Professional Documents
Culture Documents
by
Piero Bachetti
A Major Paper
Submitted to the Faculty of Graduate
Studies and Research through the
University of Windsor
2003
French Language Acquisition ii
_____________________________________
Dr. N. Diffey, Advisor
_____________________________________
Dr. L. Morton, Reader
iii
ABSTRACT
This study, designed to offer a potential addition to classroom second language teaching
methodology, examined the impact of three learning styles on the acquisition of French as a
Second Language by English speaking learners when exposed to a French and English
standard and reversed subtitled film in DVD format. The subjects were Grade 6 students,
ages 11-12, who had completed a Personal Learning Style Inventory (PLSI), which
classified them as auditory, visual, or auditory-visual learners. The three step process
viewing of a short film clip of Disney’s Beauty and the Beast in the standard and reversed
formats, and 3) a multiple-choice post-test (English questions with French responses). The
research hypothesized that the auditory-visual learning style group would score higher
than the auditory or visual learning style group in the pre-test and in the post-test results as
measured by the total means. The quantitative analysis indicated that none of the groups
achieved higher scores than their counterparts. Similarly, there were no differences
between gender and achievement scores. All groups achieved positive results between the
total pre-test and post-test means. This finding may be of interest to second language
teachers seeking to present ideas and concepts in an alternative way to meet the needs of a
DEDICATION
Giovanni and Serafina, and to my grandparents Giuseppe and Rosa, and Ettore and
Antonia.
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Dr. Morton for their time and support devoted to the preparation and editing of this
Major Paper. My thanks are also due: to my superintendent Janet Ouellette at the
Windsor-Essex Catholic District School Board for allowing me to conduct this study
Dr. Crawford, and Dr. McKay. To Michael Tiberia, Mark Ficon and Joe Santoro for
particular Lanfranco DeGasperis, Ron LeFave, Rick Valenciuk, and Greg Cecile,
for their support and words of encouragement. To the parents of the elementary
children who gave consent for their child to participate in this research study, and
finally, a special acknowledgement to my loving wife and family for their endless
support.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................................iii
DEDICATION...............................................................................................................................iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..........................................................................................................v
CHAPTER I...................................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................1
A. General Statement of the Question...................................................................................1
B. Review of Literature on Learning Styles.........................................................................5
C. Review of Literature on Second Language Acquisition..................................................9
D. Review of Literature on Subtitled Film as Source of Input.........................................13
E. Definition of Terms...........................................................................................................26
F. Research Question ............................................................................................................28
CHAPTER II................................................................................................................................30
DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY.........................................................................................30
A. Subjects.............................................................................................................................30
B. Instrumentation and Procedures....................................................................................31
C. 36
Subtitled Film Testing In the two-week interval following the Learning Style Preference
Inventories, the second half of the research testing was administered. The design of the
multiple-choice pre and post-tests used for this study reflected the format used by a
research study conducted by Krashen and Dupuy (1993). In this section, the students
were given a 20-question pre-test of material that would appear in the subtitled film.
These items were comprised of a French language question with answer choices in
English, and material was extracted verbatim from the subtitled film. The English
answers were in multiple-choice format consisting of four responses. The correct
response was the actual word or phrase that appeared in the written subtitle. The other
three choices were generated by the researcher ................................................................36
CHAPTER III..............................................................................................................................40
DATA ANALYSIS.....................................................................................................................40
A. Quantitative......................................................................................................................40
B. Gender ..............................................................................................................................43
CHAPTER IV..............................................................................................................................47
SUMMARY...............................................................................................................................47
A. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................47
B. Limitations of the Study...................................................................................................48
C. Perceived Usefulness of the Study..................................................................................52
D. Implications of the Study.................................................................................................55
vii
REFERENCES............................................................................................................................58
APPENDIX A...............................................................................................................................66
Letter of Permission to the Ethics Committee.......................................................................66
APPENDIX B...............................................................................................................................68
Letter of Permission to the WECDSB....................................................................................68
APPENDIX C...............................................................................................................................71
Letter of Permission to the Principal......................................................................................71
APPENDIX D...............................................................................................................................74
Student Consent Form.............................................................................................................74
..............................................................................................................................................75
STUDENT CONSENT FORM...................................................................................................75
APPENDIX E...............................................................................................................................77
Letter of Information; and Parent Consent Form................................................................77
APPENDIX F...............................................................................................................................84
Personal Learning Style Inventory (4 to 1; Y/N)...................................................................84
APPENDIX G...............................................................................................................................95
Personal Learning Style Inventory Scoring Key
and Researcher’s Category......................................................................................................95
APPENDIX H...............................................................................................................................98
Pre-Test (Form A).....................................................................................................................98
APPENDIX I..............................................................................................................................103
Post-Test (Form B).................................................................................................................103
APPENDIX J..............................................................................................................................108
Answer Key to the Pre-Test and Post-Test...........................................................................108
APPENDIX K.............................................................................................................................110
Learning Styles Characteristics and Strategies...................................................................110
APPENDIX L.............................................................................................................................122
Critical Thinking DVD and Bloom’s....................................................................................122
VITA AUCTORIS......................................................................................................................129
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
preferred way of processing information. Thus, Mills (1999, ¶6) argues: “Since we are not
basically alike, when we approach a learning task or situation, we do not all benefit from
the same approach. Each individual has his or her own unique learning strengths and
the students.”
improvement over traditional (pencil and paper) methods. However, to be fluent in a L2,
learners need to receive comprehensible input through frequent exposure to that language
(Krashen, 2000), ideally through a “multi-sensory experience” (Koolstra & Beentjes, 1999,
p. 53) and “multi-sensory language teaching” (Baltova, 1999, p. 31). However, as a way of
and visual modes are generally used. As a result, the methodology used by a L2 teacher
may influence a learner’s performance both positively and negatively, if neither of these is a
mainly auditory approaches. With such emphasis, visually dominant learners may tend to
lose interest, and become less motivated. The learners become accustomed to book work,
“English” teacher talk, and rote learning, components of approaches, which are easier to
2
teach, have less preparation, low-level noise, and may produce fewer classroom
management problems.
Second language teacher’s state that the learners who excel in French as a Second
Language (FSL) tend to: a) come from a romance language background; b) have had prior
experience in a French immersion school; or c) speak French outside of the school setting.
Outside of the formal classroom, they should benefit from being exposed to a more
peers.
Another powerful and motivational source of target language input is television. The
use of first language (L1) subtitles is also becoming increasingly widespread. The influence
of Cable News Network (CNN) and its subtitled news has become a common way of
receiving information from all over the world. A plethora of subtitled movies, sitcoms, soap
Second language television can present naturalistic uses of the L2 through idiomatic
expressions and colloquialisms and increase awareness of cultural forms and practices.
enhances the visual as well as auditory channel, ideally permitting simultaneous processing
confidence in the L2, awareness of various formulaic language units, and exposure to the
idiomatic expressions of the culture and their appropriate use in the language. Adults who
have spent an extended period in a new culture, armed only with a formal knowledge of the
new language, shared anecdotally the numerous embarrassing moments when they have
3
used expressions with connotations that were inappropriate for the cultural or social
what would be the effect if a learner’s preferred learning style were also considered? In the
FSL classroom is there a preferred learning environment or are there preferred learning
styles that may have an impact on French language acquisition? This provides a promising
The researcher’s goal in this study is to explore the effect of learning style on the
French and English standard and reversed subtitled film. This instructional technique
made (“tout prêt et prêt à servir”) motivational resource, whose possibilities range from
The use of this teaching resource in our local educational setting is a novelty.
However, subtitled film with a topic relevant to the learners’ interests has the potential to
provide motivation to the learner, increase confidence level, and reduce learner anxiety by
also likely to impact at least three of the major learning styles: auditory, visual, and
auditory-visual, and provides a novel classroom learning experience for the majority of the
subjects.
In the North American culture, one is exposed to combinations of visual and textual
messaging in most aspects of our society, e.g., billboards, cartoons, slogans, road signs, and
4
packaging products. The latter contain cross-lingual advertising. For example, “shampoo &
into French as, “shampooing et revitalisant.” It is important that students are aware that
translations may not always be literal or direct because certain words would not be
culturally appropriate or necessarily used in that sense (as previously noted). Could
subtitles in a very literal or direct French language film produce comprehensible input to
learners in a L2 setting? Could subtitles be used to bridge the gap between the known and
Vocabulary acquisition is one aspect of SLA that might benefit from such exposure.
“Fluency is only a part of overall language proficiency” (Harley, Allen, Cummins, & Swain,
and in this case, vocabulary. The element of vocabulary has been selected as the primary
focus of this study because the researcher’s goal is to improve a learner’s overall language
proficiency by targeting part of the aspect that constitutes it. Vocabulary learning is also
It can also be argued that a quick speed of delivery alone does not constitute oral
fluency. “Fluency is not strictly limited to features. . .such as hesitations, repair, and rate,
and amount of speech. . . Students who are rated low in fluency are also somewhat low in
Relevant research has indicated that fluency ratings are affected by “grammar, vocabulary,
Many factors influence how well people can learn what we want to teach them. For
example, mental perspective, which is shaped by the learner’s age, gender, generation,
culture, beliefs, and attitudes, influences the learning process. Education (formal and
and neurobiological), and language fluency affect how people learn also. In addition, a
teacher must be aware of the learning environment, reasons for learning, learning
1992). Theories that categorize the way that people process information not only offer
insight, but also provide the basis for increasing the effectiveness of communication.
Awareness of how another person understands best provides a means of increasing the
the message (or lesson) will be understood, applied, and retained more readily. In essence,
Learning Style is “the biologically and developmentally imposed set of characteristics that
make the same teaching method wonderful for some and terrible for others” (Dunn &
Griggs, 1988, p. 3). This study addresses the impact on vocabulary acquisition of exposure
to a subtitled film in relation to learning styles. Significantly, learning styles are not
on multiple, intersecting continua. For example, a person might be more extroverted than
introverted, more closure-oriented than open, or equally visual and auditory but less
kinaesthetic and tactile. Few people if any could be classified as having all or nothing in any
In essence, Wyman (1996) classified learning styles and modalities as sensory. These
styles empower the teacher to determine a student’s learning style preference by identifying
addition, Ehrman (1996) discussed various learning styles relevant to L2 learning, termed
as sensory preferences, which can be categorized as four main areas: visual, auditory,
opportunity to acquire a L2 may be broadened, that is, a majority of the needs of the
various learning styles that exist in a regular classroom, may be met. Dunn and Dunn
(1978) focused on manipulating the school environment through the learning style methods.
They believed that learning style reflects the manner in which elements of the five basic
stimuli affect an individual’s ability to perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning
environment.
Renzulli (1997) recommended varying teaching strategies and uses “The Total
Talent Portfolio” (TTP) as a vehicle for systematically gathering, recording, and using
information about students’ abilities, interests, and learning style preferences. Students and
teachers cooperatively review and analyze best-case samples of students’ work, as well as
information resulting from interest and learning style assessment scales to make
opportunities.
