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HISTORY OF ANGLO-SAXON
LITERATURE

Subject: History of English Literature

Class: MA English (Part - I) (Morning)

Semester: First

Prepared By: Syed Arif Ali

Submitted To: Ms Sajida

Dated: 10 September, 2009

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S. No. Contents Page No.

1. Introduction To Anglo-Saxon Literature 1-2

2. Poetry In Anglo-Saxon Literature 2-4

• Anglo-Saxon Poetry At Early Age

• Features Of Anglo-Saxon Poetry
• Common Themes In Anglo-Saxon Poetry

3. Genres in Anglo-Saxon Poetry 4 -5

• Heroic Poetry
• Elegiac Poetry
4. Major Poetical Works in Anglo-Saxon Literature 5-7

• Beowulf
• Dream of the Rood
• Cædmon's Hymn
• Battle of Maldon
• Anglo Saxon Chronicle
• The Wanderer
• The Seafarer

5. Prominent Poets In Anglo-Saxon Literature 8-10

• Aldhelm
• St. Bede
• Caedmon
• King Alfred
• Cynewulf

6. Prose In Anglo-Saxon Literature 10

7. The Role Of Women In Anglo-Saxon Literature 10-12

8. Bibliography 13
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Introduction To Anglo-Saxon Literature

It has always been humans’ instinct to express their aesthetic sense and artistic skills to

rejoice and literature is one of most expressive and finest forms to present different

aspects and feelings of humans. The literature, especially poetry, has been existing since

there was no means of writing it and it gradually developed from oral to written. Among

the old eras, one noteworthy era was of Anglo-Saxon literature. Anglo-Saxon people

were too much inclined towards fighting and wars which also influenced their literature.

They were used to getting entertained by the poets when they returned from a battle and

the poets were of high significance as well. Therefore we can find much literary works

based on the theme of the great display of bravery, courage and heroics. The Anglo-

Saxons were actually pagans but a religious effect is quite noticeable in written poems.

Even they also converted to Christianity later on. Anglo-Saxon literature went through a

great deal of changes since many of the poems were written after centuries of their oral

composition. They were mainly written by Christian monks; among them the most noted

is St. Bede. He wrote Caedmon’s oral poems. Therefore the Anglo-Saxon literary works

also obtained the religious influence over them. This religious influence can be observed

in poems such as “Beowulf”, “The Wanderer,” and “The Seafarer”. Although Beowulf is

a heroic poem, it does depict many religiously composed verses and ideas since it was

turned into a manuscript by a Christian poet. Anglo-Saxon literature was influenced by

Latin literature same as Greek inspired Latin literature. It was Latin who enabled and

educated Anglo-Saxons to use literary instruments properly. Anglo-Saxon poetry is

divided into two types; the first is heroic Germanic pre-Christian poetry and the other is

the Christian poetry.

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There are almost 400 extant manuscripts from the era of Anglo-Saxons. The most

noteworthy and significant existing manuscripts include “Beowulf”, “Anglo-Saxon

Chronicle”, “Cædmon's Hymn”, “The Exeter Book”, “The Vercelli Book”, and “The

Nowell Codex”. The genre in which Anglo-Saxon literature was written consists of epic

poetry, hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legal works, chronicles, and riddles.

The Anglo-Saxon literature was created between 650 and 1100.

Poetry In Anglo-Saxon Literature

We have no clear clues of particular poetic rules Anglo-Saxons applied in their poetry.

Whatever we know about their poetic style and rules is all based on present examination.

The earliest broadly acknowledged theory was presented by Eduard Sievers in 1885. He

told apart five distinctive alliterative patterns. John C. Pope’s theory of musical notation

to track the verse patterns was also accepted. The theory of Eduard Sievers of alliterative

verse gives the clearest comprehension of Old English poetry. The system is based on

accent, alliteration, the number of vowels, and patterns of syllabic stress. It is based on

five versions on base-verse scheme; any one of the five categories can be used in any

verse. The system was inherited from and exists in one form or another in all of the older

Germanic languages.

More or less, Old English verses are parted in half by a pause; the pause is called a

"caesura." Each half-line consists of two stressed syllables. The first stressed syllable of

the second half-line alliterates with one or both of the stressed syllables of the first half-

line. The second stressed syllable of the second half-line does not alliterate with either of

the stressed syllables of the first half. For example:

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fyrene fremman feond on helle.

