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BENEFICIAL

MANAGEMENT
PRACTICES
Environmental Manual
for Hog Producers in
Alber ta

E N V I R O N M E N T
E N V I R O N M E N T
E N V I R O N M E N T
FOREWORD
Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for
Hog Producers in Alberta
These farm practices guidelines were developed for Alberta pork producers through the coopera-
tion of industry, government and interested stakeholders to create greater awareness and under-
standing of beneficial management practices for the environment for pork producers in Alberta.
Information presented in this publication is based on the best available research data and years of
experience. The guidelines presented are intended to provide a range of management options for
hog producers of various sizes. This document is a living document and will be updated
regularly to incorporate new proven technologies and information on environmental practices.
Individuals not experienced in pork production practices should not extract portions of this
publication, nor draw inference, without considering all aspects of production. These guidelines
should not be adopted literally into legislation, in whole or in part, by any level of government.

Developed by:
Alberta Pork
Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural Development

Funded by:
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Agriculture Initiatives
Western Economic Diversification Fund
Alberta Pork
Alberta Agriculture, Food & Rural Development
Alberta Environmental Sustainable Agriculture
Canadian Adaptation and Rural Development Fund

Acknowledgements:
Alberta Pork
Alberta Agriculture, Food & Rural Development
Intensive Livestock Working Group
Texas A & M University
Landwise
The Wilson Law Office
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge Research Center
Alberta Environment
Alberta Association of Agricultural Fieldmen
Natural Resources Conservation Board
Prairie Farm Rehabilitation Administration, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Canadian Farm Business Management Council
Environmental Law Center
Alberta Health and Wellness
University of Alberta
Aherne Nutrition Consulting
West Peake Consulting Ltd.
Agviro, Inc.
Prairie Swine Centre Inc.

September 2002 1
Disclaimer
The primary purpose of the Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in
Alberta is to assist producers in implementing beneficial management practices.

It is important to be aware that while the authors have taken every effort to ensure the accuracy and
completeness of the Manual, the Manual should not be considered the final word on the areas of law
and practice that it covers. Producers should seek the advice of appropriate professionals and experts as
the facts of individual situations may differ from those set out in the Manual.

All information (including descriptions of or references to products, persons, web sites, services or
publications) is provided entirely "as is" and the authors make no representations, warranties or
conditions, either expressed or implied, in connection with the use of or reliance upon this information.
This information is provided to the recipient entirely at the risk of the recipient and, because the
recipient assumes full responsibility, the authors shall not be liable for any claims, damages or losses
of any kind based on any theory of liability arising out of the use of or reliance upon this information
(including omissions, inaccuracies, typographical errors and infringement of third party rights).
BENEFICIAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES: ENVIRONMENTAL
MANUAL FOR HOG PRODUCERS IN ALBERTA

INDEX
1.0 Introduction 6.0 Housing, Equipment and Animal
1.1 Client and Objective Management
1.2 Background 6.1 Manure Collection
6.2 Liquid Manure Systems
2.0 Potential Environmental Risks and 6.3 Pen Design and Management
Nuisance Associated with Hog 6.4 Solid Manure Systems
Production 6.5 Feeder Management
2.1 Air Quality 6.6 Water Management
2.2 Odour 6.7 Ventilation
2.3 Dust 6.8 Dust Control
2.4 Gases 6.9 Safety Precautions for Managing
2.5 Pesticides Livestock Manure
2.6 Pharmaceuticals 6.10 Feeds and Nutrition
2.7 Pathogens 6.11 References
2.8 Soil Erosion and Compaction
2.9 Excess Nutrients 7.0 Manure Collection, Storage,
2.10 Groundwater and Transportation and Treatment
Pollution Concerns 7.1 Design Considerations
2.11 Nuisance 7.2 Types of Storage
2.12 References 7.3 Runoff Control from
2.13 Appendix: Disease Risks to Manure Storage
Humans and Livestock from 7.4 Manure Storage Capacity
Hog Manure 7.5 Maintenance and Monitoring
7.6 Manure Transportation
3.0 Environmental Obligations and 7.7 Manure Treatment
Regulatory Approvals for Livestock 7.8 References
Producers
3.1 Environmental Law Relating to
Hog Production – Environmental 8.0 Land Application of Manure
Protection Standards 8.1 Nutrient Value of Manure
3.2 Regulatory Approvals for Hog 8.2 Manure and Soil Analyses
Operations 8.3 Crop Nutrient Requirements
8.4 Method of Manure Application
4.0 Preventing, Managing and Resolving 8.5 Time of Application
Conflict 8.6 Calibration of Spreading
4.1 What is Conflict? Equipment
4.2 Preventing Conflict 8.7 Record Keeping
4.3 Managing Conflict 8.8 Other Beneficial Management
4.4 Resolving Conflict Practices
4.5 References 8.9 Manure Management Planning
Case Study
5.0 SiteSelection and Planning 8.10 Appendix: Calibration of
Manure Applicator
5.1 Site Selection
5.2 Site Planning
9.0 Disposal of Farm Waste
5.3 Shutting Down Livestock
Operations 9.1 Disposal of Dead Animals
5.4 References 9.2 Disposal of Veterinary Waste
9.3 Disposal of Chemical Farm Waste
9.4 Leaks and Spills
9.5 Options for Disposing of
Contaminated Soils
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Client and Objective
1.1.1 Purpose
1.1.2 Use of the guidelines

1.2 Background
1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Client and Objective


This document was prepared for Alberta • The potential risks of livestock production
hog producers. on air, water and soil.
The objective is to use beneficial practices • Legal requirements of livestock operations.
and nutrient management planning to reduce • Social obligations of livestock operations.
the impact of livestock production on soil, air • Site planning and management.
and water. As well, the practices outlined in • Nutrient management.
this manual will serve to reduce the nuisance • Alternative methods of manure treatment.
effects of livestock production. This • Safe and responsible storage and disposal
publication will provide information of agri-chemicals, petroleum products,
on the following subject areas: medical waste and dead animals.

1.1.1 Purpose
The purpose of the Beneficial Management With the hog industry’s commitment to
Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog advancing management practices, as
Producers in Alberta is to document, for demonstrated in the evolution of hog
producers and society, management options production over the past few decades, this
that are environmentally sound, comply with manual will be updated as new standards
existing regulations and are economically are adopted.
obtainable. These guidelines describe beneficial
Due to local and regional conditions, not management practices designed to protect
all of the practices herein pertain to any one the environment and minimize nuisances
specific hog operation. Rather, one or a such as odour, flies, and dust.
combination of these, coupled with other
alternatives, may provide optimal results.

1.1.2 Use of the guidelines


Experienced pork producers may use these portions of this publication without
guidelines to evaluate and improve their considering the entire environmental
current environmental management practices. context of the operation. Individuals who
When seeking a solution to a particular issue, do not possess a strong knowledge of pork
all aspects of environmentally acceptable farm production should not assess an operation
management should be taken into account. It based solely on this publication.
is not recommended that individuals extract

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6 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
1.2 Background
In the past twenty years, Alberta’s hog be aware of this attitude shift and give it due
industry has undergone significant changes, consideration in the management of their
both in size and production methods. Hog operations.
production is a specialized industry that is Alberta Pork, along with its many partners,
highly integrated with crop production. In is leading efforts to maintain and develop an
many cases, hog operations have become environmentally responsible, sustainable and
much larger and more capital intensive. prosperous pork industry. It is continually
At the same time, the character of Alberta’s developing practices, standards and
rural residential population has also seen guidelines to assist the pork industry to
significant changes. New rural housing be environmentally sustainable, globally
represents a major personal investment and competitive and publicly acceptable.
owners are sensitive to any activity that may Furthermore, hog producers have a greater
affect enjoyment and/or property value. understanding that, to remain
The combined result of the changes in the competitive in world markets, those involved
hog industry and in rural residential in the production of pork need to use
development has occasionally created common sense approaches, reasonable
conflicts. In today’s changing society, people management skills appropriate for their
in general are less tolerant of perceived operation, and accepted scientific knowledge
infringements on their rights. This attitude to avoid detrimental environmental impacts
extends to both rural residents and other and undue environmental risk.
agricultural producers. Hog producers must

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8 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
2.0 POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL
RISKS AND NUISANCE ASSOCIATED
WITH HOG PRODUCTION
2.1 Air Quality

2.2 Odour

2.3 Dust

2.4 Gases

2.5 Pesticides

2.6 Pharmaceuticals

2.7 Pathogens
2.7.1 Modes of disease transmission from manure

2.8 Soil Erosion and Compaction

2.9 Excess Nutrients


2.9.1 Excess nutrients and water

2.10 Groundwater Pollution Concerns

2.11 Nuisance

2.12 References

2.13 Appendix: Disease Risks to Humans and Livestock


from Hog Manure
2.0 POTENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL
RISKS AND NUISANCE
ASSOCIATED WITH HOG
PRODUCTION
2.1 Air Quality
The three primary sources of odour and air ammonia, hydrogen sulphide, methane,
contaminants from hog production are barns, sulphur and nitrogen compounds.
manure storages and land application of Gases and particulate matter are of the
manure. Dust and fumes from increased greatest concern to the people working directly
traffic associated with livestock production with livestock, because these people are
sites can also reduce air quality. The presence exposed to the highest concentrations of
of contaminants does not equate to an contaminated air. In general, neighbours are
environment or health risk unless minimum at a minimal risk from air contaminants
threshold values are exceeded. Air contami- because these contaminants are well diluted
nants released from these sources may and dispersed in the air after travelling very
include: micro-organisms, particulate matter short distances from their source.
(dust), endotoxins and gases. Gases include

2.2 Odour
The primary complaint about livestock • Psychological and physical health effects
operations is odour. The impact of odour on are not necessarily independent.
human health and well-being causes concern, • Odour from hogs is made up of about 160
especially when odours are disagreeable and compounds. Humans have many and
persistent. However, odour is generally varied responses to these compounds.
considered a nuisance rather than a health • The proportion and characteristics of odour
risk to neighbours because of the degree of contributed by each of the primary sources
dilution and dispersion that occurs within (barns, storages, and land application) is
short distances from the odour source. not well understood. Research is underway
There is a difference between the psycho- to characterize odours released from each
logical and physiological health effects related of these sources.
to odour exposure. Psychological effects, such • Odour intensity and odour offensiveness
as irritation, can result from exposure to may have different indicators.
odour and often occur at levels well below • Combining different odorants can have
those that can directly harm human health. positive and negative effects on intensity
Physiological effects can occur through and offensiveness. These effects are not
exposure to specific compounds that make easily predicted.
up odour, for example, asphyxiation from Eliminating all odour from livestock
exposure to elevated levels of hydrogen operations is not feasible. However, there are
sulphide (H2S) in a confined space. The management practices that can control odour
human health effects of poultry and swine impact within reasonable limits. Odour
facilities have been studied and more research mitigation practices should strive to reduce
is underway in this area. the nuisance to neighbours, by minimizing
It is difficult to evaluate odour and its the frequency, intensity, duration and
health effects for the following reasons: offensiveness (FIDO) of odours.

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10 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
2.3 Dust
Dust is composed of fine aerosol particles Total dust includes all airborne particles,
in suspension. These particles are various while respirable dust is in the size category of
shapes and sizes and are both inorganic less than 10 microns. Exposure to fine particles
and organic. of dust, less than 10 microns, can cause eye
• Organic dust is biologically active and may and throat irritation and can potentially
react in the respiratory tract of humans and contribute to respiratory conditions, such as
hogs. Organic dust includes hog dandruff, asthma or chronic bronchitis. Organic air-
dried manure and urine, feed, mold, fungi, borne particles in hog barns generally have a
bacteria, and endotoxins produced by high protein content and have been associated
bacteria and viruses. Seventy to 90 percent with allergic reactions. Dust masks are essential
of the dust in animal housing is organic. to protect the health of barn workers.
• Inorganic dust is composed of numerous Dust and particulate matter exhausted from
aerosols from building materials and the livestock facilities does not represent a direct
environment (concrete, insulation, soil). health risk to neighbours, because the
Air quality in livestock facilities can affect survival rates of airborne micro-organisms
the health of humans and animals if they are between the source and the neighbours is
exposed to high concentrations of contaminated considered very low and the dilution factor of
air. Occupational Health and Safety the air high. However, airborne particulate
Administration (OHSA) recommends that matter can contribute to odour and dust, and
total dust should not exceed 10 mg/m3 and may be a carrier of odour.
respirable dust should not exceed 5 mg/m3.

2.4 Gases
Gases emitted from livestock operations nitrous oxide (N2O) are the main greenhouse
may have an impact on global warming, acid gases in the atmosphere. Increases in the
rain, nuisance odour and water quality. Gases concentration of all of these gases except
can be generated in the barn, and during water vapour, are believed to contribute to
manure storage and land application. These global warming.
gases include ammonia, hydrogen sulphide, The bulk of agricultural emissions are N2O
methane, sulphur, nitrogen compounds and and CH4 and the majority of emissions from
several trace gases associated with odour. hog production come from manure.
The properties and effects of these gases are Although the intensity and offensiveness of
shown in Figure 2.1. an odour may be high, it is not necessarily an
Global warming refers to the increase in the indication of the presence of greenhouse
earth’s atmospheric temperature, which many gases. Research is required to establish if there
scientists believe is a result of an increase in is a relationship between greenhouse gases
the concentration of “greenhouse gases.” and odours.
Water vapour, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane
(CH4), halocarbons (used in refrigerants), and

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Figure 2.1 Properties and Effects of Gases Emitted From Pork Production
Gas Source Properties

Ammonia •manure decomposition, •sharp, pungent odour (glass cleaner)


(NH3) composting, commercial •lighter than air
fertilizer handling, storage
and manure application

Hydrogen sulphide •bacterial decomposition of manure •heavier than air


(H2S) without oxygen •accumulates near the floor in
(anaerobic) enclosed buildings
•initially a rotten egg smell
but lethal concentrations paralyze
sense of smell

Methane •decomposition of manure •no smell


(CH4) without oxygen (anaerobic) •lighter than air

Carbon dioxide •anaerobic and aerobic decomposi- •no smell


(CO2) tion of organic materials •heavier than air
•plant and animal respiration
•combustion of fossil fuels
•manure is not considered a major
source of CO2

Nitrogen oxides** •NOx naturally generated by •NO and N2O are colourless; NO2 is
(NOx) bacterial processes, decomposi- reddish brown
tion, and fires •NO2 is the most common of NOx
•humans contribute primarily •NO2 is one of the main
through burning fossil fuels components of smog
•hog manure emits more N2O than
other livestock in Alberta

Trace gases associated with odour •anaerobic decomposition of •often have distinct smells
manure

2.5 Pesticides
Pesticides include insecticides, herbicides, water. Soil pollution can occur when pesticides
fungicides and rodenticides. Pesticides can be are applied using improper application methods
a risk to non-target organisms, applicators or rates, when disposal protocols are not
and workers, if these products are not handled followed and during spills. Storing large
and applied properly. During pesticide amounts of pesticides increases the potential
application, spray droplets, mists or vapours for a significant pesticide spill to occur.
may form. These airborne particles can drift Pesticide mismanagement can eliminate
and contaminate adjoining properties and beneficial insects, inhibit crop growth and

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12 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
Health Effect Environmental Effect

Concentration Symptom
25 ppm........................... Acceptable TLV*
2 – 6 ppm..................... •detectable, but not considered a •soil and water acidification
risk to public health •contributes to odour
•contributes to formation of airborne
20 – 30 ppm................... •burning eyes particulates
40 – 200 ppm................. •headaches, nausea, respiratory •may react with other compounds potentially
irritation leading to acid rain and ozone depletion
3,000 ppm...................... •asphyxiating
5,000 ppm...................... •could be fatal

10 ppm...........................
Acceptable TLV •may react with other compounds, potentially
2 ppm.............................
•detectable leading to acid rain
20 ppm...........................
•paralyzes sense of smell
50 ppm...........................
•dizziness, nausea, headache,
respiratory irritation
>500 ppm....................... •death from respiratory paralysis in
seconds

50,000 ppm.................... •explosive when mixed with air •a greenhouse gas that may contribute to
500,000 ppm.................. •can cause headaches and eventually global warming
asphyxiation when oxygen is
displaced

5,000 ppm...................... Acceptable TLV •removed from the air by photosynthesis and
30,000 ppm.................... •increased rate of breathing ocean absorption
40,000 ppm.................... •drowsiness, headache •a greenhouse gas that may contribute to
100,000 ppm.................. •dizziness, unconsciousness global warming
300,000 ppm.................. •could be fatal in 30 min.

•NOx are not very soluble so •potentially toxic to plants, leading to reduced
symptoms may be delayed. Effects growth
include respiratory irritation, •NOx are the most potent greenhouse gases
coughing, fever, and in extreme emitted by agriculture
situations, respiratory failure. •may deplete ozone

•in low quantities, these compounds are not considered a •contributes to odour
serious threat to human health •may form airborne particulate matter

* Threshold Limit Values (TLV) are exposure limits that serve as guidelines to control health hazards in work environments.
These values are established by Occupational Health and Safety Association.
**Nitrogen oxides (NOx) include nitric oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and nitrous oxide (N2O) (laughing gas).

reduce viable crop varieties. Domestic animals runoff, leaching, erosion of contaminated soil,
and wildlife may be harmed by eating spills and direct introduction. The severity
contaminated crops or soil. Pesticides that of pesticide contamination depends on the
accumulate in plant and animal tissue can pesticide toxicity and management.
make food unfit for human consumption.
Pesticides have great potential to pollute both
surface and groundwater. Water pollution
from pesticides can be the result of drift,

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2.6 Pharmaceuticals
A range of pharmaceutical products, • Antimicrobial medications that may be
including antibiotics, dewormers and excreted into the environment in an active
reproductive hormones (for the breeding form. This could potentially alter the
herd) are used in the swine industry. Most of population of bacteria in the environment
these products are completely broken down in or select for the development of drug-
the animal’s body and do not present a risk to resistant bacteria.
the environment. However, concern has sur- There is little evidence to confirm that
faced that some of these products could find either of these concerns is a significant issue
their way from livestock manure into the at this time. The risk to the environment from
environment and have a negative impact on pharmaceuticals is low. Drug residues are
the ecosystem. Two specific areas of concern are: excreted at very low levels and are then diluted
• Reproductive hormones that could act as with water and manure from other untreated
endocrine disruptors. Endocrine disrupters animals. Drug residues are further diluted
are chemicals that affect the function of the when the manure is spread on the land.
body’s endocrine system. They may cause Because the amount of drugs present is
health problems, reproductive failure and extremely small, the concentrations in hog
developmental abnormalities in both manure may not be high enough to have any
humans and wildlife. There are many other effect on animals that come in contact with
sources of endocrine disruptors in the the residue. Thus far, there has been no
environment, including phytoestrogens evidence that residues from pharmaceuticals
(from plants), mycotoxins (from molds), used in hog production have created problems
and man-made chemicals that imitate with the health of humans, wildlife or the
certain hormones, for example, birth environment. Research is ongoing to evaluate
control pills. the potential environmental risk associated
with certain antimicrobials and reproductive
hormones.

2.7 Pathogens
In recent years, outbreaks of waterborne disease in humans or other livestock. Many of
diseases have occurred in humans in North these organisms are also present in human
America and, in many cases, the increase in sewage and in the feces of other livestock,
intensive livestock production has been pets and wildlife.
blamed. While it is not yet known how much Currently in Alberta, hog manure is not
of the problem can be attributed to agriculture, considered a major source of disease for
two things are certain. Poorly handled humans or other livestock. There are three
manure can result in waterborne disease in main reasons for this. First, many infectious
humans. Other sources of contamination, diseases of hogs that occur in the rest of the
such as human sewage, are also responsible. world are not found in Canada (See Section
It is critical that manure is handled 2.13 Appendix). Second, modern production
appropriately to minimize the risk of practices and drinking water supply systems
disease to both livestock and humans. reduce the risk of disease transmission.
There are a wide range of micro-organisms Third, the hog density in Alberta is very
present in hog manure, including bacteria, low compared to the major hog-producing
viruses, protozoa and other parasites. Under provinces and countries.
certain conditions, some of these can cause

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14 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
2.7.1 Modes of disease transmission from manure
Disease-causing micro-organisms are cause disease through water contamination,
referred to as pathogens. Diseases that can be several steps need to occur. If any one of
transmitted from animals to humans, and these steps is blocked, then transmission will
cause disease in both, are referred to as not occur.
zoonoses or zoonotic diseases. • First, the pathogen has to be excreted by
Air. There are no diseases in Alberta that the hog. Not all pathogens are found in
can be transmitted from hog manure through every herd and some can be reduced by
the air to humans or other livestock that are management or medication.
outside the hog barn. The odour of hog • Second, the pathogen has to reach a water
manure alone cannot cause infectious disease. supply either by the animal defecating in
Swine Influenza Virus (SIV) is the only the water, or by manure entering surface
zoonotic disease found in Alberta that can or groundwater through runoff.
potentially be transmitted through the air to • Third, the pathogen must remain alive
humans. Direct contact with infected hogs or and capable of causing infection by the
working inside barns infected with SIV is time it is ingested. Heat, cold and dryness
necessary to contract the disease. People can destroy many pathogens in a short
outside barns are not considered at risk, period of time.
because the virus is highly diluted in the air. • Fourth, the pathogen must be ingested
Airborne transmission of certain diseases in high enough numbers to cause an
that only affect hogs, such as Transmissible infection. Some organisms, such as
Gastroenteritis (TGE), does occur in Alberta. Salmonella, must be ingested in very high
Fecal-oral transmission. Manure numbers to cause disease, whereas only a
pathogens are mainly transmitted through few Cryptosporidium organisms may cause
the fecal-oral route (i.e., ingestion of manure disease.
or manure-contaminated feed or water). In Often it is difficult to determine the source
livestock, this can occur through consumption of a waterborne outbreak of disease. Many of
of drinking water contaminated by livestock the same disease-causing micro-organisms in
or wildlife manure, grazing on pasture recently livestock are found in wildlife, pets and
spread with manure or by ingesting manure. sewage. Therefore, identifying the source of
Humans can ingest manure pathogens contamination is difficult. Testing many
through consumption of contaminated drinking sources and using new diagnostic techniques
water, swimming in contaminated surface to determine the strain of the organism are
water and by failing to wash their hands usually necessary to pinpoint the source of
after handling infected livestock or manure. disease, although they still are not definitive.
People most at risk of zoonotic disease are Refer to Section 2.13 Appendix for a full
those working in barns or handling manure. description of pathogens that may be present
The main public health concern related to in hog manure in Alberta.
manure handling is contamination of surface
water. In order for manure pathogens to

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2.8 Soil Erosion and Compaction
Soil erosion refers to the loss of soil due to timing and tillage. Incorporating manure
wind or water. Erosion potential depends on prevents nutrient losses and mixes organic
management practices and the specific matter in manure with soil. Mixing organic
topography, climate and soil type of a region. matter with soil increases the binding of soil
Water erosion can be the result of particles and can reduce the potential for
surface runoff from rainfall or irrigation. erosion. However, excessive tillage leading to
Wind erosion occurs when soil is not compaction will decrease soil porosity and
adequately covered and when winds are destroy soil structure and aggregate
strong enough to move soil particles. Wind characteristics. This reduces the movement
and water erosion can cause environmental of water, air, nutrients and soil microbes
problems if soil nutrients or fine-grained through the soil. Timing manure application
material, such as silt and clay, enter water to avoid applying manure on wet soil is
bodies. critical to reduce soil compaction. Farm traffic,
To avoid soil erosion when applying and especially on headlands, can cause soil
incorporating manure, a balance must be compaction, particularly when the soil is wet.
achieved among incorporation techniques,

2.9 Excess Nutrients


Spills, improper storage and over- forages can result in reduced feed quality. An
application of fertilizers or manure may overabundance of these nutrients can result
lead to excess nutrient concentrations in soil. in toxicity to plants and reduce crop yields.
Primary nutrients of concern are nitrogen, As well, nutrients that are not used by
phosphorus, and potassium. Excess nitrogen plants can leach out of the root zone and
and phosphorus can cause soil and water contaminate groundwater or surface water.
quality problems. Excess potassium on

2.9.1 Excess nutrients and water


Surface water. Elevated nutrients in Nitrate is very soluble in water and tends to
watercourses can be caused by manure or move quickly down through the soil profile.
fertilizer entering a watercourse directly, by Consequently, nitrate can concentrate in
runoff from fertilized fields or nutrient-rich shallow groundwater.
soil eroding from croplands. Nutrients, Sources of nitrate in water include natural
primarily phosphorus and nitrogen, sources (e.g. peat bogs), commercial fertilizers
accelerate eutrophication of water bodies. (e.g. anhydrous ammonia), domestic sewage
Eutrophication is the nutrient enrichment of systems and manure. Studies in Alberta
surface waters. The most visible effects of have shown that high levels of nitrate from
eutrophication are massive blooms of algae livestock and land application of fertilizer or
and other aquatic plants. When algae and manure can be transported to surface runoff.
aquatic plants die, oxygen can be depleted, The established drinking water quality,
reducing fish survivability. Bluegreen algae Maximum Acceptable Concentration (MAC),
can be toxic to domestic animals and humans for nitrate is 45 mg/L measured as nitrate
when injested. These also can deplete oxygen (10 mg/L measured as nitrate-nitrogen).
levels in surface waters. Nitrate levels below 45 mg/L do not appear
Nitrates in drinking water. Nitrate is to cause health problems. Above this level,
formed through the nitrification process from however, there may be health concerns,
the mineralization of organic nitrogen to particularly for pregnant women and for
ammonium and from ammonium to nitrite. infants less than one year old, although this
Nitrate is a form of inorganic nitrogen that is has rarely been reported.
soluble in water and is readily used by plants.

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16 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
2.10 Groundwater and Pollution Concerns
Groundwater. Groundwater is the water contain salts from the water used for livestock
that occurs in the pore spaces of soil and watering or from salts and minerals in feed.
rocks. Aquifers are water-bearing layers that In many cases, nutrients, such as nitrogen,
hold groundwater in usable amounts. Typical phosphorus and trace elements are less likely
aquifers are overlain by deposits such as clay to limit manure applications on a field than
or shale. Unconfined aquifers or water table salt levels. Sodium, in particular, can cause
aquifers are close to the ground surface and problems with the soil, since it can cause
exposed directly to the atmosphere through structural changes in the soil and is toxic to
openings in the soil. As a result, the risk of plants at high levels.
contamination to unconfined aquifers is great. Metals. Metals include nickel, manganese,
Over-application of nutrients can result in lead, chromium, zinc, copper, iron and
nutrient leaching directly into the groundwater. mercury. Trace quantities of some metals are
A confined aquifer is trapped below an necessary for the growth of living things.
upper confining layer of rock, clay or shale. However, even low metal concentrations
The risk of contamination for confined can have cumulative effects that are toxic to
aquifers is through direct movement of most life forms. Metals are found in manure,
contaminants into the well from the wellhead waste oil and hydraulic fluids. Metals may
or improperly maintained well casing. contaminate groundwater, move into surface
Manure or chemical spills or seepage into water and accumulate in fish tissue, making
the well should be prevented. them unsuitable for human consumption.
Seepage from improperly constructed or Petroleum products. Gasoline, antifreeze,
maintained manure storage structures and the paints, solvents, hydraulic fluids and other
associated risk of groundwater contamination oil-based substances can have direct and
is a serious concern in some areas, particularly indirect harmful effects on groundwater and
where the subsoil underlying the storage surface water. Direct adverse effects include
consists of sand, gravel or fractured bedrock immediate toxic contamination of aquatic
that allows movement of contaminants through organisms that ingest petroleum products
the soil profile to shallow groundwater. and respiratory interference in fish. Indirect
Over-application of manure on cropland or negative effects include the destruction of
forage land can also present a risk of elevated fish food such as algae and other plankton,
nitrate levels in shallow groundwater. Studies devastation of spawning areas, a reduction in
in Alberta have shown that continuous over- the rate of photosynthesis by aquatic plants
application of manure can increase nitrate and poor stream aeration. Also, petroleum
levels in shallow groundwater. products can taint the flavour of fish, affecting
Salt. Salt levels, as shown by electrical its quality for human consumption.
conductivity measurements and sodium
adsorption ratios, can increase in soils after
successive manure applications. Manure can

2.11 Nuisance
Odour, noise, traffic and flies related to inevitable, but the beneficial management
agricultural enterprises are a potential practices discussed throughout the following
nuisance to the surrounding community if chapters may minimize irritation to neighbours.
not managed properly. Noise and traffic are

2.0
September 2002 17
2.12 References
• Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada (Les • Cooke, S.E. and E. E. Prepas, 1998. Stream
Haley), 1999. Agriculture and Climate Phosphorus and Nitrogen Export from
Change. AESA Greenhouse Gases Workshop Agricultural and Forested Watersheds on the
Proceedings. Boreal Plain. Canadian Journal of Fish and
Aquatic Sciences 55: 2292-2299.
• Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
Greenhouse Gas Team, 1999. Agriculture and • Environment Canada, 1997. Global Climate
Agri-Food Industry Greenhouse Gas Emissions Change, The Science of Climate Change, Green
in Alberta Summary Statement. house Gases. Web site: www.ec.gc.ca/climate/
fact/science.html.
• Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 1998. www.ec.gc.ca/climate/whatis/ghgs_eng.htm
The Health of Our Air: Toward sustainable
agriculture in Canada. • McGinn, Sean, 2002. Personal Communication.
Land Resource Sciences. Agriculture and
• American Conference of Governmental Agri-Food Canada. Lethbridge Research
Industrial Hygienists, 1998. Documentation Centre. Lethbridge Alberta.
of the Threshold Limit Values and Biological mcginn@agr.gc.ca
Exposure Indices. 6th Edition. American
Conference of Government Industrial • Minnesota Environmental Quality Board,
Hygenists. Cincinnati, Ohio. September 1999. A Summary of Literature
Related to Social, Environmental, Economic
• Anderson, A.M., D.O. Trew, R.D. Neilson, and Health Effects. Vol. 2., University of
N.D. MacAlpine, R. Borg, 1998. Impacts of Minnesota.
Agriculture on Surface Water Quality in
Alberta. Part I: Haynes Creek Study. Prepared • National Pork Producers Council. Manure
by Alberta Environmental Protection and Storage and Treatment Alternatives.
Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural
Development. • National Pork Producers Council. Swine
Odour and Emissions from Pork Production.
• Basarab, J.A., E. K. Okine and D. Engstrom,
1999. GHG Emissions from Livestock in • Olson, B.M., R.H. McKenzie, T. Jensen,
Alberta: Past, present and future. Alberta M.A. Arshad, P. Jedel, C. Izaurralde, D.W.
Agriculture, Food and Rural Development. McAndrew, A.M. Johnston, 1997. Nitrate
Leaching in Crop Rotation Studies in Alberta.
• Basarab, J.A., E. K. Okine and D. Engstrom, Water Quality Program of the Canada-
2000. Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Alberta Environmental Sustainable
Livestock in Alberta. Alberta Agriculture, Agriculture (CAESA) Agreement.
Food and Rural Development. Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada. 81 pp.
• Boehm, M.M., 2001. What the Kyoto Protocol • Paul, John. 1999. Nitrous Oxide Emission
Means to the Pork Industry. Agriculture and Resulting from Animal Manure Management.
Agri-Food Canada. Pg. 9-18 Banff Pork In Proceedings of the International
Seminar Proceedings, Advances in Pork Workshop on Reducing Nitrous Oxide
Production Vol.12. Emissions from Agroecosystems, March
3-5, 1999. Agriculture and Agri-Food
• Burton, David, L., 1999. The Role of Manure Canada and Alberta Agriculture, Food and
Application in Maintaining Air, Water and Soil Rural Development.
Quality. Banff Pork Seminar Proceedings,
Advances in Pork Production. Vol.10, • Prairie Swine Centre Inc. Environmental
Pg. 63 – 73. Web site accessible through the PSC site.
http://adminsrv.usask.ca/psci/
• Canada Plan Service. Manure Gas Plan
M-8710, Farm Workers Health Problems • Schiffman, S. S., E. Sattely, M.S. Miller, B.G.
Related to Air Quality Inside Livestock Barns Graham, 1994. The Effect of Environmental
M-9708, Protecting Workers in Livestock Odours Emanating from Commercial Swine
Buildings from Dust and Gases M-9707 Operations on the Mood of Nearby Residents.
Brain Res. Bulletin, Vol. 37(4) Pg. 369 – 375.
• Chang, C. and T. Entz, 1996. Nitrate
Leaching Losses Under Repeated Feedlot Cattle • Thu, E., K. K. Donham, R. Ziegenhorn,
Manure Applications in Southern Alberta. S. Reynolds, P.S. Throne, P. Subramanian,
J. Environ. Qual. 25: 145-153. P. Whitten, J. Stookesberry, 1997. A Control
Study of the Physical and Mental Health of
Residents Living Near a Large-scale Swine
Operation. Journal of Agric. Safety and
Health, 3(1): 13 – 26.