Gardner (1993) suggested that each individual has seven distinct areas of
interpersonal, and intrapersonal. He believes that individuals’ abilities will differ in each
area as will their learning style and he does not consider this a “learning style” model. He
views intelligence as a capacity geared to a specific content and style, as a general approach
that can be applied equally to all content. Grasha-Reichmann Student Learning Style
Scales (GRSLSS) by Anthony Grasha and Sheryl Reichmann are a social interaction
dependent, and independent (Suskie, 2002, Social Interaction Instruments section, ¶2).
Other researchers have worked on personality factors and on how they affect
learning styles. Kolb (1976) describes (along two axes) how learners both perceive and
“processing” axis, active-reflective. These two axes delineate four quadrants or types of
Kolb (1986) furthered this theory by stating that to be most effective, a teaching
situation should move through these “learning styles” in a prescribed sequence, in order to
Earlier than Kolb, Gregorc (1979) also used two axes to describe learning styles. He
describes perception along an axis from abstract to concrete and ordering of information
along an axis from random to sequential. Moreover, he enabled people to categorize their
8
random.
Later, Keirsey and Bates (1984) added the factor of personality. Using the
personality descriptors developed by Myers and Briggs in 1962 (based on the work of
Jung) (Myers & McCaulley, 1985), they describe four types of learners in terms of how
personality affects the learning environment and one’s ability to learn. The inventory is
classified as:
1. Sensing/Judging personality types value service and belonging. Their preferred learning
style is concrete.
2. Sensing/Perceiving personality types value freedom and spontaneity. They learn best
3. Intuitive/Feeling personality types value personal growth and learn through relevance,
4. Intuitive/Thinking personality types value competence; they learn best through theory,
This is the most widely used personality inventory to date. The instrument provides an
Learning style is thus a complex area of research, and no learner fits neatly into a
given category. In order to clarify the problem and solution, this research will focus on the
sensory mode, that is, the auditory and visual components, as it relates to SLA theories.
very valuable. However, it is also necessary for students to develop alternative learning
strategies and thinking skills to prepare them for the tasks that require specific modalities.
9
As an example, the auditory dominant learner will periodically face problems that require
a hands-on solution, as the visual dominant learner will encounter problems and situations
that demand the use of kinaesthetic and/or auditory skills. Consequently, we need to find a
balance between building on students’ natural strengths and developing an adequate range
of alternative learning strategies. “If there is harmony between a)the student (in terms of
style and strategy preference) and b) the instructional methodology and materials, then the
student is likely to perform well, feel confident, and experience low anxiety” (Oxford, 2001,
p. 359).
The other field of learning theory in which this study is grounded relates to second
language acquisition (SLA), specifically the role of “input” in the L2 development process.
One of the most prominent theorists has been Stephen Krashen (1985). Although
considered controversial, his theory of SLA has had a large impact on L2 teaching and
research since the 1980s. He believed that language “acquisition” is typical of children and
adults who are in informal learning environments, yet much “learning” occurs in more
formal but limited situations where language is being taught. Krashen argued that the
value of L2 classes lies not only in the grammar instruction, but is also in their potential to
provide “comprehensible input.” One means of achieving this is through suitably modified
“teacher talk,” which is characterized for example by simple and succinct vocabulary.
Krashen (1985) stated there are also several ways in which exposure to out-of-class
(naturalistic) L2 settings can facilitate acquisition, especially for the intermediate level
learner. First, it is very clear that the outside world can supply more input; for example,
10
living in France, where French is spoken, can result in an all-day L2 “lesson” (listening).
Second, the range of discourse that the student can be exposed to in a L2 classroom is quite
limited. No matter how natural an environment a teacher designs, there is simply no way
that the classroom can match the variety of the outside world, and will probably never be
able to overcome its limitation, nor is that its role. Its role is not to substitute for the outside
world, but to bring students to the point where they can begin to use the outside world for
The classroom accomplishes this goal in three ways: a) It supplies the L2 input
required for learners to progress in SLA and understand “real” language to at least some
extent. b) It makes the learner conversationally competent, by giving the learner tools to
manage conversations despite a less than perfect competence in the L2. c) It promotes
writing fluency.
Lapkin (1995) theorized that output (speaking) could play a substantial part in the
(listening), but that it offers opportunities for practice and seems to be a valuable means for
testing hypotheses. This is by means of the feedback received from the interlocutor.
between capable and competent partners allows for the maximum degree of
communication. Nevertheless, this represents a challenge for the teacher, since Young
(1990), Price (1991) and Loughrin-Sacco (1992) concur that in the case of students in
beginning French classes, speaking was considered the highest anxiety-causing activity.
The theories of Vygotsky (1978) refined the role of interaction in SLA. When a
11
student is ready to learn and is in the area of potential development, the student is in a
“zone of proximal development.” Krashen states a similar idea through the formula i+1
(the i is the student’s present level of learning; 1 that the concept to be learned or input is
one-step beyond their level of learning). Both terms imply two levels--actual and potential
stresses the nature of the input, minimizes the role of the output, and believes language can
Unlike Krashen and Vygotsky, Swain, and Lapkin (1998) suggest that it is not input
per se that is important to SLA but input that occurs in interaction where meaningful
dialogue is exchanged between L2 learners. Krashen (1985) emphasizes that spoken fluency
is not acquired by practicing talk but by understanding language input, listening, and
reading. An enormous quantity of input is a necessary condition for acquisition, but it is not
sufficient. The input must be comprehensible. Krashen explains that there is a “filter”
between our organs of perception (eyes for reading and ears for listening) and our
Filte
r
||
||
||
Languag
||
e
|| Acquired
Comprehensible Input → --- Acquisiti →
|| Competence
on
|||
Device
|||
|||
|||
12
He calls this the affective filter. The thicker it is the less input gets past it to the LAD and
the LAD acquires less. It operates as an imaginary wall that is placed between the learner
and language input. If the filter is activated, the learner is blocking out input. The filter is
activated when anxiety is high, esteem is low, or motivation is low. Hence, low anxiety
classes are better for language acquisition. In essence, people acquire a L2 only if they
obtain comprehensible input and if their affective filters are low enough to allow the input
“in.”
This study may provide information on the role of input but not interaction.
receiving comprehensible input. The messages may contain vocabulary that is challenging
understanding that is just beyond the learner’s level of FSL competence. In essence, it may
learning.
Teachers in a L2 setting must also be aware of individual factors that may affect a
learner’s SLA, particularly the type and intensity of their motivation. Many students may
want to know another language but they are less interested in the process of learning itself
and the dedication it requires, thus easily becoming frustrated and discouraged, lacking the
levels when taught by warm, less dominating teachers” (Bower, Boyer, & Scheirer, 1970,
p. 34).
13
activities that are practical, useful, constructive, and fun, wherever possible. According to
Krashen, when designing second language curriculum, teachers must plan the activities (at
i+1) or one-step ahead of the students’ current knowledge; that is the activity must build on
existing knowledge, thus the input is assimilated rather than accommodated. Students want
and need to know where they are going and what is expected of them. As in any subject, if
the goals are unrealistic (e.g., i+25), the low motivated students will find it painful to
compete, and as a result they may give up or fail. Motivation of the students “depends on
the motivation of the teacher. . .curiosity is often the stepping stone to motivation” (Bower,
Subtitled film may offer an effective means of providing comprehensible input to the
learner, using a motivating teaching technique that is unobtrusive and provides low
accommodates students various learning modalities. These are all elements that are key
links to viewing subtitled film. In addition, “DVD film provides more pedagogical options
and are a rich resource of intrinsically motivating materials for learners” (King, 2002, p. 1).
Also, “Showing complete film enhances student motivation to such an extent that students
are visibly impressed with how much English they can figure out. Their confidence soars
when they realize that understanding a movie is not as difficult as they had originally
“DVD has replaced video as the medium of the new millennium after it hit the
market four years ago. DVD is vastly superior to videotape. This is because of its
educational settings, many classrooms and language labs have been upgraded from VHS to
this most popular movie medium” (p. 4). In addition, “Language teachers should prepare
for the coming of DVD and consider the benefits of incorporating DVD into language
From experience and observation, the value and benefits of using films for language
learners can be summarized as follows. “When students are provided with well-structured
tasks and activities designed to promote active viewing and stimulate involvement for
making the most of learning opportunities of movies, there is no doubt that feature films
are the most stimulating and enjoyable learning materials for the E-generation” (King,
2002, p. 4). Such enjoyment may be a factor in reducing the affective filter (Above).
When learners are bored, angry, frustrated, nervous, unmotivated, or stressed, they may
The focus of this study is the impact of viewing subtitled film on vocabulary
Krashen’s terminology). These are all elements that are key links to viewing subtitled TV
students in activities that focus attention on vocabulary.” On the other hand, “A common
view in vocabulary studies, is that we have not been explicitly taught the majority of words
that we know, and that beyond a certain level of proficiency in a second language,
vocabulary learning is more likely to be mainly implicit (incidental)” (p. 289). Lastly, “just
15
for incidental learning. . .a good way to combat this problem is to expose students to
Viewing a subtitled film in dual modes, that is, both in standard and in reversed
(subtitles) and interpreter (soundtrack), it becomes a weaving experience. The learner has
the ability to process the L1 and L2 input twice, so that the information becomes clearer
and more understandable by viewing the film both in the standard and reversed subtitled
format. Whether one’s strength lies in listening in French and reading in English or vice-
versa, there is a crossover in the information of the film, which helps fill the gaps in one’s
knowledge and understanding. As the learner “joggles” his mind from one language to
another, that is from L1 to the L2 and vice versa, looking for that comprehension via
translation and interpretation, one fills one’s gap in knowledge, as a result, becoming a
mental “cut and paste” activity, between L1 and L2. In essence, this bridges the gap
between the known and unknown word(s) and phrase(s). As stated earlier, the SLA
potential of subtitled film is grounded in input rather than interactional theory. According
He demonstrated this theory in his description of the case of a boy with congenital
dysarthria, a disorder of the peripheral speech organs. The child was never able to speak,
but when Lenneberg tested him, he found out that the child was able to understand spoken
English perfectly.
it may also be argued that conversation is only one causative variable in SLA, and it is only
16
practical sense it may be impossible for someone to acquire a L2 merely by listening to the
radio or watching television. SLA may or may not be hindered when not all dimensions are
present. As a result, the language input may be simply beyond comprehension. Does
this mean that teachers should consciously try to simplify their speech when they talk to
students? Should they think about slowing down, using shorter sentences, a more common
(1981) emphasized the importance of understanding the learner’s knowledge of the world
in choosing topics of discussion that are familiar to the learner. If the message is completely
unknown, it will be of no interest, and the student probably will not attend to its meaning.
