ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE: A Global Concern, 5th edition

William P. Cunningham University of Minnesota Barbara Woodworth Saigo Saiwood Biology Resources

CHAPTER 1 ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES

What is Environmental Science?

Environment Environmental Science History of Environmental Science
utilitarian conservation altruistic preservation

CURRENT CONDITIONS
Planet Earth Environmental Dilemmas
population food shortages energy pollution

A DIVIDED WORLD
Rich vs. Poor North vs. South Developed countries vs. undeveloped countries
First, Second, Third and Fourth World Countries

HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Human Development Index Developmental Discrepancies
basic social services
education health care

agrarian reform employment civil rights sustainable resource use

Sustainable Development

ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVES
Neo-Malthusian Technological optimists/Promethean environmentalism Cornucopian Fallacy Lessons from the Past

CHAPTER 2

TOOLS FOR BUILDING A BETTER WORLD

Environmental Ethics and Philosophy

Universal Ethical Principles
Relativists Nihilists Utilitarians

Modernism & Postmodernism

Values, Rights & Obligations

Morals Animal Rights Inherent Value Instrumental Value

Worldviews and Ethical Perspectives

Domination Stewardship Biocentrism Ecofeminism

Environmental Justice
Environmental racism Toxic colonialism Is Nature fragile or resilient?

Science as a Way of Knowing

Scientific Method Hypotheses Testing Indirect Scientific Evidence Technology and Progress Appropriate Technology

CHAPTER 3 MATTER, ENERGY, AND LIFE

From Atoms to Cells

Atoms
ions atomic number

Molecules
compound

Organic Compounds
carbon

Cells

Energy Types and Qualities

Kinetic Energy
heat temperature

Potential Energy Chemical Energy Conservation of Matter Thermodynamics

1st law 2nd law

Energy for Life

Solar Energy
Photosynthesis
Chlorophyll cellular respiration

From Species to Ecosystems

Population Communities
biological community

Ecosystems

Food Chains
Productivity/biomass Food chain/food web Trophic level
producers consumers

Organisms
herbivores carnivores omnivores

Material Cycles and Life Processes

Carbon Cycle Nitrogen Cycle Phosphorus Cycle Sulfur Cycle

CHAPTER 4 BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES AND SPECIES INTERACTION

Critical Factors, Who Lives Where?

Temperature Moisture levels Nutrient supply Soil chemistry Water chemistry

 Natural Selection
Adaptation Evolution HABITAT

SPECIES INTERACTIONS AND COMMUNITY DYNAMICS

Predation
Predators
parasites Pathogens

Prey

Competition
Intraspecific competition Interspecific competition
Territoriality

Symbiosis
Commensalism Mutualism

Community Properties
Productivity Abundance and Diversity Complexity and Connectedness Resilience and Stability Structure Edges and Boundaries

Ecological Succession
Primary Succession Secondary Succession Pioneer Species Ecological Development Climax Community

Introduced Species and Community Change

CHAPTER 5 BIOMES, LANDSCAPES, RESOTRATION AND MANAGEMENT

Terrestrial Biomes
Deserts Grasslands
Prairies Savannas

Tundra Conifer Forests Evergreen Forests Tropical Forests Tropical Seasonal Forests

Aquatic Ecosystems
Freshwater and Saline Ecosystems Estuaries and Wetlands Shorelines and Barrier Islands
Coral reefs

Landscape Ecology
Patchiness & Heterogeneity Landscape Dynamics

Restoration Ecology
Rehabilitation Remediation Reclamation Re-creation Nature, self-healing

CHAPTER 6

POPULATION DYNAMICS

Population Growth
Exponential Growth Geometric Growth Arithmetic Growth J Curve

Population Oscillations and Irruptive Growth

Dieback Overshoot Irruptive or Malthusian growth

Growth to a Stable Population

Logistic growth Environmental resistance

Strategies of Population Growth

Malthusian Strategies Logistic Strategies

Factors affecting Population

Natality, Fecundity, and Fertility Immigration Mortality and survivorship Age Structure Emigration Education

Factors Affecting Birth and Fertility Rates

Education/affluence Importance of children to family labor force Urbanization Cost - raising and educating children Education & Employment opportunity - women Infant mortality rate Average marriage age Availability - pension Birth control Religious beliefs, tradition and culture