2.0
18 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
2.13 Appendix: Disease Risks to Humans
and Livestock from Hog Manure
Overview livestock or manure. People most at risk of
Hog manure contains a wide range of zoonotic disease are those working in barns or
micro-organisms, including bacteria, viruses, handling manure.
protozoa, and parasites. Under certain There are no diseases in Alberta that can be
conditions, some of these can cause disease transmitted from hog manure through the air
in humans or other livestock. Many of these to humans or other livestock that are outside
organisms are also present in the feces of the hog barn. The odour of hog manure alone
other livestock, pets, and wildlife and in cannot cause infectious disease. Swine
human sewage. Influenza Virus (SIV) is the only zoonotic
Currently in Alberta, hog manure is not disease in Alberta that can be transmitted
considered a major source of infectious through the air to humans. Direct contact with
disease for humans or other livestock. There infected hogs or working inside barns affected
are three main reasons for this. First, many with SIV is necessary to contract the disease.
infectious diseases of hogs that occur in the Those working outside barns are not considered
rest of the world are not found in Canada. at risk as the virus is diluted in the air.
Second, modern production practices and Airborne transmission of certain diseases that
drinking water supply systems prevent many affect only hogs does occur in Alberta.
diseases from being transmitted. Third, the Contamination of surface water is the main
density of hogs in Alberta is very low public health concern when handling manure.
compared to the major hog-producing In order for manure pathogens to cause
provinces and countries. disease through water contamination, several
In recent years, many large outbreaks of steps need to occur. If any one of these steps is
waterborne disease have occurred in humans blocked, then transmission will not occur.
in North America. The increase in intensive • The pathogen has to be excreted by the hog
livestock production has often been blamed. - not all pathogens are found in every unit,
While it is not yet known how much of the and some can be reduced by management
problem can be attributed to agriculture, two or medication.
things are certain: poorly handled manure can • The pathogens has to reach a water supply
result in waterborne disease in humans; other either by the animal defecating in the
sources of contamination (such as human water, or from surface runoff, or from
sewage) are also responsible. It is critical that contaminated groundwater flow.
manure be handled appropriately to minimize • The pathogen must remain alive and
the risk of disease to both livestock and capable of causing infection until the time
humans. it is ingested. Heat, cold and dryness can
destroy many pathogens in a short period
How disease is transmitted of time.
from manure • The pathogen must be ingested in high
Disease-causing mico-organisms are enough numbers to cause infection. Some
referred to as pathogens. Diseases that can be organisms, such as Salmonella, must be
transmitted from animals to humans are ingested in very high numbers to cause
referred to as zoonoses or zoonotic diseases. disease, whereas only a few Cyrptosporidium
Manure pathogens are most often transmitted organisms may cause disease.
by the fecal-oral route (i.e. ingestion of It is frequently difficult to determine the
manure or manure-contaminated feed or source of a waterborne outbreak of disease.
water). In livestock, this can occur through Many of the same disease-causing micro-
consumption of drinking water contaminated organisms are found in wildlife, pets or
by manure, grazing on pasture recently human sewage. Therefore, if testing finds the
spread with manure, or when they have direct suspect organism in one location, it cannot be
access to manure. Humans can ingest manure automatically assumed this was the source.
pathogens through consumption of Testing many sources and using new diagnostic
contaminated drinking water, swimming techniques to determine the strain of the
in contaminated surface water, and not organism are usually necessary to pinpoint
washing hands after handling infected the source of disease.

2.0
September 2002 19
Pathogens in hog manure in Alberta can survive for varying lengths of time in the
Several classes of pathogens may be present soil after application, but are generally
in hog manure in Alberta: destroyed by exposure to heat, cold, sunlight
• Viruses. and drying. More research is needed to fully
• Bacteria. understand the survival of bacteria in soils
• Protozoan parasites. and surrounding watersheds after manure
• Helminth parasites (worms). spreading. Adequate manure storage and
proper handling is necessary to prevent
surface and groundwater contamination with
Viruses
these organisms. Municipal water treatment
Most hog viruses found in Alberta infect systems are capable of removing these
only hogs and are not considered a risk to bacteria from the water supply.
humans or other livestock. Most viruses are Producers should practice good hygiene
also easily destroyed once outside the body when handling manure and livestock (hand
and do not survive long in manure. Therefore, washing, etc.). Manure should be stored,
viruses in hog manure are not considered a handled and spread to prevent contamination
significant disease risk at this time. of waterways. The elderly and those
In Canada, the only virus that can be individuals with compromised immune
transmitted between hogs and humans is the systems should avoid contact with livestock
Swine Influenza Virus (SIV). This virus occurs and manure.
in Alberta and is a risk for those working in
infected hog barns, or in direct contact with Escherichia coli (E. coli). Many strains of
infected hogs. SIV causes flu-like symptoms E. coli are beneficial to human health and live
and respiratory disease that lasts several days in the gut of all healthy animals. However,
in humans. This virus does not survive well some strains, such as E. coli O157:H7, can
outside the hog or the hog barn, especially in cause severe disease and even death. Infection
Alberta’s dry, cold climate. SIV is, therefore, a with O157:H7 causes bloody diarrhea and can
minimal risk for those not entering hog barns. progress to a life-threatening complication
known as hemolytic uremic syndrome (HUS).
Bacteria This infection is particularly dangerous for
Bacteria that may be present in hog manure children and the elderly. Outbreaks have
in Canada that can cause disease in humans occurred from contaminated drinking water.
include: E. coli O157:H7. has been found in hog
• Escherichia coli (E. coli). manure, but only rarely. Cattle feces are
• Salmonella species. acknowledged as the main source of this
• Campylobacter coli. organism.
• Yersinia enterocolitica.
• Leptospira sp. Salmonella species. There are a large number
These bacteria can be transmitted to of species of Salmonella. Some strains infect
humans through contaminated drinking only one animal species, while others are able
water, contaminated food, or from direct to infect humans and a wide variety of
contact with manure or infected animals. The domestic and wild animals, birds and reptiles.
first four pathogens can cause diarrhea, fever, Infected hogs can carry the bacteria without
cramps, vomiting and occasionally death in any signs of illness. Outbreaks of diarrhea and
humans. Infection from these organisms death can occur and are usually triggered by
(except Leptospira sp.) is more often traced to stresses such as overcrowding. Recently, new
consumption of contaminated food products Salmonella strains have evolved that are
than waterborne disease. Contamination of resistant to many antibiotics (multi-drug-
food can occur during processing or handling resistant S. typhimurium DT 104). These are of
by the consumer, and is not confined only to great concern, as they are difficult to treat.
meat or dairy products. Contaminated fruits There is speculation that these strains are
and vegetables have also been sources of evolving in response to antibiotic use in
infection. livestock.
Many of these organisms are found in other Research has shown that about one-third to
livestock and wildlife manures, as well as one half of hog farms in North America may
human sewage. Normal healthy livestock may have Salmonella. This varies by region. On
carry these bacteria without any signs of most farms that test positive for Salmonella,
illness. The number of bacteria in manure only a few animals will shed the bacterium. On
declines over time while in storage. Bacteria a few farms, many positive samples from
2.0
20 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
hogs and the environment can be obtained. infected animals is one method of infection.
The barn environment, including dust, Wildlife, especially skunks and rodents, are
rodents or birds, can also harbour Salmonella. known to carry the disease and can infect
The main concern with Salmonella in swine swine and other livestock. Introduction of
is food-borne disease rather than waterborne carrier hogs into the herd is also a common
disease. Research is underway to find methods method of infection.
to control or eliminate Salmonella on hog Leptospira can survive in standing water or
farms, especially those farms that are heavily in liquid manure for several months.
infected. Denmark has a stringent testing and Leptospira does not survive in composted
control program in place to keep Salmonella manure, dry soil or over winter. Damp
levels low. Current recommendations on climates, marshy regions and close contact
reducing Salmonella in hog barns include with wildlife are typically associated with
maintaining high standards of hygiene, outbreaks of disease in livestock. Humans
reducing rodent and bird access and reducing often contract the disease by swimming in
mixing of hogs. The Canadian Quality contaminated water.
Assurance (CQA™) program for pork Prevention of leptospirosis depends on
producers contains specific recommendations stopping transmission from infected wildlife,
on reducing Salmonella. rodents or livestock. An effective rodent
Campylobacter coli and Campylobacter jejuni. control program, including removal of
Campylobacter sp. occur in all livestock, but the vegetative cover near the barn is essential.
major animal sources of Campylobacter Wildlife should not have access to water
infection in humans are poultry and cattle. sources, such as dugouts, or to manure from
Most infections are from food. The number of infected livestock. Outdoor swine and other
human infections involving antimicrobial- livestock should not have access to standing
resistant C. jejuni in North America is increasing. water in areas where the disease is known to
There is concern that the resistance is developing exist. Breeding stock should be purchased
in livestock because of antibiotic use. from a clean herd and be quarantined.
The importance of Campylobacter sp. in hogs Vaccination in swine reduces the symptoms
is not clear. C. jejuni is rarely found in swine of the disease, but does not completely
while C. coli appears to live in the normal hog prevent infection. Routine vaccination of
intestinal tract. Water runoff from hog breeding stock is recommended in most
operations is not considered a major source areas of Canada. Medication may reduce
of Campylobacter infections in humans. losses in an infected herd, but will not prevent
infection. Good sanitation is essential to
Yersinia enterocolitica. Swine and humans are reduce spread in an infected herd.
the major source of Yersinia. Most strains of
Yersinia carried by hogs do not infect humans,
but certain types can. Although uncommon in Protozoan parasites
humans, yersiniosis can be a serious infection
Protozoan parasites are microscopic single-
in children. It is most commonly associated
celled parasites that are found in a wide range
with eating contaminated food, rather than
of animals. Today they are considered to be
with hog production.
some of the most important causes of water-
Leptospirosa sp. Leptospira differs from the borne disease in humans. Water contaminated
previous four organisms in that it affects the with these parasites is usually associated with
kidneys rather than the digestive system. animals defecating directly into the water, or
There are many species of Leptospira that with human sewage. It has been shown that
affect livestock, wildlife and humans. indoor-housed hogs managed with appropriate
Leptospirosis occurs worldwide, but is not manure handling practices are not a source of
common in swine in Alberta, likely due to the contamination for watersheds.
cold, dry climate. Giardia. Giardiasis, or “beaver fever” is
Infected swine may have a fever, or loss of caused by a protozoan parasite called Giardia
appetite, or show no signs at all. Infections in duodenalis (also called Giardia lamblia). It is
sows cause abortions, stillbirths, weak piglets found throughout the world and is the most
and infertility. Kidney damage may be seen at common disease-causing intestinal parasite
slaughter in otherwise normal hogs. of humans. The parasite causes moderate
Leptospira bacteria live in the kidneys and to severe diarrhea; children and immunosup-
are excreted in the urine of infected animals. pressed individuals are the most vulnerable.
Contamination of drinking water by urine of Between two and seven percent of humans in

2.0
September 2002 21
Europe and North America are estimated to be these people, cryptosporidiosis is severe, difficult
infected. As many as 40 percent of people in to treat, and can cause death.
developing countries may be infected. Giardia is This parasite is also transmitted by the oral-
transmitted through the fecal-oral route (usually fecal route, often through contaminated water.
between humans, e.g., day-care centres) but Poor hygiene leads to transmission between
waterborne transmission is also common. humans and from animals to humans. Fecal
Giardia occurs in livestock, pets and wildlife. contamination of water by animals and
It does not often cause disease in animals. It has humans may lead to waterborne outbreaks of
been found in pristine wilderness waterways cryptosporidiosis. Such an outbreak occurred in
and is particularly common in the Canadian Milwaukee, Wisconsin, and led to the infection
Arctic. Outbreaks of giardiasis in humans have of over 5,000 humans. The source was traced to
been linked to drinking water contaminated human sewage.
with human sewage, agricultural runoff, and Cryptosporidium has been found in hogs
wildlife feces. Giardiasis is the most frequently around the world, but is not considered a
diagnosed waterborne disease in Alberta. significant cause of swine disease. In a large
Giardia has been found in hogs in Canada, the Alberta study, Cryptosporidium was found in
United States and in Europe. A large Alberta 32 percent of farms, but in only 2.8 percent of
study showed that while it is found on many manure samples. Infection was mainly in
farms (70 percent), Giardia was seen only in a weaners (10.4 percent). The parasite was found
few animals on each farm (8.5 percent). in only one percent of hog liquid manure
Some strains of Giardia are specific to certain samples in the same study, but not in soil
animals and are not easily transmitted to other samples. This low prevalence indicates that
animals or humans. Other strains are easily hogs are not likely an environmental source
transmitted between animals and humans. It is only of this parasite in Alberta.
these strains that are a risk to human health. The few Cryptosporidium produces environmentally
hog strains studied, so far, are not likely to cause resistant oocysts or eggs that are shed in manure.
human infections. They are resistant to chlorination, and are so
Giardia produce cysts that can survive for small that many water filtration systems cannot
months in water, resisting cold or freezing remove them. Therefore, contamination of
temperatures. These cysts are resistant to drinking water with this parasite is of great
chlorination, which is commonly used to concern.
destroy pathogens in drinking water. For this Most human infections are acquired by
reason, this parasite can be difficult to remove person-to-person transmission (day-care centres,
from drinking water. Giardia cysts can be hospitals) and through consumption of drinking
removed from water through filtration or can be water contaminated by human sewage. There
inactivated by boiling water or using powerful are several reports of veterinary students, farm
chemical agents (e.g. ozone). workers and researchers developing infections
Giardia cysts in liquid hog manure storage after exposure to calves shedding large numbers
facilities deteriorate over time. It is considered of oocysts. There are no reports of humans
unlikely that they could survive to be a serious being infected with Cryptosporidium from hogs.
risk for contamination of surface water when The strain of Cryptosporidium parvum carried by
manure is spread on the land. hogs is not likely infective to humans.

Cryptosporidium parvum. Cryptosporidium


parvum, also known as “crypto,” is a small Helminth parasites
protozoan parasite that causes diarrhea. Roundworms or Ascarids. Roundworm or
Humans, a wide variety of domestic animals ascarid infection in humans is usually caused by
(e.g., cattle, hogs, horses, sheep, dogs, cats), and the human ascarid, Ascaris lumbricoides. The
wildlife can be affected. Infections in animals human ascarid is rare in Canada due to our
and humans may not result in any disease at all, high standards of hygiene, and is usually seen
or in mild diarrheal illness that resolves itself in only in individuals that have travelled to or
two weeks. There is no effective treatment. lived in developing countries.
Cryptosporidium was not considered an Ascaris suum, the pig roundworm, can
important cause of disease in humans or animals occasionally infect humans. Infections are
until recently. Over the last two decades, an uncommon, even in producers that are in
increasing number of people have developed regular contact with hog manure. Cases are
weakened immune systems due to cancer most often reported in developing countries,
therapy, organ transplantation, or infections and are related to poor hygiene and contact with
(e.g. HIV human immunodeficiency virus). In heavily infected manure. In North America over
2.0
22 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
the past decade, there have been several cases of Trichinella spiralis. Trichinella spiralis is a small
Ascaris suum reported in humans, usually worm that can occur in the muscle of the hog. It
associated with ingestion of contaminated causes disease (trichinosis) in humans who eat
manure. Cases have often involved researchers infected pork that is not adequately cooked. Hogs
studying the parasite, children of hog farmers become infected when they eat infected rodents or
or small children playing in gardens fertilized eat carcasses of other hogs. Humans cannot contract
with infected hog manure. Infection may the disease from hog manure or contact with hogs.
produce no symptoms, and is only noticed This parasite does not exist in the Alberta hog
when a worm is passed in the feces. industry.
Pig ascarids are found worldwide. Approximately Toxoplasma gondii. This tiny coccidian parasite
10-15 percent of Alberta market hogs have milk is also found in the muscle of the hog. It causes
spots in the liver, evidence of previous A. suum illness (toxoplasmosis) in humans who eat
infection. Infection is self limiting in larger infected pork that is not adequately cooked.
swine, with most harboring only one or two Hogs become infected by eating infected feces
adult worms. A Saskatchewan survey showed from cats or other wildlife. Toxoplasma cannot
that 17 percent of slaughter swine had adult be transmitted to humans through hog manure.
worms in their intestinal tract, with an average To reduce the incidence, producers should keep
of 2.5 worms per animal. Ascarids in hogs can cats and kittens out of the barn, keep cat feces
be controlled with medication; indoor hog units out of hog feed, and neuter the farm’s cats.
with worm control programs have very low
infection rates. Indoor production units that Taenia solium. This human tapeworm is almost
practice all-in-all-out hog flow will also have unknown in Canada, except in those who have
minimal infection rates. Indoor units populated travelled to developing countries. Hogs pick up
with worm-free stock can remain worm-free the parasite by ingesting feces from infected
without medication. Since ascarids have a humans. Humans become infected by eating
negative effect on growth and cost of inadequately cooked pork. Infection is prevented
production, it’s to the producer’s advantage by good sanitation and not allowing hogs to
to control the parasite. come in contact with human feces.
Ascarid eggs are hardy, sometimes surviving
four to seven years or more, under the right Alberta advantage
environmental conditions. Eggs do not survive Hog manure in Alberta is not currently
dryness and humidity levels of 30-60 percent considered a major source of infectious disease
will destroy eggs within a week. While some for humans or other livestock. Modern
eggs can survive for a year or more after production practices, low hog density, and a
manure is spread on the land, most do not cool, dry climate prevent many disease problems.
survive for extended periods of time. However, several micro-organisms present in
Temperatures over 32C will also kill eggs. hog manure can cause disease if manure is
Storage of manure in manure piles, through the allowed to contaminate waterways. Producers
natural heat from bacterial composting activity, should take strict precautions to prevent any
will effectively destroy ascarid eggs. contamination of surface or groundwater with
Producers should have a good worm control manure during the storage, handling or
program in place and use regular slaughter spreading procedures.
checks to monitor the effectiveness of the Producers should also follow good production
program. Uncomposted hog manure should not practices inside their barns to keep the levels of
be used to fertilize gardens or root vegetable certain organisms at a minimum. Practicing
crops. Good hygiene practices, such as hand good hygiene, good sanitation, keeping diseases
washing, should be used, and children especially under control, using an effective worm control
should avoid contact with hog manure. program, and controlling the access of cats,
rodents and birds to the barn are essential to
minimize zoonotic disease risks.
Other diseases of swine that may Consult a veterinarian to develop a biosecurity
be of concern to the public program, and contact Alberta Quality Pork to
Several other zoonotic diseases carried by participate in the On-Farm Food Safety
swine have sometimes raised public concern. Program.
These are included for general information. But
none can be transmitted in manure and are rare
in Canada.

2.0
September 2002 23
2.0
24 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
3.0 ENVIRONMENTAL OBLIGATIONS
AND REGULATORY APPROVALS
FOR LIVESTOCK PRODUCERS
3.1 Environmental Law Relating to Hog Production –
Environmental Protection Standards
A. ALBERTA LEGISLATION
3.1.1 Agricultural Operation Practices Act
3.1.1.1 Environmental Protection Standards

3.1.1.2 Design and Operating Standards

3.1.2 Environmental Protection and Enhancement Act


3.1.2.1 Prohibited releases

3.1.2.2 Duty to report

3.1.2.3 Liability of directors and officers

3.1.2.4 Strict liability offences

3.1.2.5 Fines

3.1.3 Public Health Act


3.1.4 Livestock Diseases Act

B. FEDERAL LEGISLATION
3.1.5 Fisheries Act
3.1.5.1 Deleterious Substance

3.1.5.2 Liability of directors and officers

3.1.5.3 Strict liability offences

3.1.5.4 Fines

3.1.6 Due diligence and environmental management systems


3.1.6.1 Due diligence

3.1.6.2 Environmental management systems

3.1.7 Common law of nuisance and the Agricultural Operation Practices Act
3.1.8 Common law of negligence

3.2 Regulatory Approvals for Hog Operations


3.2.1 Provincial approvals
3.2.1.1 NRCB approval process

3.2.2 Water Act approvals


3.2.2.1 Process

3.2.2.2 Environmental appeal board appeals

3.2.3 Transportation approvals


3.0 ENVIRONMENTAL
OBLIGATIONS AND
REGULATORY APPROVALS FOR
LIVESTOCK PRODUCERS
Meeting environmental obligations requires producers in planning for the development or
an awareness of environmental law. The expansion of their operations. Prior to
environmental obligations of a livestock January 1, 2002, the approval process for hog
producer are set out in statutes enacted by the operations was governed by the Municipal
provincial and federal legislatures, and Government Act, municipal development
through the common law, which is the body plans, land-use bylaws and Alberta
of law and rules established by the courts. Agriculture, Food and Rural Development’s
The statutes that producers should be aware Code of Practice for Safe and Economic Handling
of include the Agricultural Operation Practices of Animal Manures (Code of Practice), the Water
Act (AOPA), the Alberta Environmental Act, and potentially the Public Highways
Protection and Enhancement Act, the Public Development Act. Since January 1, 2002,
Health Act, the Livestock Diseases Act, the Water primary responsibility for hog operation
Act, and the federal Fisheries Act. Livestock approvals has been transferred from
producers should also be informed of the municipalities to the provincial Natural
common law rules of nuisance and how these Resources Conservation Board (NRCB) under
rules are affected by the AOPA. the AOPA. (Additional information on the site
The approval and siting process for the selection and planning approval process
development and expansion of hog operations described in Section 5.0.)
can be time consuming and complicated. An
increased awareness of this process can assist

3.1 Environmental Law Relating to Hog


Production – Environmental
Protection Standards
A. ALBERTA LEGISLATION

3.1.1 Agricultural Operation Practices Act


The AOPA establishes specific environmental
protection standards for new and existing
hog operations.

3.1.1.1 Environmental Protection Standards


The Act and the Standards Regulation NRCB is of the opinion the producer is:
describe the specific standards that producers • Creating a risk to the environment.
should understand. • Causing an inappropriate disturbance.
The Act authorizes the NRCB to issue an • Contravening the Act or regulation.
enforcement order against a producer if the

3.0
26 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
3.1.1.2 Design and operating standards
The Regulations describe the design and With respect to the suggested location
operating standards for livestock operations. of earthen storage and catch basins, the
Some of the standards apply to new and regulation requires a producer to:
expanding operations, while others apply to • Avoid areas with shallow water tables.
all operations, including existing operations. • Maintain a minimum of 100 metres setback
Manure management. The regulatory from a spring or water well and 30 metres
requirements for manure management apply from a body of water.
to both existing and new operations. • Prevent surface water from entering the
Producers are required to have sufficient land lagoon or catchment pond.
base to safely utilize the manure and the • Install a leakage detection system to
regulation contains tables for determination of monitor for potential contaminants.
land base. It is an offence to exceed the • Implement fly control measures.
nitrate/nitrogen limits of the regulations and • Design for the bottom filling of the lagoon.
the soil must be tested prior to application of • Control access to the area and place
manure if more than 300 annual tonnes is warning signs.
being applied. Minimum Distance Separation. A
Manure must be incorporated into the soil minimum distance separation is required
within 48 hours of being applied to the land. between new or expanding operations and
The regulation allows exemptions where the their neighbours. The setback distances
manure is being used on a forage or direct- depend on the size of the new or expanding
seeded crop. It also allows for restricted operation and the type of neighbour. The
manure application on frozen ground where setback distances are measured from the
the land is flat and additional setbacks are portion of the operation closest to the
maintained. neighbouring residence. For the purpose of
General setbacks for manure spreading measurement, the facility’s manure storage is
are as follows: considered part of the operation.
• No manure is to be applied within 30 The minimum distance separation does not
metres of a water well. apply to residences owned or controlled by
• A minimum of 10 metres separation must the producer. It also does not apply where the
be maintained from a body of water where neighbours themselves operate livestock
manure is being applied by subsurface operations and waive, in writing, the
injection and 30 metres where manure is minimum distance separation.
applied by incorporation. Records. The regulation requires producers
Manure storage. The regulation contains to record any documents that were used to
requirements for the design and location of obtain approvals. In addition, producers are
earthen storage and catch basins for the required to keep the following records if
storage of liquid manure for new and expanding they apply more than 300 tonnes of manure
operations. The regulation states that if a per year:
producer uses earthen storage for liquid • Volume or weight of manure produced.
manure, the earthen storage must be able to • Legal description of the land to which the
hold nine months of storage and must be manure was applied.
constructed with such compaction to achieve a • Date and volume of manure applied to
hydraulic conductivity of not more than land.
1 x 10-6cm/sec. In addition, the regulation • Application rates and incorporation
requires the construction of side slopes methods used.
appropriate for the stability of the soil and • Information on any person the producer
contains details regarding specific slope gave manure to, if more than 300 tonnes
standards. was given.
Producers are required to keep copies of
these records for five years.

3.0
September 2002 27
3.1.2 Environmental Protection and
Enhancement Act

3.1.2.1 Prohibited releases


The Environmental Protection and into a watercourse, the producer will be in
Enhancement Act (EPEA) prohibits producers violation of EPEA.
from releasing into the environment a EPEA also gives the government the power
substance in an amount, concentration or to issue an environmental protection order to
level, or at a rate of release, that causes or may an individual responsible for the release of an
cause a significant adverse effect on the offensive odour, to order that individual to,
environment. While “significant” is not among other things, prevent, minimize or
defined in EPEA, “adverse effect” is broadly remedy the offensive odour or destroy the
defined to mean the “impairment of, or cause of the odour. However, these powers do
damage to, the environment, human health or not apply to offensive odours which result
safety or property.” This means that a from an agricultural operation that is carried
producer cannot release or spread manure if on in accordance with generally accepted
the release or spreading of manure may cause practices for that operation. There is no
a significant adverse effect to the environment. definition of generally accepted practices for
That is, if a producer spreads manure on land similar agricultural operations. Whether a
at a rate which will overload the nutrient producer is following generally accepted
value of the land, or if a producer releases practices will be decided by the
manure on land where the manure will run Environmental Appeal Board or a judge.

3.1.2.2 Duty to report


EPEA requires producers to report to Typically, when a producer reports a release,
Alberta Environment any releases that may Alberta Environment will require the producer
cause an adverse effect on the environment. to identify the steps that the producer is taking
Failure to report a release can result in to prevent harm to the environment and to
significant fines. prevent the release from re-occurring.

3.1.2.3 Liability of directors and officers


If a corporation violates EPEA, any officer, for a large corporation or simply a small
director or agent of the corporation who was incorporated family farm. This means that
involved with the incident, even in a minor an officer, director or agent of a corporate
way, could face prosecution under EPEA. This producer is held personally responsible for
applies whether or not the corporation itself is violations of EPEA, if the officer, director or
prosecuted for the violation and regardless of agent directed or participated in the violation
whether the officer, director or agent works in any way.