The learner must focus on the message, which must be something that the learner really
wants to hear about or read. Subtitling enables the learner to gain an early understanding
There is one basic issue, which was has been investigated through research on SLA
(Andersen, 1981; Hatch, 1983; Liceras, 1986; Pfaff, 1986; Ritchie, 1978; Scarcella &
Krashen, 1980). Are adults and children capable of attaining the same level of proficiency?
Some scholars assume essential differences between the adult and the child due to
determined changes in maturation, and argue that the adult learner is unable to achieve a
hypothesized that language could be acquired only within a critical period, extending from
infancy until early puberty (an important observation for elementary education). More
recently, Johnson and Newport (1989) obtained evidence in support of the conclusion that
17
there is a critical period for SLA, and proposed that proficiency in a L2 is related to the age
of acquisition up to puberty. After puberty, performance was low and highly variable.
When d’Ydewalle and Van de Poel (1999) examined SLA in children and adults
through watching subtitled television programs, they found no evidence of a critical period.
There was no more acquisition by children in their study than by adults. The SLA did not
profit from the more formal language learning at school (Grades 5 and 6). However, unlike
the adults, the children tended to acquire more when the foreign language was in the sound
track than in the subtitles, suggesting that children need to hear the L2, and read the
English (standard subtitling format); whereas adults preferred the opposite (reversed
subtitling format).
d'Ydewalle and Van Rensbergen (1989) also found that younger children preferred
watching movies in the standard format (L1 in the soundtrack and L2 in the subtitles), in contrast
to older children and adults who preferred viewing movies in the reversed format (soundtrack in
L2 and subtitles in L1). An explanation for the difference in preference could simply be that
young children are not provided with sufficient reading capacities to allow reading foreign-
language subtitles presented. Although d'Ydewalle and Van Rensbergen (1989) demonstrated
adult-like reading of subtitles in children from age of 8-years-old on, the study only investigated
reading subtitles in the native language (i.e., there was no reversed-subtitling condition).
“Reading in a foreign language takes much more time through the lack of contextual (verbal)
information” (Cziko, 1978, pp. 473-489) and “through the lack of sufficiently developed
phonologically recoding processes” (Van Orden, Johnston, & Hale, 1988). As a child’s reading
ability increases with age, older children will likely perform better in reading L2 subtitles, which
Do learners process the soundtrack and the subtitles to a film simultaneously? Are
(Baker & de Kanter, 1981), and others examine the effects of standard and reversed
subtitling modes, with children and adults. Sohl (1989) demonstrated that another
prerequisite for language acquisition to occur is that children and adult viewers should be
able to process the text in the subtitle, simultaneously with the verbal message in the audio.
Using a reaction time test, Sohl’s study obtained indirect evidence that reaction times were
slower when subjects watched the (standard) subtitled film instead of the un-subtitled film.
However, both children and adults do listen to the audio involving the unknown spoken
language while they are engaged in processing the subtitle. Although more processing
resources are needed in such cases, it suggests that both children and adults made an effort
to process the foreign language in the sound track, thus, processing simultaneously the
written and spoken information (see also d’Ydewalle, Van Rensbergen, & Pollet, 1987).
d'Ydewalle and Van de Poel (1999), concluded that children (ages 8-12; grades 3-6)
tended to acquire more when the foreign language was in the soundtrack/audio, than in the
subtitles, that is, in the standard subtitling format, rather than the reversed format. The
results of the vocabulary test indicated substantial acquisition effects for both standard and
19
reversed subtitling conditions, regardless of the similarity between the native and foreign
students studying Dutch as a second language, who were assessed on vocabulary, sentence
construction, and movie comprehension. They reported that subtitles, regardless of the
subjects’ knowledge of the L2, in the standard or reversed condition were a benefit to the
subjects. It was concluded that adding the English soundtrack to the Dutch subtitles did not
disturb one’s ability to focus on the movie, in fact, subtitles helped in the understanding of the
movie. Interestingly, males understood better than females; older students acquired more
language (vocabulary) than younger students did. Moreover, Roffe (1995) states:
.the audience hears the sound track, understands it completely, partially, or not at all, and
sees the translation simultaneously with the images” (p. 215). In essence, subtitling is
particularly useful to L2 learners because it supplies them with the three different channels
of information: the pictorial information, the sound track, and the translation of the text in
the subtitles. Koolstra van der Voort & Kamp (1997) in a 3-year panel study tested
subjects (grades 2 and 4 Dutch elementary students) and reported that watching standard
subtitled foreign television programs was found to stimulate the development of decoding
skills, because reading subtitles does provide an opportunity to practice word recognition.
Subtitles provide no practice in comprehending normal texts and have to be read quickly
and accurately. This leaves little opportunity to absorb the information presented in the
subtitled film and reflect on it. Therefore, it is doubtful that children’s reading
“there is evidence that one sub-skill of reading comprehension, vocabulary, may profit
from watching subtitled programs” (Neuman & Koskinen, 1992). Lambert, Boehler,
and Sidoti (1981) found that when English elementary pupils in Grades 5 and 6 French
format, it did not improve SLA. In their research, they transcribed dialogues of radio
programs into screen texts, with various simultaneous presentations of the messages such
as newscasts, radio dramas, and call-in programs. This study employed a) standard
subtitling format (voice in L2 and subtitles in L1) and b) reversed subtitling format (voice
i) Subjects who received the standard subtitling format and testing in L2, performed
worse or did not differ significantly from the worst possible combinations in all post-
testing comparisons, suggesting that subtitling under usual conditions does not
ii) Subjects who received the (reversed subtitling format), L1 in audio, L2 in subtitles)
Interestingly, reversed subtitling provided the dominant English language through the
transient auditory channel, which gave the subjects more time to match the message with
the translated text in the subtitles. Moreover, the reversed subtitling format provided a
convenient structure for relating a message, picked up automatically through the easy to
follow L1 sound track, to the continuously present script in the L2. In addition, after
having listened to the audio channel, subjects inputted the subtitle with a set of translations
condition, subjects did not listen automatically to the French sound track, but in some
21
auditorily given in their L1. Further research was needed to clarify one’s preference of the
the reversed subtitled condition. One can conclude that learners in the French immersion
classes mirror the preference of the reversed subtitled mode of the adult learners (See
d’Ydewalle & Van de Poel, 1999). In contrast, a study conducted by Holobow, Lambert and
Sayegh (1984) reported that (Anglophone) elementary subjects (grades 5-7) learning a L2
were more proficient in the reversed subtitling mode than in the standard subtitling mode.
They argued that two channels were processed in the reversed subtitling condition and only
one channel in the standard subtitling condition. This may be due to their (instructional)
reading level ability in the French language, and proficiency with their home (English)
language.
in both languages, the subtitles may prove to be a distraction. Some learners in the process
of learning a L2, or some learners who have strengths in one language and partial strengths
in the other, may benefit most from subtitled film. In essence, “the rendering of screen
translation is intended to convey meaning to the viewer and enhance enjoyment and this
fact has implications for the emphasis of assessment” (Roffe, 1995, p. 222). Koolstra and
Beentjes (1999) in a study involving elementary Dutch children in Grades 4 and 6 (N=246)
concluded that: a) standard subtitled television programs seemed to provide a rich context
for foreign language acquisition for these subjects, b) they were generally quite motivated
to understand what was shown and said on television, and c) L1 (Dutch) subtitles did not
distract them from hearing the L2 (English) words, but that “vocabulary acquisition of
22
English words were higher in the subtitled than in the non-subtitled condition. . .English
words are better recognized when their translations can be read in the subtitles because
recognition of words on the basis of a two-channel input (listening and reading) is easier
than on the basis of a one-channel input (listening)” (p. 58). (See also d’Ydewalle, Praet,
Verfaillie, & Van Rensbergen, 1991). Moreover, vocabulary acquisition scores were higher
for sixth graders than for fourth graders. In addition, “instead of ‘just watching’ the
television program as the children in the experiment did, learning effects may be stronger
when teachers play the broadcasts repeatedly and analyze with the children parts of the
material being viewed. When used correctly, subtitled television programs, through their
and effectiveness of educational activities when learning a foreign language” (Koolstra &
Beentjes, pp. 59-60). Again, teachers must take into account the age of the learners and
their ability level. Selecting to view subtitled film in standard and/or reversed mode(s) may
format fits nicely with current theories of information processing, which stresses the “top
general. Although reading in a foreign language takes much more time through the lack of
contextual (verbal) information (Cziko, 1978), reversed subtitling format provides subjects
with the opportunity to process the L1 dialogue automatically onto the L2 script, thus
underlying story line. Lambert Boehler, and Sidoti (1981) concluded that for high school
subjects the advantages of the reversed subtitling L2 format were seen in tests of
comprehension, contextual meaning, phrasing form, and spelling. The potential of this
23
input format is exciting because it could assist even the novice in L2 as they start to develop
listening and reading skills, and the benefits might well accumulate with practice and
exposure.
subtitling of television programs. The subjects were Malaysian university students learning
Spanish as a second language. The purpose of this study was to investigate viewers’
1) Learners who viewed the program without translation/ subtitles had significantly
lower scores on a multiple-choice test compared to those who viewed the same
sensory medium.” In this case, part of the information is conveyed through visual
speakers in an ESL class found the standard subtitled format to be a help or a hindrance.
2) Most technical vocabulary can be accessed and learned through the standard
3) With the benefit of repetition and with L1 subtitles, they were able to fill in places
they had missed at first viewing and they did learn some new words and phrases.
4) Learners, whose listening skills were not as high, reported depending more on the
L1 subtitles even to get the general idea of the story (some found errors in subtitles).
Nevertheless, all subjects admitted that with the benefit of repetition and with L1 subtitles
(standard format), they were able to fill in places they had missed.
reversed modes will lead to some acquisition in the L2 for both children and adults, at least
in vocabulary. The difference between the preferred modes for children and adults may be
due to a) age, b) grade level (elementary, high school or university), c) present level of
reversed).
A number of studies of the impact of subtitles have thus attributed positive gains to
either the standard or reversed mode. A few studies have attributed such gains to learner
It is this researcher’s expectation that the same learners may benefit from watching
a subtitled film in two presentation formats, (i.e. the first time in the standard mode, and
the second in the reversed mode). If learners have the option to mentally comprehend the
input of the L1 and L2 words/phrases, through viewing this dual presentation format, the
learners may channel and process the auditory and visual information from the L1 and L2
soundtrack and the L1 and L2 subtitles to their dominant learning style (auditory and/or
25
visual). Thus, compartmentalizing this input, and demonstrating their retention of SLA
knowledge, via a pre-test (to establish a prior knowledge baseline) and a post-test mean,
regardless if a learner has stronger or weaker listening (auditory), or reading (visual) skills.
However, it appears logical that learners who demonstrate having strengths in both
auditory and visual skills should achieve the greatest gains. Very little work has been
done in this area with elementary L2 learners in relation to the effect of learning styles.
