SSD number and sends it on SSD update message.
Both mobile and B.S performs AUC procedure to get AUTH values and these are compared. For its comparison the BS sends its AUTHbs through a BS challenge confirmation order. If comparison match then mobile performs an SSD update procedure at end of which it sends an SSD update conformation order to BS. It also sets the SSD-A, SSD-B values to new values. Base Station also sets its corresponding new values.
If comparison fails, then mobile discards the new values of SSD-A, SSD-B and sends an SSD update rejection order to Base Station. Again if Mobile doesnt receive Base Station confirmation order with in a time limit set by timer (10sec), new values are discarded and update procedure is terminated.
Mobile Station End RANDSSD (56 bits) ESN A Key (64 bits)
Base Station End RANDSSD (56 bits) ESN A Key (64 bits)
SSD - Generation
SSD Generation
SSD A new
SSD B new RAND BS

BS challenge order
SSD A new
SSD B new
AUC process BS challenge confirmation
AUC process YES AUTHBSm=AUTHBSb ? SSD Update confirmation Order 7/4/2007
UTL Technologies SSD Ltd
Update Rejection Order
CDMA 2000
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CDMA2000 is the collective name for a group of

standards that are based on technology enhancements to the 2G CDMA technology, CDMAone (IS95a). They have been designed to offer operators 3G data rate performance on their existing CDMAone networks, with minimal infrastructure changes. As all the CDMA2000 technologies can meet the requirements outlined in the IMT-2000 proposals of what data rate performance constitute a 3G system, they are being marketed as 3G networks. 7/4/2007 UTL Technologies Ltd
CDMA2000 1xRTT, the core CDMA2000 wireless air interface standard, is known by many terms: 1x, 1xRTT, or IS-2000. The designation "1xRTT" (1 times Radio Transmission Technology) is used to identify the version of CDMA2000 radio technology that operates in a pair of 1.25-MHz radio channels (one times 1.25 MHz, as opposed to three times 1.25 MHz in 3xRTT). 1xRTT almost doubles voice capacity over IS-95 networks. Although capable of higher data rates, most deployments have limited the peak data rate to 144 kbit/s. While 1xRTT officially qualifies as 3G technology, 1xRTT is considered by some to be a 2.5G (or sometimes 2.75G) technology. This has allowed it to be deployed in 2G spectrum in some countries which limit 3G systems to certain bands.
1xRTT:
CDMAone system enhancement with twice the number of Walsh Codes, coupled improved power control, voice codecs and other system improvements to give a effective data rate in the range of 4070kbps.
7/4/2007
1xEV-DO:
Enhancement to 1xRTT system that can support asymmetric non-real-time data packet services of up to 2.4Mbps in the forward link and 153.3Kbps in the reverse link. The system requires the network operator to dedicate a separate RF carrier for the data channel.
7/4/2007
1xEV-DV:
Enhancement to 1xRTT system that allows support of voice and packet-data services on the same 1.25MHz spectrum of a single RF carrier. Theoretically, providing a peak data rate of 5Mbps and an average throughput of 1.2Mbps.
7/4/2007
3xRTT:
Uses three 1x CDMA channels (of 1.25MHz) grouped together to provide data rates of 384Kbps with a peak of 2Mbps. As this is less than 1xEV-DV and uses much more spectrum, many have questioned whether 3xRTT will be developed, or may be modified to provide even higher data rate services.
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Changes Needed in CDMA2000 Compared to CDMA (IS-95) 1. The MSC-VLR and HLR (All the circuit switched Core networks) need to software upgrades in order to support the authentication and authorization of the packet data network. Note, that it is still the CS-CN (Circuit Switched Core Network), which authenticates and authorizes the wireless access of the user during packet session initiation. The MSCVLR/HLR are updated with the Packet data user profile information. The information is then downloaded from the HLR to the VLR of the associated network switch during the successful registration process.
2. HW upgrade in the BTS A new digital processing