("to perpetrate torment, fiend of hell.")

-- Beowulf, line 101

As we know that Anglo-Saxon poetry was mainly oral and it had the heroics themes, and

it, later on, was properly written by Christian monks who left a religious impression on it.

The other noticeable styles found in Anglo-Saxon poetry are kenning, variation, and

litotes.

Anglo-Saxon Poetry At Early Age

The poetry was always there in rough form among the Anglo-Saxons. They used to sing

ballads whenever they had good deal of hunting or they returned from a war having

defeated the enemy in the battlefield. It was not an organised effort but random. Among

the gleeful crowd, any of them could cry out loud a random verse and the rest would say

it after him rhythmically and some more lines could be added by others as well. This

pattern inclined them towards the composition of complete ballads. it was the time when

minstrels were developed. They even became professionals who made their living by

roaming around the villages singing the legendary ballads or their own composed ones.

Later on, these minstrels also served at courts of the kings and sang the heroic ballads for

the warriors to entertain them. Since it was completely oral, the work is lost. But those

popular ballads and minstrel poetry gradually developed into epic poetry because it

passed on to others through word-of-mouth and other poets added into the poetry.

Features Of Anglo-Saxon Poetry

The Anglo-Saxon poetry has three main factors which are kennings, variations, and

litotes.
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Kenning

Kenning is a lyrical compound which attracts reader or listener making a vivid

picture. It has an intentional effort to be vague and mysterious.

For example, the kenning for the word “blood” would be written as “wound-

dew”.

Variation

Variation is a repetition of a word used earlier in the verse with a different word.

For example, the word “glory” is the reputation for “valor” is a variation.

Litotes

Litotes is a type of oral irony. This is expressed in form of the overstatement such

as in Beowulf when the hero is in the clasp of Grendel’s mother, and the poet

writes repeatedly that what deep trouble Beowulf is in. It was used similarly used

in the case of the understatement. Litotes aims to intensify the feeling in the

poetry.

Common Themes In Anglo-Saxon Poetry

The themes in Anglo-Saxon poetry start with heroics such as “Beowulf” and gradually

move towards to the religious themes of Gospels. The following themes and subjects are

commonly found in Anglo-Saxon literary works: Battle, war, warriors; seas; storms;

ravens; eagles; wolves; death, dying; fate, destiny; nobles, rulers; weapons and armor.

Genres in Anglo-Saxon Poetry

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The Anglo-Saxon poetry remained under growth for centuries. It started as pagan and

then evolved to Christian religious poetry and from oral to manuscript. Therefore

it gathered numerous genres in it.

Heroic Poetry

The Anglo-Saxons were ever ready to fight and go top the war. It was their in their blood

to look for battles. The warriors were entertained by the poets when they came

back from a war being triumph. The poets told them the stories of heroes,

gallantry, valor, etc. as we can find much discussed poem “Beowulf” has many

fighting depictions against the monster and the dragon. There is heroic poem

which is actually a retelling of Beowulf namely “The Fight at Finnsburh”.

Waldere is another heroic poem dealing with the life of Walter of Aquitaine.

Widsith is also a heroic one pertaining to Eormanric and the Goths from 4th

century. Moreover Anglo-Saxon Chronicle has heroic poems. They were so

influenced by this heroic poetry that they thought of turning Gospel into heroic

poetic manner.

Elegiac Poetry

The elegiac poems describe wisdom and the ups and downs of life. The Exeter Book has

a numerous poems which fall under the category of elegies. The noticeable elegiac poems

are “The Ruin”, “The Wanderer”, “The Seafarer”, “Wulf and Eadwacer”, “The Wife's

Lament”, and The Husband's Message.

Major Poetical Works in Anglo-Saxon Literature

We might not have the slightest notion of Anglo-Saxon poetry in today’s world if it

remained unwritten. But luckily we do have such great literary works with us in written
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form now to study and learn. Some of the great poems include “The Battle of

Brunanburh”, “The Battle of Maldon”, “Deor”, “Widsith”, “Beowulf”, “Cædmon's

Hymn”, “The Wanderer”, “The Seafarer”, “Waldere”, “The Fight at Finnsburh”, “Dream

of the Rood” and “Anglo Saxon Chronicle”.