This study will focus on the connection between sensory learning style and SLA
through a repeated viewing of a standard and reversed subtitled film. The styles in question
will be (1) auditory, (2) visual, or (3) a combination of auditory and visual. The research
recognizes that this preference co-exists with other learning styles in the individual. In the
review of the literature there were few available studies which directly spoke of this focus
on a sensory learning style. Some studies have focused on using repeated viewings of a film
in the standard or reversed modes, but none spoke of combining various modes to
accommodate a learner’s preferred sensory style. Presenting learners with standard and
reversed subtitled film enables them to choose how the input will be filtered, processed, and
incidentally acquire L2 competence. The specific medium chosen for this study/research
will be a 5-minute clip of a subtitled Disney (DVD) film (viewed twice), of which both
presentation modes will be presented to the students, that is, (standard subtitling format),
French audio with English subtitles, followed by (reversed subtitled format) English audio
with French subtitles. In approaching this study, certain ideas arise for the
researcher. From these ideas, the researcher will formulate the working hypothesis. In
order to arrive at the working hypothesis, the researcher will consider certain inquiries,
26
which arise from the search of the literature, as well as ideas arising from personal
experience as a teacher.
E. Definition of Terms
Auditory: This is learning through hearing, with its three aspects of receptive,
discussions, and verbal instructions are important to those who prefer this learning style.
Auditory students are comfortable without visual input and therefore enjoy and profit
from unembellished lectures, conversations, and oral instructions. They are excited by
classroom interactions in role-plays and similar activities. Sometimes, however, they may
(Richard-Amato, 1988); vocabulary that should be easy enough that learners can
understand it, but just beyond their level of competence “regulated input will lead to
acquisition so long as the input is challenging, yet easy enough to understand without
an interpretive translation depends upon the different words or expressions that are
appropriate and correct to the culture. Knowledge of a culture, and thus conveys an
directly involved with hands-on tasks, moving, touching, and experiencing the learning.
Kinaesthetic and tactile students like lots of movement and enjoy working with tangible
27
objects, collages, and flashcards. “Sitting at a desk for very long is not for them as they
prefer to have frequent breaks and move around the room” (Oxford, 1990, p. 360).
the learning process. Each learner is unique and possesses differences, which might include
personality, mental processing, physical levels of activity, and any combination of these
differences as well as others. All learners utilise multiple modes of learning but most people
display a preference for one style. In early childhood, the students will be rather evenly
learning style (mode) and learning style (preference) will mean the learner is auditory,
Literal/Direct Meaning: Refers to words or phrases that exist in both the L1 and the
Sensory Preferences: Refer to the physical, perceptual learning channels with which
processing and expressive aspects. These learners rely heavily upon reading, video, and
demonstration. Visual students like to read, and obtain a great deal from visual
stimulation. For them, lectures, conversations, and oral instructions without any visual
incorporate them into his/her own language. In this study, it will originate from a French
film with English subtitles, and vice versa, as measured by pre and post-tests.
F. Research Question
styles upon the acquisition of a L2, in this case FSL. The proposed study is centred on three
inventory (Wyman, 1996) and examines the results when students are exposed to the
learning of words in a second language we expect that subtitled film (viewed in standard or
reverse subtitling modes) offer a rich context for vocabulary acquisition and understanding
a foreign language. Will children be able to discern the separate words that are spoken
The research question to be examined is: In learning a L2, will there be a difference
in achievement scores among three learning style groups--auditory, visual, and auditory-
Drawing from the review of the literature, this researcher has formulated the
hypothesis that the auditory-visual learning style group will score higher than the auditory
or visual learning style group in the pre-test and in the post-test results as measured by the
total means. To test this hypothesis, pre-test (before the film) scores and post-test (after
the film) scores will be examined with the self-identified learning style.
29
One can draw conclusions from knowledge of the learning styles and from the pre
and post-tests results. Other factors such as personality, motivation, and the ability to pay
attention are not included, even though they may influence performance. This study
focuses only on three sensory learning style preferences 1) auditory dominant, 2) visual
CHAPTER II
A. Subjects
Letters requesting permission were sent to the Ethics Committee (Appendix A), the
Superintendent at the Windsor-Essex Catholic District School Board (Appendix B), and the
Principal of the School (Appendix C). Consent was invited from the students (Appendix D),
and the parents of those who chose to participate in the study received a letter of
information and a consent form allowing their child to participate in this introductory
Subjects were two Grade-6 classes with a total sample size of 48. The subjects were
of both genders, 33 male and 15 female, and the age range was between 11 and 12. The
subjects were English speakers learning French as a Second Language in a school in which
this researcher taught. All students were invited to participate; there was no instructor-
student relationship. All students who returned their parent consent forms (Appendix E)
were included in the experiment. Students could have chosen to withdraw at anytime. Each
student was assigned a student identification number which was necessary in order that the
researcher could complete the promise made to report to the parents if they so requested.
In this interview, actual scores would not to be released; only the student’s learning style
programming, suggestions for strengthening the alternate learning style, and suggestions
for more productive study habits. Upon completion of the study, each student and parent
The following procedures were administered to each class separately. The researcher
ensured that the second group received the same instructions and followed the same
The subjects were first told that the researcher was interested in how they learn, and
that this experiment would help us to become better teachers, and help them to become
better students. They were then administered the “Personal Learning Styles
Inventory” (Wyman, 1996). This inventory was deemed reliable since it had been tested
with over 50,000 students and had yielded the same results when compared to others
completed by, a) psychologists or counsellors; and b) The Abiator’s Online Learning Style
Inventory I/II. The adapted “Personal Learning Styles Inventory” measures two learning
styles, which were delineated as the auditory or visual, and a third style auditory-visual was
There were 40 randomly distributed questions throughout the test, 20 auditory and
20 visual preference questions drawn mainly from (Wyman, 1996) and some from (Abiator,
2000). In the first part, each question was answered by a preferential rating on a 4,3,2,1
On the rating question, the subjects were asked direct questions; for example:
the subjects were presented with a sentence to which a Yes or No response was elicited:
Example:
the questionnaires were to be read out-loud to the students. Two questionnaires were
stapled together, and had assigned student numbers on them (i.e., 1A. . .48A), which
remained the same for the pre and post-tests. The first one involved a rating scale (4 to 1),
and the second one involved Yes or No responses. The researcher numbered all the
packages from 1A to 48A. This work was completed in two sections (1A to 29A and 30A to
48A).
Instruction to the students was brief and succinct; (i.e., they were instructed that
they were completing two questionnaires, and to answer all the questions as accurately as
possible). Pencils and erasers were made available to them. The students completed each
The students were instructed that they have approximately 30 minutes to complete
the questionnaire package. The students all began at the same time. After the time limit, the
students were asked to submit their questionnaire package to the researcher. The
researcher recorded the student number and checked the name on the tracking class list
33
obtained from the first page of the student’s stapled questionnaire package, and placed it in
a secure place.
For reliability purposes, both inventories were scored and the average was
determined from the two scores. It was expected that some subjects would not be strongly
visual nor strongly auditory, but would be a combination (i.e., auditory-visual). In order to
determine the three categories, and due to the comparative brevity of the inventories, a
randomly selected score, which was greater than 10 percent (difference in the average of
the auditory and visual scores), would determine the category. Auditory and visual scores
less than a 10 percent difference would categorize the subject as auditory-visual dominant
The following examples demonstrate test results and category placement. Each
category placement may not have had an equal number of subjects (e.g., 16 per group). In
this case, the distribution was 20 auditory, 8 visual, and 20 auditory-visual. On gender,
Example 1: Test 1 (scale inventory)--a student scored 16/20 for auditory, and 12/20 for
visual; Test 2 (Yes/No)--this student scored 15/20 for auditory, and 11/20 for visual. In
percentages, the student’s Test 1 and Test 2 results were (77.5% auditory and 57.5%
visual). The difference is 20%. Therefore, a student would be classified as auditory (See
Table 2).
34
Auditory Visual
Test 1 Score 16/20 12/20
% 80 60
Test 2 Score 15/20 11/20
% 75 55
Total Scores 31/40 23/40
Average 77.5% 57.5%
The difference in the two scores is 20%,
placing this
student in the auditory
classification.
Example 2: Test 1 (scale inventory) - this student scored 10/20 for auditory, and 14/20 for
visual. Test 2 (Yes/No) – a student scored 9/20 for auditory, and 15/20 for visual. In
percentage, the student’s Test 1 and Test 2 results were (47.5% auditory and 72.5% visual).
Auditory Visual
Test 1 Score 10/20 14/20
% 50 70
Test 2 Score 9/20 15/20
% 45 75
Total Scores 19/40 29/40
Average 47.5% 72.5%
The difference is 25%, placing this student in the
visual classification.
Example 3: Test 1 (scale inventory) - this student scored 17/20 for auditory, and 16/20 for
visual. Test 2 (Yes/No) – a student scored 16/20 for auditory, and 15/20 for visual. In
percentage, the student’s Test 1 and Test 2 results were (82.5% auditory and 77.5% visual).
Auditory Visual
Test 1 Score 17/20 16/20
% 85 80
Test 2 Score 16/20 15/20
% 80 75
Total Scores 33/40 31/40
Average 82.5% 77.5%
The difference in the two scores is 5%, placing this
student in the auditory-visual classification.
36
C.
the researcher
(See Form A, Appendix H). The choices were a combination of false cognates, lexical
interferences, (that may look and sound correct). For example, a pre-test question would be
The students had 20 minutes to complete this pre-test. After completion, the researcher
collected the tests, recorded the student number from the pre-test package, and distributed
the post-test with its matching pre-test package number. The subjects were instructed to
place the post-test package face down until further notice (Form B, Appendix I). The post-
test had a blank page at the front and at the back of the booklet to prevent any students
from trying to read questions and answers before the next section of the experiment.
Following this pre-test, a 5-minute clip of the DVD film “Disney’s Beauty and the
Beast” (Read-along) was viewed twice by the learners: first in English with French subtitles
(standard format), and second, in French with English subtitles (reversed format). This
For optimum viewing of the DVD, (i.e., sight and sound), DVD technology, and
audio-visual equipment was utilised (e.g., a projection machine, two stereo speakers, and
the classroom’s overhead screen). The film came equipped with multi-language and multi-
subtitle options of which French and English were used. The language in the film reflected
mostly literal, and some interpretive meanings. The target words only occurred once. Light
and sound were adjusted prior to the experiment and remained constant across sessions.
Speed and clarity of the spoken language was considered, and the recommended colour and
timing of the subtitles was taken into account in order to achieve the ideal learning
enjoyment.
disruptions at the door, etc.) during the course of the experiment. Regular classroom rules
applied during the experiment (i.e., no talking, or sharing of the responses). A title page and
a (back) blank page were added to each questionnaire test package, to prevent any students
attempting to read items before the researcher’s instructions, or prior to viewing the
subtitled film. The subtitled film was viewed first in French with English subtitles
(standard format). Immediately following the film clip, the same introductory scene was
replayed, but in the reversed subtitled format, that is, in English, with French subtitles.