HW CDMA2000 Chipset which is a Multimode Channel Element card + SW upgrade.
3. New MS with new digital processing (CDMA2000
Chipset) that supports radio channels to carry voice, Circuit switched data along with the packet data services that requires low and high data rates. routing.
4. SW update in the BSC in order to support IP 5. Apart from routing the Time division multiplexing
(TDM) traffic to the circuit switched platform, the BSC routes the packet to and from the PDSN.
6. A new Core network for CDMA2000 PS-CN.
Roaming in CDMA network (RELIANCE)
7/4/2007
Reliance Infocomm has launched international

roaming services that will allow Reliance IndiaMobile (RIM) customers to roam internationally on GSM networks across 300 mobile networks in 172 countries. RIM customers traveling abroad can subscribe to the service at Reliance WebWorlds. A SIM Card will be provided to the customer. This SIM card when used with a GSM handset will enable a RIM customer to receive all calls made to his/her number as well as make outgoing calls while travelling in any of the 172 countries. RIM customers using Removable User Identification (RUIM) Card enabled handsets such as GTran GCP 4020 and Telson TWC 1150 can activate International roaming feature on their RUIM card and use it with a GSM Handset.
International Roaming facility will allow a RIM

subscriber to receive all his incoming calls and SMS messages sent on the RIM number in India on his GSM SIM card/RUIM card provided by Reliance. "It is for the first time that a global roaming facility has been made available by a CDMA operator on GSM networks on such a large scale. With this unique roaming service, Reliance India Mobile is adding another dimension to its services, where RIM customers can get the dual benefit of receiving calls or SMS outside India forwarded from their existing number and getting a consolidated bill for their global roaming as well as well as regular calls at their billing address in India," said S P Shukla, President - Wireless Products & Services,UTL Reliance Infocomm Ltd. 7/4/2007 Technologies Ltd
A monthly rental of Rs 99 will be charged for the
service. Charges for calls made or received while roaming shall be as levied by the foreign network selected by the customer per standard global roaming norms. The SIM will be issued free of charge and the RUlM card is already available with the customer. A roaming deposit will also be charged depending upon the creditworthiness of individual customers for availing International Roaming. "The facility will be initially offered through Reliance WebWorlds in top 9 cities which include Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, Banga!ore, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad, Jaipur and Pune. Other major locations would be covered over the next few weeks," added Shukla.
7/4/2007
CDMA2000 1xRTT, the core CDMA2000 wireless air interface standard, is known by many terms: 1x, 1xRTT, or IS-2000. The designation "1xRTT" (1 times Radio Transmission Technology) is used to identify the version of CDMA2000 radio technology that operates in a pair of 1.25-MHz radio channels (one times 1.25 MHz, as opposed to three times 1.25 MHz in 3xRTT). 1xRTT almost doubles voice capacity over IS-95 networks. Although capable of higher data rates, most deployments have limited the peak data rate to 144 kbit/s. While 1xRTT officially qualifies as 3G technology, 1xRTT is considered by some to be a 2.5G (or sometimes 2.75G) technology. This has allowed it to be deployed in 2G spectrum in some countries which limit 3G systems to certain bands.
The main differences between IS-95 and IS2000 signaling are: 64 more traffic channels on the forward link that are orthogonal to the original set. Some changes were also made to the data link layer to accommodate the greater use of data servicesIS-2000 has media and link access control protocols and QoS control. In IS-95, none of these were present, and the data link layer basically consisted of "best effort delivery" (which is still used for voice).
7/4/2007
In India, BSNL, Reliance and Tata Teleservices are major