3.1.2.4 Strict liability offences


Offences under EPEA are “strict liability” watercourse, the courts will not examine
offences. Unlike criminal offences, with strict whether the producer meant to cause the
liability offences, the courts are only impairment; the courts will only determine
concerned with whether the producer whether the producer caused the impairment.
committed the offence, and not whether the If the producer did cause the impairment,
producer intended to commit the offence. the courts will convict the producer unless the
If a producer caused impairment to the producer can show that the action was in
environment by releasing manure into a accordance with “due diligence” in running
3.0
28 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
the operation and in carrying out the activity not be found guilty under the EPEA. Due
at issue. That is, if the producer can show that diligence will be discussed in further detail in
all reasonable steps were taken to prevent the Section 3.1.6.1.
contravention of the EPEA, the producer will

3.1.2.5 Fines
An individual is liable for a fine of not occurs is treated as a separate offence. For
more than $50,000 for each offence under example, a release from a lagoon occurring
EPEA and a corporation is liable for a fine of over two days would be treated as two
not more than $500,000 for each offence under offences and would expose the corporation to
EPEA. Each day that a release or impairment a maximum fine of $1,000,000.

3.1.3 Public Health Act


It is important for producers to be aware of consent to the regional health authority and
the responsibilities regional health authorities the regional health authority applies to the
have under the Public Health Act (PHA). The courts to obtain an order, the PHA
PHA gives health authorities significant provides the judge with the authority to grant
powers to protect the public health. The PHA such an order without requiring the owner to
has priority over all provincial statutes, except have prior notice of the court application.
the Alberta Bill of Rights. Once the inspection, testing or taking of
The PHA allows a regional health authority, samples have occurred, if the regional health
if it has reasonable and probable grounds to authority has reasonable and probable
believe that a nuisance exists, to enter onto grounds to believe that a nuisance exists,
property to inspect the property, take samples the regional health authority can order the
of any substance or equipment being used property to be vacated, declared unfit for
and perform tests at the property. The PHA habitation, closed or destroyed. In addition,
defines “nuisance” as: the regional health authority has the authority
“a condition that is or that might to prohibit or regulate the selling of any
become injurious or dangerous to the livestock from the property.
public health, or that might hinder in As a result, should a regional health authority
any manner the prevention or become aware of a public health hazard at a
suppression of disease.” hog operation, the regional health authority
In order for the regional health authority to can take steps to protect the public health
enter the private place to perform these and have the health hazard eliminated. In
inspections and tests, the regional health addition, if an operator contravenes the
authority requires either the consent of the regional health authority’s orders, that
owner, or a court order, allowing these operator is liable to a fine of not more than
activities to occur. If the owner does not give $100 for each day the contravention continues.

3.1.4 Livestock Diseases Act


The Livestock Diseases Act, through its If a producer fails to properly dispose of the
regulations, requires that the owner of a dead animal, the producer is in violation of
dead animal dispose of the dead animal the Livestock Diseases Act and liable to a fine of
within 48 hours of death, by: not more than $10,000 or to imprisonment for
• Burying it with a covering of at least four a term of not more than one year or to both a
feet of earth, according to conditions in fine and imprisonment. Producers should
the Act. review Destruction and Disposal of Dead
• Burning it. Animals Regulations for specific disposal
• Transporting it to a rendering plant. standards.
• Scavenging, under very restricted
circumstances.

3.0
September 2002 29
B. FEDERAL LEGISLATION
3.1.5 Fisheries Act
3.1.5.1 Deleterious substance
Under the Canadian Constitution, the frequented by fish, which then migrates into
federal government has jurisdiction over the the stream. The offence results even if the
protection of fish habitat. To protect fish deposit of the manure does not actually cause
habitat, the federal government has enacted harm to the fish. The mere fact that the
the Fisheries Act. The Fisheries Act prohibits manure migrated into water frequented by
anyone from depositing or permitting the fish causes a violation of the Fisheries Act and
deposit of anything into any type of water may result in charges under this Act, unless
frequented by fish, which can have a the producer can prove that at all material
“deleterious” or harmful effect on the fish. times, the water is not, has not been, and is
Further, the Fisheries Act prohibits anyone not likely to be frequented by fish.
from depositing a deleterious or harmful In addition, a producer commits an offence
substance in any place under any condition under the Fisheries Act if he spreads manure
where the deleterious or harmful substance on land which has a stream frequented by
may enter any water frequented by fish. The fish, even if the deposit of the manure does
Fisheries Act defines the phrase, “water not in fact enter the water, but had a reasonable
frequented by fish” very broadly to include chance of entering the water. The mere fact
all internal waters of Canada. Therefore, this that the manure had a reasonable chance to
definition includes any creek, river, stream, enter water frequented by fish violates the
lake or slough which is frequented by fish, Fisheries Act and may result in charges under
including any creek which contains minnows this Act. However, again, if the producer can
in the spring, but dries later in the summer. prove that at all material times, the water is
As a result, a producer commits an offence not, has not been and is not likely to be
under the Fisheries Act when he spreads frequented by fish, then the producer has
manure on land located near a stream not committed an offence under the Act.

3.1.5.2 Liability of directors and officers


If a corporation violates the Fisheries Act, corporation, or a small incorporated family
any officer, director or agent of the corporation farm. This means that, as with the Alberta
who was involved with the incident, even Environmental Protection and Enhancement Act,
in a minor way, is liable on conviction to an officer, director, agent or a corporate
punishment under the Fisheries Act, whether producer can be held personally responsible
or not the corporation itself has been charged. for violations of the Fisheries Act, if the
This is true regardless of whether the officer or director directed or participated
officer, director or agent works for a large in the violation in any way.

3.1.5.3 Strict liability offences


As with the Alberta Environmental Protection substance may enter any water frequented by
and Enhancement Act, offences under the fish. If a producer has performed either of
Fisheries Act regarding the deposit of deleterious these activities, the courts will convict the
substances or harmful substances into water producer, unless the producer can show that:
frequented by fish are “strict liability” (1) at all material times, the water is not, has
offences. That is, the courts are not concerned not been and is not likely to be frequented
as to whether the deposit of deleterious or by fish;
harmful substances was intentional. The (2) the producer acted with due diligence to
courts are only concerned with whether a prevent the commission of the activity at
producer deposited a substance into any type issue; or
of water frequented by fish where the (3) the producer reasonably and honestly
substance could have a deleterious or harmful believed in the existence of the facts that, if
effect on the fish. In addition, the courts are true, the producer’s conduct would be
only concerned with whether a producer rendered innocent.
deposited a deleterious substance in any place
3.0 under any condition where the deleterious
30 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
3.1.5.4 Fines
An individual or corporate producer is imprisonment for a term of not exceeding
liable to a fine not exceeding $1,000,000 for the three years or to both, for any subsequent
producer’s first deleterious substance offence deleterious substance offence.
and to a fine not exceeding $1,000,000 or to

3.1.6 Due diligence and environmental


management systems
3.1.6.1 Due diligence
In order to avoid a conviction under the ii Report to the manager if the livestock
Alberta Environmental Protection and operation was not complying with the
Enhancement Act and the federal Fisheries Act, system? For example, if soil-testing
a producer must have acted with due analysis indicated high nitrate levels,
diligence in running the operation and in making it dangerous to apply more
carrying out the activity at issue. manure, was management told?
Whether a producer acted with due • Did the livestock operation review the
diligence in any particular circumstance will environmental compliance reports provided
be determined by the courts on a case-by-case by the operation’s officers? (Is there an
basis. Generally, the courts have indicated, annual review of the report and system?)
that to act with due diligence, one “must take • Did the livestock operation ensure that its
all reasonable steps to avoid harm. However, officers and employees promptly addressed
that does not mean [one] must take all environmental concerns brought to its
conceivable steps.”1 In addition, the courts attention by government agencies or other
have established that, “reasonable care and concerned parties? (Was the problem
due diligence do not mean superhuman fixed?)
efforts. They mean a high standard of • Was the livestock operation aware of
awareness and decisive, prompt and the industry standards regarding
continuing action.”2 In considering whether environmental pollutants and risks?
an accused acted with due diligence, the • Did the livestock operation address
courts, “...examine what was done, what problems immediately?4
controls were in place, what was the state of In addition, a court may examine whether a
technology that existed through the evidence corporation has an environmental management
of lay and expert witnesses to determine system, what the environmental management
if the accused acted reasonably in the system contains, how detailed it is, and
circumstances.” 3 whether it is followed by the company, to
A court may examine the following points determine whether the company acted with
to determine whether environmental due due diligence in carrying out the activity in
diligence has been exercised: question.
• Did the livestock operation establish and
monitor a pollution prevention “system?”
For example, is there a reasonable nutrient
management plan for the operation?
• Did the livestock operation ensure that it
instructed employees to:
i Set up a pollution prevention system so
that the operation complied with the
industry practices and environmental
laws; i.e. the AOPA and the permit
conditions.

1. R. v. British Columbia Hydro and Power Authority [1997] B.C.J. No. 1744, paragraph 55.
2. R. v. Courtaulds Fibres Canada (1992), 9 C.E.L.R. (N.S.) 304 at 313 (Ont. Prov. Ct.).
3. R v. Northwood Pulp and Paper (1992) 9, C.E.L.R. (N.S.) 289 at p. 293.
4. R v. Bata Industries Ltd. [1992] O.J. No. 236 at page 24 - 25 (Ont. Prov. Div.) online: QL (O.J.), rev'd in part on other
grounds 14 O.R. (3d) 354, rev'd in part on other grounds 127 D.L.R. (4th) 438.
3.0
September 2002 31
3.1.6.2 Environmental management systems
Environmental management systems are The environmental management system
used by corporations to establish and will then put into place the policies and
implement policies and procedures for procedures to reduce the livestock operation’s
operating an environmentally sustainable environmental impacts and to properly train
business. An environmental management the corporation’s employees to meet and
system will examine the corporation’s maintain the applicable environmental
operations to determine the following: standards and laws. Finally, an environmental
• How these operations impact the management system will provide for a periodic
environment. re-evaluation of these environmental policies
• Which policies and procedures can be and procedures.
implemented to lessen or eliminate the Producers adopting an environmental
operation’s environmental impacts. farm plan are taking the preliminary steps
• Which environmental standards and laws toward development of an environmental
the corporation must follow. management system.
• Whether the corporation is following these
standards and laws.

3.1.7 Common law of nuisance and the Agricultural


Operation Practices Act
The common law of nuisance deals with an contravened the local land-use bylaw and has
individual’s unreasonable interference with a followed “generally accepted practices for
neighbour’s use and enjoyment of the similar agricultural operations.” The Act
neighbour’s land. If a producer unreasonably defines a “nuisance” to include an activity
interferes with the use and enjoyment of a which:
neighbour’s land by creating offensive • Arises from unreasonable, unwarranted or
odours, excessive noise, dust or the presence unlawful use by a person of the person’s
of flies, the courts may force the producer to own property, which causes obstruction or
pay damages to the neighbour to compensate injury to the right of another person or to
the neighbour for the nuisance, which the public and produces such material
potentially could force the producer to annoyance, inconvenience and discomfort
shut down. that damage will result.
However, the Alberta government • Creates smoke, odour, noise or vibration
recognized that farms will typically produce which interferes with the reasonable and
some odours, noise and dust, so it enacted comfortable use of a person’s property.
AOPA to offer protection to producers from • Is found to be a nuisance at common law.
nuisance claims. The AOPA states that a The determination of “generally accepted
producer will not be liable in court for any practices for similar agricultural operations”
nuisance resulting from the producer’s is determined by a peer review board
operation, nor will the producer be prevented appointed by the Minister of Agriculture,
from carrying on the operation by a court Food and Rural Development.
injunction or order, if the producer has not

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32 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
3.1.8 Common law of negligence
In law, an individual is negligent if he fails if the operator does not act reasonably in
to live up to a “duty of care” he owes to running the operation. For example, a hog
another individual. A “duty of care” is a duty operator may be negligent if:
held by one individual to avoid carrying out • The operator spreads manure on frozen
an activity which has a reasonable chance of land that has a heavy slope towards
causing harm or injury to another individual. a creek.
Of course, it is impossible for any individual • The creek becomes contaminated from the
to avoid all activities which might harm manure spreading during spring runoff.
another individual. Therefore, the law sets • The operator knew or ought to have known
standards of conduct that must be met. The that neighbours receive their domestic
standard is one of being reasonable – the water supply from the creek.
individual must behave in the way that a • Neighbours’ health is affected by the
reasonable individual of ordinary intelligence contamination.
and experience would behave in the same In this situation, the “reasonable” operator
circumstance. How an ordinary individual would know or ought to have known that
would behave depends on factors such as spreading manure on these lands with these
the degree of harm that might occur and conditions could result in the neighbours
standard industry practices. suffering harm. As a result, the livestock
A hog operator has a duty to operate in operator could be held liable for the harm
such a manner as to not cause harm to those or injury suffered by the neighbours.
individuals who could reasonably suffer harm

3.2 Regulatory Approvals for Hog Operations


3.2.1 Provincial approvals
Prior to January 2002, producers obtained Producers building or expanding to a size
approvals to build or expand a livestock below these numbers are required to obtain a
operation from municipal governments “Registration.” A Registration can be obtained
through the issuance of a development from the NRCB through a streamlined review
permit. and approval process. In addition, producers
The approval of livestock operations has seeking to build or modify a lagoon on an
been transferred to the Natural Resources existing operation are required to obtain an
Conservation Board (NRCB); under the “Authorization” from the NRCB.
AOPA, development permits are no longer
required.
Under the AOPA, an “Approval” is
required to build or expand the following
sizes of hog operations:

Sows – farrow to finish..............250 or more


Sows – farrow to wean..............1,000 or more
Feeders.........................................3,300 or more
Weaners........................................9,000 or more

3.0
September 2002 33
3.2.1.1 NRCB approval process

Figure 3.1 The NRCB Approval Process

Producer applies.

* Municipalities are
automatically granted
"directly affected" status.
Producer notifies
"affected persons".*

A person who recieves a


notice has 10 days to apply
in writing to be granted
"directly affected" status.
Application is deemed NRCB officer
to be complete. determines
who is
"directly affected".
A member of the public has
20 working days to apply in
writing to be granted
"direclty affected" status.
Application is available
for viewing for 15 days
after it is complete.

NRCB officer considers


application and written
submissions of "directly
affected" persons.

NRCB officer denies NRCB officer approves


application. application.

NRCB officer provides


notice to those "directly
affected" and those who
applied for "directly
affected" standing.

Directly affected persons Persons who were refused


can request NRCB "directly affected" status can
review hearing within request NRCB review of
10 days of receipt of refusal within 10 days of
the decision. receipt of the decision.

NRCB grants NRCB denies


"directly "directly
affected" affected"
status. status.

NRCB reviews hearing


and decision.

3.0
34 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
The NRCB requires producers seeking an (9) An explanation of how the operation or
approval to provide the NRCB with the expansion and its operation will meet the
following (see Figure 3.1): requirements of the regulations under the Act.
(1) Name, address and telephone number of (10) The legal description of the land where
the applicant. manure is to be spread for the first three
(2) A list of the persons who live close to the years of the operation.
proposed site and who may be affected by (11) A nutrient management plan.
the operation. Once an application is deemed complete,
(3) An evaluation of whether the notice of the application is advertised in the
application is consistent with the local paper or notices are sent to those in the
applicable municipal development plan. area of the proposed site.
(4) Engineering plans for manure storage Anyone wishing to comment on the
facilities, manure collection area and application has 20 days to file a written
contamination management. statement of concern. The NRCB reviews the
(5) Hydro-geological assessments. concerns and, if there is merit to the concerns,
(6) Numbers and species of livestock and forwards the statement to the producer. The
stage of animal development of the producer then has an opportunity to respond
livestock that will be at the confined to the statement of concern.
feeding operation. Once the NRCB is satisfied that the
(7) Legal description of the land on which the statement of concern has been addressed and
confined feeding operation is located. the requirements of the Act and regulations
(8) A site plan, to scale, showing the location have been met, the Board can issue an
of all: Approval for the project.
(i) water bodies. Those persons who filed a statement of
(ii) water wells. concern and who were found to be directly
(iii) property lines. affected by the project, are given notice of the
(iv) residence locations of affected persons. Approval and provided an opportunity to
(v) barns, corrals and pens. request that the Board review the Approval.
(vi) manure storage facilities and manure The NRCB will convene a review hearing
collection area. at which the Approval will either be upheld
(vii) run-on and runoff controls. or refused.

3.2.2 Water act approvals


3.2.2.1 Process
A producer building a new livestock project, including scaled drawings, the legal
operation may require either a water approval land location, details regarding the affected
or a water licence under the Water Act. The water bodies, the location of any structures to
Water Act became law in January, 1999. be built or affected, the rate of diversion and
A water approval is required for the under- the anticipated quantity of diversion. In
taking of an activity. Under the Water Act, an addition, the producer should include reports
“activity” includes the construction, operation related to the project, including a description
or maintenance of a structure which may: of the project and hydrologic information
• Alter the flow or level of water. regarding the project.
• Change the location or direction of flow of Once a producer has submitted the
water. approval or licence application to Alberta
• Cause the siltation of water. Environment, the department will require the
• Cause the erosion of any bed or shore of a producer to publish a notice of the application
body of water. in one or more issues of the local newspaper
• Cause an effect on the aquatic environment. in the area of the proposed approval or
If it is necessary for the producer to divert licence. The notice of the application will
and use more than 6,250 cubic metres of surface include, among other things, the location of
water or groundwater per year (273,000 the activity, the name of the applicant, a
gallons/year), a water licence is required. description of the activity or diversion and an
Applications for an approval or licence are indication that if any individual is directly
submitted to Alberta Environment. In the affected by the application, a statement of
application for either an approval or a licence, concern can be submitted to Alberta
a producer should include the plans for the Environment within a specific period of time.
3.0
September 2002 35
3.2.2.2 Environmental appeal board appeals
If the producer’s application for a water or licence is denied, the producer can file a
approval or licence is granted, Alberta notice of objection to the Environmental
Environment will require the producer to Appeal Board regarding the denial within a
publish a notice of the approval or licence in certain period of time.
one or more issues of the local newspaper in If a notice of objection is filed with the
the area of the proposed approval or licence. Environmental Appeal Board, the Board will
This notice must indicate that an individual conduct a hearing. In ruling on an appeal, the
who submitted a statement of concern to Board may confirm, reverse or vary the
Alberta Environment regarding the decision of Alberta Environment. A decision
application, can file a notice of objection to of the Environmental Appeal Board can be
the Environmental Appeal Board, within a appealed in very limited circumstances.
specific period of time. In addition, if the
producer’s application for a water approval

3.2.3 Transportation approvals


The Highway Development Control Regulation Addendum
under the Public Highways Development Act The information provided regarding the environmental
prohibits the erection or placement of a obligations and the approval process for hog production
in Alberta is for information only and should not be
development within 300 metres of a primary
relied upon as legal advice. The producer should consult
highway and 800 metres from the centre point a lawyer, as the facts of the producer’s situation may
of an intersection of a primary highway and change the producer’s legal rights or the law may change.
another highway or public roadway. As a Additional information of these issues can be obtained
from Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural Development’s
result, if a producer plans to construct an
extension staff, the Natural Resources Conservation
operation within these distances from a Board, consultants and lawyers.
primary highway, the producer will be Copies of the Acts and Regulations can be obtained
required to apply for and obtain a Roadside online or via mail from the Queen’s Printer.
Development Approval from Alberta
• AAFRD 1-866-882-7677
Infrastructure to construct a development www.agric.gov.ab.ca
near a primary highway. The Roadside
Development Approval will set out the road • NRCB 1-866-383-6722
www.nrcb.gov.ab.ca
access and setback conditions for the
development. • Queen’s Printer 1-780-427-4952
If a producer is required to apply for a www.qp.gov.ab.ca
Roadside Development Permit, the producer
should include the engineering drawings,
the property description, the existing and
proposed land-use and the closest distance of
the proposed development to the highway
property line.

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36 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
4.0 PREVENTING, MANAGING AND
RESOLVING CONFLICT
4.1 What is Conflict?
4.1.1 Conflict in agriculture
4.1.2 Sources of conflict

4.2 Preventing Conflict


4.2.1 Be a good neighbour
4.2.2 Open house/farm tours
4.2.3 Noise and traffic
4.2.4 Further advice

4.3 Managing Conflict


4.3.1 Damage control

4.4 Resolving Conflict

4.5 References
4.0 PREVENTING, MANAGING AND
RESOLVING CONFLICT

4.1 What is Conflict?


Conflict is a struggle between two or more Conflict:
parties because of a real or perceived • Encourages people to examine issues more
difference in needs or values. When people carefully.
or groups of people are unable to reach a • Deepens the understanding of problems.
satisfactory understanding of their mutual • Opens the door to new ideas and
issues, the result can be disagreement or alternative solutions.
conflict. • Helps people foresee the consequences of
In today’s world, conflict is inevitable and proposed actions.
is present everywhere. Most people perceive • Enables people to take risks and solve
conflict as negative or bad and try to avoid it. problems.
However, conflict that is properly managed,
can be productive and constructive.

4.1.1 Conflict in agriculture


In recent years, the number and intensity of flagged issues management as one of the
conflicts facing farmers has risen sharply. industry’s top five priorities. In early 1999,
Debated issues encompass a variety of envi- focus groups were held across Canada to
ronmental, political, economic and social learn about farmer experiences related to farm
issues. Public concern for human health and and community conflicts. The focus groups
the environment has risen, as has inquiry into also gathered ideas on dealing with conflict
the agri-food industry and its practices. situations. The purpose of the study was to
A 1998 survey of Canadian farm develop strategies and tools to manage
organizations and producers identified conflict. Representatives from municipal,
conflict over farm practices as one of the regional and provincial governments were
leading threats to the agriculture industry’s also consulted during the study. From this
future competitiveness. A study CFBMC study and the current Alberta
commissioned by the Canadian Farm situation, the following sources of farm
Business Management Council (CFBMC) conflict have been identified.

4.1.2 Sources of conflict


Farm neighbours may have the following • Another concern is the possibility of
concerns about livestock production: groundwater and surface water
• The biggest concern is that livestock contamination.
production will disrupt their quality of • Nuisance related to storage and handling
life and affect their health, mainly due to of dead animals also creates conflict.
nuisance odour. Producers can lessen
anxiety by exercising caution, consideration
and common sense. While manure odour
may not be an issue to those living on the
farm, others may find it offensive. A
commitment to sound manure management
is a necessity. Once that commitment is
made, it must be kept.
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38 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
4.2 Preventing Conflict
The following tips and strategies to help management practices should be regarded as
producers prevent, manage and resolve the bare minimum. Employing progressive
conflict are based on the CFBMC focus farm management practices and doing the
groups involving producers and government very best job possible will help prevent conflicts.
representatives.
The single most important thing producers A copy of the publication Farming with
can do to reduce the risk of conflict is to Neighbours, A Guide for Canadian Farmers on
ensure communication with neighbours is Preventing and Resolving Community
open, honest and thorough. This kind of Conflicts over Farming Practices, is available
communication is essential to lessen the from the Canadian Farm Business
impact of livestock operations on neighbours Management Council
and to understand what upsets neighbours. phone: 1-888-232-3262, fax: 1-800- 270-8301
Focus group participants also suggest that e-mail: council@cfbmc.com).
compliance with the laws governing farm

4.2.1 Be a good neighbour


Farmers need to communicate with all of • Get involved in the community. Join a local
their neighbours to build “social capital” that service group.
could be drawn upon like a bank account • Support local businesses. Hire local youths.
when problems arise. Being a good neighbour, • Develop a public relations program for the
having a public relations strategy for the farm farm. Support and make donations to local
and contributing to the community are good charities and community groups such as
ways to build up social equity within the sports teams and youth groups. Get the
community. farm recognized for its contributions.
Knowing and understanding neighbours is • Host farm tours, within the constraints of
the first step in addressing concerns about a the operation’s biosecurity protocol, but do
livestock operation. Producers should: a dry run to prevent unintended negative
• Get to know the neighbours and let them consequences.
get to know the operation. • Help neighbours learn more about the
• Be friendly. farm. Explain why farmers do what they
• Keep neat, well-maintained farmyards, do. Have an open house, picnic, barbecue
which are less likely to draw complaints. or potluck.
• Be helpful to neighbours in need.

4.2.2 Open house/farm tours


Several types of open house/farm tours can A tour of existing operations:
be organized: • Follow the operation’s biosecurity plan
A public open house prior to building: during tours and incorporate the plan into
• Is a common approach for spreading the tour so that participants will learn more
information in a community. about generally accepted farming practices
• Can be used early in a new project and hog production.
development to gather ideas and test Annual summer BBQ for neighbours:
initial reaction of neighbours and the • The payback from investing in annual
local community. community events is the good will that is
• Allows the public to learn more about the generated and the opportunity for neighbours
project. to ask questions in a relaxed atmosphere.
• Provides neighbours with an opportunity Tips for conducting a successful tour or open
to express their concerns. house:
• Ideally are held in a neutral location. • Find out who plans to come, why, and
A tour held on-site prior to start-up: what they want to see.
• Showcases the features of the operation to • Decide in advance and tell guests whether
the livestock industry and the community photos are allowed.
• Do a dry run. Walk around the farm, ideally
4.0
September 2002 39
with a non-farm friend to get input on the the modern practices farmers are using to
way guests will see it. Remember, “normal” address society’s concerns, as well as the
farming practices may be of concern to agri-food industry’s contribution to the
non-farmers. economy and community fabric.
• Ensure there are no hazards to public safety • Tailor each presentation to the audience.
on the tour and that the farm is clean and Whether guests are school children,
tidy and livestock is healthy. Avoid waste politicians, business people or other
disposal areas, sick animals and storage farmers, avoid using farming jargon.
areas for medications and agri-chemicals. • Talk about relevant topics; do not be
Avoid any direct contact with the animals. side-tracked.
• Anticipate the questions guests are likely to • If possible borrow professional displays on
ask, including challenging issues, such as topics of interest.
food safety, genetically modified foods, • Have technical experts available to answer
chemicals and residues, air and water, as questions and enhance confidence in the
well as soil pollution and animal welfare. operation’s technology.
Have clear, factual, well-reasoned answers • If appropriate and in keeping with the
ready for these questions. biosecurity protocol, provide an activity
• Practice answering questions with family that involves guest participation.
members or colleagues. Video the practice • Provide washrooms and hand disinfection
session. Appear confident; otherwise facilities.
people may think questions are being • Smile. Have fun. Guests should leave with
avoided or the truth is being concealed. good feelings about the tour.
• If the answer to a question isn’t known, say More information to help prepare for
so. Then offer to find an answer. Do not be questions during the open house or tour is
baited or goaded into saying something available from the following Web site:
that will be regretted later. www.Canpork.ca/facts.html.
• Plan the tour and develop a presentation
for each different visiting group.
• Emphasize the positive. Draw attention to

4.2.3 Noise and traffic


Noise generated from operating equipment daytime hours, whenever practical. Adhere to
and traffic to and from the farm site is road bans and speed limits to reduce the impact
inevitable. To minimize noise impacts, of traffic. Tarp or cover trucks to reduce spillage
machinery should be properly maintained and of manure or spreading of weed seeds from grain.
noisy activities should be restricted to regular

4.2.4 Further advice


• Have a good attitude. Be considerate and about who the neighbours are, what they
respectful to other people and their care about, potential problems and the
concerns or opinions. plans for addressing any issues.
• Know the rights of producers and others. • Try to anticipate other people’s reactions.
Recognize that it would be foolish to insist Have answers to their concerns.
on acting on some rights. • Do not let minor disputes blow out of control.
• Be considerate. Let neighbours know in • Fight battles privately, away from public
advance when manure spreading is and media view.
planned. If neighbours have special events • Learn how to deal with and develop a
planned, try to work around them. relationship with the media, municipal and
• When possible, avoid farm practices that provincial governments.
are noisy, dusty or cause odour on or • Search out individuals and groups that
immediately before weekends, especially can be allies. Identify, inform and involve
long weekends. people who support the operation and
• Before planning to expand, diversify or enlist their help in dealing with opponents.
make changes to the operation, consider the • Concentrate on keeping supporters happy.
impact on neighbours and the environment. Do not spend the majority of available
Prepare an assessment of the local situation, resources dealing with opponents.
4.0 detailing assumptions and understandings

40 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta


4.3 Managing Conflict
4.3.1 Damage control
Sometimes conflict is unavoidable, no • Be prompt when getting back with the
matter how much effort has been made to information needed to ease their concerns.
resolve an issue. When conflict does erupt, • Stay on top of on-going problems. Keep
manage it to minimize the damage. Canadian people informed of changes on the farm
farmers had the following tips to help prevent and progress being made.
a conflict from escalating: • Do whatever is practical to fix problems
• Take the matter seriously. and mitigate damage.
• Do not deny there’s a problem and hope it • Always tell the truth.
will go away. • Admit to mistakes. Take responsibility
• Stay calm. Avoid getting angry or defensive. for employees’ actions.
Refrain from blaming, accusing, chiding or • Apologize. Make amends if possible.
belittling other people; it could escalate • When others make mistakes, help them
the conflict. save face.
• Think before acting or speaking. “Sleep on • Shift the emphasis to mutually
it.” Be diplomatic. acceptable solutions.
• Prevent small, specific conflicts from
mushrooming into big, broad conflicts. Consequences of failing to
• Ask lots of questions. Find out what the problem solve may include:
other person is upset about. Don’t debate • Bad publicity.
their issues. • Lost credibility.
• Search out and identify the real issues. • Fines and penalties.
What people say may be quite different • Litigation – lawsuits and appeals.
from what they’re really concerned about. • Referendums, petitions.
Often people’s concerns are rooted in fear • Endless meetings, more studies.
of change or the unknown or a lack of • Project delays, escalated costs.
understanding, or fear of losing control or • Loss of goodwill.
the ability to influence decisions that will • More regulations for the whole industry.
affect them. • Increased probability of future conflicts.
• Deal with emotions first. Then deal with • Increased difficulty to resolve future
the subject of the conflict. conflicts.
• Listen to and validate concerns.
Acknowledge understanding of the
concerns and offer to look into the matter.

4.4 Resolving Conflict


The most common reason for discussion also means understanding the meaning of the
breakdown and disagreement is poor other person’s message from their perspective.
communication. Communication is a In today’s society, conflict prevention
fundamental element of resolving issues and management and resolution skills are
therefore must be understood and practised essential. Learning the skills necessary to
well. prevent, manage and resolve conflict will
Producers should listen and understand boost farmers’ personal and collective
first, then explain their intentions. Listening competitiveness and prosperity.