Beowulf

Beowulf is the longest, oldest and a complete surviving epic poem consisting of

3182 verses in Anglo-Saxon literature. It was made as an oral composition and it

is rich in formulas. It was actually conceived in 700 AD and then turned into a

manuscript by a Christian poet in c.1000. The real creator of this epic poem is

unknown. The poem is heroic work, but also displays human wisdom, honour,

loyalty, and destiny.

The poem describes the heroic acts of Beowulf who comes save the King

Hrothgar and his people from a fierce monster, Grendel. In a massive action,

Beowulf kills the monster and then his revenge-seeking monster mother as well.

When he returns, he, after some time becomes the king his own tribe. He finally

meets his death fighting against fire-breathing dragon which has become a plague

to his people, for somebody has stolen a piece of treasure he is guarding. Beowulf

is given a royal burial.

Dream of the Rood

The dream of the rood is the classical poem written in the form of traditional

riddle style. In the poem a person dreams about a Cross which is extended to the

sky adorned with jewels, and sometimes covered with blood while every creature
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is worshipping it. The Cross tells the event of Crucifixion. The poem plays a

significant because it guides people and lead to the righteous path.

Cædmon's Hymn

As we know that Caedmon’s oral compositions later turned into manuscripts are

the oldest texts to survive. “Cædmon's Hymn” is one of the oldest extant works

from 7th century.

Battle of Maldon

Battle of Maldon is a heroic poem of 325 verses. It tells about the celebration of

Earl Byrhtnoth and his people who fell in a combat against the Vikings in 991. It

is regarded as one of the most excellent works. But its beginning and end are lost.

Anglo Saxon Chronicle

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle carries numerous heroic poems. The first poem from 937

is called “The Battle of Brunanburh”. It is about celebration of the triumph of

King Athelstan against the Scots and Norse. There are five shorter poems: capture

of the Five Boroughs (942); coronation of King Edgar (973); death of King Edgar

(975); death of Prince Alfred (1036); and death of King Edward the Confessor

(1065).

The Wanderer

The Wanderer is about the life of an old man who witnesses an assault which took

place when he was young. His close friends and relatives were murdered in the

attack. The memories imprint on his mind. Then the old wise man gets involved

in warfare to protect society.

The Seafarer
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The Seafarer is the story of a grave banishment from home to the sea. The only

hope of salvation is the ecstasy of heaven.

Prominent Poets In Anglo-Saxon Literature

There are five eminent poets namely Aldhelm, St. Bede, Cademon, King Alfred and

Cynewulf.

Aldhelm

Aldhelm (640-709) is the first recognized English poet. He was the bishop of

Sherborne and founder of Malmesbury. He was a learned man and skilled at

writing religious and social, and political issues. He used to say verses

extemporarily on a harp standing on a bridge leading to Malmesbury so that his

flock did not stray. He was exalted by St. Bede for his multifarious works. It is

assumed that here the flock in fact refers to astray people not to the sheep. He

wrote sermons, treatise, and an epistle for his godson, King Aldfrith. Aldhelm’s

most of the Latin work is extant, but his English works are completely lost.

St. Bede

St. Bede is the one who wrote Caedmon’s oral verses. Bede’s Latin works survive

in thirty-six complete manuscripts, but like Bede’s surviving English work

consists of only five lines. Bede also used the modern style of dating years AD in

literature first, though, he did not invent it. Bede has been read through all the

generation ever since it was written. He also translated the Gospel into English,

but the text is lost as well. When he was on his deathbed, he sang verses of St

Paul and then composed his death song afterwards.

Caedmon
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Caedmon belonged to 7th century. He was from Whitby, Northumbria and worked

as a farmhand. He is regarded as the father of Old English poetry, for he is the one

who first used Holy Scriptures in oral verse form and his work is the oldest to

survive as well. Since he was not an educated person, he could not write his own

verses. It was especially St. Bede who wrote his verses. Caedmon used to avoid

and escape when he was asked sing in the feast. He did the same one day in a

feast and went and slept in a stable. There he had a dream and saw a man asking

him to sing. He replied in negative, but the person suggested him to sing about the

Divine and Creation of all things. Thus he started singing admiring God. Since

then, his main theme based on Divine and religion.

