The verbal expression of the

mental judgment is called

proposition

Proposition is group of ideas of

which anything is affirmed or
denied

For ancient thinkers,

proposition is the enunciation of
truth or falsity.
Types of Proposition
 Categorical: A categorical
proposition unites or separates two
concepts by means of the linking
verb “to be.”

 Hypothetical: A hypothetical
proposition unites or separates, not
two concepts but two enunciations
by means of a non-verb copula
PROPOSITIONS

 Examples of Categorical
Propositions

Some sharks are not dangerous.

Every kind act is meritorious.

PROPOSITIONS

 Examples of Hypothetical
Propositions

If it is a car, it has a motor.

If you are a Filipino, then you are
a native of the Philippines.
PROPERTIES OF
PROPOSITIONS

 Every proposition has quality

and quantity

Quality: the quality of a proposition

maybe affirmative or negative

A proposition that has “no” or “not” is

negative. This is oftentimes
determined by the copula
PROPERTIES OF
PROPOSITIONS
 Quantity: the quantity of a
proposition is either universal or
particular.
 The proposition is universal when
what is being affirmed or denied of
the subject term is its whole
extension and particular when what
is being affirmed or denied is just
part of its extension.
THE FOUR CATEGORICALS

 A – stands for affirmative and

universal propositions (All S is
P)
 Examples: All bachelors are
unmarried men.
Every butterfly is an insect.
FOUR CATEGORICALS

 I – stands for affirmative and

particular propositions (Some S
is P)
 Ex. Some Filipinos are
Moslems.
 Some OLAS students are
naughty.
FOUR CATEGORICALS
 E – stands for negative and
universal propositions ( No S is
P or All S is not P)
 Examples: No speaker of
Congress in the Philippines has
become the president.
 No bird has four legs.
 Cagayan is not a Visayan
province.
FOUR CATEGORICALS

 0 – stands for negative and

particular propositions (Some S
is not P or Not All S is P)
 Examples: Some senators are
not lawyers
 Not every journalist gives
accurate and well-founded
report.
State the class of each of the
proposition
 No one who died for his country died
in vain.
 Some students in this class are
Cebuanos.
 Pentagons are polygons.
 Centipedes are not snakes.
 Dr. Jose Rizal is a national hero.
 Most congressman are not giving up
their pork barrel.
 Three senators are running for
the presidency.
 No one is above the law.
 The mantis is an insect.
 Not every plant bears fruits.
RECOGNIZING ARGUMENTS

 An argument is a group of
propositions in which one
proposition is asserted to be
true on the basis of the other
proposition
 An argument is not categorized
as true or false but as either
logical or illogical, valid or
invalid sound or unsound
ARGUMENTS

 The proposition which is

claimed to be true is called the
“conclusion” while the
proposition which serves as
support of the conclusion is
called “premise.”
Premise and Conclusion
Indicators
 Premise-indicators:
some, because, for, given that,
as indicated by, if

 Conclusion-indicators
therefore, thus, hence, so,
accordingly, consequently
PROPERTIES OF
ARGUMENTS
 TRUTH – refers to the
conformity of proposition to
reality
 LOGIC – refers to the
connection between the
premises and the conclusion
 SOUNDNESS – property of
argument as a whole
PROPERTIES OF
ARGUMENT
 An argument maybe logical
while one or more of its
premises are false. For
example:
All Filipinos are Asians.
But Bill Clinton is a Filipino.
Therefore, Bill Clinton is Asian.
PROPERTIES OF
ARGUMENTS
 There are arguments whose
premises are true but are not
logical:
Cows have horns.
Horses are not cows.
Therefore, horses have no
horns.
Using your common-sense
knowledge, which of the following
are sound arguments, which are
merely logical and which are not
logical at all?

 If you win the lotto jackpot, you

will be a millionaire. Lucio Tan is
a millionaire. Therefore he must
have won the lotto jackpot.
 All birds fly. But eagles are
birds, therefore, eagles fly.
No one under the age of eighteen
is eligible to vote in national
elections. My philosophy teacher
is not under the age of 21,
therefore, he is eligible to vote in
national elections.