4.0
September 2002 41
4.5 References
• Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural
Development, September 1999. Building
Community Support for Your Project.

• Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural


Development, October 1998. Livestock
Producers as Good Neighbours.

• Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural


Development, October 1998. Living in
Harmony with Neighbours.

• Canadian Farm Business Management


Council, January 2000. Preventing, Managing
and Resolving Conflicts on Canadian Farms.

• Kelsey, Timothy W., and Abdalla, Charles


W., April 25, 1997. Getting Along with
Nonfarm Neighbours - Advice and tips from
Pennsylvania dairy farmers. Hoard’s
Dairyman.

• McNeil, Barbara, June 27, 2000.


Presentation: From Conflict to Cooperation,
Manure Management 2000 Conference.

• Streibel, Dr., David, 1992. Resolving


Municipal Disputes: When talking makes
things worse, someone won’t negotiate, there’s
no trust. Association of Bay Area
Governments, (Palo Alto, CA).

4.0
42 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
5.0 SITE SELECTION AND PLANNING
5.1 Site Selection
5.1.1 Site selection checklist
5.1.2 Assess perceptions of hog developments
5.1.3 Gather development application requirements
5.1.4 Conduct site assessment
5.1.5 Evaluate resource base
5.1.6 Complete management plans as related to the specific site
5.1.7 Share intent with stakeholders

5.2 Site Planning

5.3 Shutting Down Livestock Operations

5.4 References
5.0 SITE SELECTION AND PLANNING
5.1 Site Selection
The selection of a site for a hog barn is an investigation to accommodate present and
important decision that has a strong influence future needs. All operations require similar
on the economic and environmental sustain- resources to operate effectively, while
ability of an operation. A good site will ensuring environmental sustainability and
provide many of the elements required for an acceptable levels of impact on neighbours and
operation to be successful in both the short neighbouring land uses. The size of the
and long term. Operators must balance the operation does not change these requirements,
economic forces affecting their operation with only the level of demand and the magnitude
consideration of issues such as environmental of potential impacts.
protection, animal welfare, food safety and Expansion of an existing operation requires
other stakeholder concerns. equal consideration of the operator’s business
Selection of the appropriate site for a hog plan resource requirements and environmentally
barn will also provide the opportunity to meet sustainability issues.
longer-term goals, such as future expansion. This section outlines the basic process for
Expansion opportunities are largely site selection for hog operations. When
determined by the site selected. considering a new or expanded operation,
Regardless of the size of operation, the site operators should contact a Natural Resources
selection principles remain the same. Conservation Board (NRCB) Approval Officer
However, finding an appropriate site for for information and advice.
a large operation may require additional

5.1.1 Site selection checklist


Establishing the process for development • Complete and submit required applications.
involves the preparation of a list of logical • Build upon approval, or return to
steps. This should ensure that time and energy development process.
is spent efficiently and that development is When a suitable site has been located,
successful. based on the preceding checklist, apply to the
When evaluating potential sites, it is NRCB for the approval. To speed up the
important to include the interests of the other decision-making process, work with a NRCB
stakeholders. This includes such parties as Approval Officer to ensure all the necessary
neighbours (residence and landowner) and information is included. The permit process is
the local municipality. dependent on having complete information.
Recommended steps taken between Delays in providing this information will slow
finalizing the business plan and actual the process and a decision on the application.
construction:
• Assess local/community perception of For an application form, contact the Natural
livestock developments. Resources Conservation Board Web site: at
• Gather development application http://www.nrcb.gov.ab.ca/ILOpage.html
requirements from the NRCB.
• Evaluate ability of the site to meet
development requirements (Minimum
Distance Separation (MDS), land base, soil
and groundwater investigation).
• Evaluate resource base (water supply, land,
and rural services).
• Complete management plans as related to
the specific site.
• Share intent with stakeholders.

5.0
44 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
5.1.2 Assess perceptions of hog developments
Assess community and neighbours’ will have an impact on or be impacted by the
perceptions of the hog industry and the development. This will allow analysis of any
potential development. Determine how potential risks of future opposition and save
previous concerns about livestock time and money. It is important to address all
developments in the area were handled. concerns, both real and perceived.
Identify community and local leaders who

5.1.3 Gather development application requirements


At this stage, producers must contact the necessary action if a livestock operation has
NRCB Approval Officer to determine or exhibits the potential to have an impact
application requirements. Depending on the on public health, the environment, or
number of animals, a producer may require transportation infrastructure.
an approval or a registration. The Approval The application is reviewed to ensure that it
Officer will describe the applicable approvals has all of the relevant information required to
required under the Agricultural Operation make a decision on the application. Once this
Practices Act (AOPA), Water Act and Public information is provided, the application is
Lands Act. deemed complete. Depending on the size of
The application must contain all the the operation (approval vs. registration), the
necessary approvals for the hog operation NRCB may be required to notify affected parties
e.g. an application for a Water Act licence from of the proposed operation. Municipalities are
Alberta Environment. Once the application is always notified of an application.
prepared and submitted to the NRCB, the Parties that might be affected by the
Approval Officer screens the application to operation, such as neighbours or
ensure the necessary information is included. municipalities, may submit statements of
The Approval Officer forwards the completed concern. These statements of concern will be
application to other agencies for their reviewed. Attempts will be made to resolve
approvals. For example, Alberta Environment issues raised by affected parties. Once all the
is responsible for the allocation of water input from the municipalities, Alberta
resources, under the Water Act. Any water Environment (Water Act), etc., has been
diversion also requires a permit from Alberta received, the Approval Officer makes a
Environment. Regional Health Authorities, decision regarding the application. The
Sustainable Resource Development (Public Approval Officer has three options: approve
Lands) and Alberta Transportation may the application, reject it or approve with
receive referrals on development applications. conditions.
These provincial government agencies have An approval for the development must be
the responsibility to investigate and take any issued before construction begins.

5.1.4 Conduct a site assessment


Assess the site’s capacity to meet the may be local factors that influence the siting
geographical, physical and regulatory require- of the development, such as wind, air
ments of a livestock development. A general drainage, other livestock operations and
assessment of the geographical requirements environmental concerns.
of the development should have been done in Wind. Prevailing wind is an important
the business plan phase. Assess the site based factor to consider; however, the direction can
on its ability to provide convenient access to vary between seasons. During summer, when
the infrastructure and resource base required odours are more intense and neighbours are
to manage the proposed operation. outdoors more often, it is important to
Ensuring suitable climatic conditions is consider the direction of the prevailing winds.
generally not a pressing issue, as most Also consider the effects of calm summer
locations in Alberta have a climate suitable for evenings. For example, under calm conditions
successful hog production. However, there odours will not disperse as readily.
5.0
September 2002 45
Air drainage. Under calm, summer • Minimum distance separation (MDS)
conditions, the air near the ground cools and The minimum distance separation refers to
can drift down a slope. This is known as air the setback or buffer established between a
drainage. confined feeding operation (source) and
Other livestock. Consider other livestock adjacent land users (receptors) in order to
operations when selecting a site for a new minimize odour nuisance. Minimum distance
operation. Providing an adequate separation separations for various sizes of livestock
distance from other livestock operations is an operations are identified in the AOPA,
important step in preventing the spread of live- Standards and Administration Regulation.
stock disease and cumulative nuisance effects. • Manure storage
Consult a veterinarian to determine adequate
Appropriate containment and storage of
separation distances from other livestock to
manure specific to the proposed site must be
prevent the transfer of infectious organisms.
addressed. The Act, Standards and Regulations
Environmental concerns. The AOPA is include criteria for safe storage of liquid and
designed to help livestock producers minimize solid manure, as well as average volumes
the environmental impact of livestock necessary for sizing the storage.
operations. The primary elements covered in
the Act, Regulations and Standards are designed • Nutrient management
to address the potential for contamination of The Act, Standards and Regulations also include
water, both surface and groundwater, soil and requirements to manage nutrients from
air. These elements are: minimum distance manure to prevent negative environmental
separation (MDS), manure storage, and impacts. Nutrient management requirements,
nutrient management. manure application limits, soil protection and
records that must be kept by producers and
users of manure are outlined.

5.1.5 Evaluate resource base


Determine whether the site offers the Water resource management. Providing a
required resource support necessary for the safe, reliable supply of quality water for
proposed operation. This includes availability livestock is critical. A poor water supply can
of water, feed or land base necessary to limit the size of an operation or affect animal
produce feed, and proximity to purchased health and performance. A hydrology
input requirements and labour. Land base specialist (Alberta Agriculture, Food and
requirements for manure spreading must also Rural Development [AAFRD], Alberta
be considered, as do availability of rural Environment, Prairie Farm Rehabilitation
services and water resources. Administration [PFRA] or a private
Land base. The land base required should consultant) can assist in determining the
be based on the agronomic use of manure. suitability of a water source for hog
It should accommodate projected crop production.
production and be close enough for economical Water supplies and systems must be
manure application. It may be necessary to designed to meet peak demands. Water
engage in spreading agreements with requirements can vary, based on animal size,
neighbours or explore alternate uses for the washing requirements, temperature, spray
manure (see Section 8 and AOPA). cooling systems, water quality, as well as the
Rural service. Any off-site inputs require animals’ physiological state, activity level and
reasonable accessibility to related agribusiness diet. Calculation of average daily and annual
and staff. Good road access to the site is critical. water requirements can be completed based
Availability of utilities such as power and gas are on the number and size of animals, using
also significant factors affecting site selection. Figure 5.1. Water requirements will be
influenced by the ration fed and the minerals
in the drinking water (Figure 5.2).

5.0
46 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
Figure 5.1 Recommended Flow Rates and Water Intake
Type of hog millilitres/min Water intake (litres/day)
Min Max
Suckling 0.3 -
Weaner 750 1000 3
30 kg grower 1000 4-5
70 kg finisher 1500 5–7
Adult 1500 2000 5-8
Lactating sow 15 - 20
Nipple bite drinker 1500 2000 15 - 20
Nose drinker 2500
Gestating sow 5-8
Flush trough system 500 1000

Figure 5.2 Canadian Water Quality


Guidelines for Livestock
Sources of water quality information for hogs
Item Maximum
Recommended
include:
Limit, ppm • The Canadian Pork Council, 1998. Canadian
Quality Assurance Producer Manual.
Major ions • Patience, J.F., P.A. Thacker and C.F.M.
Calcium 1,000 de Lange, 1995. Swine Nutrition Guide, 2nd
Nitrate + nitrite l00 edition. Prairie Swine Centre. Pg 241 - 249
Nitrite alone 10 Inc. ISBN 0-9698426-1-9.
Sulphate 1,000 • Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural
TDS 3,000 Development. Water for Swine. Agdex
400/68-1.
Heavy metals and
http://www.agric.gov.ab.ca/agdex/400/406
trace ions 80001.html.
Aluminum 5.0
Arsenic 0.51
Beryllium 0.12
Boron 5.0
Cadmium 0.02
Chromium 1.0
Cobalt 1.0
Copper (swine) 5.0
Fluoride 2.03
Iron no guideline
Lead 0.1
Manganese no guideline
Mercury 0.003
Molybdenum 0.5
Nickel 1.0
Selenium 0.05
Uranium 0.2
Vanadium 0.1
Zinc 0.0

Recommended maximum limits for water quality


for hogs that should not be exceeded:
Total dissolved solids 3000 mg/L
Sulphate 1000 mg/L
Nitrate+nitrite (as N) 100 mg/L
Nitrite alone 10 mg/L

5.0
September 2002 47
Groundwater availability. Information on Steps to prevent contamination of surface
groundwater availability in an area can be and groundwater. Agricultural activities
obtained from the Groundwater Information around a well or dugout may have negative
Service of Alberta Environment (Phone impacts on water quality. To prevent well and
780 427-2770). A hydrology specialist dugout contamination, ensure the following:
(AAFRD, Alberta Environment, PFRA or a Wells
private consultant) or local water well drilling • Ensure wells are properly constructed
contractors can also provide more information and sealed.
on groundwater availability. In some cases, • Locate wells up-slope, away from sources
test drilling may be required to determine of contamination.
availability of water and its quality. Shallow • Properly plug any old, unused wells, as
water wells may be more susceptible to they can contaminate newer wells.
contamination and fluctuation in quantity • Do not over-apply manure; nitrate seepage
than deeper wells. The Water Act may require can contaminate groundwater.
a licence prior to drilling a well. Contact the • Ensure that manure storage structures, such
NRCB or Alberta Environment for additional as earthen manure storages, are built to
information on water licence requirements. prevent seepage into groundwater.
Dugouts and surface water. Construction • Direct surface drainage from contaminated
of a large reservoir or dugout for a farm sources away from wells.
operation requires investigation of the subsoil • Ensure well casing, cap and venting are
conditions at the site and consideration of the always in good repair.
drainage area. Test drilling or test pits can Dugouts
provide valuable information regarding • Construct dugouts in proper drainage
dugout design and selection of the appropriate areas, away from potential sources of
construction equipment. Dugouts can be contamination.
constructed in almost any texture of soil, but • Apply manure and fertilizers to meet crop
may require lining to prevent excessive nutrient needs. Excess soil nutrient levels
seepage. Lining adds significant cost, so a can lead to excess nutrient levels in the
good clay-based site is preferable. runoff water. This causes increased algae
Dugouts that are filled only by spring and weed growth in dugout water.
runoff should be designed to hold at least a • Avoid spreading manure on snow or frozen
two-year water supply, unless an alternative ground. Research in Manitoba showed 10
source can be used to fill the dugout in a to 60 times as much phosphorus in spring
drought year. Dugouts in the irrigation area of runoff from winter-spread fields, compared
the province, or dugouts adjacent to rivers or to control fields.
lakes, must be at least large enough to supply • Maintain manure storages and sewage
water from the time the water is not available lagoons to prevent runoff or seepage.
in the fall until water flows again in the Contact an experienced hydrologist
spring. A one-year storage capacity is the (AAFRD, Alberta Environment, PFRA or a
recommended capacity for these dugouts. private consultant) to develop a plan to
Planning and design information is available protect the operation’s water resource.
through PFRA or AAFRD.
Dugouts should not be located directly in a
watercourse. If the dugout is located off to the
side of the watercourse, then the water can be
diverted into the dugout, or past the dugout,
depending on the quality. All waterways that
supply the dugout should be grassed to
prevent erosion and provide sediment and
nutrient trapping.

5.0
48 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
5.1.6 Complete management plans specific to site
It is extremely important for hog producers include a management plan for disposing of
and stakeholders, that clear, functional and waste such as dead animals and pesticides
appropriate management plans are developed. (see Section 9).
This includes the overall operational plan as it It is important to be prepared, with a clear,
relates to the AOPA comprehensive nutrient informed message regarding management
management plan. A comprehensive nutrient intentions as they relate to minimizing
management plan outlines in-barn manage- nuisance, specifically odour and meeting
ment, transport to the storage, storage period the regulatory requirements of a livestock
and land application as directed by the operation.
nutrient management plan. This must also

5.1.7 Share intent with stakeholders


A new project generally represents some need? Could the project be changed to better
form of change to a community. Typically, five meet their needs? What is the history of the
to 10 percent of community members will community? Which areas had problems
support the project initially and five to initiating new projects in the past? Who are
10 percent will oppose it. Opponents or the people with power and influence? What is
supporters are unlikely to change their the perspective of community stakeholders?
position. The remaining 80 percent, called Gathering this type of information helps to
the silent majority, are either undecided, develop a community social profile. This
indifferent or sceptical about the project. profile is vital to creating effective
Failure to bring the silent majority on side communication strategies.
can lead to opposition and can seriously Keep the community informed. To build
jeopardize the project. Various communication community support for the project, ensure
strategies can be used to win the support of that the community is well informed and
this group. Open public participation is one ideally, part of the initial planning for the
communication strategy that has proven to project. Any communication about the project
be successful. must be open, honest and timely. There are a
It is wise to begin development by variety of approaches suitable for reaching
consulting with the community. This helps to different groups.
build trust, understanding and support for the To reach young families, communicate
project. If the project proceeds too far before through the school newsletter or parent
the public is informed, there may be problems advisory meetings. The senior’s activity centre
with rumours and misinformation. Under the is a good contact point. Quick lunch hour
AOPA, directly affected parties will be gatherings in a central location might appeal
notified by the NRCB and will have an to the working crowd. Some approaches may
opportunity to review the application and be more effective at different developmental
raise concerns. Members of the public also stages of the project. Consider the information
have an opportunity to review an application to be shared, who to communicate with and
for an approval and may also submit state- when. Do not always rely on print material or
ments of concern, together with reasons why meetings to get the message across. Try to use
they should be considered to be directly a creative variety of public participation
affected parties approaches to provide information and
Public participation is not the only way to receive feedback.
gain community support, but it is a powerful Gather meaningful feedback from the
approach for paving the way. The following public. Inviting the public to express their
points outline key considerations and views and concerns about the project can help
communication strategies for public to enhance community support and ultimately
participation in a successful project. the success of the project. Be prepared to
Knowing the community is critical to listen, respond and incorporate feedback
building support. One of the first steps is to given by community members.
identify the individuals and organizations in If the community does not support the
the community who will be affected by the project, stand back and try to be objective. It
project. How might they be affected? Which may be that not enough information has been
information do these individuals want and provided. Perhaps the timing is off, or the
5.0
September 2002 49
location is wrong. Take advice from the Plan communication strategies. These
community and let its members know where strategies have proven to be effective in
their input has made a difference. If the communicating with the public and building
intention is not to use feedback, do not ask support for a community project.
for it. There is no integrity in the public • Informal consultation.
participation process if the decisions have • Use of media.
already been made. By allowing the • Open house. (see Section 4).
community to provide input, it will attach • Fact sheet with tear-off response.
some ownership in the project. • Reference centre.
• Public forum.

5.2 Site Planning


Once a site has been located, a site plan is • Ensure that emergency vehicles can access
required. The location and orientation of facilities in case of fire or other emergency.
structures can influence the potential for • Position high activity buildings and work
environmental impacts. Good site planning areas away from neighbours to minimize
can also prevent neighbourhood disputes. sight and sound impacts.
When designing a site plan, the following • Use screens such as shelterbelts to provide
aspects should be considered: wind protection and reduce the operation’s
• Adhere to required permit criteria, such as visual, odour and dust impact on adjacent
setback distances from roads and property property owners.
lines or water diversion pathways. • Allow roof runoff and any clean water to be
• Locate buildings and storage facilities diverted away from the site.
for fuel, fertilizer, manure, compost or • Adhere to the recommendations of the
pesticides at least 100 metres (328 feet) Canadian Farm Building Code.
from wells and 30 metres (98.4 feet) from • Invest in good storage and processing
common bodies of water. If possible, facilities for feed and feed ingredients.
choose a site of lower elevation than wells Adequate facilities and proper management
to prevent runoff or seepage of harmful can help avoid pollution and reduce losses
substances into the water supply. due to spoilage, insect and rodent damage
• Locate buildings and facilities on an and fire from spontaneous combustion.
adequately drained site, being careful to • Before building new feed storage facilities,
avoid low areas subject to flooding. Refer to design a complete storage and handling
the AOPA, Standards and Administration system, which incorporates both present
Regulation for requirements on site planning. and future requirements.
• Grade the area to divert contaminated • Locate the feed processing and handling
runoff and prevent it from entering surface centre in an area that will allow large
or groundwater. vehicle access and provide sufficient
• Grade or berm yards to allow collection of setback from neighbours. This will ensure
contaminated runoff before it reaches they are protected from noise, dust, traffic
surrounding waterways and to reduce and the threat of fire.
nuisance impacts on neighbours.

5.0
50 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
5.3 Shutting Down Livestock Operations
The development approval may define the or more, conditions of the permit and
period of time a facility can be empty before regulations may require a cleanup
another approval is required for the operation. procedure within a certain period of time.
General points: Depending on permit requirements within
the municipality, a new development
• No matter how short the shutdown period,
permit may be necessary before restocking
take steps to minimize the risk to humans
the barn.
and animals entering manure storage areas
• For a permanent shutdown, check with
and buildings. Ensure signs are posted to
the municipality for decommissioning
advise of any potential dangers.
(i.e termination of permitting conditions)
• Remove manure from buildings.
requirements. Some jurisdictions may also
• During short-term shutdowns of one
require a demolition permit for site cleanup.
month or more, turn off water, unnecessary
gas and electricity, control weeds and
insects and transport manure from the barn
to proper storage facilities.
• For longer-term shutdowns of six months

5.0
September 2002 51
5.4 References
• Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural • The Canadian Pork Council, 1998. Canadian
Development, 1999. Livestock Expansion and Quality Assurance Producer Manual.
Developers Guide.
• Institute for Research in Construction,
• Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural National Research Council, Canada.
Development. Agricultural Operation Canadian Farm Building Code, Publication
Practices Act. www.agric.gov.ab.ca/ Sales, M-20, Ottawa, Canada, K1A 0R6.
ministry/acts/aopa-bill.html.
• Patience, P.A. J.F., Thacker, and C.F.M. de
• Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural Lange, 1995. Swine Nutrition Guide, 2nd
Development. Water for Swine. Agdex edition. Prairie Swine Centre. Pgs. 241 - 249
400/681. www.agric.gov.ab.ca/agdex/400/ Incl.
40680001.html.

• The American Society of Agricultural


Engineers Standards ASAE S441,
(SAE J115 Jan 87).

Additional references available from AAFRD


• Water Analysis Interpretation Agdex 400/716-2. • Seepage Control in Dugouts Agdex 716 (B32).

• Water Wells that Last for Generations. • Float Suspended Intake for Dugouts Agdex
716 (B34).
• Dugouts for Farm Water Supplies Agdex 716
(B30). • Dugout Aeration with Compressed Air Agdex
716 (B36).
• Dugout Maintenance Agdex 716 (B31).
• Hydrated Lime for Algae Control in Dugouts
Agdex 716 (B37).

5.0
52 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
6.0 HOUSING, EQUIPMENT AND
ANIMAL MANAGEMENT
6.1 Manure Collection

6.2 Liquid Manure Systems

6.3 Pen Design and Management

6.4 Solid Manure Systems

6.5 Feeder Management

6.6 Water Management

6.7 Ventilation
6.7.1 Pit ventilation

6.8 Dust Control

6.9 Safety Precautions for Managing Livestock Manure

6.10 Feeds and Nutrition

6.11 References
6.0 HOUSING, EQUIPMENT AND
ANIMAL MANAGEMENT

6.1 Manure Collection


The factors that influence the choice of for a long service life. Preventative maintenance
manure handling systems include: and the use of reliable equipment are critical
• Size of operation. to avoiding problems.
• Personal preference. Hog manure, a mixture of urine and feces,
• Labour requirements. typically contains about 85 to 90 percent water
• Economics. and 10 to 15 percent solids when it is excreted.
• Available equipment. In liquid manure handling systems, wash and
• Issues related to animal well-being. spilled water dilute the manure. By the time
• Location. the manure reaches the storage lagoon, it
• Environmental concerns. contains about 95 percent water and 5 percent
Manure handling systems are generally solids. The following classifications are
designed to handle solid or liquid manure. generally used to describe manure from a
Regardless of the type of manure being handling perspective:
handled, it is important to use properly
designed equipment and to operate and Liquid manure.................0 to 5 % solids
maintain the equipment according to Slurry manure..................6 to 13 % solids
manufacturer instructions. The equipment Semi-solid manure.........15 to 23 % solids
must be reliable in a corrosive environment. Solid manure...................more than 25 % solids
Equipment also requires proper maintenance
(American Society of Agricultural
Engineers 1999)

6.2 Liquid Manure Systems


The most common liquid manure collection collection area in the barn, before it is pumped
system is slatted floors that cover shallow to the long-term storage or applied to the
collection pits where feces, urine, wash water land. These systems may require agitation to
and water spillage collect. Collection pits are bring solids back into suspension before the
usually the full width of the slatted areas in manure can be pumped (see Section 7).
the pens. Pit dividers and plugs lead to Agitating stored manure can release dangerous
discharge pipes that take the manure to the toxic gases.
long-term storage outside the barn. Typically, Removing manure from animal rooms to
the pits are allowed to fill before being separate long-term storage locations reduces
emptied by a combination of gravity flow and the risk of toxic and odorous gas emission.
water flushing. Storage capacity in the pits These odorous and toxic gases result from
varies depending on the size of animals being the decomposition of manure by the micro-
housed and the design of the facility. organisms in the feces. Ammonia is the major
Less frequently, liquid manure is collected product of this breakdown but a host of other
and stored in deep pits (2.4 metres or 8 feet) gases, such as hydrogen sulphide, are also
under the slats. Some manure handling sys- produced (see Section 2.4).
tems also incorporate scrapers or gravity
flushing to gather the manure into a central

6.0
54 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
6.3 Pen Design and Management
Proper pen design and selection of slats that feet and leg problems for the animals. For
clean easily with animal traffic will greatly flooring advice, contact an agricultural
reduce the hogs’ contact with manure and engineer and pen equipment suppliers.
reduce manure accumulation on the slats. The • Scrape manure that collects on the pen floor
following pen management practices can be into the gutters at least daily.
used to maximize hog and pen cleanliness, • Design partially slatted floors with approxi-
minimize odour production, control flies and mately one-third slats and two-thirds solid
facilitate easy cleaning: floor. A step in the floor, between the slats
• Minimize in-barn manure storage time. and the solid flooring, will help define the
• Use slats with adequate void-to-surface dunging area (slatted floor) and reduce
ratio. Slat spacing that is too narrow does manure tracking into the resting area
not allow the manure to fall into the pit, (solid floor).
leading to dirty pens, which encourages fly • Maintain correct pen stocking density. The
breeding and odour. Narrow slats that are minimum standard for stocking densities
laden with manure can also obstruct should be based on the Recommended Code of
airflow through the pit ventilation, Practice for the Care and Handling of Farm
particularly in winter. If the opening Animals: Pigs (1993).* See Figures 6.1 and 6.2.
between the slats is too wide, it causes

Figure 6.1 Recommended Pen Floor Space Allowances


for Growing Hogs*
(based on body weight)
Body Weight Fully Slatted Partial Slats Solid Bedded
(0.035*BW.667)‡ (0.039*BW.667) (0.045*BW.667)

kgs lbs. m2 ft2 m2 ft2 m2 ft2


10 22 0.16 1.7 0.18 1.9 0.21 2.2
20 44 0.26 2.8 0.29 3.1 0.33 3.5
50 110 0.48 5.2 0.53 5.7 0.61 6.6
75 165 0.62 6.7 0.70 7.5 0.80 8.6
90 198 0.70 7.5 0.78 8.4 0.91 9.7
100 220 0.76 8.2 0.85 9.1 0.97 10.4
110 242 0.81 8.7 0.90 9.7 1.03 11.1
‡ For calculations; body weight BW is in kg, area in m2.

Figure 6.2 Recommended Pen Floor Space Allowances


for Replacement Gilts and Sows*
Body Weight Partial Slats Solid Bedded
(0.054*BW.667)‡ (0.059*BW.667)

kgs lbs. m2 ft2 m2 ft2


100-150 220-330 1.5 16 1.7 18
150-200 330-440 1.8 19 2.0 22
200-250 440-550 2.1 23 2.3 25
>250 >550 2.3 25 2.6 28
‡ For calculations; body weight BW is in kg, area in m2.

* Recommended Code of Practice for the Care and Handling of Farm Animals : Pigs (1993).

6.0
September 2002 55
• Manage ventilation and room temperature • With partially slatted floors, use open pen
to influence animal dunging habits. In winter, partitions in the dunging area to encourage
direct cold air away from the sleeping area, socializing and animal movement. Use
but in summer, direct incoming air onto the solid partitions in the resting area to prevent
sleeping area to help cool the animals. drafts and provide privacy.
• Maintain a comfortable barn temperature. • Install cooling sprinklers over the
To cool off, animals will play with the dunging area.
water dispensers or wallow in manure. • Locate the water source over the slatted
• When stocking partially slatted floor pens, area and the feeders at the junction of the
keep the hogs off feed for several hours slatted and solid floor areas.
before moving them. Spread some feed on
the solid floor area to introduce the hogs to
their new sleeping area.

6.4 Solid Manure Systems


Economics and public concern over Manure from these systems must be
environmental and welfare issues have managed to prevent pollution:
stimulated interest in straw-based and other • Use sufficient straw to absorb most of the
solid floor manure handling systems. These liquid. This will control runoff and provide
systems use bedding materials to absorb urine a comfortable environment for the hogs.
and feces. The bedding is renewed as required. • Contain runoff on the property in a way
Stored hog manure is considered a solid when that avoids leakage and does not pollute
it has a solid content greater than 25 percent. surface water or groundwater (see Section 7).
To produce solid manure, the liquid must be • Evaluate bedding on a daily basis to control
drained and the manure dried or have pen cleanliness, odour and gas production.
bedding added. Housing systems that use bedding are
Although these systems often require a low normally cleaned after every batch of finished
capital input, bedding and labour costs may hogs, or on a regular schedule when they are
be greater than in liquid systems. These systems used for sow housing.
are most commonly used to house finishing
hogs; however, gestating females are also
housed in bedded pens.

6.5 Feeder Management


To reduce flies, odour and gas build-up, it • Locate feeders so that traffic patterns and
is important to: dunging areas can be maintained without
• Reduce the amount of feed spilled by disrupting resting areas.
adjusting feeders properly and cleaning up • Repair leaking waterers as soon as possible
feed spills. to reduce water wastage, and minimize fly
• Adjust feeders to allow the hogs to eat to breeding areas and odour.
appetite, with minimum waste.
• Locate feeders so that spills fall into
the gutter.