Factors Affecting Death Rate

Nutrition Fewer infant deaths and increased longevity Health and technology

 Teen Pregnancy in the USA Migration Immigration

Population Age Structure

Ways of classifying Pre-reproductive age Reproductive age Post-reproductive age

Solutions Influencing Population

Controlling Migration Reducing Birth Rates
Economic development Family planning Economic rewards Empowering women

Population Control Studies

India China

Population Distribution
Urbanization and Growth
The future is urban Hyper-urbanization - LDCs The United States and other MDCs Spatial patterns of development

CHAPTER 7 HUMAN POPULATIONS

Population Growth
Birth Rates Over-population Technology and Ingenuity

Limits to Population Growth

Malthusian checks Karl Marx Neo-Malthusian
Technology solutions? Can More people be Beneficial?

Human Demography
Fertility Birthrate Zero population growth Mortality and death rates Population growth rates Life span and life expectancy
dependency ratio

Emigration and Immigration

Population Growth: Opposition

Pronatalist/Social Pressures Birth Reduction Pressures
Education Birth control Economics

Demographic Transition
Improved living conditions Development and Population Optimistic View Pessimistic View Social Justice View Ecojustice View Infant Mortality Womens Rights

Family Planning & Fertility Control

Birth Control
Celibacy Mechanical barriers Surgery Chemicals Implantation of physical controls Abortion

CHAPTER 8

ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS

Classical Economics
Diminished Returns Demand Supply Market Equilibrium Marginal Costs Price Elasticity

 Neoclassical Economics
Karl Marx E. F. Schumacher

Ecological Economics
steady-state economy

Resources, Capital and Reserves

Resource Types
Capital Resource Nonrenewable resources Renewable resources Intangible resources

Economic Resource Categories

Proven resources Known resources Undiscovered resources Recoverable resources

Population, Technology, and Scarcity

Market Efficiencies Increasing Environmental Carrying Capacity Economic Models Why Not Conserve Resources?

Natural Resource Accounting

Gross National Product (GNP) Human Development Index (HDI) Non-market Values Cost/Benefit Ratios Green Business Jobs and the Environment

Sustainability

Sustainable Development

CHAPTER 9

ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH AND TOXICOLOGY

Health Hazards
Infectious Diseases Respiratory diseases
pneumonia tuberculosis influenza whooping cough

Malaria Parasitic Mematodes Schistosomiasis Onchocerciasis (river blindness) Trachoma STDs

Toxic Chemicals
Irritants Respiratory fibrotic agents Asphyxiants Allergens Neurotoxins Mutagens Teratogens Carcinogens

 Natural and Synthetic Toxin Physical Agents

radiation

Trauma
stress

Diet

Chemical Hazards and Toxicology

Dose and response
LD5O factor

Acute effect Chronic effect Types

toxic substances hazardous carcinogens mutagens teratogens

Movement, Distribution and Fate of Toxins

Solubility Bioaccumulation Biomagnification Persistence Chemical Interactions

Minimizing Toxic Effects

Metabolic Degradation Excretion Repair Mechanisms

Measuring Toxicity
Animal Testing Toxicity Ratings Acute vs. Chronic Doses and Effects Detection Limits

Assessment
Risks
Acceptable risks??

Risk Analysis
Identifying Risks The Greatest Risks Problems - Risk Assessment Risk-Benefit Analysis Managing Risks

CHAPTER 10

FOOD, HUNGER AND NUTRITION

Human Nutrition
Energy Needs
undernourishment over-nourishment

Nutritional Needs
proteins carbohydrates lipids and oils minerals vitamins

World Food Resoureces

Major Crops
wheat rice corn potatoes

Meat and Milk Croplands

Increasing Food Production

Green Revolution
Technology Genetic Engineering Increased Farm Output

New Food Sources Blue Revolution

Aqua-culture

Agricultural Economics
Food Supplies Food Subsidies Agricultural Aid International Food Trade Cash Crops

 World Hunger
Famines Food Shortages

CHAPTER 11 SOIL RESOURECES AND SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

What is soil?
Soil, a renewable resource Soil composition
humus

Soil organisms Soil profiles

top soil sub-soil parent material bedrock

Use and Abuse of Soil

Land Resources
Land Degradation

Erosion
Types of erosion
sheet erosion rill erosion gully erosion streambank erosion

Erosion in the United States Erosion in other countries

Agricultural Resources
Water Fertilizer Climate Energy Crop Diversity

Soil Conservation
Managing Topography
contour plowing strip-farming tied ridges terracing

Providing Ground Cover

cover crops mulch

Reduced Tillage Systems

CHAPTER 12

PEST CONTROL

What are Pest and Pesticides?