King Alfred

King Alfred is the youngest son of King Aethelwulf. He excelled at reading when

he was twelve and also learnt Latin at the age of thirty-five. He reigned from 871

to 899. He was also entitled of Roman consul by the Pope in 853 when he came to

Rome. When he became the king, there was not even a single priest who could

read or write in Latin and English. His chief achievement is the revival of English

culture and literature. He translated most significant Latin text into English and

encouraged vernacular writing. He also helped the laity to gain knowledge but his

efforts were did not bear fruits in his era, but it worked out in the times of his

grandson, Edgar. It was his era when “Anglo-Saxon Chronicle” began.

Cynewulf

Cynewulf is the most mysterious figure among the known poets. There is no

account which can provide details about him. But research concludes that he was
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from 9th century. We know about Cynewulf’s being a poet just because he signed

his poems. His known works are “The Fates of the Apostles” and “Elene” from

“Vercelli Book” and “Christ II” and “Juliana” form “Exeter Book”.

Prose In Anglo-Saxon Literature

There is no doubt that Anglo-Saxons had the tradition of oral poetry and they brought it

to Britain with them as well when they invaded. However, there is no evidence available

that they had the tradition of prose. It can be safely said that the Anglo-Saxons had no

origins of prose. The art of prose, in fact, initiated much later after their invasion. It is a

common phenomenon in literature if the poetry comes first, then prose. The prose which

is extant from old English is more in quantity than poetry. The most of the prose consists

of sermons and Latin translations of religious works. The origination of prose can,

without any doubt, be attributed to King Alfred. He translated Bede’s “Ecclesiastical

History”, Orosius’ “Histories”, Gregory’s “Pastoral care” and “Dialogues”, Augustine’s

“Soliloquies” and Boethius’ “Consolation of Philosophy”. He also translated fifty Psalms

into Old English. In all this process, he was accompanied by many other well-known

writers. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was most likely started in King Alfred’s reign and it

was carried on for more than 300 years as a historical record of Anglo-Saxon history.

The Role Of Women In Anglo-Saxon Literature

It seems very evident in Anglo-Saxon literature that it highlights the role of men as

warriors with a male-dominated society. There is barely a mention or reference of the

role of women. Even if they are mentioned, their character is not given consideration;
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instead they are referred as whom they belong to. Their main role is merely described as

a cupbearer or a peacemaker.

It is well described in “Beowulf” when there is a feast for the king and the warriors. The

women just worked as cupbearer which is found in the following verses in the poem

“Beowulf”.

"Sometimes, Hrothgar's daughter distributed ale to older ranks,

in order on the benches I heard the company call her Freawaru

as she made her rounds, presenting men with the gem-studded bowl."

(Beowulf ll. 2020-2025. 75)

"So the Helming woman went on her rounds,

queenly and dignified, decked out in rings,

offering the goblets to all ranks."

(Beowulf ll.620-622. 45).

The women were also used to end fights between tribes. They women belonging to some

influential class were married off to bring peace. The following verses from Beowulf also

depict this situation.

"A queen should weave peace"

(Beowulf l.1942. 74)

there are the 'hopes this woman will heal old wounds and grievous feuds."

(Beowulf ll.2027-2028. 75).

Women have only been shown as important and influential figures as an abbess, Hilda, in

"Caedmon's Hymn" and as a female monster, Grendel's mother, in “Beowulf”. So the

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women have significant role only if they possess extraordinary or strange position and

ability in the society. Overall, it is clearly observed that in Anglo-Saxon literature,

women are presented as submissive creature.

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Bibliography

• A History of English Literature By Michael Alexander

• A Critical History of English Literature By David Daiches

• Anglo-Saxon Literature By John Earle

Available at www.scribd.com

Webliography

• www.4shared.com

• www.wikipedia.com

• http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Anglo-Saxon_literature.aspx

• http://csis.pace.edu/grendel/projf20001a/onouraniwomen.html

• http://classiclit.about.com/library/bl-etexts/rfletcher/bl-rfletcher-history-
preface.htm