Upon completion of the film, the students were asked to turn their tests over and begin. The
test was completed in approximately 20 minutes. On the post-test, the questions appeared
in reversed format (English question, French response choices). For example, question one
(eelow):
39
a) la chasse
b) la poursuite
c) la frappe
d) la consulte
Correct answers were recorded for pre and post-tests, a mark out of 20 was
The researcher evaluated the pre and post-tests and recorded the student’s score
next to their assigned student number. Records of the distribution and submission of the
inventory and the pre and post-tests were tracked using the “Student Number Class List.”
The purpose of assigning a student number was to provide accurate feedback to the parent
and student. Only the researcher was aware of who was assigned the particular student
number. Thus, the researcher was able to accurately identify each student’s work, assess
and interpret the impact (if any) of learning style on the language acquisition.
40
CHAPTER III
DATA ANALYSIS
A. Quantitative
The scores of the three groups Auditory, Visual, and Auditory-Visual were examined
quantitatively using descriptive statistics. Based on the results of the Personal Learning
Style Inventory (PLSI), the learners (N=48) were grouped into low, medium, and high
learning style scores and categorized within all styles. Auditory scores in rank order
(ranging from 0 to 100) allowed for three categories - Low (N=13), Medium (N=21) and
High (N=14). Visual scores in rank order (ranging from 0 to 100) led to the following three
categories - Low (N=12), Medium (N=22) and High (N=14). Auditory-visual learners in
rank order (ranging from 0 to 100) led to these three categories - Low (N=17), Medium
(N=15) and High (N=16). The scores for the auditory-visual group were the averages of
both the learner’s auditory and visual scores. For example, a score of 70 auditory and 60
visual would result in a 65 auditory-visual score. Thus, the learner’s scores on the personal
learning style inventory were the basis for categorizing them in a hierarchy of low, medium
and high. Each category e.g., low auditory, medium auditory and high auditory,
(similarly for visual and auditory-visual groups), was examined with respect to pre-test and
post-test performance scores. The pre-test consisted of 20 questions in which the question
was in French and the four choices (responses) were in English. This format reflects the
In the top section of Table 5, the statistics for the three auditory group’s pre-test, as
indicated by the means, do not show significant differences among these groups, F(2,45) =
1.43, p>.05.
41
In the lower half of Table 5, these same groupings results were based on a post-test
of 20 questions, a reverse of the pre-test. The questions are in English and the responses are
in French. This format is referred to as reversed. In these post-test results, the various
group means do not show significant differences among these groups, F(2,45) = 0.16, p>.05.
However, there are apparent gains indicated when pre-test results are compared to
post-test results. The pre-test total mean is 7.54 and the post-test test total mean is 11.69.
These statistics may suggest that learning did take place in this phase of the research.
Statistical comparisons are not warranted, however, since two different tests were used and
Table 6 contains the descriptive statistics for the subjects (N=48) on their visual
scores. All 48 were placed in rank order and placed into three groups, low, medium, and
high on visual scores. The pre-test scores and post-test scores were from the same two tests
from which the statistics for the auditory (Table 5) were derived.
The top half of Table 6 Visual Group contains the results for the pre-test. Similar to
the auditory pre-test scores, these three groups’ results did not indicate any significant
In the lower half of Table 6 Visual, the post-test results do not indicate any
As with the auditory group, the pre-test total mean of 7.54 when compared to the
post-test total mean does suggest that, positive learning may have occurred.
In Table 7, the results of the auditory-visual group are shown. In the top section, on
the pre-test scores, the low on auditory-visual group (N=17) does not differ significantly
from the medium on auditory-visual (N=15) nor do each of these groups differ significantly
In the bottom section of this table, the results of the auditory-visual group post-test
are shown. In the same manner as the pre-test, the post-test results do not indicate
However, the pre-test total mean of 7.54, when compared to the post-test total mean
of 11.69, does suggest gains in learning by the whole auditory-visual group. Within each
One can conclude that there were no correlations between a learner’s sensory
preferred learning style (independent variable) and French second language acquisition
(dependent variable) of English speakers when exposed to a French and English standard
B. Gender
This research was not intended to inquire into gender-based differences, but as a
matter of interest to those who inquire about these results based on gender, a brief
Results indicated that no differences were found between the boys’ and the girls’
sensory preference and their scores. However, both gender groups recorded positive gains
Using quantitative descriptive statistics, the subjects were divided into low and high
on the Auditory PLSI. In the Total Mean statistics based on gender, there were no
The two groups were not evenly distributed, with male: female ratio as 2:1. In a
comparison of the pre and post-test results for males, Figure 3 indicates a pre-test mean of
11
10
9
Number of Respondents (N=33)
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Scores Expressed in Percentages
Pre-test Post-test
Females (Figure 4) showed a pre-test mean of 35.35% and post-test mean of 57.35%
5
Number of Respondents (N=15)
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Scores Expressed in Percentages
Pre-test Post-test
The conclusion could be drawn that gender did not play a significant role in this
research. Again, one must be cautioned that the group sample of each group is relatively
small.
47
CHAPTER IV
SUMMARY
A. Conclusion
The purpose of the research was to test the hypothesis of a positive relationship
between the subjects’ personal learning style and their language acquisition by means of a
subtitled film.
The results obtained may suggest that the use of subtitled film had an overall
positive effect in the FSL classroom. This may be due to the format’s accommodation of the
three learning style preferences of the two groups tested. The dual mode delivery of the
input may have accommodated equally the auditory, visual and auditory-visual learners,
since none of the groups achieved higher scores than their counterparts. Although there
was value in the PLSI, the research was unable to prove a connection between learning
one or more continua, and while they may possess a personal preference for a particular
mode, they are able to work in other modes. . .most people are multi-modal” (Dorwick,
n.d., p. 4).
These students find value in their chosen mode and may resist or fail in learning
situations,which are presented in a different mode. Special education teachers speak of the
difficulties in conveying information to students who have problems with receptive (input),
processing, in which information is conveyed to the brain for interpretation and storage, or
in expression (output) difficulties in either visual or auditory modes. Add to this the
variables, hich cannot be controlled such as kinaesthesia, attention span or those due to
48
medication. The learning styles addressed in this study are but two of the prevalent
This was a one-time experiment, which had many limitations, which became
2. The self-identification tests may not have been complete enough. The rating
scale (4 to 1) did not allow for a neutral response, since “4” and “3” were
4. Tactile and kinaesthetic learners were not part of the self-identified (sensory
6. Due to time limitations, the study only tested the sub-skills of reading
communication.
7. Only a few “Auditory or Visual Dominant Inventories” exist online for the
that had been tested with over 50,000 students and yielded the same results as
8. There is an ongoing debate as to what the best measuring tool is. There is no
valid test designed purposefully for vocabulary acquisition and subtitled film
(in DVD format), as each test varies according to the subject matter. In this
Upon completion of the process, one can reflect, that on the positive side, it is a
The study suggests that overall, French language acquisition has occurred, and that
subtitled film, even from a novelty perspective, may be an effective way to learn L2
e) the ideal post-test format: to have L1 questions with L2 answers or the reverse;
standardize the pre and post-test formats providing validity to the results (i.e.
and most beneficial for L2 acquisition and use it as both the pre and post-tests),
The subjects may have experienced the learning benefits of subtitles, but it would be
interesting to explore the long-term effects of subtitles, perhaps by extending the short film
clip to longer time increments. Lastly, a researcher could conduct longitudinal studies,
50
more field studies, examine, explore, and investigate the effects of subtitled film on a L2
other than French (i.e., Italian students learning English in Italy), using a variety of
academic levels as subjects. Also, professionals (doctors, nurses, lawyers, interpreters etc.)
who have patients or clients with limited competency in English, as well as (retired) adults
who are interested in learning some L2 vocabulary (expressions and phrases) for the
read, write, and speak the language, and hopefully to think in the new language without the
necessity to think in English (L1) first. Given the short and limited time factor of this
experiment, it is presumed that a longitudinal study with prolonged and repeated exposure
to viewing subtitled films would better reflect the reliability content set out in the style of
pre and post-tests that were designed for this investigation. The potential competency
in acquiring L2 vocabulary through subtitled film may strengthen one’s ability to become
spelling, writing, reading activities with the subtitled soundtrack on or off, small group
may be experienced. Which presentation mode of viewing a subtitled film would yield the
highest achievement (according to ages and abilities)? For example, would L1 in audio and
the L2 in subtitles be more beneficial than the reverse? Which is the best format for pre
and post-tests? A preferred way of presenting a subtitled film as well as a preferred way of
constructing pre and post (bilingual) tests so students achieve optimum performance is a
In order to gain L2 fluency, the exposure to subtitled film throughout one’s daily life
and repeated viewing of well-scripted and translated movies, can reduce the typically
51
frustrating and tedious formal L2 setting into a lifelong enjoyment of an innovative and
constructive way of acquiring a L2. Recently, companies like APEX of China have designed
a DVD player with capabilities of viewing any DVD around the world including NSTC and
PAL systems.
Until recently, DVDs have had closed captions included for the hearing impaired.
Would it not be interesting if DVDs began offering more language options for acquiring a
L2? In addition, countries like Switzerland, whose official languages are French, German,
Italian, and Swiss, are capitalizing on the multi-lingual format, as they have DVDs
available in many languages. As an officially bilingual country, Canada offers many DVDs
in French and English. The United States has many DVDs available in English and
Spanish. The reality of multiculturalism is ever-present around the world. Given the
potential success and capabilities of DVD film, it is only a matter of time before countries
begin offering a wide selection of a multi-lingual DVD format. The United States (and
recently Canada) has been the first in introducing “Disney’s multi-lingual DVDs” (English,
French, Italian, Spanish, and German in audio and/or subtitles). Should positive results of
using such resources in the language classroom over time, companies will not only offer
more language options on DVDs, but writers and translators will have to do their absolute
best in translation and interpretation. Schools, colleges, and universities may use subtitled
film to teach a L2, e.g. critically analysing the written and spoken language for a specific
outcome, memorizing vocabulary words, phrases, and expressions, and using it in day-to-
would also be interesting to investigate if the duration of a subtitled film has an impact on
There are many issues, some controversial, surrounding the process of SLA. This
study attempted to match learning modalities and SLA via L2 film that is age and ability
appropriate for elementary students. The goal was to enhance the learning of a L2 by
the students’ learning styles, focussing on the sensory auditory or visual styles, and
providing feedback to teachers and students on techniques for accommodating these styles.