Biological Pests
Insects Large animals

Botanical Pests
Weeds

Pesticides
Insecticides

Herbicides
Fungicides

Pest Controls
Early Controls
Botanical Chemical

Modern Controls
Synthetic chemicals
DDT

Pesticide Types
Inorganic pesticides Natural organic pesticides
botanicals

Fumigants Chlorinated hydrocarbons Organophosphates Carbamates Microbial agents

Pesticide Benefits
Disease control Crop protection Increased crop production

Pesticide Problems
Effects on Nontarget Species Pesticide Resistance/Pest resurgence Creation of New Pests Persistence and Mobility in the Environment Human Health Problems

Alternative Pesticide Uses

Crop rotation Biological controls
predatory insects pathogens

Herbivorous insects Genetic and bioengineering

Reducing Pesticide Exposure

Regulation
EPA USDA

Personal Safety

CHAPTER 13

BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity and Species Concept

What is Biodiversity? What are species?
Number of species

Benefits of Biodiversity
Food Drugs Medicine Ecological Benefits Aesthetic and Cultural Benefits

Threats to Biodiversity
Extinction Natural Causes Mass Extinction

Human-Caused Reductions in Biodiversity

Habitat Destruction Hunting and Fishing Commercial products and Live Specimens Predator and Pest Control Exotic Species Introductions Disease Pollution Genetic Assimilation

Biodiversity Protection
Hunting and Fishing Laws Endangered Species Act Recovery Plans Private Land and Critical Habitat Minimum Viable Populations Habitat Protection International Wildlife Treaties Zoos Botanical Gardens Captive Breeding Programs

CHAPTER 14

LAND USE: FORESTS AND RANGELANDS

World Land Use

Forest, 30% Range and pasture, 26% Cropland, 1% Other, 33
tundra desert wetlands urban areas

World Forests
Forest Distribution
Closed canopy Open canopy Woodland

Forest Products
Industrial Timber Fuelwood

Tropical Forests
Diminishing Forests Swidden Agriculture Logging and Land Invasions Forest Protection
Reforestation

Debt-for-Nature Swaps

Temperate Forests
Ancient forest/old growth forests Wilderness Protection Wildlife Protection Harvesting old growth forests
clear-cutting strip-cutting selective-cutting

Fire Management

Rangelands
Range Management Overgrazing and Land Degradation
desertification

Forage Conversion Harvesting Wild Animals

Rangelands in the U.S.

Bureau of Land Management State of the Range
feral animals

Grazing Fees

Land Ownership
Who owns what?
Land Reform Indigenous Lands

CHAPTER 15

PRESERVING NATURE

Parks and Nature Preserves

Origins and History Natural Landscaping

North American Parks

Existing Systems U.S. National Park System Park Problems
Over crowding Roads Commercialism Pollution

Wildlife New Directions New Parks

World Parks and Preserves

Biosphere Reserves Protecting Natural Heritage Size and Design of Nature Preserves
recreation areas historic areas conservation areas pristine research areas

Conservation and Economic Development Indigenous Communities

Wilderness Areas
Wildlife Refuges
Refuge Management International Wildlife Preserves
poaching

Wetlands, Floodplains, & Coastal Regions

Wetland Values Wetland Destruction Floods and Flood Control
Floodplains

Beaches, barrier Islands, and Estuaries

CHAPTER 16 EARTH AND ITS CRUSTAL RESOURCES

Earth, A Dynamic Sphere

Earths Layers
Crust Mantle Outer Core Inner Core

Tectonic Processes
Tectonic Plates Magma

Shifting Continents

Rock Types & How They Formed

Igneous Rock Weathering Sedimentation Sedimentary Rock Biogenic Sedimentation Metamorphic Rock

Mineralogy
Metals Nonmetal Minerals Strategic Minerals

Environmental Effects of Resource Extraction

Mining
tunneling water leakage strip mining

Processing
water pollution chemical emissions

Conserving Mineral Resources

Recycling
Aluminum & Platinum Steel & Iron

Substituting New Materials for Old Ones

Geologic Hazards
Earthquakes
Tsunami

Volcanoes Floods

CHAPTER 17

AIR, CLIMATE, AND WEATHER

The Atmosphere, Composition & Structure

Gas Mixture Layered Envelope
Troposphere Stratosphere Mesosphere Thermosphere Ionosphere