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56 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
6.6 Water Management
Water is often a limiting resource for 25 grow-finish hogs is adequate. However,
livestock production and therefore requires most commercial units provide two
careful management. Water waste also drinkers for groups of 12 or more hogs.
increases manure volume and subsequent Multiple drinkers should be spaced
transportation costs. Typical water require- 1 to 1.5 metres apart.
ments for hogs are shown in Section 5.1.5. • Choose room designs and equipment that
Water requirements are influenced by feed are easy to wash and use minimal amounts
rations and minerals in the drinking water. of water.
Water can be conserved through the • Use a washing protocol that minimizes the
following practices: amount of water required:
• Evaluate the design of the waterers. - Remove all feed from feeders before
Wet/dry feeders are reported to reduce washing.
water usage by 10 to 40 percent in the - Use high pressure washing systems (1500
grower-finisher area. to 2000 PSI).
• Frequently assess the height and angle of - Presoak pens, walls and feeders prior to
the waterers. To prevent pen fouling, washing.
waterers should be installed at the smallest - Keep dirty areas soaked and do not allow
animal’s shoulder height, with a slightly them to dry out.
downward angle. - Use a systematic approach to keep pushing
• Repair leaking waterers quickly. In addition the water forward.
to wasting water, leaky waterers create - Start at the highest point on the walls and
damp areas that contribute to dirty pens, work down.
fly loads, odour and poor air quality. - Repair leaky pull plugs in the storage pit
• Ensure that the ratio of hogs to water to reduce the amount of water needed to
source is appropriate. Research data properly flush and drain pits.
suggests that one watering location per

6.7 Ventilation
The sources of atmospheric contamination influence on the health and well-being of
in a hog barn include the following: both staff and animals.
• Heat, moisture and carbon dioxide are As part of the operation’s ventilation
produced by hogs. maintenance protocol, determine the following
• Decomposition of manure by micro- on a daily basis:
organisms produces gases. • Are the hogs behaving normally?
• Feed dust. • Is the temperature consistent throughout
• Sloughed skin cells and hair from the the barn?
animals. • Are there drafts?
• Concrete dust. • Is there condensation in the barn?
• Dust entering the barn through the • Is the room dusty or smelly?
ventilation system. • Is cool air dumping onto the sleeping areas?
The role of ventilation is to: To ensure the ventilation system is working
• Provide adequate fresh air in the building. properly:
• Control the temperature and humidity. • Clean fan blades and shutters weekly.
• Remove dust, gas, odour and other • Ensure the fans are operating properly and
contaminants. that shutters are opening and closing.
Improper design and operation of • Inspect heating system weekly.
ventilation systems can influence the • Inspect alarm system weekly.
dunging pattern of hogs, which will • Lubricate moving parts regularly.
compromise air quality in the barn and • Clean dust from circulation ducts.
eventually hog performance. Barns that are • Make necessary repairs promptly.
dirty, damp or dusty are more prone to
odour complaints and have a significant

6.0
September 2002 57
6.7.1 Pit ventilation
Ventilating the pit space between the to neighbors. Research is currently underway
manure and flooring releases odorous air in Alberta to develop a biofiltration technique
outside the barn. However, even if odours are to reduce the intensity and offensiveness of
diluted compared to a non-ventilated head- odours exhausted from hog barns.
space, the odours may still be quite strong
and unpleasant and may pose a problem

6.8 Dust Control


There are many ways to approach dust Vegetable oil. When sprayed on surfaces, it
control: decreases dust by up to 80 percent. It also
Ventilation. The first line of defence for reduces gas levels, probably by absorption.
dust control is a properly designed and New oil must be applied every day. The
operated ventilation system. The ventilation Prairie Swine Centre is currently completing
system removes stale air that contains dust research on an application system that allows
and exhaust air flow rates have a significant easy oil application. Currently, oil sprinkling
impact on relative humidity. Although higher is by far the most effective way to reduce
humidity reduces dust concentrations, excess dust levels.
humidity contributes to respiratory problems Misting systems. Used to control dust,
and microbe activity. Operating the barn at these systems also create a cooling effect and
the ideal relative humidity, about 50 percent, raise humidity in the barn.
will optimize dust and microbe control. Other dust control technologies under
Feeding management. investigation include:
• Feed delivery to wet/dry and dry feeders. • Ionization systems. The ionization system
Cover any areas where dust can escape, for works well at the beginning of a cycle, but
instance at feed drop pipes leading into as soon as dust accumulates on surfaces, it
feeders and feed carts. This can be as creates electrical resistance and dust
simple as a used feed bag or as complex reduction quickly deteriorates. After five to
as a molded cover. six weeks, dust reduction will be reduced
• Prevent feed spillage as much as possible to a range of only 10 to 20 percent.
and clean up spilled feed. • Electrostatic precipitation. This is a common
• Add oil to the feed to bind the particles and method of removing particles from air in
reduce the potential for dust as feed is residential houses and commercial facilities.
moved and dropped into feeders. In Due to the relatively large dust load in
extreme cases, at the drop, a fine mist of barns, these systems are currently
water aimed at the feed will reduce dust. uneconomical and require high
• Consider using pelleted feed or liquid maintenance.
feeding systems. • Cyclone filters. These use a high air flow
to separate out particles; however, they
Housecleaning. Regular cleaning is are costly and require a high level of
important to reduce dust. maintenance.
• Sweep or blow dust off all horizontal
surfaces including feed lines, penning, Research has shown that dust can pose a
conduit and water lines. health risk to barn workers. To reduce the
• Regularly clean recirculation systems to impact of dust on personal health, always
prevent excess dust build-up in the barn. wear a mask. A mask should be properly fit-
• Ensure dung patterns are maintained to ted to the face (facial hair makes this very dif-
prevent manure from drying out and ficult) and be designed for the dust levels pre-
becoming a source of dust. Messy floors are sent. Check with a supplier for the
a source of dust when the manure dries. proper equipment.

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58 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
6.9 Safety Precautions for Managing
Livestock Manure
As manure decomposes, dangerous gases • Create several feet of headspace for the gases
are released. The gases released from stored by initiating pumping without agitation.
manure can be fatal. The publication, Manure • Agitate below the surface and agitate as
Gas (M-8710), from Canada Plan Service, little as possible.
discusses the sources and types of gases of Good building design and safe work
concern. This leaflet is available from Alberta procedures can prevent accidents related to
Agriculture, Food and Rural Development. manure gases. Workers should be properly
The most important of these dangerous trained to deal with manure gases, especially
gases is hydrogen sulphide. When liquid hydrogen sulphide. Long-term storage should
manure is stored in an enclosed space, hydrogen not be in the same air space as animals or
sulphide can accumulate in the headspace of workers. Connections between the barn and
the storage pit. Although hydrogen sulphide long-term storage must be separated by a gas
is readily detectable at low concentrations, at trap to prevent the gases from returning to the
higher levels the gas paralyzes the sense of barn. The facility should be designed so that
smell. Therefore, it is possible to unknowingly all service work can be performed without
encounter a dangerous situation. As the entering the storage.
concentration increases, the hydrogen A detailed standard operation procedure
sulphide paralyses the nerves that control the should be developed on how to enter manure
diaphragm, causing breathing to stop. When storage areas and only trained personnel
concentrations are high, a single breath of the should be assigned to carry out these duties.
gas can be fatal. When stored manure is A manure storage area should never be
agitated, toxic gases can be released. entered without proper respiratory equipment.
Removing manure from animal rooms to a A specifically built breathing apparatus
separate storage location reduces the risk of comprised of a full facemask and remote air
toxic and odorous gases collecting. However, tank and hose, is required. Always work in
if it is necessary to agitate in-barn manure pairs. If an accident does occur, apply
storage, it is important to: appropriate first aid.
• Provide maximum ventilation. Provide signage around confined manure
• Instruct all personnel to work in pairs. storage areas as a warning not to enter the
• Vacate people and animals from the room storage and of the hazards related to confined
prior to emptying the pit or adequately manure storage.
ventilate the head space above the manure.

6.10 Feeds and Nutrition


Hog manure, a mixture of urine and feces, Council, Nutrient Requirements of Swine (1998).
is primarily composed of undigested and An accompanying computer program can be
indigestible components of the feed plus some used to determine the nutrient requirements
products created from digestion and metabolism. of a specific group of hogs. Nutritionists can
Use the following approaches to reduce also help develop farm-specific diets that will
manure volume and the amount of nutrients maintain optimum growth and production
excreted by hogs. To reduce nutrient intake while addressing environmental challenges.
and/or improve the nutrient availability Phase feeding. As animals get heavier, their
(digestibility) of feed: nutrient requirements, expressed as a percentage
Determine the animal’s usual feed intake of the total diet, decreases. Daily feed intake
and growth rate and formulate herd-specific increases with age, while growth rate as a
diets to match the hogs’ requirements. This percentage of total weight, decreases.
approach reduces diet costs and significantly Therefore frequent changes in diet formulation
reduces the amount of nitrogen, phosphorus to more closely match the changing requirements
and other nutrients excreted. The best guide of the hog (phase feeding) will decrease the
to the protein, amino acid and mineral quantity of nutrients excreted. Similarly,
requirements of swine is the National Research formulating separate diets for pregnant and
6.0
September 2002 59
lactating sows may reduce nitrogen and Mineral withdrawal in late finishing.
phosphorus and other mineral excretion by Several studies have shown that supplemental
as much as 20 percent. minerals may be withdrawn from the diets of
Split-sex feeding. Gilts fed to appetite hogs weighing 90 to 120 kilograms (market
consume less feed than barrows, but gilts have weight) without any detectable negative
similar or greater lean tissue growth rates. effects on growth rate, carcass quality or bone
Therefore diets for gilts should be more nutrient strength. Because feed usage and manure out-
dense than barrow diets. When gilts and put are highest during this period, removal of
barrows are penned in mixed sex groups, diets the mineral supplement from the diet can
tend to be over-formulated for barrows, which reduce mineral excretion by 30 to 50 percent.
results in greater nutrient excretion. By using Nutrient availability of ingredients. The
split-sex feeding, the unique lean growth and digestibility of nutrients varies considerably
feed intake of each gender can be met, while between ingredients. For example, digestible
reducing input costs and nutrients excreted. phosphorus in wheat is 50 percent available
Improving feed conversion efficiency. while corn provides only 14 percent of its total
Feed conversion efficiency (FCE) is an phosphorus to the hog, with the rest excreted.
important determinant of profitability in animal If formulations are based on available
production. It is defined as the amount of feed phosphorus, the comparative value of wheat
required to produce one unit of animal is higher (when phosphorus is the nutrient
growth. Any improvement in FCE has the constraint), allowing a decreased amount of
potential to reduce excreted nutrients, as it phosphorus to be excreted in the manure.
reduces the amount of feed required to Nitrogen excretion can be significantly
achieve similar weight gain or product reduced by formulating diets on the basis of
output. It is estimated that a 0.1 percent digestible phosphorus, ideal digestible amino
improvement in feed conversion reduces acid levels and the correct ratio of dietary
phosphorus excretion by 0.14 kg per hog. essential amino acids to lysine.
Improvements in overall feed efficiency can be Feed additives. Feed additives such as
achieved by: antibiotics and beta-agonists may contribute
• Genetic advances that produce faster to reduced nitrogen and mineral excretion by
growing and leaner animals. improving growth rate and feed conversion
• Production technologies that reduce efficiency. Studies estimate that antibiotics in
disease, such as all-in, all-out animal flow, the diets of weaned hogs and growing hogs
segregated weaning, better biosecurity, reduced nitrogen and phosphorus excretion
better use of vaccines and disease control by seven and three percent respectively
strategies. compared to unsupplemented diets. Research
• Improved environmental conditions. has concluded that the use of specific feed
• Proper diet formulation. additives results in a reduction in manure and
• Use of high quality feed ingredients with phosphorus excretion of about six percent.
readily available nutrients. Nitrogen excretion can be reduced by
• Improved feed processing (e.g. pelleting reducing the crude protein in the diet.
and grinding). Incorporating synethetic amino acids in diets
• Adjustments to feeders to reduce waste. for growing-finishing hogs can reduce crude
Nutrient availability and digestibility can be protein content in the diet by two percent
improved by pelleting and grinding feeds. without any reduction in hog performance.
Findings indicate that for each 100 micron Lowering the dietary crude protein level for
reduction in particle size, there is a 1.0 to 1.5 growing-finishing hogs by two percent could
percent improvement in FCE for hogs fed reduce nitrogen excretion by approximately
corn-based diets. Proper feed processing 20 percent.
ensures good performance and results in Lysine is 100 percent digestible in some
reduced daily excretion of nutrients. ingredients, but as low as 50 percent digestible
Improvements in feeder design and operation in other ingredients. Poor digestibility leads to
can reduce feed waste and subsequently an increase in undigested nutrients in manure.
improve feed efficiencies. Studies have shown By formulating diets that include more
that feed waste accounts for three to eight digestible nutrients, for example, using
percent of the feed and that an estimated synthetic lysine, protein in the diet can be
reduction in feed waste of two percent would decreased, as well as the nitrogen in the manure.
reduce phosphorus excretion by 32 grams per hog.

6.0
60 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
6.10.1 Use of Enzymes to Improve Availability of
Phosphorus and Other Nutrients
The majority of ingredients in animal diets and vegetable protein supplements. There is
are of plant origin. It is estimated that more now considerable evidence that the addition
than two-thirds of the phosphorus in cereals of microbial phytase in hog diets will increase
and oilseeds is in the bound form of phytate phosphorus digestibility. Studies suggest that,
phosphorus. Only 30 percent of the phosphorus in general, addition of phytase in swine diets
in phytate phosphorus is available to swine. will allow phosphorus content of the diet to be
The following strategies can be used to meet reduced by 0.1 percent. It has been observed
the hogs’ need for phosphorus, while reduc- that phytase supplementation of swine diets
ing excreted phosphorus: can improve feed utilization by one to two
Source of P. To meet the animals’ requirements percent.
for phosphorus, inorganic sources of Research has also shown that, in addition to
phosphorus, such as dicalcium phosphate improving the digestibility of phosphorus by
and monocalcium phosphate, must be added 27 to 30 percent, phytase also improved the
to the diet. If inorganic sources are chosen on digestibility of some amino acids and trace
the basis of bioavailability of phosphorus minerals. The benefits of phytase can be
rather than total phosphorus, the excretion of realized without an effect on hog perfor-
phosphorus can be reduced. The digestibility mance, carcass quality, or bone strength.
of phosphorus in dicalcium phosphate, which Vitamin D. It has been reported that
is commonly used in swine diets, ranges from increasing the level of vitamin D in the diet
65 to 70 percent compared to 75 to 80 percent increases phosphorus utilization. An estimate
phosphorus digestibility in monocalcium of the reduction in phosphorus excretion
phosphate. resulting from various feeding strategies is
Ca:P ratio. Ensure a proper calcium to shown in Figure 6.3.
phosphorus ratio. A suggested ratio of total
calcium-to-phosphorus for grain-soybean
meal diets is between 1:1 and 1.25:1. Wider
Ca:P ratios will lower phosphorus absorption
and increase phosphorus excretion.
Phytase. The amount of phosphorus excreted
by hogs can be significantly reduced by
improving the availability of phytate in grains

Figure 6.3 Feeding Strategies to Reduce Phosphorus


Excretion from Livestock
Factor Estimated reduction in N and P
excretion in manure (%)
P N
Feed Additives
Phytase 25 - 30 5
Growth promoting substances 5 5
Feeding Strategies
Reduce protein with supplemental amino acids 15 - 20
Formulating closer to requirements 10 - 15 10 - 15
Phase feeding 10 – 20 10 – 20
Use of highly digestible feed ingredients 5 5

Sources: Baidoo, 1999; Schwartz, 1998; Viaene and Verbeke, 1998

6.0
September 2002 61
6.11 References
• Adeola I., J. I. Orban, D. Ragland, T.R. Cline • Kemme, P.A., A. W. Jongbloed, Z. Mroz,
and A.L. Sutton, 1998. Phytase and and M. Makinen, 1995. Apparent Ileal
Cholecalciferol Supplementation of Low Digestibility of Protein and Amino Acids from
Calcium and Low Phosphorus Diets for Hogs. a Maize-soybean Meal Diet with or without
Can. J. Animal Sci. 78:307 - 313. Extrinsic Phytate and Phytase in Hogs. Abst.
In Int. Symp on Nutr. Management of
• Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, 1993. Food Animals to Enhance the Environment.
Recommended Code of Practice for the Care and June 4-7. Blacksburg, VA.
Handling of Farm Animals: Pigs. Agriculture
and Agri-Food Canada Publication 1898/E, • Kornegay, E. T. and A. F. Harper, 1997.
Ottawa, ON. www.carc-crac.ca/ Environmental Nutrition: Nutrient
english/codes_of_practice/. Management Strategies to Reduce Nutrient
Excretion of Swine. Prof. Anim. Sci. 13: 19 - 11.
• Alberta Environmentally sustainable
Agriculture, 1999. Manure Production and • Kornegay, E.T., 1998. Nutrient Management
Characteristics. ASAE Standard D384.1 Oct can Reduce Nutrient Excesses. Feedstuffs.
In: ASAE Standards 1999. ASAE: St. Joseph, May 25.
MI.
• Lei, X.G., P. Ku, E.R. Miller, D.E. Ullrey and
• Alberta Environmentally sustainable M.T. Yokoyama, 1993. Supplemental microbial
Agriculture, 1999. Uniform Terminology for phytase improves bioavailability of dietary zinc
Rural Waste Management. ASAE Standard to weanling hogs. J. Nutr. 123: 1117
S292.5 Oct 94. In: ASAE Standards 1999.
ASAE: St. Joseph, MI. • Lenis, N.P. and A. W. Jongbloed, 1999. New
Technologies in Low Pollution Swine Diets:
• American Society of Agricultural Diet Manipulation and use of Synthetic Amino
Engineers, 1999. Uniform Terminology for Acids, Phytase, and Phase Feeding for
Rural Waste Management, American Society of Reduction of Nitrogen and Phosphorus
Agricultural Engineers, Standard S292.5, Oct Excretion and Ammonia Emission. Asian-Aus.
94. In: ASAE Standards 1999. ASAE: St. J. Anim. Sci. 1 (2): 305 – 327.
Joseph, MI.
• Lenis, N.P., J.T.M. van Diepen and P.W.
• Baidoo, S. K., 1999. Nutritional Impact on Goedhart, 1990. Amino Acid Requirements of
Manure Management. In: Allen D. Leman Hogs. 1. Requirements for Methionine and
Swine Nutrition Conference. Eds. S. W. Cystine, Threonine and Tryptophan of Fast-
Scruton and S. Claas. University of growing Boars and Gilts fed Adlibitum. Neth.
Minnesota Press. Pg. 198-204. J. Agric. Sci. 38: 577-595.

• Canada Plan Services, 1985. Plan M-8710, • Liu, J., D.W. Bollinger, D.R. Ledous and T.L.
Manure Gas. Veum, 1998. Lowering Dietary Calcium to
www.agric.gov.ab/navigation/engineer- Total Phosphorus Ratio Increases Phosphorus
ing/structures/index.html Utilization in Low Phoshporus Corn Soybean
Meal Diets Supplemented with Microbial
• Harper, A. F., 1994. Feeding Technologies to Phytase for Growing-finishing Hogs. J. Anim.
Reduce Excess Nutrients in Swine Diets. In: Sci. 76: 808 – 813.
Meeting the Challenge of Environmental
Management on Hog Farms. Second • MidWest Plan Service, 1983. Structures and
Annual Virginia Tech Swine Producers Environment Handbook. MWPS –1. Iowa
Seminar. Carson, VA. Pg. 44 – 51. State University, Ames, IO.

• Jongbloed, A.W. and N. P. Lewis, 1992. • National Research Council, 1988. Nutrient
Alteration of Nutrition as a Means to Reduce Requirements of Swine, 9th Revised edition.
Environmental Pollution by Hogs. Livestock National Academy Press 2101 Constitution
Production Science. 31: 75 – 94. Ave, NW, Washington, D.C. 20418.

6.0
62 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
6.11 References (cont)
• National Research Council, 1998. Nutrient
Requirements of Swine, 10th Revised edition.
National Academy Press 2101 Constitution
Ave, NW, Washington, D.C. 20418. ISBN
0-309-05993-3. Internet, www.nap.edu.

• Peet-Schwering, C.M.C. van der, A. W.


Jongbloed, and A.J.A. Aarnink, 1997.
Nitrogen and Phosphorus Consumption,
Utilization, and Losses in Hog Production.
The Situation in the Netherlands. 48th Annual
Meeting of the EAPP, Vienna Austria,
Pg. 18.

• Satter, L.G. and Z. Wu, 2000. Reducing


Phosphorus Content of Manure Through Diet
Manipulation. In: Proceedings of the Twenty-
First Western Nutrition Conference,
pg. 219 – 234.

• Schwartz, G., 1998. Further Constraints


would have Widespread Implications. Feedstuffs.
July 27.

• Viaene, J. and W. Verbeke, 1998. Feed


Additives: The Economic Impact. Hog Progress.
14(3): 11 – 13.

• Wondra, K. J., J. D. Hancock, R. H. Hines,


K. C. Behnke and G. A. Kennedy, 1996.
Effects of Grinding and Pelleting on the
Nutritional Value of Cereal Grains and Diets
for Hogs. Canadian Feed Association Industry
Conference (CFIA). Ottawa. Canada.
Pg. 17 – 21.

6.0
September 2002 63
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64 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
7.0 MANURE COLLECTION, STORAGE,
TRANSPORTATION AND TREATMENT
7.1 Design Considerations
7.1.1 Manure characteristics
7.1.2 Anaerobic vs. aerobic storage
7.1.3 Site selection and construction of manure storage structures
7.1.4 Site evaluation

7.2 Types of Storage

7.3 Runoff Control from Manure Storage


7.3.1 Options to control surface runoff

7.4 Manure Storage Capacity

7.5 Maintenance and Monitoring


7.5.1 Odour control strategies
7.5.2 Monitoring

7.6 Manure Transportation

7.7 Manure Treatment


7.7.1 Solid/liquid separation
7.7.2 The composting process
7.7.2.1 Methods of composting

7.7.2.2 Composting regulations

7.8 References
7.0 MANURE COLLECTION,
STORAGE,TRANSPORTATION
AND TREATMENT
Hog manure is a valuable by-product from facility is a permanent structure or location
swine farms. However, to avoid pollution, a designed and operated to contain manure,
well-planned manure storage system is other wastes and contaminated runoff in an
required. This section deals with storage site environmentally sound manner. The facility
selection, sizing and maintenance. Manure should be sized to hold manure until it can be
transportation and treatment are also included. used as a fertilizer. Generally the facility
As manure storage facilities have potential should be able to hold nine months of manure
to contaminate water, they need to be production, as a minimum. Timing and
designed and monitored to ensure they are amount of manure to apply on cropland is
both structurally and environmentally sound. explained in Section 8: Land Application of
The facility must meet the requirements in the Manure.
Agricultural Operation Practices Act (AOPA), Alternatively, if manure is being picked up
Standards and Administration Regulation. and removed from the farm, a manure storage
The design of the storage will depend on structure sized for one cleanout may be suitable
the number of animals involved, the storage to temporarily store the manure. Check with
time required, the type of manure to be the NRCB to determine temporary storage
stored, and the site evaluation. A storage requirements.

7.1 Design Considerations


7.1.1 Manure characteristics
Depending on the housing situation, hog
manure may be handled and stored as a Liquid manure.................0 to 5 % solids
liquid, solid or semi-solid. From a handling Slurry manure..................6 to 13 % solids
perspective, the following classifications are Semi-solid manure.........15 to 23 % solids
generally used to describe manure. Solid manure...................more than 25 % solids

7.1.2 Anaerobic vs. aerobic storage


Manure storages are either anaerobic or storage, but more odorous. Although aerobic
aerobic depending on oxygen availability. storage is less odorous, more ammonia is
Anaerobic activity occurs in the absence of released from the storage, which reduces
oxygen; aerobic action occurs in the presence the fertilizer value of the manure and can
of oxygen. Aerobic conditions are created by contribute to acid rain. Most storages in
mechanical mixing or aeration. Anaerobic Alberta are anaerobic.
storages are generally less costly than aerobic

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66 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
7.1.3 Site selection and construction of
manure storage structures
According to AOPA, the manure • Be sized to provide enough storage to
storage must: enable the operator to spread manure when
• Meet local property setback requirements. crop uptake of the nutrients will occur and
• Be located at least 100 metres (328 feet) when manure runoff from fields to surface
from a spring or water well and at least 30 water is unlikely.
metres (100 feet) from a common body of • If open, the structure must be sized to hold
water such as streams, creeks, ditches, etc. the expected local precipitation.
• Be constructed according to the design • Be close enough to the barns to allow for
criteria outlined in the AOPA to prevent convenient filling.
water, soil and air contamination. • Accommodate future expansion.
• Be located at least one metre above the 1:25 • Be constructed to prevent surface runoff
year flood level. from collecting in the storage. Berms or
• Have at least 0.5 metres vertical distance ditches are commonly used to divert
between the full level of the structure and surface water.
the upper edge (freeboard). • Be seeded to grass on the berm and down
• Be structurally sound with professionally to the maximum fill level to prevent shifting
engineered designs. and blowing and to prevent cracks and
• Be accessible by an all-weather road. holes that result from exposed liners, freeze
• Have berm and liner protection at locations thaw cycles and tree roots.
in the storage affected by scouring (inlets, • Have a grassed buffer strip to intercept
transfer pipes, and agitation sites). manure that could enter a watercourse in
• Be adequately fenced to prevent accidental the event of a leak or overflow.
entry of humans, animals and machinery. • Minimize odour and nuisance to neighbours.
A minimum of nine months storage is • Be located away from roads and traffic.
required for manure storage facilities. The • Be kept tidy to reduce flies and rodents and
manure storage should: promote a positive image.

7.1.4 Site evaluation


A thorough evaluation of the site is • Site hydrogeology, including depth to
necessary to develop an economically feasible, water table, depth and quality of bedrock,
structurally sound and environmentally safe existence of perched water tables, depth
storage design. A suitable design is based on to the local aquifer and its quality and
assessment of the soils, geology and sensitivity.
hydrogeology of the area. It is also necessary Following a proper site assessment, strict
to consider social and economic factors. The design and construction requirements for the
initial site assessment must obtain sufficient storage should be followed to achieve a
information to evaluate the following basic dependable liner. If no concern arises from the
site factors: initial site assessment, an earthen manure
• Topographic characteristics including land storage can be considered. If there is lack of
slope and distance from water bodies. information or a concern arises in the
• Surface and subsurface soil characteristics, preliminary assessment, a more rigorous site
such as soil permeability and the suitability investigation may be required. This will
of the excavated materials and other related include a geotechnical field investigation of
information to build a clay liner. soil depth, texture and uniformity at the
proposed site. Geotechnical parameters
such as plasticity characteristics and actual
permeability measurements may be required.

7.0
September 2002 67
7.2 Types of Storage
Liquid storage. The most common type of design and installation. A layer of clay or
liquid storage in Alberta is the earthen some other liner below the storage foundation
manure storage, which is lined with compacted system will also reduce potential for leakage.
clay or plastic material. In unusually sensitive Concrete storages are generally smaller in
geologic settings, concrete or steel storage surface area and will collect less precipitation
tanks may be required. When concrete or (if uncovered) than earthen storages. Concrete
alternative storage facilities are used the storages can be built above ground, below
manufacturer should be consulted about ground or be incorporated into the barn
ongoing maintenance. The design and design. Long term manure storage below the
construction of all storages should be verified livestock building is known as “deep pit”
by a Professional Engineer. storage. Deep pit storage generally holds six
The cost of installing steel tanks limits their to 12 months of manure in a deep pit under
use in Western Canada. Steel tanks are always the livestock flooring. Most deep pit facilities
circular and may be built above or below use a fully slatted livestock floor above the pit
grade. area. Finisher swine facilities have been the
A concrete storage may be an alternative if main swine facility using the deep pit storage.
local soil conditions, economics or regulations There are several advantages/disadvantages
prevent use of an earthen structure. Leakage of a deep pit facility versus outdoor storage.
can be minimized with proper structural

Figure 7.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Various


Concrete Manure Storages

Style Advantages Disadvantages


Below Ground • Gravity flow may be possible. • Fencing is important to prevent
• Reduced pump sizes (if required). accidental entry of humans,
• Soil may be used to help support animals or machinery.
the walls of the storage. • Leakage or cracking may be more
difficult to detect.
• Additional soil excavation may be
required.

Above Ground • Leakage or cracking may be easier • Gravity flow is usually not possible.
to detect. • Increased pump sizes are necessary
• There may be less ground to pump manure higher up.
excavation required. • Piping may be above ground with
increased chances of freezing and
maintenance.
• Soil cannot be used for structural
support on the side wall.