If a figure has five sides, it is a

polygon. A pentagon is a polygon.
Therefore, a pentagon has five
sides.
 Miriam College is in Katipunan
avenue. Katipunan avenue is in
Marikina. Therefore, Miriam
College is in Marikina.
 Fidel Ramos is older than
Joseph Estrada. Estrada is
older than Miriam Santiago.
Therefore, Santiago is younger
than Ramos.
 No fish have lungs. Whales
have lungs. Therefore, whales
are not fish.
Determine whether the following
are argument or non-arguments
 I believe we must use clean, safe
nuclear power. The more dependent
we become on foreign oil., the less
our national security is enhanced.
 Many people think that thunder is
caused by lightning. This is a
mistake
 There ought to be a law prohibiting
the use of animals in research. After
all, we would not tolerate that kind of
treatment to humans.
There are three things that last: faith
hope and love. But the greatest of this
is love.

He who does not love does not know

God for God is love.

There is a plan to make former Pres.

Marcos a national hero. However,
several groups of people, including the
Church and the CPP-NPA are strongly
protesting the plan.
SYLLOGISMS

 The verbal expression of a

deductive reasoning or
inference is the syllogism.
 A syllogism is an oral discourse
showing the agreement or
disagreement between two
terms on the basis of their
respective relation to a common
third term.
 The Minor Term (S) is the subject of
the conclusion and found in the
minor premise
 The Major Term (P) is the predicate
of the conclusion and found in the
major premise
 The Middle Term (M) is the term that
appears both in the premises but not
in the conclusion.
Examples of Valid Syllogisms:

All heroes are freedom loving

Andres Bonifacio is a hero.
Therefore, Bonifacio is freedom loving.

All humans are rational.

The elephant is not rational.
Therefore the elephant is not human.
Examples of Invalid
Syllogisms
Every mother is pregnant.
But Lakambini is a mother
Therefore, Lakambini is pregnant.

All Catholics are Christians.

But, Anglicans are not Catholics.
Therefore, Anglicans are not
Christians
Supply the missing proposition:

A body of knowledge is a science.

But ___________________.
Therefore, Logic is a science.

No voter is an alien
________________.
Therefore, some citizens are not
aliens.
_______________________.
But a chair is material.
Therefore, a chair is not a spirit.

Words are symbols.

But nouns are words.
Therefore, __________________.

Every X is Y.
But __________________.
Therefore, no W is Y.
Human is the subject matter of
psychology.
But an eagle is not human.
Therefore, ________________.

______________________.
But you are honest.
Therefore, you are not a liar.

All false beliefs are dangerous.

But some religious beliefs are false.
Therefore, ______________________.
Rules of Syllogism

1. There must be three and only

three terms
2. No term must have a greater
extension in the conclusion
than it has in the premises.
3. The Middle Term must not
appear in the conclusion.
4. The middle term must be
universal at least once
Rules of Syllogism

Two affirmative premises yield an

affirmative conclusion.
Two negative premises yield no
conclusion.
When one premise is negative,
conclusion must be negative; when
one premise is particular, conclusion
must be particular.
When both premises are particular,
there is no conclusion.
Valid Moods and Figures

 First Figure (sub-prae)

 Second Figure (prae-prae)
 Third Figure (sub-sub)
 Fourth Figure (prae-sub)
Valid Moods and Figures
 First – BARBARA, CELARENT,
DARII, FERIO
 Second – CESARE, CAMESTRES,
FESTINO, BAROCO
 Third – DARAPTI, DISAMIS, DATISI,
FELAPTON, BOCARDO, FERISON
 Fourth – BRAMANTIP, CAMENES,
DIMARIS, FESAPO, PRESISON
No gentlemen is cruel.
But Some policemen are cruel
Therefore, some policemen are
not gentlemen.

Some scientists are Filipinos

But some scholars are scientists.
Therefore, some scholars are Filipino.

No goat is able to speak

But no cat is able to speak
Therefore, no cat is a goat.
Every dictator is powerful
But the president is powerful
Therefore, the president is
a dictator.