The purpose was to reinforce the existing modality, as well as to enhance others, since the
theory behind the identification of learning styles implies that how much individuals learn
has more to do with whether the educational experience accommodates their particular
style of learning than with their ability. In fact, educators should not ask, “Is this student
Research shows that as children develop, they appear to use one modality in
children around the age of nine. Slower developing individual modalities is a natural
process, which should not be confused with other disabilities, and educational programs
should be developed to suit the modality preference of the individual child (Wepman, 1968).
learning styles and achievement, it does not preclude the possibility of further research on
this topic. Classrooms may have students with learning styles, which do not match teaching
styles. Ideally, L2 learners in an elementary FSL class may find it beneficial to be exposed
to a bilingual teaching style approach; a subtitled film (in dual formats) has the ability to
53
deliver a similar style, that is, the L1 in audio and visual modes, as well as the L2 in audio
and visual modes. In a L2 classroom situation, a teacher with a single teaching style
preference (e.g., auditory dominance-lecture), who becomes aware that his/her class is
composed of auditory, visual, and kinaesthetic learners, may consider altering lesson
implementation formats. This could be by changing from a lecture dominant teaching style
to a mix of various instructional methods that address auditory, visual, and kinaesthetic
dominantly lecture style class may need to strengthen his/her auditory modality, so it
matches with that of the teacher’s teaching style. Thus, both the L2 learner and a teacher
may benefit by familiarizing themselves with the characteristics of the three most prevalent
administer one of the readily available learning style inventories to the teachers themselves.
When they see how they themselves vary from their peers in learning style preferences,
they may be more inclined to appreciate differences among their own students and apply a
learning styles approach in their own classrooms.When planning a lesson, a teacher may
now want to consider reviewing, a) the learning strengths of the auditory, visual, or
learner, and c) the teaching strategies for the auditory, visual, and kinaesthetic/tactile
learner. As students discover their existing learning traits and strategies, teachers could
empower them to be responsible in enhancing their sensory modes (i.e., auditory, visual, or
kinaesthetic) (Appendix K). Subtitled film may be used as a motivating medium in the L2
classroom. Its multi-sensory capabilities may enhance the understanding of dialogue and
54
subtitles, which may be analysed through classroom activities. Students may acquire
language skills such as incidental vocabulary, interpretation, written work and reflection,
Naturalistic L2 learners may benefit most from exposure to target language films.
However, they may be effective in instructional settings if the level of difficulty is adjusted
for grade and level, as well as for purpose. Various types of comprehension are possible:
True or False, multiple-choice, short answer, journal writing, essay, critique, debate, role-
play compare and contrast, and translation. Subtitles may increase a learner’s interest and
activities are: teaching a character trait through teamwork in “Remember the Titans,” or
teaching ethical principles which develop fairness, caring, and respect in “Hamlet.” These
and other examples are found on the website, www.teachwithmovies.org and could be
translated from English to other languages if necessary. To assist any L2 teacher with the
technique format may be used to elicit and reinforce oral/communication and higher-level
thinking skills, namely Bloom’s Taxonomy (Appendix L). Bloom’s general blueprint offers
learners with challenging but attainable educational objectives. Teachers are free to select
any questions from the six levels of thinking that corresponds to his/her student's current
and potential learning level. Some students may not go through these levels in order, and
some may actually skip them altogether. This process may allow teachers to present ideas
and concepts at many different levels to meet the needs of a variety of learners. To
summarize: the results of this study may encourage FSL teachers to examine their teaching
55
techniques, and incorporate innovative techniques based on subtitled films into their
textbooks, whereby the teacher may extract key vocabulary words or phrases from a
subtitled film and generate vocabulary lists to complement existing L2 material. They may
Educational research frequently seems to have taken place without an overall plan.
Teachers, ultimately, decide whether the recommendations of research make sense and are
applicable to the classroom. This research promotes the usage of subtitled film as a positive
attempt to offer an opportunity for innovation in teaching and learning in FSL. The results
appear to be inconclusive.
One reason may be that there is no universally accepted definition of the term
“learning style,” even though we hear this term being used constantly and with a sense of
authority. “The most popular definition includes cognitive, affective, and physiological
factors that affect how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning
environment” (Keefe, 1979). From this definition have arisen numerous models and
research instruments that have not yet been integrated into a single learning style theory.
Some of their principles are seen, in parts, in the various models so that there are
The good news is that most teachers do agree that learning styles exist. How can you
deny that some students prefer reading books, while others prefer books on tape?
56
Researchers, however, feel that validity and usefulness are called into question unless they
are validated by a study. There is some danger in the use of single study, which will have
far-reaching effects on education. Teachers must develop an eclectic approach since their
clientele is so diverse. One must take care not to place a student in a single learning style
without taking into account other factors such as age, experience, and learning
environment.
What about this study? Although an introductory investigation, its results suggested
that either subtitled film can augment learning, or the subjects found the post-test easier
than the pre-test, thus accounting for the positive gains. This success occurred in each
learning style tested (between pre-test and post-test scores). This result cannot be explained
fully at this time. It is only one technique, perhaps a starting point to alleviate ennui in
order to promote learning. Educators must remember that these learning styles are
presented in a simplified manner, usually as a dichotomy, while in reality they are simply
points on a continuum and are subject to change over time and experience. Another
important thought for educators is that frequently, success in learning depends heavily
upon the educator’s own personality and feelings about an approach. Students have
personalities and feelings about various approaches. Finding a match between teacher and
student is a condition of success. The process of viewing a film in subtitles (standard and
reversed) is very complicated. The physical labour itself of moving the eye over the screen,
attending to each word and phrase, as well as the workings of the brain in codifying what is
presented to it, stands between us and the total appreciation of the work in the first
reading. Usually a film should be viewed more than once to appreciate its full impact and to
capture details missed the first time. Teachers could explore and select a resource that is
57
relevant to the learners and has standard and reversed subtitle options. This ready-made
resource provides the teacher in a L2 classroom with a wide variety of lesson delivery and
evaluation possibilities.
Plato wondered how children could possibly acquire so complex a skill as language
with so little experience in life. Dante once stated, “There is no knowledge without
retention.” Information does not constitute knowledge or learning, of course. In this study,
learners have had previous, but basic, formal FSL instruction. Overall, the expected
hypothesis was to have the auditory-visual group demonstrate the highest gain over the
other two groups (auditory or visual), however, the results suggest that all three groups of
retaining various words and phrases of the film as measured by their pre and post-test
means.It is this researcher’s hope that both language learners and language teachers will
have opportunities to capitalize on this potential resource, which may allow L2 teachers to
present ideas and concepts in an alternative way to meet the needs of a variety of learning
styles. In the process, the L2 teacher may assist in enriching learners’ language skills, such
as vocabulary acquisition, and may ultimately contribute to their development of the global
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APPENDIX A
25-January-2003
Dr. L. Morton,
Chair, Ethic Committee
Faculty of Education
University of Windsor, Ontario
The study will inquire whether Grade-6 students can demonstrate French language
acquisition via a subtitled (Disney) film, and compare their results with their dominant
learning style (auditory/visual). Participation is voluntary and confidentiality is ensured.
There are no known risks associated with this study and participants may withdraw at any
time. The enclosed Research Proposal outlines the procedure to be followed, a description
of the inventory to be used, and letters requesting permission and consent.
Should you have any questions, I can be contacted at 519-979-9108 (home) or 519-735-4583
(school), or my advisor, Dr. Diffey, can be contacted at 519-253-3000, ext. 3800.
Sincerely,
Piero Bachetti
Encl.
68
APPENDIX B
25-January-2003
The study will inquire whether Grade-6 students can demonstrate French language
acquisition via a subtitled (Disney) film and compare their results with their dominant
sensory learning style (auditory/visual). Participation is voluntary and confidentiality is
ensured.
There are no known risks associated with this study and participants may withdraw at any
time. I would like to obtain your permission to undertake this experiment with two Grade-
6 classes at St. Gregory School during the normally scheduled French classes, (date TBA)
for the purpose of determining their learning styles, writing a pre-test, viewing a section of
a subtitled (Disney) film, and writing a post-test. A verbal confirmation would be much
appreciated.
Sincerely,
70
Piero Bachetti
Encl.
71
APPENDIX C
25-September-2003
The study will support whether Grade-6 students can demonstrate French language
acquisition via a subtitled (Disney) film, and compare their results with their dominant
sensory learning style (auditory/visual). Participation is voluntary and confidentiality is
ensured.
There are no known risks associated with this study and participants may withdraw at any
time. I would like to obtain your permission to undertake this experiment with two Grade-
6 classes at St. Gregory school during two normally scheduled French classes, (date TBA),
for the purpose of: determining their learning style (auditory/visual); writing pre and post-
tests; viewing a subtitled section of a film in English and French. A verbal confirmation
would be much appreciated.
Should you have any questions, I can be contacted at school or at my home, 519-979-9108,
or my advisor, Dr. Diffey, can be contacted at 519-253-3000, ext. 3800.
Sincerely,
73
Piero Bachetti
Encl.
74
APPENDIX D
I am a student researcher, and I am doing a study on the way you learn, and how well you
can learn French vocabulary by watching a short section of a subtitled (Disney) film. This
study will help me become a better teacher, and you a better student.
In this study, you will be doing the following things: completing two brief surveys, two
short multiple-choice quizzes, and watching a 5-minute section of a subtitled Disney film
(in French and in English). This study will take place during one or two French periods.
You will be identified by a number, and your survey and quiz will not have your names
printed on them. Only your parents/guardians will have the right to know your results. The
data from this study may be used in future research studies.
If you volunteer to be in this study, you also have the right to withdraw at any time without
consequences of any kind. I also have the right to remove you from this study if
circumstances arise, such as, disrupting the classroom environment.
I understand what I am being asked to do in this study, and I agree to be in this study.
Along with this “Student Consent Form,” I also understand that in order to participate in
this study I would need to return the “Letter of Information and the Parent Consent Form”
signed.
76
____________________ ____________________
Witness Date
77
APPENDIX E
LETTER OF INFORMATION
Dear Parent/Guardian,
The purpose of this study is to determine your child’s learning style preference,
focusing on the auditory and visual components. The goal is to investigate the impact of
individual learning styles upon the acquisition of French
as a second language, via a specific media teaching technique, mainly the use of a subtitled
(Disney) film. The existing learning style may be adjusted for maximum results, so that
students become better students, and teachers become better teachers.
Your child will be asked to participate in a few activities. Specifically, he/she will
complete a brief multiple-choice questionnaire on learning styles, and a short multiple-
choice pre-test (in French, with answer choices in English). As a medium through which the
auditory and visual components can be measured, a (5-minute) section of a subtitled
(Disney) film will be viewed twice: once in French with English subtitles, and second in
English with French subtitles. Your child will then complete a short multiple-choice post-
test (in English, with answer choices in French).
Please note that all the students will be assigned a number, and no names will be
written on their questionnaire and test. Please refer to the “Parent Consent Form” for
further details.
Sincerely,
79
Piero Bachetti
80
Title: The impact of learning style on French language acquisition via a subtitled film.