Deep Pit • Building and manure storage are • Manure being held under the slats
contained in the same space. has the potential to release hydrogen
• There may be reduced minimum sulphide that may be harmful to
separation distances from neigh- humans and livestock.
bours or property lines. • Agitation and pumping of manure
• Reduced odours (real or perceived). is done directly under the livestock
• Precipitation cannot enter pit since unless the building is emptied
it is covered. during this time.
• Cost is less than having an outdoor • Any structural or construction
storage. problems with the pit will have a
direct impact on the remainder of
the building (or vice versa).
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68 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
Semi-solid storage. Hog manure will be Solid storage. Solid storage can be classified
semi-solid when scraped from facilities that as: short-term, long-term and in-pen. Short-
use minimal amounts of bedding, such as term storage contains manure for no more
solid floor farrowing and feeding pens. In the than six months over a three-year period.
wetter areas of the province, semi-solid Long-term storage is storage greater than
manure should be stored in closed, shed-type, six months.
manure holding structures. These structures • Ensure surface water runoff from the
should: storage does not enter an open body of
• Meet the criteria listed in Section 7.1.3 for water or leave the owner’s property.
manure storage structures. • Do not construct manure storages on the
• Have reinforced concrete walls, or equivalent, banks of rivers, drainage channels, or
to adequately contain the manure. depressions that may carry surface runoff
• Have a concrete floor which is sealed to the to water sources.
walls to provide a manure-tight storage • Use berms, catch basins and/or vegetative
and eliminate the entrance of ground or buffers to prevent runoff.
surface water. • The storage bottom must be at least 1 metre
• In areas with a high water table, be above the water table.
constructed entirely above ground to • Storages for solid and semi-solid manure
minimize seepage of groundwater into the must be constructed at least 1 metre above
structure (this will also facilitate the the 1:25 year flood level. If the 1:25 year
cleaning out operation). floodplain is unknown, the storage must
• Be adequately roofed to keep out rain and be located at least 1 m above the highest
snow in areas with high annual or seasonal known flood level.
precipitation. • In-pen storage is used for alternative
• If roofed, be well ventilated to prevent the housing facilities and must be constructed
accumulation of hazardous gases in the as a long-term storage. Drainage and
head space area and to aid the drying of adequate bedding must be provided with
the stored manure. in-pen storage to prevent contaminated
• Have access doors constructed of tight water from collecting in the pen. A slope of
tongue-and-groove pressure treated timber, two to four percent in the pens will provide
or equivalent. Seepage, if any, should be the necessary drainage.
contained to prevent a pollution hazard. • Compost can be either short or long-term
• If fitted with a ramp, have guard rails and storage, but must comply with the Alberta
safety stops on the ramp to prevent a Environment Code of Practice for Compost
tractor from being buried in the manure. Facilities. These regulations come into effect
• Have a suitable concrete slab area for based on a volume of compost.
tractor and manure spreader activity. This
slab should be sloped away from the
building so that water on the slab does
not enter the storage area.
In colder and drier regions of the province,
an uncovered, three-sided storage structure
may be suitable. These structures should:
• Have reinforced concrete sidewall or
equivalent on three sides of the structure.
• Have a concrete, floor, sloping downward
from the open side, which is sealed to the
walls to provide a manure-tight storage,
and have provision to control and contain
seepage.

7.0
September 2002 69
7.3 Runoff Control from Manure Storage
7.3.1 Options to control surface runoff
Runoff considerations. The considerations To date, there is minimal definitive research
for determining a runoff utilization area are that verifies how to design a vegetative filter
the quantity of runoff, topography, infiltration strip based on all the above variables.
rate, soil water-holding capacity, crop nutrient However, the limited research that has been
utilization and soil SAR (sodium adsorption done seems to indicate that the 30 metre-wide
ratio) or EC (electrical conductivity). separation from a watercourse, as specified in
Options to control surface runoff include the AOPA, Standards and Administration
constructed wetlands, vegetative filter strips Regulations (60 metre for four to six percent
and diversion to cropped areas. slope; 90 metre for six to 12 percent slope) will
be adequate under most conditions. Further
Vegetative filter strips. Vegetative filter research is required to determine more specif-
strips are widths or lengths of vegetation that ic design details.
act as a “filter” to trap and utilize sediments
and nutrients from runoff. Wetlands. Wetlands are either naturally-
Vegetative filter strips may be sufficient to occurring sloughs or lowlands, or “constructed”
minimize runoff contamination from some wetlands that are designed and landscaped. In
livestock operations, manure stockpile sites some instances, they might be used to collect
and from manure spread on cultivated fields. and treat contaminated runoff from livestock
Factors influencing the effectiveness of operations. The nutrients and contaminants
vegetative filters are: from the runoff are absorbed and utilized by
• Drainage area up-slope from the operation. the bullrushes, sedges and other marsh-type
• The amount and form of precipitation vegetation growing in the wetland area.
(snow, rain, or both). Wetlands must be properly evaluated and
• Slope of the operation site and whether the designed to ensure adequate retention and
natural topography lends itself to sheet or filtering. As a minimum, these lowlands or
channel runoff. wetlands must be entirely contained on the
• Vegetation type (summerfallow, stubble, producer’s property, and soil conditions must
grass or trees, etc.). be tested to ensure they will not leach into
• Soil type (sandy, loam, or clay, etc.). groundwater.
For example, frozen ground in the spring,
combined with a packed non-vegetative
thatch, will not “filter” contaminants as
effectively as the ground in the summer.

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70 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
7.4 Manure Storage Capacity
Manure storage facilities should provide If bedding is used in solid systems, the
enough storage space to allow the operator to weight of manure may increase by 20 percent
spread manure when optimum crop uptake of and the volume may double.
the nutrients will occur and when manure Account for the historical rainfall in the area.
runoff from fields to surface water is unlikely. Where precipitation can enter the storage,
To allow manure spreading when manure the storage must have sufficient capacity
application is the most beneficial, a minimum when it is ready for clean-out, to handle a
storage period of nine months is recommended major rainstorm without overflowing.
in the the AOPA, Standards and Administration Storages should be designed to account for
Regulations. However, manure storage the highest rainfall that has occurred in the
facilities are commonly built with a storage past 30-year period.
capacity of 12 to 14 months to minimize
spreading costs. Allow reserve capacity in the storage to hold
accumulated solids.
Estimate storage capacity: Provide enough storage to allow flexibility
To estimate the volume of manure produced, to spread manure when field conditions,
use Figures 7.2 and 7.3 as guidelines. labour availability, weather and local
• Evaluate an existing operation that is regulations permit.
similar to the planned facility. Short-term storage may mean increased
• Contact experienced professionals. management and labour, as time for setting
Account for management practices up and putting away equipment is increased.
and facilities: More importantly, poor weather, labour
The volume of manure produced can vary shortages and equipment breakdowns can
due to spilled water and the amount of water seriously disrupt the timing of this seasonal
used for washing. For example, where operation.
washing is regularly performed, such as in
farrowing and nursery operations, the volume
of waste from the facility will be higher than
other types of facilities.

Figure 7.2* Solid Manure Production Volume


DAILY MONTHLY YEARLY
lbs. kgs cu.ft. lbs. kgs cu.ft tons tonnes cu.ft.

Farrow to Finish 86.4 39.3 1.74 2590 1180 52.3 15.76 14.29 637
Farrow to Wean 26.6 12.1 0.54 800 360 16.1 4.85 4.40 196
Farrowing 21.3 9.7 0.43 640 290 12.9 3.88 3.52 157
Weaner 2.8 1.3 0.06 80 40 1.7 0.50 0.46 20
Feeder 8.2 3.7 0.17 250 110 5.0 1.50 1.36 61

Figure 7.3* Liquid Manure Production Volume


DAILY MONTHLY YEARLY
gallons litres cu.ft. gallons litres cu.ft. gallons cu. m cu.ft.

Farrow to Finish 14.4 65.7 2.31 430 1950 69 5272 24.0 844
Farrow to Wean 4.4 20.2 0.71 130 590 21 1622 7.4 260
Farrowing 3.5 15.9 0.56 110 500 17 1278 5.8 204
Weaner 0.5 2.3 0.08 20 90 2 183 0.8 29
Feeder 1.6 7.1 0.25 50 230 7 568 2.6 91

*Taken from AOPA

7.0
September 2002 71
7.5 Maintenance and Monitoring
Signage and fencing. Hazardous areas solids back into suspension to obtain the
such as storage structures, dugouts and water consistent slurry of liquids and solids that will
basins should be fenced and warnings posted flow during loading or pump out.
to prevent curious humans and animals from Chopper pumps are appropriate since they
accidents. The American Society of Agricultural do not plug easily. These agitation pumps
Engineers Standards ASAE S441 (SAE J115 Jan. have capacities of about 200 L/sec. (2,600
87) has information on creating signage. gal./min). Due to the high settling rate of hog
Mowing. Keeping weeds and grass mowed manure solids, pipeline velocities must be
promotes a positive image, reduces the maintained in excess of 0.5 m/sec. (2 ft./sec.)
potential for liner damage and reduces fly to prevent pipeline plugging.
and rodent habitats. Pumps used in liquid systems require some
method of screening out or breaking up solid
Odour. Decomposition of manure in material. Problems can occur when clumps of
storage stuctures can create odours that may solids enter the pump. Care should be taken
be quite strong and offensive. When manure to prevent solid materials such as stones,
is undisturbed, gases are trapped beneath the pharmaceutical waste and construction
surface within clusters of solid material. With materials from entering the manure system.
time, the entrapped gases increase in volume Care should also be taken to protect the berm
and rise to the surface in a bubble. At the and liner of the storage at locations affected
surface, the bubble bursts and the odorous by scouring (inlets, transfer pipes and
gases are released into the atmosphere. This is agitation sites).
a natural process that occurs slowly over time. Agitation can release gases that are
It is important to note that strong and highly dangerous. This is particularly important
offensive odours are generated intermittently to remember when dealing with deep pit
from manure storages. Weather conditions storage. To control odour and gas release,
and loading and emptying practices can agitation should be conducted so that the
impact the odour released. pump system does not “break” the liquid
Weather conditions. Temperature influences surface.
the generation of odorous gases. During To reduce odour when adding new manure
warm summer conditions, the temperature to a pre-existing volume in a manure storage,
rises in stored manure, increasing microbial it is advisable to discharge the new material
activity, resulting in the faster decomposition beneath the surface of the manure. The
of waste matter and an increase in the volume discharge point should be at least 0.9 metres
of odorous gases released from the manure. (3 feet) from the surface of the manure and
Under cold, winter conditions, bacterial activity 0.3 to 0.6 metres (1 to 2 feet) from the bed
ceases in storages. Odour levels increase when of solids at the bottom. This limits the
bacterial activity stops or starts. disturbance of gases trapped in the manure.
Wind and rain may influence the odours In addition, a low discharge flow rate will
released from manure storages because they prevent vigorous agitation of the manure.
agitate the contents of the storage. A crust on Be aware that several of the gases released
the surface of outdoor manure storages helps by disturbed manure can be fatal. Several
contain odorous gases. However, if strong deaths have occurred in Alberta because of a
winds or heavy rains agitate the storage or lack of training and personal protection
disturb the crust that forms on the surface, the equipment while working with stored
release of odorous gases may increase. manure. For more information on the risk
associated with manure gases, see Section 2.4.
Loading and emptying. Manure solids will
quickly separate from liquids during storage;
therefore agitation is required to bring the

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72 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
7.5.1 Odour control strategies
Windbreaks. Windbreaks, such as trees and • Alternative cover materials. These include
fences, can be used to control odour. On a foam glass or clay particles, floating plastic
calm day, odorous air leaves the source in a sheets, plastic covers with a frame, and
stable plume. Windbreaks create turbulence geotextile covers held in place by negative
that breaks up and dilutes odour-laden air. air pressure. These covers have provided
The distance required to create adequate air excellent odour control results. However,
movement between the windbreak and the cost, anchoring and pump-out issues must
storage is being investigated. still be resolved.
Covers. Covers can be used to reduce Additives. Studies have been conducted to
odour and gas emissions from manure evaluate the effect of different types of feed
storages. Several different types of covers and storage additives on the release of odour
have been studied. from barns and manure storages. The results
• Straw covers. These have been reported to of these studies are mixed.
have excellent odour control when the Multi-cell storages. This is the most basic
cover is first installed and as long as the method of solid/liquid separation. Solid/
straw remains dry and floats. Straw covers liquid separation can reduce odour emission
are the least expensive option for covering rates because large mats of solids do not rise
storages. The downside is that the straw to the surface of the second cell. The solid
can cause problems during pump-out and basin releases little odour since the solids
the efficiency of the cover declines as the layer on the surface is dry. On an annual
straw sinks. Reapplication of straw is basis, the liquid can be pumped out without
necessary throughout the year. The Prairie agitation and the solids can be removed with
Farm Machinery Institute (PAMI) found a backhoe. This storage system requires far
that barley straw is the best material for less agitation prior to land application than
straw covers. PAMI has also calculated the single-cell storages.
cost of applying and maintaining straw
covers.

7.5.2 Monitoring
Visual. There are several visual indicators cases where more than visual monitoring is
of storage problems: warranted. These situations might include
• Content levels that don’t change. lagoons constructed in coarse soils, or where
• Wave damage to the liner. groundwater or water tables are within three
• Erosion where manure enters or is pumped metres of the bottom of the lagoon (AAFRD,
from the storage. Agdex 729-1). Sampling wells can be used as
• Cracking or slumping of the liner. additional monitoring methods.
• Seepage, soft spots or slumping on the Sampling wells. Sampling wells can be
outside of the berm or several feet out from installed to regularly monitor water quality
the berm indicate leakage. Any leakage or and detect changes in water quality near
slumping is a serious problem that requires manure storages. Regular monitoring can be
immediate attention. used to verify that the manure storage
• Evidence of rodents. Rodent burrows practices are protecting the environment or
damage the liner and walls of the manure can act as an early warning that a change or
storage. repair is needed. A qualified engineer or
• Trees, if planted, should be away from the hydrogeologist should design the monitoring
storage, outside the boundary of their well system and analyze the water quality
mature root zone. To prevent roots from data. After the wells are installed they must
penetrating the liner and creating leaks, be sampled to determine background
remove trees and plants that start to grow conditions. This sampling should be done
in the manure storage. three to four times per year for the first one to
Although research into leakage from earthen two years. After that, sampling once or twice
manure storage structures has shown minimal per year should be sufficient.
problems, there may be some site-specific

7.0
September 2002 73
7.6 Manure Transportation
Moving manure from storage to the field is Whatever the case, appropriate manage-
an important component of the manure ment and equipment is required to keep the
management system. Manure hauling from roads and ditches free from manure spillage.
storage to field requires an economically This may mean smaller loads, covered loads
sound system that is safe and responsible. or sealed end-gates on the manure truck. In
The nuisance risks associated with manure the event of excessive spillage, cleanup
transportation include dust, spillage and measures, such as sweeping, will be required.
physical impact on roads. The intensity of traffic during manure
Manure hauling traffic can be very intense hauling may have a significant impact on
for short periods of time. Traffic on gravel lower grade roads. Many livestock operators
roads during dry, windy periods can result in have entered into road use agreements with
significant dust generation. If these conditions their local municipalities, which clearly define
exist in “sensitive areas”, such as near responsibilities. These same road-use
neighbours, dust suppression or detouring agreements may also include responsibilities
may be necessary. Dust suppression can regarding dust generation and spillage.
include watering roads or applying calcium Manure spills on the road can be in
chloride. Contact a water hauling contractor violation of the Transportation Act (litter) and
for road watering services. the Alberta Environmental and Enhancement Act
Manure is considered a biodegradable (pollution). Also, producers should check with
product. However, direct spillage from the local municipality regarding road bans
manure trucks must be kept to a minimum. prior to hauling manure.
Manure haulers need to be aware of the risks Transporting manure is an important
associated when hauling on roads. Whether it component of a good nutrient management
is a wet or dry product, spillage may result plan. Safe and efficient manure hauling is
from seepage, overloading, or blowing. possible when these factors are considered.

7.7 Manure Treatment


Manure is a major source of nutrients for An alternative to direct land application of
crop production and its application on hog manure is to treat the manure prior to
cropland is generally recommended. However, application or off-farm use. If manure can be
there are cases where the availability of crop- land-applied, treatment is unnecessary. The
land is insufficient for recycling all of the most common methods of manure treatment
manure produced from a livestock operation in Alberta include solid/liquid separation and
and special situations where direct land composting.
application is not acceptable.

7.7.1 Solid/liquid separation


Advantages of separating the liquid and solids:
• Reduced solid settling problems in large volume storages.
• Improved pumping and pipeline handling of liquid manure. Pumping liquids from one
location to another does not require robust equipment.
• A more consistent liquid portion for managing nutrients on land.
• A solids product that is suitable for composting, thus creating value-added possibilities.
• Separates and concentrates the major phosphorus source in the solids. This increases options
for improved phosphorus management.
• Volume reduction, making storage and handling more cost effective.

Disadvantages of separating the liquid and solids:


• Creates two manure types (solids/semisolids and liquid) and requires separate storage and
handling systems for both.
• Added cost, maintenance and labour.

7.0
74 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
Current Technologies include: separating force. Costs of these separators
Multi-cell earthen storages. This is the vary greatly from cost-prohibitive to practical
most basic and least effective method of on large operations.
solid/liquid separation. The liquid fraction of manure can be irrigated
Centrifugal separators. Several types have onto fields. The liquids are diluted with
appeared on the market. They are generally irrigation water and applied using a centre
high in price, low in capacity and low in ability pivot system with standard irrigation nozzles.
to produce a low-moisture solids fraction. Research indicates diluting the liquids with
Screens. Many variations exist for screen irrigation water reduces odour intensity and
separators, from the simple stationary sloped offensiveness.
bar screen and vibrating screen, to screens For more information about liquid-solid
with mechanical assistance. Most separators separation, contact a livestock engineer at
on the market are variations of the screen Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural
separator, usually with mechanical assistance Development.
in the form of scrapers, screws and/or
hydraulic heads to provide additional

7.7.2 The composting process


Figure 7.4 The Basic Composting Process

Water vapour, heat,


CO2, NO2, other gases

Oxygen

Manure, Organic matter,


bedding, water, nutrients,
Compost Pile
other nutrients, water,
micro-organisms micro-organisms

Raw Materials Composting Process Finished Compost

The composting process has several • A carbon to nitrogen ratio between 20:1
basic requirements: and 30:1. The C:N ratio of hog manure
• Moisture content in the range of 40 to tends to be lower than optimum, so
65 percent. Below 40 percent moisture, the additional carbon may be needed, such as
process is slow; above 65 percent moisture, shavings or straw. If the C:N ratio is too
the process can become anaerobic and low, ammonia will volatilize, and if it is too
produce unpleasant odours. Since liquid high, the composting time increases
manure is about 96 percent water, the because nitrogen is in short supply.
solids must be separated from the liquid in • An oxygen supply. Oxygen enters either by
order to be composted. This requires a regular mechanical turning of the compost
liquid/solids separation process to obtain a or by forcing air through the material.
suitable material to compost. Housing • A pH of 6.5 to 8.0.
systems using straw or shavings for • A temperature of 40 to 65 C in the compost
bedding produce solids suitable for pile. Maintaining temperatures of 55 C or
composting. greater for 15 days will eliminate most
pathogens and weed seeds.
7.0
September 2002 75
7.7.2.1 Methods of composting
A wide range of technology is available for livestock manure require low investment and
composting. Most composting methods for low labour inputs.

WINDROWS.
The manure piles or windrows are aerated by frequent mechanical turning, which maintains
the compost process. A front-end loader or a specifically designed windrow turner can be used for
turning.
Advantages: • Rapid product drying under warm temperatures.
• Produces a drier product.
• Handles large volumes of material.
• Produces a stable product.
• Relatively low capital cost.

Disadvantages: • Requires large land areas.


• High operational costs.
• Releases odours.
• May require large volumes of bulking agent.
• Weather dependent.

STATIC PILE/PASSIVE AERATION.


This is the low-end compost process available to most producers without capital investment. The
manure windrow or pile undergoes a natural degradation process without the assistance of
mechanical agitation.
Advantages: • Low cost.
• Good pathogen destruction if 55 C is maintained for at least 15 days.
• Good odour control.
• Good product stabilization.

Disadvantages: • Not space efficient.


• Disease-causing micro-organisms can survive this process if adequate
temperatures are not maintained for at least 15 days.
• Compost produced by this method may be very inconsistent and may
contain viable weed seeds
• Affected by climate.
• Anaerobic conditions and/or overheating can cause unpleasant odours.

IN-VESSEL AERATION.
This is the high-end process in terms of cost, requiring a specifically designed compost vessel usually
of concrete, wood or steel. Aeration is enhanced by mechanically forcing air through the composting
material. The optimum conditions of this system allows better control of the process and produces a
consistent product with high weed and micro-organism kill.
Advantages : • Can be covered for weather protection and odour control.
• Space efficient.
• Can be designed as a continuous process.

Disadvantages: • Highly mechanized and capital intensive.


• Requires careful management.
• Less flexible than other methods of composting.
• Difficult to work around piping and ducting that is used to move air.
• Costly to operate and maintain the equipment.

IN-BARN COMPOSTING.
Some housing systems using bedding can be adapted to enable composting inside the barn.
7.0
76 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
7.7.2.2 Composting regulations
The siting and operation of composting 5 x 10-8 m/sec. (or alternate material that
facilities is regulated under Environmental provides equivalent protection).
Protection and Enhancement Act. For more • It must be constructed with a minimum
information, contact Alberta Environmental slope of 2 percent so that the pad does not
Protection. collect water or leachate.
Alberta Environmental Protection • The provision of a run-on control system
Northeast Boreal and Parkland Regions must be included to prevent the flow of
Regional Director surface water onto the storage, processing
5th Floor, 9820 - 106 Street or curing areas.
Edmonton, AB T5K 2J6 • A runoff control and management system
Phone: (780) 427-9562 that provides protection of surface water
Fax: (780) 422-5120 quality is also required.
• In addition, a groundwater monitoring
Alberta Environmental Protection system may be required.
Northwest Boreal and Northern The eggs of the hog roundworm, Ascaris
East Slopes Regions suum, may be present in hog manure (see
Regional Director Section 2.13 Appendix). These eggs can infect
Provincial Building humans if they are ingested from the surface
203, 111 - 54 Street of root vegetables and can infect children
Edson, AB T7E 1T2 playing in gardens fertilized with hog
Phone: (780) 723-8395 manure. Ascaris suum eggs will not survive
Fax: (780) 723-8542 the composting process, if high temperatures
are sustained for long periods of time (i.e.
The Alberta Environment Code of Practice several weeks). Composted hog manure
for Compost Facilities outlines specific require- should be used to fertilize gardens only if the
ments for constructing compost facilities. manure is well composted and has been
• A composting pad must be constructed composted at high temperatures for several
with a minimum of 0.5 metres of clay-type weeks.
material having a permeability of less than

7.0
September 2002 77
7.8 References
• Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural
Development, 2000. Earthen Manure Storage
Seepage. Agdex 729-1.

• The American Society of Agricultural


Engineers Standards S441 SAE J115, Jan 87.

• American Society of Agricultural


Engineers, 1999. Manure Production and
Characteristics. American Society of
Agricultural Engineers, Standard D384.1 Oct
In: American Society of Agricultural Engineers,
Standards, 1999. American Society of
Agricultural Engineers: St. Joseph, MI.

• The National Farm Building Code of Canada,


1995. Issued by the Canadian Commission on
Building and Fire Codes, National Research
Council of Canada.

• Prairie Farm Machinery Institute, 1993. 698


Research Update: Hog Lagoon Odour Control.
ISSN 1188-4770

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78 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
8.0 LAND APPLICATION OF MANURE
8.1 Nutrient Value of Manure
8.1.1 Nitrogen and phosphorus in manure
8.1.2 Salt

8.2 Manure and Soil Analyses


8.2.1 Manure analyses
8.2.2 Manure sampling
8.2.3 Manure handling and shipping
8.2.4 Soil analyses

8.3 Crop Nutrient Requirements

8.4 Method of Manure Application


8.4.1 Sub-surface injection
8.4.2 Surface injection
8.4.3 Broadcast with incorporation
8.4.4 Broadcast

8.5 Time of Application

8.6 Calibration of Spreading Equipment

8.7 Record Keeping

8.8 Other Beneficial Management Practices


8.8.1 Determine soil limitations
8.8.2 Determine proximity limitations
8.8.3 Determine cropping system limitations

8.9 Manure Management Planning Case Study

8.10 Appendix: Calibration of Manure Application


8.0 LAND APPLICATION OF MANURE
Manure or compost application to land • Organic matter in a water source may cause
can be a sustainable agricultural practice, physical and biological damage, including
provided proper nutrient management oxygen depletion.
practices are followed. Manure is an organic • Excess nitrates may reduce ground or
fertilizer and a source of plant nutrients. surface water quality and become toxic to
Manure can also improve soil tilth, structure, aquatic life, humans and livestock.
aeration, and water-holding capacity. This is • Disease-causing organisms may contaminate
particularly true for coarse-textured soils, soils water, making it unsuitable for human and
low in organic matter or degraded soils. livestock consumption.
Manure serves as a viable substitute for • Ammonia toxicity can poison fish and other
commercial inorganic fertilizer because of its aquatic organisms.
on-farm availability, nutrient composition and • Nitrogen gases, including ammonia and
ability to enhance the organic matter content nitrous oxide (a greenhouse gas), may reduce
of soil. However, if manure application is not air quality.
properly managed, excess nutrients may be • High salinity in manure may decrease
applied to agricultural land. In addition to soil quality.
nutrients, micro-organisms (including In this chapter, Nutrient Management
pathogens), weed seeds, and salts are also Planning (NMP) will be addressed by
present in manure. outlining some possible Beneficial
Risks that may be associated with land Management Practices (BMPs) related to land
application of manure and compost include: application of manure or compost. The overall
• Excess phosphorus (P) and nitrogen (N) objective of NMP is to effectively use manure,
application on land from manure and compost and/or mineral fertilizers as nutrient
mineral fertilizers may result in phosphorus resources for optimum crop production in
runoff to surface water bodies and nitrate a manner that will reduce the impact of
leaching to groundwater. agriculture on the environment.
• Excess phosphorus in water bodies may
cause excessive growth of aquatic plants.
The decomposition of these plants can
reduce oxygen to critical levels, which may
adversely affect fish survival.

8.1 Nutrient Value of Manure


Manure should be managed as a resource to of each component and the nutrient profile of
maximize its benefits and minimize its risks. the manure depends on animal age, manure
Nutrients can be effectively recycled when storage and handling, bedding material and
manure is used as a fertilizer, which can diet fed. The nutrients available in manure are
reduce the need for commercial fertilizers. nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium,
To use manure as a resource, it is important magnesium, sodium, sulphur, and micro-
to understand its composition. Manure is a nutrients, such as boron, chlorine, copper,
mixture of water, organic matter, minerals, iron, molybdenum, zinc, selenium, chromium,
nutrients and other chemicals. The proportion iodine and cobalt.

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80 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
8.1.1 Nitrogen and phosphorus in manure
Manure provides the same nutrients for • Organic nitrogen must be transformed to
crop production as commercial fertilizers, but ammonium (mineralized) and nitrate
the challenge with manure is that the forms (nitrification) forms to be used by plants.
and ratio of the nutrients are not easy to • Phosphorus is generally found in three
change. Nitrogen is present in manure as forms: particulate phosphorus (P attached to
ammonium or as organic compounds. sediments), dissolved phosphorus (water
Generally, the environmental risks associated soluble P) and organic phosphorus.
with nitrogen are losses to groundwater • Soil test nitrogen and phosphorus are
through leaching or losses to air through measurements of the current plant available
denitrification and volatilization. Phosphorus nitrogen and phosphorus. These measure-
is present in manure as organic and inorganic ments can be used to determine if additional
forms and generally the risk to the environment nitrogen and phosphorus are required for
is the movement of phosphorus in surface optimum crop growth. Soil test phosphorus
runoff from spring snowmelt and seasonal can also be used in the assessment of
rainfall. potential phosphorus runoff losses.
Facts about nitrogen and phosphorus:
• Only ammonium and nitrate (mineral or
inorganic nitrogen) can be used by plants.

Figure 8.1 Nitrogen and Phosphorus in Manure*


Form in Available Available Available Environmental
Manure 1st year 2nd year 3rd year Risks
+ -
Nitrogen (N) •Ammonium NH4 + NO3 + 12% of initial 6% of initial •Nitrate in
+
(NH4 ) 25% of organic N organic N groundwater
-
•Nitrate (NO3 ) organic N content content •Volatilization**
•Organic N content of ammonia
•Denitrification***
as nitrous
oxide

Phosphorus (P) •Inorganic P 20% of initial 6% of initial •P in surface


-
(H2PO4 and 50% of initial total P content total P content runoff
2-
HPO4 ) total P content (particulate
•Organic P and dissolved)
•P leaching into
groundwater

*The percentages listed in the figure are only estimates. The availability of nutrients from organic sources, such as manure, depends on
biological processes in the soil, and these processes are affected by many factors, such as temperature, moisture and soil type.
**Volatilization is the gaseous loss of a substance (e.g. ammonia) into the atmosphere.
***Denitrification is the transformation of nitrate to gaseous forms (under high moisture or saturated soil conditions), which can be lost to the
atmosphere.

Practices that may reduce nitrate leaching: • Do not apply if heavy rain is predicted.
• Apply manure based on the nitrogen rate • Do not apply near streams or other water
from soil test recommendations. bodies. Manure must be applied: within
• When a high amount of nitrogen is required, 10 metres of an open body of water if
split the total amount required into two subsurface injection is used; within 30
thirds manure and one third mineral fertilizer. metres of an open body of water if manure
Apply mineral fertilizer later in the season. is applied to the surface and incorporated
• Reduce the amount of time between applica- within 48 hours; or within 30 metres of a
tion of manure and the highest demand for water well (Agricultural Operation Practices Act
nitrogen uptake by the crop (e.g. apply in [AOPA]).
spring while plants are actively growing).