wireless services providers on CDMA 2000 1x. In Indonesia, Mobile-8 is the major mobile wireless service provider on CDMA 2000 1x (with EVDO in Western Java). The other CDMA providers are fixed wireless (such as Bakrie Telkom, Telkom Flexi, and Indosat's Starone). In People's Republic of China, China Unicom is the major mobile wireless service provider on CDMA 2000 1x. In Bangladesh, Pacific Telecom's CityCell is the only CDMA mobile connection. In Venezuela, Movilnet and movistar are the country's wireless services providers on CDMA 2000 1x. In Pakistan, PTCL , World Call ,GoCdma provides cdma connections..
7/4/2007
CDMA2000 3x CDMA2000 3x utilizes a pair of 3.75-MHz

radio channels (i.e., 3 X 1.25 MHz) to achieve higher data rates. The 3x version of CDMA2000 is sometimes referred to as Multi-Carrier or MC. The 3x version of CDMA2000 has not been deployed and is not under development at present.
7/4/2007
CHANNELS
7/4/2007
Forward Link Channels in CDMA 2000

F_PICH F_PCH F_SYNC BTS F_FCH F_SCH F_QPCH MOBILE STATION
7/4/2007
F_PICH : This channel is continuously broadcast through out the cell in order to provide timing and phase information. F_PICH is shared by all traffic channels and is used for detecting multipath rays so that RAKE fingers efficiently assigned to the strongest multi path, estimating channel gain and phase.
7/4/2007
F_PCH : A CDMA 2000 system can have multiple paging channels per base station. This channel carries overhead messages, pages, acknowledgements, channel assignments, status requests and updates from the BTS to the MS. F_SYNC: Used by mobiles operating within the coverage area of the base station to acquire initial time synchronization.
F_FCH : (Fundamental channel) Basic Low rate channel used for voice, low data rate, signaling, and power control. F_SCH : (supplemental channel) High rate data channel. F_QPCH : (quick paging channel) Used for alerting mobiles in standby mode that a page is coming on the paging channel.
Reverse link Channels in CDMA 2000

R_PICH R_ACH R_DCCH BTS R_FCH R_SCH MOBILE STATION
7/4/2007
R_PICH : Pilot Channel Pilot used for power control. R_ACH : Access Channel Access the channel R_DCCH : Dedicated Control Channel Signaling channel. R_FCH : Fundamental Channel basic low rate channel used for voice, low rate data, signaling and power control. R_SCH : Supplemental Channel High data channel.
Additional CDMA 2000 feature Improved spreading: Hybrid QPSK, complex spreading method, used to improve power efficiency. Fast Power Control in Forward Link : Improved multipath resistance and orthogonality. Turbo codes: Variation of convolutional coding, supplemental channels for higher data rates. More Walsh codes : 128.
Goals of IMT 2000 : Global Standard High speed packet data services. 2 Mbps for stationary use. 384 kbps for pedestrian use. 144 kbps for vehicular use. 3G applications enabled by cdma 2000.
Packet based services like, wireless internet, e-mail, e-commerce and multimedia. Location based services, longer battery life.
cdma2000 Radio Access Network
7/4/2007
Outline

cdma2000 network architecture Call processing states and call flows CDMA evolution Essential elements in a CDMA system Power Control Mobility management
Handoffs Registration Roaming
UTL Technologies Ltd Radio Admission Control 7/4/2007
Network Architecture
PSTN PDSN MSC BSC Ericsson Packet Network Black Mountain
UCSD
Call Processing - Pilot

First MS monitors Pilot channel for
Initial acquisition Channel estimation Detection of multipaths for rake receiver Handoffs
Pilot Ch
7/4/2007
Call Processing - Sync

Pilot channel is transmitted at all times by the base station. MS uses it to lock to Synch Channel to Synchronize to CDMA system time Obtain configuration parameters such as
Protocol Revision (P-REV) Network Identifier (NID) Pilot PN offset Long-code state Paging channel data rate
Sync Ch
Call Processing - Paging

MS decodes the Paging Channel with the information received from the Sync Channel. Paging channel provides
Overhead messages: systems parameter, access parameter, neighborlist, channel list Mobile directed messages: page request, Paging Ch SMS
7/4/2007
Call Processing Access