Weather Engine
Solar Radiation/ Heat
Albedo (reflectivity) Greenhouse effect

Convection Currents
Water vapor

Weather
Energy Balance in the Atmosphere Convection Cells Prevailing Winds Jet Streams Frontal Weather cold and warm fronts Cyclonic Storms hurricanes and tornadoes Seasonal Winds monsoon Weather Modification

Climate
Climatic Catastrophes
Ice Ages

Driving Forces & Patterns in Climatic Changes

Milankovitch Cycles

El Nio

Human-caused Global Climate Change

Greenhouse Gases
Carbon Dioxide Aerosols

Sources
Burning Fossil Fuels Industrial Processes Deforestation Agriculture

Effects of Climate Change

Temperature Changes Impact on Plants and Animals Rising Sea Levels impacting Coastlines Melting Ice Packs Possible Increase of Disease

Cutting Emissions
United Nations Earth Summit Kyoto Protocol Developed Nations Developing Nations

CHAPTER 18

AIR POLLUTION

Natural Sources of Air Pollution

Volcanoes Emissions from vegetation

Human-Caused Air Pollution

Primary pollutants Secondary pollutants Fugitive emissions

Conventional or Criteria Pollutants

Sulfur compounds Nitrogen Compounds Carbon Oxides Metals and Halogens Particulate Materials Volatile Organic Compounds Photochemical Oxidants

Unconventional Pollutants
Emissions & emissions standards Unconventional or noncriteria pollutants Aesthetic degradation Indoor air Pollution
smoke

Climate, Topography, & Atmospheric Processes

Inversions Dust Domes and Heat Islands Long Range Transport Stratospheric Ozone
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

Effects of Air Pollution

Human Health
bronchitis emphysema

Plant Pathology Acid Deposition

pH and atmospheric acidity aquatic effects forest damage buildings and monuments visibility reduction

Air Pollution Control

Moving Pollution to Remote Areas Particulate Removal filters Sulfur Removal fuel switching and fuel cleaning limestone injection/fluidized bed combustion flue gas desulfurization sulfur recovery processes Nitrogen Oxide Control Hydrocarbon Controls

Clean Air Legislation

Clean Air Act of 1963 Amendments of 1970 Amendments of 1990 Acid rain Urban smog Toxic air pollutants Ozone protection Marketing pollution rights Toxic organic compounds EPA

CHAPTER 19 WATER USE AND MANAGEMENT

 Hydrologic Cycle Evaporation/Sublimation Saturation Point Relative humidity Condensation Dew Point Rainfall & Topography Rain Shadow Desert Belts Balancing the Water Budget

Water Resources

Major Water Compartments

Oceans Glaciers, Ice, & Snow Ground Water infiltration water table aquifers Rivers and Streams Lakes and Ponds Wetlands The Atmosphere

Water Availability and Use

Water Supplies Drought Cycles Types of Water Use
Withdrawal Consumption Degradation

Quantities of Water Use Use by Sector

Freshwater Shortages
A Scarce Resource Depleting Groundwater
subsidence sinkholes

Increasing Water Supplies

Seeding Clouds &Towing Icebergs Desalination Dams, Reservoirs, Canals, & Aqueducts Environmental Costs
Evaporation, Leakage, and Siltation Loss of Free-Flowing Rivers

Water Management & Conservation

Watershed Management Domestic Conservation Industrial and Agricultural Conservation Price Mechanisms

CHAPTER 20

WATER POLLUTION

Water Pollution
Point Sources Non-point Sources Atmospheric Deposition

Types and Effects of Water Pollution

Infectious Agents Oxygen-Demanding Wastes Plant Nutrients & Cultural Eutrophication Toxic Inorganic Materials Heavy Metals Nonmetallic Salts Acids and Bases Organic Chemicals Sediments Thermal Pollution

Water Quality Today

Surface Water in the U.S. & Canada Surface Water in other Countries Groundwater and Drinking Water Supplies Ocean Pollution

Water Pollution Control

Source Reduction Non-point Sources and Land Management
Agriculture Urban runoff Construction sites Land disposal

 Human Waste Disposal

Natural Processes Municipal Sewage Treatment
Primary treatment Secondary treatment Tertiary treatment

Low-Cost Waste Treatment

effluent sewerage

Water Legislation
Clean Water Act Clean Water Act Reauthorization Other Important Water Legislation
Safe Drinking Water Act Superfund Great lakes Water Quality Agreement