8.0
September 2002 81
To reduce ammonia losses into the air: impact groundwater, surface water, or create
• Apply manure on humid and/or cold, an odour nuisance.
non-windy days. • Surface application of manure on frozen or
• Incorporate manure as soon as possible. snow-covered land or on forage and direct-
seeded crops without incorporation is only
To reduce denitrification: acceptable if the minimum setback
• Avoid manure application in low, wet areas. distances are met (Figure 8.2). Surface water
• Apply manure prior to seeding, so nutrients that comes in contact with surface-applied
can be used while plants are actively growing. manure must not enter an open body of
water or leave the owner's property.
To reduce phosphorus in surface runoff: • Base the nutrient management plan on
• Inject or incorporate fertilizers and manure phosphorus for areas that are particularly
to avoid losses by runoff in areas and soils vulnerable to phosphorus runoff or
that are adjacent to water bodies and/or leaching (e.g. flood plains, steeply sloped
have high runoff potential. land, land with high water tables or
• Test soil phosphorus at least once every aquifers).
three years to avoid over-applying fertilizers • Currently there are no soil phosphorus
or manure. Over-application of manure will limits in Alberta, but research is underway
raise soil phosphorus levels above the to identify environmental limits.
recommended agronomic levels (contact
crop advisor or soil laboratory for To reduce nutrient losses by wind and
recommended P levels for each crop). water erosion:
• Test soils in different landscape locations • Leave some of last year’s crop residue on
(e.g. knolls, low spots) to determine if excess the surface and reduce tillage. This is
levels exist in low areas where runoff effective for increasing water infiltration
collects. and reducing nutrient losses in wind-blown
• Apply manure according to soil test sediments and runoff.
recommendations, crop yield goals and • Build a runoff control basin or an embank-
manure analyses. If manure is not analyzed ment across a depression of concentrated
for nutrient content, book values can be water in a field. The embankment will act
used (AOPA). This will reduce excess nutri- as a terrace, slowing water movement,
ents in the soil and minimize buildup. depositing particulate load and reducing
• Apply manure when it can be incorporated. gully erosion. By slowing water movement,
Avoid spreading manure on snow or frozen the re-deposition of P in the field will
soil. increase.
• If manure is applied on forage, direct-seeded • Construct a terrace by breaking longer
crops, frozen or snow-covered ground, or if slopes into shorter ones.
manure must be applied to alleviate storage • Establish grassed waterways in erosion-
capacity, application must be in accordance prone areas to slow water movement from
with the nutrient limits, and other manure the field.
application requirements (e.g. proximity to
water). Application must not adversely

Figure 8.2 Minimum Setback Distances For Application of


Manure on Forage or Direct Seeded Crops or on Frozen
or Snow-covered Land (AOPA).
Mean slope Required setback distance from open body of water
Less than 4% 30 m
4% but less than 6% 60 m
6% but less than 12% 90 m
12% or greater No application allowed

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82 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
8.1.2 Salt
Manure can contain significant amounts of • Monitor electrical conductivity (EC) level in
salt that may affect soil quality. soil. Electrical conductivity is a measure-
• Management of soil salinity is crucial for ment of soil salt content, and a change of
sustainable crop production. Saline soils more than 1 dS/m may indicate a soil
can reduce crop production and limit quality problem. If the EC is more than
cropping options (contact a crop advisor for 2 dS/m, plant growth and yield may be
information on crop salinity tolerance). affected. If the EC is more than 4 dS/m, do
• Salt can destroy soil quality. High levels of not apply manure (AOPA).
sodium disperse aggregates, degrade soil • Monitor the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR)
structure and reduce water infiltration levels in soil. Sodium adsorption ratio is a
through soil. measurement of sodium in relation to calcium
To control salt: plus magnesium. SAR levels above 8 in soil
• Monitor salt levels in feed rations (contact a can decrease soil permeability and increase
livestock nutritionist for recommended the potential for water-logging.
levels in feed). • In soils with a high EC and high SAR, do
not apply manure.

8.2 Manure and Soil Analyses


Manure analysis provides information on crop-available nutrients from manure applied
nutrient content in manure. Based on nutrient in recent years.
analysis, the amount of nutrients available for Accurate manure analysis and application
crop growth can be estimated. To estimate are important because problems can result
crop-available nutrients in manure, the chemical from either inadequate or excessive nutrients
make-up of the nutrients in manure, previous in the soil. Manure analysis recommendations
manure applications, volatilization, nitrogen are based on the nutrient content in manure,
fixation, and mineralization (breakdown of crop to be grown, soil type, soil tests, climate,
organic matter into available plant nutrients) soil moisture, and other management practices,
should be considered. When calculating such as dryland versus irrigation.
manure application rates, include residual

8.2.1 Manure analysis


Analyze manure for three to five consecutive Although the best source of information is
years and compare the results to the book from sampling the operation’s manure, book
values. If there is a large discrepancy, do not values of nutrient content are available and
use the book values. Instead, develop new are better than not considering the nutrients
average values for the operation. in the manure at all (e.g. AOPA).

8.2.2 Manure sampling


Manure testing helps generate a long-term • When sampling liquid manure, agitate
database for planning and economic completely prior to sampling. If agitation is
evaluation, as well as demonstrating due not done, sub-samples from different
diligence. It is important that manure samples locations and depths of the storage facility
represent the entire volume of manure, not should be taken.
just the surface application. Appropriate • When sampling solid manure containing
manure application rate is closely related to bedding and other materials, all compounds
how manure samples are collected. in the sample should be in the same
For manure sampling: proportion as they are in the pile.
• Collect composite samples that reflect the • Collect about 20 samples from each manure
overall variability of the manure. source. Mix the samples together, remove a
sub-sample (about 1 kilogram), and place
8.0
September 2002 83
in a sealed container. Keep cool and send to agitation. Solid manure is best sampled
the laboratory as soon as possible. directly from the manure truckloads (three
• Sampling before, but as close to land to four samples per load).
application as possible, helps build an • Use the manure analysis information to
accurate database. A good time to collect determine manure application rates.
liquid manure samples is after lagoon

8.2.3 Manure handling and shipping


A good understanding of how manure is • Contact the laboratory prior to sampling to
handled helps to characterize the variability obtain specific information on sample size,
of manure composition in different manure shipping instructions and costs.
piles, and assists in the collection of a repre- Manure laboratory results:
sentative sample. • Manure tests should at least include
For manure sample handling: percentage dry matter, total nitrogen,
• Any handling that can alter the physical ammonium nitrogen, and total phosphorus.
and chemical composition of manure If there is a possibility of other soil
samples should be avoided (i.e. leakage, deficiencies, other nutrients can be
nutrient losses to the air, loss in moisture, measured, such as potassium, sulphur and
room/warm temperature). micro-nutrients. Analyzing electrical
• Use sealable freezer bags for solid manure. conductivity and the sodium adsorption
Seal the bag and prevent leakage by ratio in manure are only necessary to
putting the bag inside another freezer bag determine if changes in feed rations affect
(double bagging). manure quality.
• For liquid manure, use plastic or glass • Manure test results should be in the same
containers. units as used for calibrating the manure
• The samples should be sent immediately to application equipment (pounds or
the lab. Otherwise, the samples must be kilograms). Take special care when
frozen until delivery. converting units.
• In all situations, the container should be • Manure nutrient results should be on a wet
only half full and labelled with the name, (or "as is") basis since manure is spread wet.
date, and sample identification. The sooner
the sample is sent to the lab, the more
reliable the laboratory results will be.

8.2.4 Soil analysis


Soil analysis is used as an index for nutrient For soil sampling:
availability in soil. Decisions about nutrient • Collect a representative sample, based on
management cannot be made without knowing in-field variations in topography (slope),
the nutrients available in the soil and their soil type, cropping management and
levels. The higher the nutrients in the soil test, cropping history.
the lower the application rate of fertilizer/ • Collect soil samples from depth intervals of
manure. An accurate soil test (proper soil 0 to 15 centimetres (0 to 6 inches), 15 to 30
sampling and interpretation of soil test) can be centimetres (6 to 12 inches) and 30 to 60
an excellent nutrient management tool. centimetres (12 to 24 inches) at 20 to 30 sites
However, misuse of a soil test leads to per field or field management area. Place
increased costs, yield losses, and/or environ- samples from each depth in a separate
mental contamination. Soil tests should also container. Sample to greater depths (below
be used to indicate nutrient or salt excesses. If one metre) every three to five years to
an excess is found, manure application rates check for nitrate leaching in fields that
should be based on the excess nutrient; then receive regular manure application or fields
inorganic fertilizer can be used to supplement with a history of heavy manure application.
other nutrient levels.
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84 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
• Mix samples taken from same depth Soil test interpretations:
intervals and remove about 0.5 kilogram • If nutrient recommendations are included in
(1 pound) from each depth. If the field is the laboratory report, there is no need for
variable, keep the samples from different soil test interpretations.
areas (variations) separate. • If recommendations are not included with
• A soil sampling probe is best for taking soil test results, consult with a crop advisor
samples. Augers can also be used, but it can or private consultant to provide soil test
be difficult to accurately separate depth interpretations and recommendations.
intervals. Tools may be borrowed or • Not all manure will have the right
purchased from soil testing laboratories composition to meet crop requirements.
or fertilizer dealers. Nutrients are not present in organic materials
• Ideally, samples should be taken prior to in the same proportions as crops require them.
seeding, but if time is a constraint, then fall • Adjust application rates to meet the
sampling is the best alternative. Because requirement for nutrients that will result
changes in soil nutrients are slower below in the lowest application rate. Inorganic
soil temperatures of 7 C, collect soil samples fertilizers can be used to supplement other
at or below this temperature, but prior to nutrients to the recommended levels.
freeze-up. • Avoid yearly applications to the same land
• Analyze soil for at least plant-available unless manure and soil tests indicate there
nitrogen and phosphorus. Analyze for other is no risk of excess nutrient levels.
nutrients (sulphur, potassium, micro-nutrients),
if there is a possibility the soil may be
deficient. It is also important to monitor
soil salinity (EC) and possibly SAR on a
regular basis.

8.3 Crop Nutrient Requirements


Nutrient requirements vary from one crop example is presented as a case study at the
to another. Therefore, for the same conditions, end of this section to show how all the
application rates will be different, depending components are integrated.
on the crop. Targeted yield for a given crop is To determine crop nutrient requirements:
an important factor in determining the • Apply the manure with the highest nutrient
amounts of nutrients to be added. Crop yield content to crops with the highest nutrient
targets are used to determine nutrient require- requirements (see Figure 8.3).
ments and the manure rate. To estimate • Generally legumes do not require
targeted yield, average the yields of the additional N. Do not apply manure to
previous four harvests for a given field and legumes.
add five to ten percent as an expected • Apply manure with the lowest nutrient
improvement factor. content to fields closest to the manure storage
The overall objective for considering site and the highest nutrient content to the
manure and soil analyses, as well as cropping farthest fields. This will reduce the cost of
system components, is to determine an hauling as a lower amount of manure is
accurate manure application rate. An illustrated needed when nutrient concentration is higher.

8.0
September 2002 85
Figure 8.3 Nutrient Uptake and Removal by Various Crops
Crop Yield N P2O5 K2O
tonne* or kg/ha kg/ha

Spring Wheat Removal 2690 67 27 20


Uptake 2690 95 36 82
Winter Wheat Removal 3360 55 29 19
Uptake 3360 76 35 80
Barley Removal 4300 87 38 29
Uptake 4300 124 50 120
Oats Removal 3810 69 29 21
Uptake 3810 120 46 164
Rye Removal 3450 66 28 22
Uptake 3450 103 52 147
Corn Removal 6280 109 49 31
Uptake 6280 171 71 145
Canola Removal 1960 76 41 20
Uptake 1960 126 58 91
Flax Removal 1510 57 18 17
Uptake 1510 80 22 49
Sunflower Removal 1680 61 18 13
Uptake 1680 84 29 41
Potatoes Removal 45* 143 41 242
Uptake 45* 255 75 334
Peas Removal 3360 131 39 40
Uptake 3360 171 47 154
Lentils Removal 1290 68 21 37
Uptake 1290 103 28 86
Alfalfa 11* 103 28 86
Clover 9* 255 75 334
Grass 7* 242 63 226
Barley Silage 10* 115 34 146
Corn Silage 11* 174 59 138

Conversion of yields to metric units assumed the following bushel weights (in pounds per bushel): wheat = 60; barley = 48; oat = 34;
rye = 56; corn = 56; canola = 50; flax = 56; sunflower = 30; pea = 60; and lentil = 38.
P2O5 x 0.4364 = P
K2O x 0.8301 = K
kg/ha x 0.8924 = lbs./ac.
tonne/ha x 0.4461 = ton/ac.

Source: Fertilizer Institute of Canada (Modified)

8.4 Method of Manure Application


Different methods of manure application Choosing a method of manure application
have been developed to: depends on the physical characteristics of
• Optimize nutrient availability. manure (liquid or solid), type of operation,
• Minimize nutrient losses. handling and storage, type of spreader,
• Minimize odour. and cost.
• Spread manure uniformly.

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86 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
8.4.1 Sub-surface injection
The point of delivery is below the soil • Soil should cover all the manure and
surface. Manure is placed in the soil using a trenches should not be left in the field.
shank-mounted opener. Examples include Proper sub-surface injection provides
cultivator shank-mounted openers, such as excellent odour control, low runoff potential,
spoons and sweeps with hoses located behind and low nutrient loss through volatilization
the shanks. and leaching. The drawback of sub-surface
Sub-surface injection is an acceptable injection is high soil disturbance, especially
method of manure application, provided the at higher ground speeds. This may pose a
manure is applied at proper rates and meets problem in minimal till and forage situations.
the following guidelines:
• Pooling of manure on the soil surface does
not occur.

8.4.2 Surface injection


The point of delivery is at or below the soil • Care must be taken when applying manure
surface. A small furrow is created in the soil to sloping land, since the manure can travel
using a disk and manure is placed in the down-slope, along the furrows. Consider
groove using a hose. Some machinery closes applying the manure along the contours of
the groove using a packing wheel. Examples the land.
include disk systems, such as coulters. Proper surface injection provides good
Surface injection is an acceptable method odour control, low runoff potential, and low-
of manure application provided the manure to-moderate nutrient loss from volatilization
is applied at proper rates and meets the or leaching. The drawback of surface injection
following guidelines: is that some machinery creates levels of soil
• All manure is placed in the furrows and disturbance that are unacceptable for minimal
remains there. Pooling of manure outside till and forage situations.
the furrows should not occur.
• Manure placed in the trenches should not
be visible for very long after application.

8.4.3 Broadcast with incorporation


The point of delivery is above the soil • After incorporation, pooling of manure on
surface. Manure is placed on top of the soil, the soil surface does not occur.
crop, or litter and is later tilled into the soil. • The sooner the incorporation, the lower the
Examples of broadcasting equipment includes nitrogen loss to the air (incorporation
the dribble bar, splash plate, and beater (solid within 48 hours).
manure). Examples of incorporation equipment Proper broadcasting with incorporation
include the harrow, plough and cultivator. provides moderate to high nutrient loss and
Broadcast with incorporation is an accept- moderate runoff potential. The drawback of
able method of manure application provided broadcast with incorporation is soil disturbance.
the manure is applied at proper rates and This method is, therefore, incompatible with
meets the following guidelines: minimum till and forage situations.

8.4.4 Broadcast
The point of delivery is above the soil Broadcast is only acceptable without
surface. Manure is placed on top of the soil, incorporation on forage crops, direct-seeded
crop and trash. Examples of broadcasting crops and/or frozen or snow-covered ground.
equipment include dribble bar, splash plate, Broadcast method of manure should be
and beater (solid manure). applied at proper rates to minimize nutrient
loss and runoff.

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September 2002 87
8.5 Time of Application
The best time to apply manure is before required for other activities. The longer the
the early stages of crop growth. Spring time between manure application and the
application is the most desirable for Alberta stage at which the crop can use the nutrients,
conditions, as high nutrient availability the higher the risk of nutrient losses. Within a
matches crop uptake. However, in the spring given season, nitrogen loss by ammonia to the
there are usually fewer opportunities for air from surface applications, is higher on dry,
application due to inclement weather warm, windy days than on days that are
conditions, risk of soil compaction and time humid and/or cold.

Figure 8.4
Timing of Manure Application
Season Watch For BMP
Winter •Runoff that can pollute surface water. •Manure should be going into storage.
•Sensitive areas. •Avoid application on frozen or snow-
•Sloping topography covered ground.
•Manure that soaks in too slowly on wet •Avoid spreading on land with a history of
ground. floods or heavy runoff.
•Wet soils that are prone to compaction. •In case of emergency, apply on grass or
winter cover crops or on areas of high crop
residue where there is less danger of runoff
or floods.
•Apply only on level, non-sensitive areas
and only in emergencies (see Figure 8.2).

Spring •Wet soils that are prone to compaction. •Apply to land before seeding annual crops.
•Denitrification that happens in cold, •Apply to row crops as a side dressing after
wet soils. plants emerge.
•Excessive application that can create a •Work manure into soil within 48 hours of
pollution hazard. application.
•Very dry soil with large cracks where liquid •Inject liquid manure.
manure can flow into drainage systems. •Apply to well-drained soils.
•Heavy surface residue that slows the drying •Till very dry soil with large cracks before
process of seedbeds. applying manure.
•Planting too soon after heavy manure •Allow for more time to dry following
application which can create ammonia application of liquid manure.
toxicity and reduce germination and
seedling growth.

Summer •Loss of nitrogen if there is no rainfall within •Apply to grasslands; inject liquid manure.
72 hours. Rain will help manure soak in. •Apply lightly onto hay fields after cuttings.
•Mature crops that are not growing: they •Apply early enough to pasture to avoid
don’t need nutrients. trampling re-growth.
•Application on forages and direct-seeded •Compost manure to reduce odour and
crops: see slope and setback distances in break up clumps.
Figure 8.2. •Consider injection of liquid manure.

Fall •Denitrification in cold, wet soils. •Apply liquid manure to grassland that has
•Manure that soaks in slowly on wet fields; no history of runoff or floods.
excess water will run off. •Apply to annual crop lands before ground
•Wet soils that are prone to compaction. freezes and incorporate within 48 hours.
•Large dry cracks where liquid manure can Base application rates on soil tests and crop
flow into the drainage system. rotation for next year.
•Apply to well-drained soils.
•Till very dry soil with large cracks before
applying manure.

Source: Best Management Practices, Livestock and Poultry Waste Management: Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada and Ontario Ministry of Agriculture
and Food, 1994.

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88 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
8.6 Calibration of Spreading Equipment
Spreading is an important operation in The two main reasons for calibrating
manure management. The possibilities for manure spreaders are:
over or under-application are significant. • To provide information on the actual rate
Therefore, it is crucial to correctly calibrate applied—therefore, the exact amount of
manure spreading equipment. It is ineffective nutrient applied.
to do proper soil and manure analyses and • To allow for an accurate rate of application.
determine application rates based on targeted In this case, speed and delivery rate are the
crop yield, if spreading is not accurate. parameters to be determined.
Equipment calibration should address the Calibrate the spreader using manufacturer
rate and uniformity of application. In fact, one guidelines to ensure proper rate of application
of the main concerns in manure application is before each use. Check all parts of the spreader
how uniformly nutrients are distributed. to ensure proper working order. Refer to
Uneven distribution of nutrients in the field Section 8.10 for more information on
creates areas where crop yield may be equipment calibration.
depressed by either excess or insufficient
nutrients. The other concern is how to deliver
the intended manure application rate.

8.7 Record Keeping


Recording and keeping all documents – Legal land description of land to which
related to nutrient management is important. manure is applied.
Documents can provide information on how • Area of the land to which manure is applied.
nutrient management is implemented on the • Date manure applied.
farm and where and when changes are needed. • Weight of manure applied.
As well, keeping records will help to generate • Application rates of manure nutrients and
accurate on-farm data that can be used to fertilizer by field and year.
generate site specific information. • Dates of application and incorporation, and
Records that must be kept for 5 years methods used for each field.
according to the AOPA are: • Soil test results by field.
– Volume or weight of manure production. Other records that would be helpful to keep
• If transferring or receiving manure from include:
another operation, record name and • Farm manure production by type of animal
address of operation, date of the transfer and stage of production.
and the weight transferred. • Manure analyses by type or by storage unit.
• If applying manure at 300 tonnes or more • When and how manure is incorporated.
per year, keep the following records: • Crop planted and yields by field and by year.
• Weather conditions.
Records should be kept for five years.

8.8 Other Beneficial Management


Practices
8.8.1 Determine soil limitations
Not all soils are the same. In fact, the same • Leaching potential.
manure application rate has different effects • Runoff potential.
on different soils. When making decisions on • Erodibility.
manure application, consider these factors as
related to soil type:

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8.8.2 Determine proximity limitations
Manure and nutrients must be managed Take into account connectivity to water
with more caution near open bodies of water, bodies, runoff and erosion potential when
wells, rivers, creeks, and drinking water applying manure.
supplies to reduce the risk of contamination.

8.8.3 Determine cropping system limitations


Extra precautions are needed when manure high depending on the landscape. To
is used on reduced or no-till fields, pasture or minimize nutrient losses from these systems,
crop cover. In these systems, incorporation of land with low runoff potential should be
manure is only partial or not possible. considered first.
Therefore, risk of runoff losses are relatively

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8.9 Manure Management Planning


Case Study
This example plan will illustrate, step by step, all the information reported in this chapter
regarding nutrient management planning. As an example, a hog farm will be used, with four
fields for manure application (Fields 1 to 4). Two different lagoons of manure will be used.

In this example, phosphorus and potassium are reported as phosphate (P2O5) and potash (K2O),
respectively.

STEP 1: Determine on-farm manure production.

The implementation of manure nutrient management planning starts with an estimate of


on-farm nutrient resources. Determination of manure production can be estimated by storage
capacity, or by the herd size and the average daily, monthly or yearly production rate per animal
(See Agricultural Operation Practices Act (AOPA), Standards and Administration Regulation, Part 2,
Schedule 3, Figure 6 for solid manure; Figure 7 for liquid manure).

Equation 1
Estimated manure production = [Number of animals] x [Amount produced per animal per year]

Example:
Animals numbers are:
• Sows farrow to finish = 250
• Weaners = 350
• Feeders = 300

The AOPA, Standards and Administration Regulation, Part 2, Schedule 3, Figure 7 Liquid
Manure Production Volume, gives the following amount of manure produced yearly.
• 5272 gal./animal for sows - farrow to finish.
• 183 gal./animal for weaners.
• 568 gal./animal for feeders.

Therefore:
Estimated Manure Production = (250 x 5272 gal./year) + (350 x 183 gal./year) +
(300 x 568 gal./year) = 1,552,450 gal./year.

STEP 2: Analyze manure.

Example:
Assume two different lagoons of liquid hog manure. The lab results are as follows:

Lagoon 1
Total-N = 44 lb./1,000 gal.
Ammonium-N = 20 lb./1,000 gal.
Total P = 8.2 lb./1,000 gal. = 8.2 x 2.29* = 18.8 lb./1,000 gal. P2O5
Total K = 20.6 lb./1,000 gal. = 20.6 x 1.20* = 24.7 lb./1,000 gal. K2O
*See Units and Conversion Figure for explanation

Lagoon 2
Total-N = 26 lb./1,000 gal.
Ammonium-N = 12 lb./1000 gal.
Total P = 13.8 lb./1,000 gal. = 13.8 x 2.29* = 31.6 lb./1,000 gal. P2O5.
Total K = 12.4 lb./1,000 gal. = 12.4 x 1.20* = 14.9 lb./1,000 gal. K2O.
*See Units and Conversion Figure for explanation .
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C A S E S T U D Y

STEP 3: Calculate available nutrients in manure.

Calculate available nutrients and ammonia loss in manure for the current year’s application
using the following equations:

Equation 2
Available N = [organic-N x 0.25] +[Ammonium-N – [Ammonium-N x Loss Coefficient]]

Equation 3
Available P2O5 = Phosphate x 0.5

Equation 4
Available K2O = Potash x 0.9

Figure 8.5
Predicted Losses % of Ammonium N Between Spreading and
Incorporation of Manure Under Various Weather Conditions.
Treatment Average Cool Wet Cool Dry Warm Wet Warm Dry
Spring / Summer
Incorporated within 1 day (24 h) 25 10 15 25 50
Incorporated within 2 days (48 h) 30 13 19 31 57
Injected in season 5 5 5 5 5
Irrigation, incorporation 30 N/A N/A N/A N/A
within 3 days (72 h)
Fall
Early 66 40 50 75 100
Late 25 25 25 25 25
Cover crop if grown after 35 25 25 40 N/A
manure application
Losses expressed as percentage of total ammonium N spread.

AAFRD and Landwise Inc. 2001

Example: According to AOPA, Standards and Regulation, Part 1, Nutrient Management,


manure must be incorporated within 48 hours. Therefore, assume an average ammonium
loss rate of 30 percent (0.30). See Figure 8.5 for predicted losses of ammonium.

Lagoon 1
Organic N = total N – ammonium N = 44 - 20 = 24 lb./1,000 gal.
Available N = (24 x 0.25) + [20 – (20 x 0.3)] = 20 lb./1,000 gal.
Available P2O5 = (18.8 x 0.5) = 9.4 lb./1,000 gal.
Available K2O = (24.7 x 0.9) = 22.2 lb./1,000 gal.

Lagoon 2
Organic N = total N – ammonium N = 26-12 = 14 lb./1,000 gal.
Available N = (14 x 0.25) + [12 – (12 x 0.3)] = 11.9 lb./1,000 gal.
Available P2O5 = (31.6 x 0.5) = 15.8 lb./1,000 gal.
Available K2O = (14.9 x 0.9) = 13.4 lb./1,000 gal.

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STEP 4: Determine nutrient recommendations.

Determine nutrient recommendations based on soil tests, crops and expected yields.

When requested, nutrient recommendations are provided in the laboratory reports. If not, con-
tact an AAFRD specialist or private consultant to help determine nutrient recommendations.

For a given field, a combination of the AOPA, soil tests, crops and targeted yield data should be
used to determine nutrient recommendations.
Example:
Figure 8.6 Nutrient Recommendations for Each Field
Field Soil Tests Nutrient Recommendations
N P2O5 K2O N P2O5 K2O
lb./ac.
1 20 30 450 160 30 0
2 50 30 450 100 30 0
3 40 15 450 170 60 0
4 80 30 150 50 40 60

STEP 5: Calculate residual available N.

Calculate the residual available N from previous manure applications using the following
equation:

Equation 5
Residual N = [0.12 x Manure applied one year ago x Organic- N content of the manure]+[0.06 x
Manure applied two years ago x Organic- N content of the manure]

Determine the manure application of previous years by using Figure 8.7.

Figure 8.7 Residual Organic N in Manure


Three years ago Two years ago One year ago For the upcoming
growing season
manure manure manure
application application application

fall or spring fall or spring fall or spring fall or spring


growing growing growing growing growing
season season season season season

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Use the 6% factor  Use the 6% factor  Use the 12% factor  Prepare a nutrient 
to calculate the to calculate the to calculate the management plan to
amount of amount of amount of calculate manure
available N that available N that available N that application rates.
comes from comes from comes from
residual organic N. residual organic N. residual organic N. Use the 25% factor 
to calculate the
amount of
available N that 
will come from
the organic N 
in the manure that 
will be applied.

From Barry Olson, AAFRD Personal Communications, 2002. 8.0


September 2002 93
C A S E S T U D Y

Example:
Figure 8.8 Residual Nitrogen from Previous Manure Application
Field Manure Applied Organic-N Content Residual-N
of Manure
1 year ago 2 years ago 1 year ago 2 years ago
gal./ac. lb./1000 gal. lb./ac.
1 15,000 10,000 18 19 43.8
2 20,000 0 17 - 40.8
3 0 10,000 - 20 12
4 0 0 - - 0.0
Col 1 Col 2 Col 3 Col 4 Col 5

Residual-N from previous applications is calculated (Col = Column number):

Field 1
Residual N = (0.12 x Col 2 x Col 4) +(0.06 x Col 3 x Col 5) = 43.8 lb./ac.

Field 2
Residual N = (0.12 x Col 2 x Col 4) = 40.8 lb./ac.

Field 3
Residual N = (0.06 x Col 3 x Col 5) = 12 lb./ac.

STEP 6: Determine field and AOPA limitations.

It is important to determine the following field and AOPA limitations before applying manure:
• Slope.
• Proximity to water body and connecting streams.
• Nitrate-nitrogen limits in AOPA.
• Distance from manure storage (hauling distance).

Slope, proximity to water bodies and nitrate-nitrogen limits are discussed in the AOPA under
Standards and Administration Regulation, Part 1, Nutrient Management.

Example: Figure 8.9

Field Characterization
Field Hauling Field Limitations AOPA Limitations
Distance miles
1 3 Slope 6% With incorporation within 48 hours, 30 metres
away from a common body of water or well.
2 4 Slope 4% and connected With incorporation within 48 hours, 30 metres
to a surface water body away from a common body of water or well.
3 5 Forage If less than 4% slope, must be 30 metres away
from a common body of water or well.
4 0.3 None With incorporation within 48 hours, 30 metres
away from a common body of water or well.
*Based on soil tests, if this soil was present in
the Brown Soil Zone, the nitrate-nitrogen
content would be over the allowable limit and
no manure would be allowed to be applied to
this field.
* Nitrate-nitrogen limits in AOPA.

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STEP 7: Field prioritization.

This is where information is integrated to determine accurate rates, which optimize economic
return and minimize nutrient loss to the environment.

Example of factors to consider:


• The slopes in Fields 1 and 2 are steeper compared to other field slopes; therefore, manure appli-
cation should take phosphorus into consideration.
• The cost of hauling manure to Fields 2 and 3 might be relatively high; therefore, the manure
lagoon or storage having the highest phosphorus nutrient content will be used.
• Field 3 is in pasture. Incorporation is not an option; therefore, application will be based on
phosphorus.

Calculation of application rate for each field:

Field 1:
Due to the steep slope, this field manure rate will be based on phosphorus.

Figure 8.6 shows the phosphate recommendation is 30 lb./ac.

• If manure from Lagoon 1 is to be used:

If manure is to be applied on P basis:


Equation 6
Manure rate of application based on phosphorus = [Recommended amount (Figure 8.6)] /
[Available phosphate in manure (Equation 3)]
Manure application rate based on phosphorus = 30 lb./ac. / 9.4 lb./1,000 gal. = 3,191.5 gal./ac.

Equation 7
Crop available N = [Available N (Equation 2) x Rate of application] + Residual N (Equation 5)
Crop available N = (20 lb./1,000 gal. x 3,191.5 gal./ac.) + 43.8 lb./ac. = 107.6 lb. N/ac.

Equation 8
Fertilizer N to be added = Recommended amount (Figure 8.6) – [amount provided by manure, which is
Crop available (Equation 7)
Fertilizer N to be added = 160 lb./ac. – 107.6 lb./ac. = 52.4 lb. N/ac.

If manure is to be applied on N basis:

Equation 9
Manure application rate based on nitrogen = [Recommended amount (Figure 8.6) – Residual N
(Equation 5)] / Available N (Equation 2)
Manure application rate = (160 lb./ac.– 43.8 lb./ac.) / 20 lb./1,000 gal. = 5,810 gal./ac.
Therefore,
Phosphate applied = Manure application rate for N (Equation 9) x Available P2O5 (Equation 3)
Phosphate applied would be = 5,810 gal./ac. x 9.4 lb./1,000 gal. = 54.6 lb. P2O5/ac.