Your child is asked to participate in a research study by Piero Bachetti, a Masters
student under the supervision of Dr. Diffey and Dr. Morton from the Faculty of Education
at the University of Windsor. The results will contribute to a Major Paper and fulfill the
requirements for a Master of Education.
If you have any questions or concerns about the research, please feel to contact
Dr. Diffey or Dr. Morton at (519) 253-3000 ext. 3800, or Piero Bachetti at (519) 735-4583.
• PURPOSE OF THE STUDY
The study examines the relationship between learning style and French language
acquisition through the use of a subtitled Disney film.
• PROCEDURES
If you give permission for your child to participate in this study, please be aware of
the following:
a) This is an experiment generally affecting a second language environment; therefore,
it will primarily take place during the French period.
b) Work Involved
Your child will be involved in paper and pencil tasks (e.g., 2 brief questionnaires and
2 short multiple-choice tests). Your child will also be viewing a (5-minute) section of
a subtitled film from the Disney collection.
c) Duration: It will take place during one or two French periods.
81
d) Follow-up
Upon completion of the study, each student and parent will be invited to a
conference in which only the learning style will be discussed and its ramifications for
the student’s programming.
82
Students will be identified by a number, and their questionnaire and test will not
have their names printed on them. Only students and their parents/guardians will have the
right to know the individual result of their child. The data from the subjects of this
research may be used in subsequent research studies.
• SIGNATURE OF PARENT/GUARDIAN
I understand the information provided for the study “The impact of one’s learning
style on French Language Acquisition using a subtitled Disney film.” My questions have
been answered to my satisfaction, and I agree to have my child participate in this study.
Please complete this form and have your child return it to school as soon as possible. I have
been given a copy of this form.
• SIGNATURE OF INVESTIGATOR
_________________________ _____________________
Signature of Investigator Date
APPENDIX F
9. It’s easy to talk for long periods of time on the Yes No
phone with my friends.
For the purpose of assessing French language acquisition via subtitled film, this inventory
measures auditory and visual learning style preferences (scores in percentages).
(Rating Scale: 4 to 1)
Auditory Learning Style Raw Score Percent
2 3 7 8 9 _____/20 ______%
11 12 13 14 18 (Yes or No)
Raw Score Percent
19 22 25 28 30
_____/20 ______%
32 35 36 38 40
1 4 5 6 10 _____/20 ______%
15 16 17 20 21 (Yes or No)
Raw Score Percent
23 24 26 27 29
_____/20 ______%
31 33 34 37 39
Scenario 1: Subject remained within a 10 point (10%) interval between the auditory
and visual measures, so the sensory preference is the Learning Style with the greater
score.
Scenario 2: Subject exceeded a 10 point (10%) interval between the auditory and
visual measures; the sensory preference is the Learning Style with the greater score.
Adapted from Pat Wyman, M.A., (1996) The Center for New Discoveries in Learning,
“Personal Learning Style Inventory,” and “Personal Learning Style Inventory Scoring Key”;
and “Abiator’s Online Learning Styles Inventory Test 1” and “Abiator’s Online Learning
Styles Inventory Test 2” (2000).
APPENDIX H
Pre-Test (Form A)
Multiple Choice Instructions: Pre-Test (Form A) Student # _____
1. La belle et la bête
a) princess, wizard
b) queen, king
c) beauty, beast
d) bold, beautiful
2. Il était une fois un Prince qui vivait dans un splendide château.
a) kingdom
b) castle
c) mansion
d) villa
3. Par une nuit glaciale, une vieille mendiante se présenta au palais…
a) glacial, miser
b) cold, beggar
c) frigid, sorcerer
d) dark, wizard
4. …et lui offrit une rose en échange d’un abri pour la nuit.
a) room
b) loft
c) shelter
d) chamber
5. Prise de répulsion, le Prince la chasse et c’est alors…
a) turned her away
b) chased her
c) scolded her
d) consulted her
6. …qu’elle se transforma en une jeune et belle magicienne.
a) magistrate
b) princess
c) enchantress
d) duchess
7. Pour punir le Prince, elle le changea en une bête monstrueuse.
a) rebel
b) mock
c) punish
d) fight
8. Puis, elle lui donna un miroir magique, et la rose enchantée…
a) mirror
b) armoire
c) mirage
d) metal
9. …qui fleurirait jusqu’à son vingt et unième anniversaire.
a) would grow
b) would bloom
c) would flounder
d) would wilt
10. Pour briser le sortilège, le Prince devrait aimer une femme…
a) break, spell
b) dissolve, potion
c) dissipate, wizardry
d) control, sorrow
11. …et s’en faire aimer en retour avant la chute du dernier pétale de la rose.
a) wilted
b) last
c) first
d) falling
12. Près de là, dans un petit village, un ravissante jeune fille du nom de Belle…
a) beautiful
b) ravenous
c) sleepy
d) vivacious
13. …se hâtait, tout en saluant les villageois, chez le libraire.
a) laboratory
b) library
c) bookstore
d) newsstand
14. Qui lui fit cadeau d’un livre.
a) gift
b) box
c) receipt
d) cadence
15. La jeune fille prit un air rêveur:
a) fresh
b) exhausted
c) dreamy
d) airy
16. J’aime les romans de cape et d’épée. . .
a) daring sword fights
b) murder mysteries
c) cape crusaders
d) pirates
17. Merci, merci infiniment.
a) infinitely
b) very much
c) a million
d) kindly
18. En chemin, elle rencontra un beau chasseur du nom Gaston.
a) lumberjack
b) shoemaker
c) hunter
d) blacksmith
19. Tout le monde en ville est de mon avis, les femmes ne sont pas faites pour
lire.
a) read
b) litter
c) mock
d) lie
20. Belle, le moment est venu de laisser tes romans et de t’intéresser à des
choses plus importantes …Comme moi!
a) it’s time you ignore those rumours
b) it’s about time you got your nose out of those books
c) it’s time you forget the romance novels
d) it’s time you resign from your work
APPENDIX I
Post-Test (Form B)
Multiple Choice Instructions: Post-test (Form B)
Student #______
1. Read the item(s) in English.
2. Focus on the highlighted word(s).
3. Circle the best French equivalent.
Student # _______
______ / 20 ______ / 20
______ % ______ %
APPENDIX K
MULTI-SENSORY TEACHING
Most of the school population excels through kinaesthetic means: touching, feeling,
experiencing the material at hand. Children enter kindergarten as kinaesthetic and
tactual learners, moving and touching everything as they learn. By second or third
grade, some students have become visual learners. During the late elementary years
some students, primarily females, become auditory learners. Yet many adults,
especially males, maintain kinaesthetic and tactual strengths throughout their lives.
No one uses one of the styles exclusively, and there is usually significant overlap in
learning styles.
When one identifies one’s unique learning style, one can begin to build upon it.
Understanding learning styles is only a first step in maximizing potential and
overcoming learning differences.
The way in which people learn, affects the sort of learning style they should consider
using to store information. The three main learning styles are: visual, auditory and
kinaesthetic.
• The visual learners make up around 65% of the population, and remember 75%
of what they see and read;
• Demonstrations from the blackboard, diagrams, pictures, graphs and charts are
all valuable tools for the visual learner;
• Generally, analytic visual learners will process the printed word before pictorial
information;
• Typically they will be unhappy with a presentation where they are unable to take
detailed notes--to an extent that information does not exist for a visual learner
unless it has been seen written down;
• Some visual learners will take notes even when they have printed course notes on
the desk in front of them;
• Visual learners will tend to be most effective in written communication, symbol
manipulation etc.; and may even overreact to sounds;
• Prefers to see words written down;
• When something is being described, the visual learner prefers a picture to view;
• Prefers a time-line or some other similar diagram to remember historical events;
• Prefers written instructions rather than verbal instructions;
• Observes all physical elements in a classroom;
• Carefully organizes their learning materials;
• Enjoys decorating their learning areas;
• Prefers photographs and illustrations with printed content;
• Remembers and understands through the use of diagrams charts and maps;
• Appreciates presentations using overhead transparencies or handouts;
• Studies materials by reading notes and organizing it in outline form;
• Enjoys visual art activities.
• Write things that you want to remember down; you will remember them better
that way (i.e., instructions, directions, notes);
• Look at the person who is speaking to you; it will help you focus;
• Try to work in a quiet place. Wear earplugs if necessary. Some visual learners
do, however, like soft music in the background;
• If you miss something a teacher says or do not understand, ask politely if they
could repeat or explain;
• Most visual learners learn best alone;
• When studying, take many notes and write down lots of details;
• When trying to learn material by writing out notes, cover your notes then re-
write. Re-writing (or re-typing) will help you remember better;
• Use colour to highlight main ideas;
• Before starting an assignment, set a goal and write it down. Even post it in front
of you. Read it as you do your assignment;
• Before reading a chapter book, preview it first by scanning the pictures,
headings and so on;
• Try to put your desk away from the door and windows and close to the front of
the class;
• Write your own flashcards. Look at them often and write out the main points,
then check;
• Where possible, use charts, maps, posters, films, videos, computer software,
overhead projectors both to study from and to present your work (where
appropriate);
• Colour code and organize notes and possessions, use agenda daily.
• Diagrams;
• Graphs;
• Photographs;
• Artwork;
• Colouring books;
• Maps;
• Charts;
• Illustrations;
• Displays;
• Comic strips/Cartoons;
• Slide shows/Power Point;
• Posters;
• Collages;
• TV shows;
• Games;
• Books;
• Reading;
• Recipes;
• Newspapers;
• Writing;
• Games;
• View subtitled film (standard and reversed);
• Flashcards;
• Overhead transparencies;
• Magazines;
• Books;
• Crossword and word find puzzles;
• Letters;
• Bulletin boards;
• Workbooks;
• Information wheel;
• (Flip) quiz book.
• The auditory learner MUST HEAR things for them to have the best chance of
learning;
• Only 30% of the general school-age population is auditory;
• Generally, the auditory learner will remember 75% of what they hear in a
lecture;
• Using the auditory modality is the most difficult way to learn new material.
However, auditory learners relate most effectively to the spoken word;
• They will tend to listen to a lecture, and take notes afterwards, or rely on printed
notes;
• Often information written down will have little meaning until it has been heard--
it may help auditory learners to read written information aloud;
• Auditory learners may be sophisticated speakers, and may specialize effectively
in subjects like law or politics;
• Remembers what they say and what others say very well;
• Remembers best through verbal repetition and by saying things aloud;
• Prefers to discuss ideas they do not immediately understand;
• Remembers verbal instructions well;
• Enjoys the opportunities to present dramatically, including the use of music;
• Finds it difficult to work quietly for long periods of time;
• Easily distracted by noise, but also easily distracted by silence;
• Verbally expresses interest and enthusiasm;
• Enjoys class and group discussion.