CHAPTER 21

CONVENTIONAL ENERGY

Energy
A Brief History Current Energy Sources
Fossil fuels Nuclear power Hydroelectric Solar

Per Capita Consumption Energy Use

Coal
Coal Resources and Reserves Mining Air Pollution

Oil
Oil Resources and Reserves Oil Imports and Domestic Supplies Oil Shales and Tar Sands

Natural Gas
Natural Gas Resources and Reserves Unconventional Gas Sources
Methane hydrate

Nuclear Power
Nuclear Reactors: How They Work? Types of Reactors Alternative Reactor Designs Breeder Reactors

Radioactive Waste Management

Ocean Dumping Land Disposal
high-level waste repository monitored, retrievable storage

Decommissioning Old Nuclear Plants

Changing Fortunes of Nuclear Power

Changing Public Opinion Nuclear Fusion
Magnetic confinement Inertial confinement

CHAPTER 22

SUSTAINABLE ENERGY

Conservation
Utilization Efficiencies Energy Conversion Efficiencies
net energy yield

Negawatt programs Co-generation

Tapping Solar Energy

A Vast Resource Passive Solar Heat Active Solar Heat
Eutectic Chemicals

High-Temperature Solar Energy

Solar Cookers Promoting Renewable Energy Photovaltaic Solar Energy
Photovoltaic Cells

Storing Electrical Energy

Energy from Biomass

Burning Biomass Fuelwood crisis in LDCs Dung and Methane as Fuels Alcohol from Biomass
gasohol

Crop Residues, Energy Crops and Peat

Energy from the Earths Forces

Hydropower
Dams and Hydro Generators

Wind Energy
Wind Farms

Geothermal Energy Tidal and Wave Energy

Tidal Stations

Ocean Thermal Electric Conversion

CHAPTER 23

SOLID, TOXIC AND HAZARDOUS WASTE

Solid Waste
Waste Stream
Paper, 38% Yard waste, 17% Metals, 8% Plastics, 8% Glass, 7% Food, 7% Miscellaneous, 14%

Waste Disposal Methods

Open Dumps Ocean Dumpings Landfills Export Waste Incineration and Resource Recovery
Types of incinerators
refuse-derived fuel mass burn

Incinerator Cost and Safety

Reducing the Waste Stream

Recycling Composting Energy from Waste Reuse Producing Less Waste
Photodegradable plastics Biodegradable plastics

Hazardous and Toxic Wastes

Hazardous Waste Disposal Superfund Hazardous Waste Management
Produce Less Waste Convert to Less Hazardous Substances
Physical treatments Chemical treatments Bioremediation

Store Permanently
Retrievable Storage

CHAPTER 24

URBANIZATION AND SUSTAINABLE CITIES

Urbanization
What is a city?
Rural area Urban area Village City Megacity Core region

World Urbanization

Causes of Urban Growth

Immigration Push Factors Immigration Pull Factors Government Policies

Urban Problems
The Developing World
Traffic and Congestion Air Pollution Sewer Systems and Water Pollution Housing
Slums Shantytowns Squatter Towns

 The Developed World

Urban Problems Urban Renewal Noise

Transportation and City Growth

Transportation methods
horse & buggy automobiles

Roads/freeways

City Planning
History Garden Cities and New Towns Cities of the Future
technopolis

Urban Redesign Design for Open space

conservation

 Urban Redesign
Limit size Development areas Shopping malls into city centers Convenience for shopping and services Job location Exercise areas Diverse housing Superblocks Self-sustainable food and waste centers Public participation

CHAPTER 25

WHAT THEN SHALL WE DO?

Environmental Education
Environmental Literacy Environmental Careers

Individual Accountability
Shopping for Green Products
precycling Non toxic products recyclable products natural products Environmentally friendly products

Blue Angels and Green Seals Limits of Green Consumerism Paying Attention to Whats Important

Collective Actions
Student Environmental Groups Mainline Environmental Organizations Broadening the Environmental Agenda Deep or Shallow Environmentalism Radical Environmental Groups Anti-environmental Backlash

Global Issues
Public Opinions and Environmental Protection
Post materialist values

Sustainable Development International Nongovernmental Organizations

Green Government and Politics

Green Politics
Green Parties

Green Plans National Legislation Courts Executive Branch Environmental Impact Statements International Environmental Treaties and Conventions