This rate will result in an excess application of 24.6 lb./ac. (54.6 lb./ac. Calculated to 30 lb./ac.
recommended) of phosphate. The steep slope in this field means there would be a high risk
for phosphorus runoff. Therefore, it is not recommended to base the manure application on N.

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C A S E S T U D Y

• If manure from Lagoon 2 is to be used:

Manure application rate based on phosphorus (Equation 6) = 30 lb./ac./15.8 lb./1,000 gal. = 1,898.7 gal./ac.
Crop available N (Equation 7) = (11.9 lb./1,000 gal. x 1,898.7 gal./ac.) + 43.8 lb./ac. = 66.4 lb. N/ac.
Fertilizer N to be added (Equation 8) = 160 lb./ac. – 66.4 lb./ac. = 93.6 lb. N/ac.

For Field 1, using manure from Lagoon 1 or 2 makes a difference on the rate of manure
application, 3,191.5 gal./ac. and 1,898.7 gal./ac. It is recommended to apply manure from Lagoon
2 as this will decrease hauling costs. Save manure from Lagoon 1 for fields that are closer to the
manure storage.

Field 2:
Due to the steep slope and the field’s close connection to surface water, this field manure rate will
be based on phosphorus.

Figure 8.6 shows the phosphate recommendation is 30 lb./ac.

• If manure from Lagoon 1 is to be used:

Manure application rate based on phosphorus (Equation 6) = 30 lb./ac. / 9.4 lb./1,000 gal. = 3,191.5 gal./ac.
Crop available N (Equation 7) = (20 lb./1,000 gal. x 3,191.5 gal./ac.) + 40.8 lb./ac. = 104.6 lb. N/ac.
Fertilizer N to be added (Equation 8) = 100 lb./ac. –104.6 lb./ac. = -4.6 lb. N/ac.
Therefore, the addition of mineral fertilizer is not needed.

• If manure from Lagoon 2 is to be used:

Manure Application Rate based on Phosphorus (Equation 6) = 30 lb./ac. / 15.8 lb./1,000 gal. =
1898.7 gal./ac.
Crop Available N (Equation 7) = (11.9 lb./1,000 gal. x 1898.7 gal./ac.) + 40.8 lb./ac. = 63.4 lb. N/ac.
Fertilizer N to be added (Equation 8) = 100 lb./ac. – 63.4 lb./ac. = 36.6 lb. N/ac.

For Field 2, it is again recommended to apply manure from Lagoon 2, which allows lower
application rate, therefore low hauling costs.

Field 3:
This field is on pasture; the manure rate will be based on phosphorus.

Figure 8.6 shows a phosphate recommendation of 60 lb./ac.

• If manure from Lagoon 1 is to be used:

Manure application rate based on phosphorus (Equation 6) = 60 lb./ac. / 9.4 lb./1,000 gal. =
6,383 gal./ac.
Crop available N (Equation 7) = (20 lb./1,000 gal. x 6,383 gal./ac.) + 12 lb./ac. = 139.7 lb. N/ac.
Fertilizer N to be added (Equation 8) = 170 lb./ac. – 139.7 lb./ac. = 30.3 lb. N/ac.

• If manure from Lagoon 2 is to be used:

Manure application rate based on phosphorus (Equation 6) = 60 lb./ac. / 15.8 lb./1,000 gal. =
3,797.5 gal./ac.
Crop available N (Equation 7) = (11.9 lb./1,000 gal. x 3,797.5 gal./ac.) + 12 lb./ac. = 57.2 lb. N/ac.
Fertilizer N to be added (Equation 8) = 170 lb./ac. – 57.2 lb./ac. = 112.8 lb. N/ac.

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For Field 3, using manure from Lagoon 1 or 2 makes a difference on the rate of manure application
and amount of commercial nitrogen fertilizer. Although applying manure from Lagoon 2 would
keep hauling costs down, after some economic assessment it may be better to apply manure from
Lagoon 1. The hauling costs will be higher but some of that will be offset by lower commercial fer-
tilizer cost.

Field 4:
This field has no landscape proximity limitations; however based on soil tests, if this soil was
present in the Brown Soil Zone the nitrate-nitrogen content would be greater than the allowable
limit and no manure would be allowed to be applied to this field. See AOPA, under Standards and
Administration Regulation, Part 1, Nutrient Management.

Figure 8.6 shows a nitrogen recommendation of 50 lb./ac.

• If manure from Lagoon 1 is to be used:

Manure application rate based on nitrogen (Equation 9) = [50 lb./ac. – 0 lb./ac.] / 20 lb./1,000 gal.
= 2,500 gal./ac.
Crop available phosphorus (Equation 7) = (9.4 lb./1,000 gal. x 2,500 gal./ac.) + 0 lb./ac. =
23.5 lb. N/ac.
Fertilizer phosphate to be added (Equation 8) = 40 lb./ac. –23.5 lb./ac. = 16.5 lb. P2O5/ac.
Therefore, the addition of mineral fertilizer is not needed.

• If manure from Lagoon 2 is to be used:

Manure application rate based on nitrogen (Equation 9) = [50 lb./ac. – 0 lb./ac.] / 11.9 lb./1,000
gal. = 4,201.7 gal./ac.
Crop available phosphorus (Equation 7) = (15.8 lb./1,000 gal. x 4,201.7 gal./ac.) + 0 lb./ac.
= 66.4 lb. N/ac.
Fertilizer phosphate to be added (Equation 8) = 40 lb./ac. – 66.4 lb./ac. = 26.4 lb. P2O5/ac.

For Field 4, using manure from Lagoon 1 or 2 makes a difference on the rate of manure
application. However, it is recommended to apply manure from Lagoon 2 as it has a relatively low
hauling distance.

STEP 8: Manure and fertilizer needs per field.

Figure 8.10 Nutrients Summary: Needs and Balance


Application Rate Total Application
Field Acres Manure Fertilizer Manure Fertilizer
gal. /ac. lb. /ac. gal. lb. /ac.
N P2O5 N P2O5
Field 1 100 1,898.7 93.6 0 189,870 9,360 0
Field 2 150 1,898.7 36.6 0 284,705 5,490 0
Field 3 100 6,383 30 0 638,300 3,000 0
Field 4 50 4,201.7 0 26.4 210,085 0 1,320
Total Required 1,322,960 17,850 1,320
Balance* +229,490 -17,850 1,320

*Manure Balance:
Total manure in storage was 1,552,450 gallons. After application of 1,322,960 gallons, the manure
remaining will be approximately 229,490 gallons.
Fertilizer needs are:
• 17,850 lb. of nitrogen.
• 1,320 lb. of phosphate.
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97
8.10 Appendix: Spreading Equipment
Calibration
Simple Method.
Weigh several spreader loads of manure and determine the area in the field that is covered after
spreading. Determine the weight of the spreader and try to fill each load to a similar level. Once
calibration rate is determined (volume or weight/area), rate adjustments can be made by adjust-
ing the equipment and/or varying the ground speed.

There are a number of methods for calibrating manure spreaders, including:


Calibrating for surface manure application. Determine volume or weight of manure and size of
area to be spread with one full load (area in acres).
• Weight can be determined by the difference in the spreader weight before and after spreading
(be sure that the tank is completely empty).
• Volume can be calculated using tank sizes.

Therefore, the rate of application is:

Rate of application = (Volume or weight)/area Eq(1)

To calculate the spreading speed:


• C = capacity of the spreader (in tons, gallons) [use dimensions or user manual to calculate C].
• W = width of spread (feet).
• t = time (in seconds) it takes to empty one load (C).
• R = application rate (in tons or gallons/acre).
• D = distance (in feet) it takes to empty one load (C).
• 43,560 is the number of feet per acre.
• 5,280 is the number of feet per mile.
• 3,600 is the number of seconds per hour.

Application rate is calculated as follows:


R = (43,560 x C) ÷ (W x D)
Eq(2)
Therefore,
D = (43,560 x C) ÷ (W x R)
Eq(3)
Speed is calculated as follows:
Speed = (D+5,280) ÷ (t+3,600)
Eq(4)
If equations (3) and (4) are merged, then

Speed = (t x 43,560C) ÷ (3,600 x 5,280 x W x R) Eq(5)

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98 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
Speed = 29,700 x [C ÷ (t x W x R)] (miles/hr) Eq(6)

Where:
t is in seconds
C is in gallons or tons
W is in feet
R is in gallons or tons per acre

Example:
Considering these parameters:
• C = capacity of the spreader = 5,400 gal.
• W = width of spread = 12 ft.
• t = time it takes to empty one load (5,400 gal.) = 400 sec.
• R = application rate = 10,000 gallons/acre.
Then,
Speed = 29,700 x [C ÷ (t x W x R)] (miles/hr.)
= 29,700 x [5,400 ÷ (400 x 12 x 10,000) = 3.34 miles/hr.

To calculate the rate of application from spreading speed consider these parameters:
• C = capacity of the spreader (gal.)
• W = width of spread (ft.)
• t = time it takes to empty one load (sec.)
• Speed (mile/hr.)

Eq(6) can be rearranged to calculate the actual application rate as follows:

R = 29,700 x [C ÷ (t x W x Speed)] (ton or gal./acre) Eq(7)

Where:
t is in seconds
C is in gallons or tons
W is in feet
Speed is in mile/hr.

Example:
• C = capacity of the spreader = 5,400 gal.
• W = width of spread = 12 ft.
• t = time it takes to empty one load (5,400 gal) = 400 sec.
• Speed = 4 miles/hr.
Then,
R = 29,700 x [C ÷ (t x W x Speed)]
= 29,700 x [5,400 ÷ (400 x 12 x 4)] = 8,353 gal./ac.

Tarp method.
Another method is to lay out several tarps (3 m x 3 m in size) and drive over them with the spreader.
Weigh each tarp with manure and subtract the weight of the tarps. Once the area of the tarps is
known, the application rate can be calculated. Many tarp samples may be required to obtain an accu-
rate value. To check on uniformity of application, lay five small tarps side by side in a row, then
drive over the tarps perpendicular to the row. Weigh the manure on each tarp. In addition to check-
ing uniformity and application, the rate can also be calculated.

8.0
September 2002 99
8.0
100 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
9.0 DISPOSAL OF FARM WASTE
9.1 Disposal of Dead Animals

9.2 Disposal of Veterinary Waste


9.2.1 Sharps
9.2.2 Expired medicines

9.3 Disposal of Chemical Farm Waste


9.3.1 Pesticides
9.3.1.1 Pesticide disposal

9.3.1.2 Pesticide storage

9.3.1.3 Pesticide container disposal

9.3.2 Handling and disposal of petroleum products (fuels and lubricants)


9.3.2.1 Health and environmental risks

9.3.2.2 Financial/liability risks

9.4 Leaks and Spills


9.4.1 Fuel leaks/spills
9.4.2 Lubricant leaks/spills

9.5 Options for Disposing of Contaminated Soils


9.0 DISPOSAL OF FARM WASTE
9.1 Disposal of Dead Animals
Refer to the Destruction and Disposal of Dead Regulations. These sites must be on the
Animals Regulations under the Livestock producer’s own property or property leased
Diseases Act, for details on regulations by the producer. Animals euthanized by
pertaining to the disposal of dead animals and drugs or those known to have died from
to Section 3 of this publication. A copy of infectious diseases (e.g. Salmonella) or
these regulations may be obtained from an reportable diseases must not be disposed of
Alberta Agriculture, Food and Rural by natural disposal.
Development (AAFRD) office, or by visiting Storage. Some operations use special
the AAFRD Web site at www.agric.gov.ab.ca/ storage bins, or refrigerate or freeze carcasses
navigation/department/acts/index.html. Two until they can be taken to a rendering facility.
other useful references are Livestock Mortality This reduces odour, keeps them out of sight
Burial Techniques, Agdex 400/29-2, and Livestock and prevents scavenging. Dead animal storage
Mortality Management (Disposal), Agdex 400/29-1. areas should be located in areas that will
These are also available from AAFRD. minimize the spread of disease, for example,
Some death loss will occur on hog at the entrance to a farm site to prevent
operations, no matter how well they are collection vehicles from having to enter the
managed. Disposing of dead animals quickly property.
and effectively is important to reduce the risk Clean-up. Ensure storage areas are
of disease. It is also important in maintaining thoroughly cleaned after each pickup and
good neighbour relations. Carcasses can be a that waste water does not run into streams or
source of disease if scavenged by wildlife or other surface water.
pets. Some of these diseases can then be Burial. If dead animals are buried, it should
passed back to livestock or even humans. be done promptly to control odour, insects
Carcasses are also an eyesore, a source of and scavenging. In the winter, during periods
odour and can contribute to fly problems. of intense cold, this may be difficult due to
The current Destruction and Disposal of Dead frozen ground. Producers should be prepared
Animals Regulations requires that all dead ani- to store the carcasses in a frozen state or have
mals be disposed of within 48 hours by incin- them picked up for rendering during these
erating, burying, rendering, or natural dispos- times. The burial pit area should be screened
al (scavenging). Incineration and natural dis- from view by trees, shrubs or fences, and be
posal composting may be used under very located at some distance away from livestock.
restricted circumstances described in the Burial pits should not be located where runoff
regulation. could contaminate surface water and should
A dead animal may be stored for more than not be located near wells or other water
48 hours after death if it is stored: sources.
• For not more than one week in an enclosed Other animal tissue waste, such as after-
structure with impervious walls and floors births and tissues from surgery (e.g. castration)
that have been constructed for the storage of can be disposed of as carcasses or sent to a
dead animals. landfill in a sealed plastic container or bag.
• Outside during winter months when the Blood or blood products from animals can be
ambient temperature is low enough to keep safely flushed down the drain.
the dead animal completely frozen. Composting. For more information on
or composting dead animals, refer to the
• In a freezer unit. following resources:
There are restrictions on the use of composting, National Pork Producers Council, 1997.
burial and natural disposal that must be Swine Mortality Composting Module. National
followed in order to minimize the risk of Pork Producers Council, Clive, Iowa
disease spread and nuisance concerns. www.nppc.org.
Composting, burial and natural disposal sites Code of Practice for Compost Facilities under
are all required to be specific distances from Waste Contol Regulation A. R. 192/96.
waterways, well sources, major roads, Developed and administered by Alberta
residences and parks. For more information Environmental Protection.
on these restrictions refer to Section 3 or the Swine Mortality Composting Agdex 440/29-1.
Destruction and Disposal of Dead Animals Available from AAFRD.
9.0
102 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
9.2 Disposal of Veterinary Waste
9.2.1 Sharps
Sharps are veterinary and laboratory with a sealed lid. These special containers
materials capable of causing cuts or can be obtained at many local veterinary
punctures. Sharps include needles, syringes, clinics. Label clearly as sharps containers
scalpel blades, slides, coverslips, pipettes, and not for recycling. A plastic jug with a
broken glass and empty or expired narrow mouth, or a 5-gallon (20-litre) pail
pharmaceutical containers. There is a risk with a narrow opening in the lid also work
of needle stick injuries or cuts when these well. Injuries can occur if workers try to
materials are not handled or disposed of retrieve an object from the container, so
properly. Certain drugs or vaccines may cause containers should be narrow-mouthed or
reactions or infections if they are present on have well-sealed lids with a small hole.
broken glass or used needles that break the Ensure children or animals cannot remove
skin. Blood on used needles, collection tubes the lid. Do not attempt to recap needles
or other equipment, may contain viruses or before disposal - this is a common cause of
bacteria that can cause illness following a cut needle stick injury.
or needle stick injury. Bacteria or viruses from • For pharmaceutical bottles and syringes, use
blood on used needles are a potential disease a pail or other rigid container.
risk in needle stick injuries.There are currently Remove waste from the farm. Take pails of
no regulations covering the disposal of sharps bottles and syringes and full containers of
in agriculture. waste needles and surgical blades to the local
To safely dispose of sharps: vet clinic or hospital for disposal. Contact
Separate sharps from other waste. Injuries them first to ensure they accept sharps. There
can occur while handling sharps on the farm are also private companies that will pick up
or at the landfill, if staff are unaware of their medical waste. Contact the local vet clinic or
presence, or if they are not in rigid containers. hospital for information. Labelled sealed
Plastic bags are unacceptable. containers can also be taken to Class 2
Use a labelled rigid sharps container for landfills (which accept medical waste,
disposal. have perimeter fencing, etc.).
• For needles and surgical blades, use a rigid Do not burn sharps containers.
plastic or metal puncture-proof container

9.2.2 Expired medicines


Regularly check all drugs for the expiry unused (unopened) and used (opened).
date. Expiry dates appear on the label as EXP Unused expired drugs can be returned to the
08 2000, for example, or as 24APR01. All point-of-purchase, such as the vet clinic. Many
drugs past the expiry date should be discarded, manufacturers will accept them for disposal.
as product safety and efficacy can no longer Used or expired drugs can be discarded the
be guaranteed. same way as sharps. Modified live virus
Medicines not past their expiry date some- vaccines should be rendered non-infectious
times need to be discarded as well. Products before disposal to prevent the virus from
such as vaccines must be handled carefully potentially infecting workers or animals. This
(e.g. refrigerated) to maintain efficacy. If in can be done by freezing, autoclaving, burning
doubt about how a product has been handled or adding bleach to the bottle. When disposing
and whether it is still safe or effective (e.g. of either used or unused expired medicines,
vaccine left at room temperature overnight), do not attempt to empty or wash bottles -
consult a veterinarian. discard them with their contents.
On some vaccines, the label states “Use Every May in Alberta, veterinary clinics
entire contents when first opened.” The collect outdated medications. Consult with the
remaining vaccine should be discarded after local veterinarian to find out more about this
vaccination is complete - consult a veterinarian. program.
There are two classes of expired medicines -

9.0
September 2002 103
9.3 Disposal of Chemical Farm Waste
Chemical farm waste includes pesticides topical parasiticides (pour-on or powders for
(herbicides, fungicides, insecticides, treating parasites), cleaners, disinfectants and
rodenticides), pesticide-treated seed and petroleum products.

9.3.1 Pesticides
For complete details on safe pesticide use district offices or from the Publishing Branch,
and disposal, consult the Crop Protection 7000-113 Street, Edmonton, Alberta T6H 5T6.
Manual (Agdex 606-1) available from AAFRD

9.3.1.1 Pesticide disposal


Unwanted or expired pesticides must be ardous waste. Names of companies that are
disposed of carefully. Pesticides are hazardous licensed to handle hazardous waste can be
wastes and cannot be disposed of in sanitary obtained from Alberta Environment’s Recycle
landfills or by burning. Offer unused pesticide Information Line at 1-800-463-6326. Unused
supplies to neighbours. Pesticides that have products can also be returned to the dealer.
no further use must be disposed of as haz-

9.3.1.2 Pesticide storage


Pesticides should be purchased on an as- Pesticides should not be stored near feeds,
needed basis and should not be stored on the food or fertilizers and should never be stored
farm over the winter. Read the label for specific in well houses or feed mixing and milling
storage instructions during temporary storage. rooms. As well, these products should never
Pesticides should be stored in a cool, dry place be stored or mixed within 30 metres of an
in the original containers. Keep pesticides from open body of water.
freezing and protect from excessive heat. Pesticides should not be stored around the
A pesticide storage area should have an home and should be out-of-reach of animals
impervious floor with curbs, no floor drains, and children. Products that are highly toxic to
and be stocked with an overpack container mammals, such as certain rodenticides and
and a supply of absorbent material, such as parasiticides, should be stored under lock
sand or kitty litter. and key.

9.3.1.3 Pesticide container disposal


Empty pesticide containers must be disposal. In most cases, triple rinsing leaves
disposed of carefully. Unrinsed empty plastic, metal or glass pesticide containers
pesticide containers have the potential to more than 99 percent free (less than 1 ppm) of
contaminate ground and surface water and residues. For details on rinsing, consult the
can be toxic to fish and wildlife. Under the Crop Protection Manual.
Alberta Environmental Protection and Paper bags and cardboard containers
Enhancement Act, non-refillable plastic or should be thoroughly emptied and disposed
metal pesticide containers (restricted, of in a sanitary landfill. Paper bags or card-
agricultural and industrial products) must be board containers should not be burned. Outer
disposed of at a pesticide container collection packaging (e.g. cardboard box) can be burned
site. A list of pesticide container disposal sites or disposed of in a regular landfill. Some
in Alberta and their hours is available from pesticide container sites have bins or separate
each municipality, in the Crop Protection areas for collecting outer packaging materials.
Manual, or from Alberta Environment. Containers from topical parasiticides,
Containers must be clean (triple rinsed or (e.g. pour-on compounds or powders for lice
pressure rinsed) and well drained (dry) before and mange) should be disposed of in a safe
9.0
104 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
manner. These compounds can be toxic to as directed on the label. Containers should not
fish, wildlife, other livestock and humans. be reused and empty containers should be
These products should be kept out of water- made unsuitable for re-use. For specific
ways and streams and not be allowed to information on the disposal of unused and
contaminate foods or feeds. Some products unwanted product and the cleanup of spills,
are controlled under the Pest Control Products contact the regional office of Conservation
Act and it is an offence to use them other than and Protection, Environment Canada.

9.3.2 Handling and disposal of petroleum products


(fuels and lubricants)
Fuels and lubricants can be toxic to are necessary to limit risks to human and
humans, livestock, wildlife and fish. animal health and the environment.
Proper storage and handling on the farm

9.3.2.1 Health and environmental risks


Gasoline and diesel fuel. In humans, skin or chromium, which can be toxic or leave
contact with gasoline and diesel fuel can residues in meat. All lubricants should be
cause irritation or chemical burns, while washed from exposed skin as soon as
breathing vapours can result in headaches, possible. Livestock will consume these
dizziness, and nausea. These products are products and therefore should not have
possible causes of cancer. Spilled fuels will kill access to them.
plant life and fish. Livestock will sometimes Ethylene glycol (antifreeze). Antifreeze is
drink fuel. Fuels can cause bloat and vomiting, extremely toxic to the kidneys of livestock,
depression, confusion, pneumonia and death, pets, wildlife and people. It is sweet tasting,
depending on the amount ingested. There is so certain animals, particularly cattle and
no effective treatment. pets, will drink large quantities if given the
Waste lubricants. Waste lubricants include opportunity. Shortly after ingestion, animals
used motor oil, transmission fluid and power appear drunk. They may vomit, become
steering fluids. Like fuels, these products are weak, convulse and die. If treated early, they
petroleum distillates. They also may contain may survive, but generally ethylene glycol
heavy metals such as lead, arsenic, cadmium poisoning is fatal.

9.3.2.2 Financial/liability risks


Lending and insurance agencies are Storing and Handling Fuel on the Farm,
concerned about the environmental risks published jointly by United Farmers of
associated with fuel storage or spillage, as Alberta and AAFRD, provides more complete
well as the storage of lubricants and glycol, details on storage tank options, and the risks
both new and used. They may require associated with fire, leakage, spillage and
environmental assessments before approving evaporation. It can be obtained from AAFRD,
loans or insurance policies. Spills of fuels or Publications Branch, 7000-113 Street,
lubricants may come under the jurisdiction of Edmonton, T6H 5T6.
the Environmental Protection and Enhancement
Act (EPEA) and if deemed serious enough,
appropriate cleanup measures will have to
be taken.

9.0
September 2002 105
9.4 Leaks and Spills
The best and lowest-cost method of dealing • Store combustible materials away from fuel
with a potential environmental problem is storage tanks.
prevention. • Keep vegetation mowed.
To prevent environmental contamination: • Monitor fuel storage tanks to catch
• Always maintain separation distances leaks early.
from buildings, ignition sources and
propane tanks.

9.4.1 Fuel leaks/spills


In the event that leaks and spills do occur, • Clean up and dispose of all fuel by
keep the following points in mind: shoveling the contaminated earth or
Underground tanks. In the event of a absorbent material into metal or plastic
confirmed leak in an underground tank or containers. Be extremely cautious with
line, contact Alberta Environmental Protection sparks from contact with rocks, metal, etc.
(1-800-222-6514). Personnel from Alberta Dispose of contaminated cleanup materials
Environment will outline the procedures in accordance with Alberta Environmental
to follow. Protection guidelines.
Above ground. In the event of an • Ensure that all ignitable vapours are dispersed
above-ground spill or leak: before resuming normal activities.
• Maintain separation distances from buildings, • It is a regulatory requirement that all spills
ignition sources, and propane tanks. and leaks of 200 litres or more of gasoline
• Stop the flow of fuel. Remove all sources or diesel fuel must be reported to Alberta
of ignition. Be prepared to use a fire Environmental Protection. Spills or leaks of
extinguisher. Remember, gas vapours flow lesser amounts must also be reported if
downhill and are extremely explosive. they have, or may have, an adverse effect
• Contain the spilled fuel by damming with on the environment. An adverse effect is
earth or another suitable absorbent material. defined in the Environmental Protection and
Protect water sources and septic systems. Enhancement Act as impairment of or
• Work from the upwind side to avoid damage to the environment, human health
inhaling vapours and becoming engulfed or safety, or property. Any leak or spill of
in flames if a fire starts. any amount into a watercourse, water body
or groundwater must be reported.

9.4.2 Lubricant leaks/spills


Leaks or spills from lubricant drums or also have facilities to accept smaller volumes
containers can be contained using a grated of waste oil, filters and containers. Several
pan-pallet beneath the containers. Floor spills large waste-oil companies will pick up waste
can be cleaned up with sawdust, rags or other oils on the farm, if the farm has about 1,000
absorbent material. Numerous commercial litres of product per visit. The farmer may
companies have specific products for preventing even get paid one or two cents per litre if the
or cleaning up lubricant spills on concrete. For waste oils are not contaminated. These
spills on soil, excavate the soil and dispose of companies can be found in the Yellow Pages
it in accordance with Environmental under Oil-Waste.
Protection guidelines. (See Section 9.5.) Disposing of Glycols. Glycols (antifreeze)
Disposing of waste lubricants. Most bulk should not be drained onto the ground.
fuel agents will accept waste oil, oil filters and Waste antifreeze should be collected in
oil containers, as well as solvents, cleaning plastic containers and taken to the depots
fluids and glycols. Engine oil, transmission mentioned above.
fluid, hydraulic fluid and power steering fluid None of the above products should be
can be combined, but must not contain water, accessible to livestock, children or wildlife.
solids, solvents or glycols. Most bottle depots Containers should be well labelled and have

9.0
106 Beneficial Management Practices: Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alberta
secure child-proof lids. Most cases of poisoning treatment of certain diseases, their ingestion
occur when these products are accidentally in small quantities can produce illness or
handled by children or animals. residue in the meat. In addition, these products
Motor oils or fuels should not be used should not be used to control dust in yard
directly on the skin of livestock. While these sites or on roads.
products were once recommended in the

9.5 Options for Disposal of


Contaminated Soils
Land spreading. Using naturally occurring ensure adequate breakdown of fuels and
soil micro-organisms in conjunction with possibly for two or more years for the
cultivation, organic matter (manure) and breakdown of waste oils.
added nitrogen fertilizer appears to be a Landfill. Contaminated soil can be hauled
reasonable method of breaking down to an approved landfill site. Contact the land-
hydrocarbons. Specific details as to amounts fill authority to ensure that this is acceptable.
of contaminated soils, per given area of Burning. Approved mobile thermal
cultivation for a given length of treatment extractors can be used; they have the proper
time, are presently being studied. However, after-burners to completely combust all of the
an adequate mix would appear to be hydrocarbons and heavy metals. Names of
2.5 centimetres (1 inch) of contaminated soil companies providing this service can be
spread on a field surface with approximately obtained from Alberta Environment. Open
45 kilograms (100 pounds) of manure and burning of contaminated soil or cleanup
about 0.1 kilograms (1/4 pound) of nitrogen materials is not an approved method of
per 95 m2 (100 ft2) and roto-tilled to a depth of disposal.
12 centimetres (5 inches). Work the area (aer-
ated) every four weeks for at least one year to

9.0
September 2002 107
Unit Conversion Factors
Laboratories report test results using different units. To properly calculate manure or fertilizer
application rate, it is crucial to understand the units expressed in the laboratory report.

Abbreviations:
• Phosphorus is elemental P.
• Phosphate is P2O5, which is a fertilizer unit.
• Potassium is elemental K.
• Potash is K2O, which is a fertilizer unit.
• Nitrogen is N.
• Organic nitrogen is organic N = total N – inorganic N (or ammonium N).
• Total nitrogen is total N = organic N + inorganic N.
• Inorganic N (also called mineral or plant-available N) is ammonium N and nitrate N.
Most of the inorganic N in manure is in ammonium form.

Units:
• 1 kilogram (kg) = 2.205 lb = 35.28 ounces = 1000 milligrams (mg)
• 1 km = 1000 metre (m) = 3,281 feet = 39,370 inches = 0.6214 mile
• 1 m3 = 1000 liters (L) = 220 gallons (Imperial) = 264.2 gallons (US)
• 1 hectare (ha) = 10,000 m2 = 107,639 ft2 = 2.471 acres
• 1 kg/ha = 1.12 lb./ac.
• 1 tonne = 1000 kg = 2205 lb. = 1.1025 ton (short)
• 1% = 10 kg/tonne = 10,000 mg/kg = 10,000 parts per million (ppm)
• 1 ppm = 1 mg/kg (solid) or 1 mg/L (liquid)
• 1 lb (or kg) of P = 2.29 lb. (or kg) of P2O5
• 1 lb (or kg) of K = 1.2 (or kg) lb. of K2O
• 1 ppm N, P or K (in 6 inches or 15 cm soil depth) is approximately equal to1.8 lb. of N,
P or K /ac = 2 kg of N, P or K /ha
• 1 ppm N, P or K (in 12 inches or 30 cm soil depth) is approximately equal to 3.6 lb. of N,
P or K /ac. = 4 kg of N, P or K /ha

For example: If the lab report shows that P content in soil is 20 ppm in the top 15 cm. This is
equivalent to: 40 kg P/ha or 36 lb. P/ac.
BENEFICIAL MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
Environmental Manual for Hog Producers in Alber ta

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