Learning Strengths of the Auditory Learner:
• Study with a friend so you can talk about the information and HEAR it, too;
• Recite aloud the information you want to remember several times;
• Ask your teacher if you can submit some work (if appropriate) as an oral
presentation, or on audio tape;
• Make your own tapes of important points you want to remember and listen to it
repeatedly. This is especially useful for learning material for tests;
• When reading, skim through and look at the pictures, chapter titles, and other
clues and say aloud what you think this book could be about;
• Make flashcards for various concepts you want to learn and use them repeatedly,
reading them aloud. Use different colours to aid your memory;
• Set a goal for your assignments and verbalise them. Say your goals out each time
you begin work on that particular assignment;
• Read aloud when possible. You need to HEAR the words as you read them to
understand them well;
• When doing math calculations, use grid paper to help you set your sums out
correctly and in their correct columns;
• Use different colours and pictures in your notes, exercise books, etc. This will
help you remember them.
• The tactile learner learns most effectively when he/she activates the sense of
touch;
• Kinaesthetic learners make up around 5% of the population;
• The kinaesthetic learner learns most effectively when he/she involves use of the
whole body rather than just the sense of touch (hands-on);
• Predominately, kinaesthetic learners can appear slow, in that information is
normally not presented in a style that suits their learning methods;
• The tactile-kinaesthetic learner must do things for themselves to have the best
chance of learning;
• The tactile-kinaesthetic learner remember best the things they experience, from
touch to movement; and learns skills by imitation and practice;
• Getting information from written materials or by listening is not as easy as the
auditory or visual methods;
• Remembers what they DO very well;
• Remembers best through getting physically involved in whatever is being learnt;
• Enjoys acting out a situation relevant to the study topic;
• Enjoys making and creating;
• Enjoys the opportunities to build and physically handle learning materials;
• Will take notes to keep busy but will not often use them;
• Enjoys the hands-on experience in using computers;
• Physically expresses interest and enthusiasm by getting active and excited;
• Has trouble staying still or in one place for a long time;
• Enjoys hands-on activities;
• Tends to want to fiddle with small objects while listening or working;
• Tends to want to eat snacks while studying.
• Remembers what they DO, what they experience with their hands or bodies
(movement and touch);
• Enjoys using tools or lessons which involve active/practical participation;
• Can remember how to do things after they’ve done them once (motor memory);
• Have good motor coordination;
• May listen to music while studying;
• May skim through reading material to get the main idea of what it’s about
before settling down to read it verbatim.
Tactile:
• Modeling;
• Scrapbooks;
• Colouring books;
• Artistic creations;
• Dioramas;
• Needlework;
• Posters;
• Task cards;
• Blackboard/whiteboard activities;
• Sandpaper/felt letters;
• Games;
• Calculators;
• Puzzles;
• Collections;
• Workbooks;
• Sculptures;
• Mobiles;
• Displays;
• Collages;
• Info wheels;
• Origami;
• Learning circles;
• Computers;
• Cut-and-paste activities.
Kinaesthetic:
• Demonstrations;
• Dance;
• Products;
• Movement games;
• Rocking and reading;
• Make a video show;
• Dress characters;
• Role-play/interviews;
• Charades;
• Pantomimes;
• Plays;
• Projects;
• Walking and Reading;
• Puppet Shows;
• Musical performances;
• Science labs/Experiments.
APPENDIX L
The level of the cognitive taxonomy identifies the level of complexity. The higher the
taxonomic level, the more complex the learning involved. Bloom’s taxonomy can be used to
plan instruction based on learning outcomes. For example, in the cognitive domain, the
teacher decides whether students should know, comprehend, apply, analyze, synthesize, or
evaluate. The teacher states these decisions as performance objectives—what students will
know and be able to do.
A teacher selects which level of intellectual ability to use (level 1 to 6); an example is
included, which links critical thinking and subtitled (DVD) film. The teacher uses the
appropriate key word(s) in the assessment process. The key words used and the type of
questions asked may aid in the establishment and encouragement of critical thinking (in a
second language setting), especially in the higher levels.
Level 1: Knowledge – the recall of specific facts, methods, and processes, patterns, and
structures. The focus of these outcomes is remembering. For example, being able to list the
four characters in a subtitled film is a knowledge outcome.
Key words a teacher may use in the assessment process: who, what, why, when, where,
which, choose, find, how, define, label, show, spell, list, match, name, relate, tell, recall,
select, identify, quote, name.
Questions:
What is . . . ? How is . . . ?
Where is . . . ? When did _______ happen?
How did ______ happen? How would you explain . . . ?
Why did . . . ? How would you describe . . . ?
When did . . . ? Can you recall . . . ?
How would you show . . . ? Can you select . . . ?
Who were the main . . . ? Can you list three . . . ?
Which one . . . ? Who was . . . ?
Level 2: Comprehension – the first level of understanding. At this level, the learner can
know what is being communicated and make use of the idea appropriately. For example,
after having viewed a subtitled film, a student may be able to translate various nouns,
verbs, and other parts of speech.
Key words a teacher may use in the assessment process: compare, contrast, demonstrate,
interpret, explain, extend, illustrate, infer, outline, relate, rephrase, translate, summarize,
show, classify
Questions:
How would you classify the type of . . . ?
How would you compare . . . ? contrast . . . ?
Will you state or interpret in your own words . . . ?
How would you rephrase the meaning . . . ?
What facts or ideas show . . . ?
What is the main idea of . . . ?
Which statements support . . . ?
Can you explain what is happening . . . what is meant . . .?
What can you say about . . . ?
Which is the best answer . . . ?
How would you summarize . . . ?
Level 3: Application – ability to use information in new situations. The information can be
general ideas, rules, methods, principles, or theories that must be remembered and then
applied. For example, a student may construct a model of a favourite scene from the
subtitled movie.
Key words a teacher may use in the assessment process: apply, build, change, choose,
construct, develop, discover, interview, make use of, organize, experiment with, manipulate,
plan, select, solve, utilize, model, identify, demonstrate, calculate, complete, relate, change,
Questions:
How would you use . . . ?
What examples can you find to . . . ?
How would you solve _______ using what you have learned . . . ?
How would you organize _______ to show . . . ?
How would you show your understanding of . . . ?
What approach would you use to . . . ?
How would you apply what you learned to develop . . . ?
What other way would you plan to . . . ?
What would result if . . . ?
Can you make use of the facts to . . . ?
What elements would you choose to change . . . ?
What facts would you select to show . . . ?
What questions would you ask in an interview with . . . ?
Key words a teacher may use in assessment: analyze, categorize, classify, diagram,
differentiate, separate, dissect, divide, examine, inspect, simplify, survey, take part in, test
for, distinguish, list, distinction, theme, relationships, connect, arrange, function, motive,
inference, assumption, conclusion
Questions:
What are the parts or features of . . . ?
How is _______ related to . . . ?
Why do you think . . . ?
What is the theme . . . ?
What motive is there . . . ?
Can you list the parts . . . ?
What inference can you make . . . ?
What conclusions can you draw . . . ?
How would you classify . . . ?
How would you categorize . . . ?
Can you identify the difference parts . . . ?
What evidence can you find . . . ?
What is the relationship between . . . ?
Can you make a distinction between . . . ?
What is the function of . . . ?
What ideas justify . . . ?
Level 5: Synthesis – ability to put elements together to form a new whole. For example,
after students have viewed a subtitled film, they can engage in the writing process (i.e.,
outline, draft an essay; re-write or correct translations). Students are encouraged to relate
knowledge from several areas (i.e., Science (grade 8) – students can write a script, and use a
video camera to tape a scene and show lighting effects and colour mixing to attain a desired
effect in a movie scene; Art, Music and Drama – create backgrounds, costumes, for their
own movie (with parental approval) ensuring it has a beginning, middle and end, and an
appropriate moral. Students may change a character’s outcome, or elaborate and change a
dialogue.
Key Words: choose, combine, compile, compose, construct, create, design, develop, estimate,
formulate, generalize, imagine, invent, integrate, make up, originate, plan, predict, prepare,
propose, solve, solution, suppose, discuss, modify, change, original, improve, adapt,
minimize, maximize, delete, theorize, elaborate, test, improve, happen, change, What if?
Re-write.
Questions:
What changes would you make to solve . . . ?
How would you improve . . . ?
What would happen if . . . ?
Can you elaborate on the reason . . . ?
Can you propose an alternative . . . ?
Can you invent . . . ?
How would you adapt ________ to create a different . . . ?
How could you change (modify) the plot (plan) . . . ?
What could be done to minimize (maximize) . . . ?
What way would you design . . . ?
What could be combined to improve (change) . . . ?
Suppose you could _______, what would you do . . . ?
How would you test . . . ?
Can you formulate a theory for . . . ?
Can you predict the outcome if . . . ?
How would you estimate the results for . . . ?
What facts can you compile . . . ?
Can you construct a model that would change . . . ?
Can you think of an original way for the . . . ?
Level 6: Evaluation – judgements based on criteria of value or worth. For example, after
having viewed a subtitled film, students may defend an opinions by making judgments
about information (i.e., an edited portion of the “Erin Brokowich” film may be used).
Arguments may be debated in a mock trial, “Industrialists vs. Environmentalists, or the
“People vs. Company Y.” Other classmates could make choices based on the reasoned
arguments. The students will be engaged in gathering and verifying evidence, as well as
recognizing subjectivity (The duration of this activity could span over a few weeks).
Key Words: assess, award, choose, conclude, convince, criticize, decide, defend, determine,
dispute, evaluate, judge, justify, measure, compare, mark, rank, rate, recommend, rule on,
select, agree, interpret, explain, appraise, prioritize, opinion, summarize, support,
importance, criteria, prove, disprove, assess, influence, perceive, value, estimate, influence,
deduct
Questions:
Do you agree with the actions . . . ? with the outcomes . . . ?
What is your opinion of . . . ?
How would you prove . . . ? disprove . . . ?
Can you assess the value or importance of . . . ?
Would it be better if . . . ?
Why did they (the character) choose . . . ?
What would you recommend . . . ?
How would you rate the . . . ?
What would you cite to defend the actions . . . ?
How would you evaluate . . . ?
How could you determine . . . ?
What choice would you have made . . . ?
What would you select . . . ?
How would you prioritize . . . ?
What judgment would you make about . . . ?
Based on what you know, how would you explain . . . ?
What information would you use to support the view . . . ?
How would you justify . . . ?
What data was used to make the conclusion . . . ?
Why was it better that . . . ?
How would you prioritize the facts . . . ?
How would you compare the ideas . . . ? characters . . . ?
VITA AUCTORIS
Piero Bachetti was born in 1969 in Windsor, Ontario. He graduated from the
providing English and Italian translations for various agencies worldwide. He takes
great pleasure in spending time with his family, playing his guitar, and reading great
works from the Italian Renaissance. He graduated from the University of Windsor
Language Acquisition.