MS uses Access channel to originate a call or to respond to a page request. Access Channel is used in a random access fashion.
Access Ch
7/4/2007
Call Processing - Traffic

Base station assigns a forward and reverse
traffic channel to the mobile when it is in conversation Traffic Channel conveys signaling and traffic information When MS is on traffic channel it no longer listens to paging channel or uses the access channel
Mobile Station States

Power Up Synchronization Initialization State Paging Loss Idle State Call origination or page response Access State Traffic State
Page response completed
End of call
CDMA Evolution (1/3)

IS-95A (2G)
First CDMA protocol, published in May99 14.4/9.6 kbps circuit/packet data
IS-95B (2.5G)
Most analog information is removed Some technical corrections New Capabilities, such as higher data rate 64 kbps packet data

CDMA2000 1X
High speed data (144 kbps packet data with Mobile IP) Coding (Turbo) and Modulation (Hybrid QPSK) New dedicated and common channels Enhanced Power Control Reverse link detection Forward link modulation

1X EV-DO (1xRTT Evolution for high-speed
integrated Data Only)
The objective is to provide the largest practical number of users to run high-speed packet data applications 2.4 Mbps packet data
1X EV-DV (1xRTT Evolution for high-speed

integrated Data and Voice)
Voice and High Speed Data mixed on one carrier Backward-compatible with CDMA2000 1X 3.1 Mbps packet data
Multiple Access Methods
Dedicated band during entire call
Each user transmits at the same time, at the same frequency with a unique code Certain frequency, time-slotted
Frequency Re-use Patterns

B G A F E D F C G A A A E B A A A A A A A A A A
FDMA and TDMA
vs.
CDMA
7/4/2007
Channelization
Channelization is provided by orthogonal
Walsh codes cdma2000 uses variable length Walsh codes for supplemental channel data services Walsh codes can be of length 8, 16, 32, 64, and 128
Walsh Codes
Walsh codes are orthogonal to each other The shorter the code the higher the data
rate since the chip rate is kept constant
1 10 1001 1010 1100 11 1111
7/4/2007
A Code Channel Example

Power Control bit Encoder and Repetition Block Interleaver MUX Wt 1.2288 Mcps Long Code PN Generator
Decimator Decimator
1.2288 Mcps
19.2 ksps
800 Hz
Forward Traffic Channel Generation

Cell Separation
Walsh code spreading is followed by quadrature
spreading using PN chips with time offsets Adjacent cells have different PN offsets. This prevents interference since time shifted PN sequences are orthogonal to each other
I-PN Wt
Baseband Filter
cos wot
Baseband Filter
7/4/2007
Q-PN
sin wot
Use of Multipath in CDMA Systems

FDMA/TDMA (narrow-band)
multipath hurts equalizers are used to cancel multipath
CDMA (wide-band)
can discriminate between the multipath arrivals Rake receivers are used to combine multipath signals to reduce error rate at the receiver
Near Far Problem
A user near the base station would jam the user far from the base station
Power Control Motivation
Overcomes near-far problem CDMA wouldnt work without it Copes with path loss and fading
Power Control Algorithm

Capacity is maximized
By having each user transmitting just sufficient SNR to maintain a target FER
Open Loop Estimate

Initial transmit power level for the mobile is determined by the received pilot strength
Closed Loop Power Control

Base station controls the power level on the mobile by the received quality information.
Mobility management
A CDMA system provides mobility: Handoff continuity of the service across adjacent cells Registration locating the mobile user Roaming continuity of the service across different service providers
7/4/2007
Handoff
Handoffs between cells are supported while the
mobile is in traffic or idle MS continuously keeps searching for new cells as it moves across the network MS maintains active set, neighbor set, and remaining set as well as candidate set There are 4 types of handoffs:

7/4/2007
Idle Handoff Access Handoff Soft/Softer Handoff Hard Handoff

Handoff Parameters (1/2)

If a pilot strength (P) is greater than
T_ADD it will be added into the candidate set If pilot strength is less than T_DROP for T_TDROP, it will be moved from active set to neighbor set If the new pilot strength is T_COMP units greater current pilots a Pilot Strength Measurement Message will be send 7/4/2007 UTL Technologies Ltd
Handoff Parameters (2/2)

Pilot Strength Cell A Cell B
T_ADD T_DROP
T_TDROP
Time
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Soft Handoff
Both cells have the same frequency
MSC BSC Ericsson Black Mountain PDSN
UCSD
Soft Handoff
Make-before-break Both cells are at the same frequency Reduces number of call drops Increases the overall capacity Mobile transmit power is reduced Voice quality near the cell boundaries are
improved MS reports the SNR of the candidate sets
Soft Handoff Gain

Power (dBm) Cell A Cell B Total at MS
Distance
7/4/2007
Hard Handoff
Break-before-make Handoff between
different frequencies, non-synchronized or disjoint cells which are controlled by different BSCs
7/4/2007
Registration
It is sufficient to know the
cell or the region that a MS is active for routing purposes Mobile station identifier, desired paging slot cycle, and registration type is conveyed Cell/LAC based paging is preferred to flood paging
7/4/2007
Registration Types
Autonomous Registration: power-up,
power-down, timer-based, distance-based, zone-based registration. Parameter-change registration Ordered registration Implicit registration Traffic channel registration
7/4/2007
Roaming
Users that are outside their home area can
receive service from another system by paying some additional charges Mobile station can be:
Home state (not roaming) Network roaming System roaming
Network 2 Network 1 System
7/4/2007
Network 3
Radio Admission Control

cdma2000 allocates resources dynamically Admission control is important to ensure
quality of service for the existing users when new resources are requested A new request can be call setup, supplemental channel set-up, handoff, data rate change Available Walsh codes, residual power in the forward and reverse links are considered before granting a request 7/4/2007 UTL Technologies Ltd
Summary (1/2)
cdma2000 supports both voice and data
services in the same carrier provides enhanced voice capacity
Forward link Fast power control in forward/reverse links Lower code rates New code channels Reverse Link Coherent detection
Summary 2/2
Higher data rates: 1x up to 153.6 kbps
and 1x EV-DV up to 3.09 Mbps Battery life is improved Introduction of Turbo codes provides better link quality for supplemental channels
7/4/2007
THANK YOU..
7/4/2007

7/4/2007 UTL Technologies LTD ©

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CDMA

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Multiple Access Methods

FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple

An approach to sharing a channel by

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UTL Technologies Ltd

Analog Cellular Systems (FDMA Systems)

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Approach for allotting single-channel

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Spread spectrum technique using

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The base band signal to be transmitted is

The code word is of the order of 64 bits( to

Thus, the communication demands a larger

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Advantages of Spread Spectrum

Multi path access: Number of users uses a

Random access possibilities: Users can start their

Privacy due to unknown random codes: The

Concept of Spread Spectrum

How Spread Spectrum gives secure

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Spread Spectrum Technique

Spreading Code Pseudo Random Generator

Spreading Code Pseudo Random Generator

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Data Input (Binary)

Pseudo Noise Bit Source

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Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum : Transmission 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1

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Data Output (Binary) Pseudo Noise Bit Source Despreader

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Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum : Reception 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

C = Recd.Signal B = PN Bit Stream A= C + B

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Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)

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Offset Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (OQPSK)

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Basic Model and Concepts

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E b =Ps/Rb and Nj = Pj/Wss. E b/Nj= (Wss/Rb)/ (Pj/Ps), where Wss/Rb is

Considering voice activity factor (v), frequency

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GSM Vs. CDMA (Frequency Reuse)

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