Nobody is perfect
But he is a nobody.
Therefore, he is perfect.

Every book has a title

But some men have titles
Therefore, some men are books.
No poor is rich
But every beggar is poor.
Therefore, no beggar is rich.

No rebel is loyal to the constitution

But some soldiers are rebels.
Therefore, some soldiers are loyal
to the constitution.

Every murder is immoral

But euthanasia is murder.
Therefore, euthanasia is immoral.
 Exercises on Categorical Syllogisms

Morphines are analgesics

Aspirins are not morphines
Therefore, aspirins are not analgesis

All snakes are reptiles

All reptiles are cold-blooded
Therefore, all snakes are cold-blooded

Some plants are not green.

Mushrooms are plants
Therefore, some mushrooms are not green

A dog is four-legged animal

A parrot is not a four-legged animal
A parrot is not a dog.
No angel has a body.
A man is not an angel
Therefore, a man has a body.

Most amphibians lay their eggs in ponds

or rivers
Frogs are amphibians
Therefore, most frogs lay their eggs in
ponds or rivers.

Cats are domesticated animals.

A mountain lion is a cat.
Therefore, a mountain lion is a
domesticated animal
Some figures are round.
The circle is a figure.
Therefore, the circle is round.

Bachelors are unmarried men.

Joey is unmarried.
Therefore, Joey is a bachelor.

Everything visible is real.

The soul is not visible.
Therefore, the soul is not real.
HYPOTHETICAL SYLLOGISMS

 A hypothetical syllogism is a
syllogism that contains
hypothetical proposition as its
premise.
 Hypothetical syllogism is of
three kinds:
Conditional
Disjunctive
Conjuctive
Conditional Syllogism
 A conditional syllogism is a
syllogism whose major premise
is a conditional proposition.
 A conditional proposition is a
compound proposition which
asserts that one member is true
(the “then” clause), on the
condition that the other is true
(the “if” clause)
Implications or Connections
 Logical implication – the implication
means that the antecedent flow with
logical necessity into the consequent

Examples:
If he is a catholic, then he believes in
Christ.
If he is a fiscal, then he must be a
lawyer.
Causal implication
 Its implication is suggestive of
cause and effect relationship.

Examples:
If you touch a live wire, you will be
electrocuted.
If the plants are always in the
shade, then they will not flower
well.
Contextual implication
 The implication depends on the
will of the person or on
particular circumstances
Examples:
If I win the lotto jackpot, then I will
travel around the world.
If you do not pay your debt now, I
will never lend you money
again.
Rules for Conditonals

 When the minor premise affirms the

antecedent, the conclusion must
affirm the consequent
Example:
If it rains, then the ground will be wet.
It rained.
Therefore, the ground is wet.
Rules for Conditionals

 When the minor premise denies

the consequent, the conclusion
must deny the antecedent.

If you are alive, then you are not

dead.
But you are dead.
Therefore, you are not alive.
 Exercises for Conditional Syllogism
If Moises has weak lungs, he will not be able to
join the team.
He was not able to join the team.
Therefore, he has weak lungs.

If Mark is not quiet, we will frighten the fish

away.
Mark made a lot of noise.
Therefore, he frightened the fish away.

If this syllogism commits the fallacy of illicit

major, it is invalid.
It does not commit the fallacy of illicit major
Therefore, it is valid.
If Fr. Chris will not go abroad, the seminarians
will be happy.
The seminarians will not be happy.
Therefore, Fr. Chris will go abroad.

Unless he gets a tutor, Wilmar will fail in logic.

He did not get a tutor.
Therefore, he will fail in logic.

Anyone who earns a bachelor degree must take

up logic.
Procopio has not taken up logic yet.
Therefore, he does not have a bachelor degree.
The coach is worried that the football team will
lose if it rains during the game next Saturday.
He thinks the team doesn’t play very well when
the field is muddy. But the weather is forecast
is for sunny weather for the whole weekend.
That’s good news, it means the team will win
the game on Saturday.

Lyndon has decided to run for president of the

student’s council. That’s a pity because he is
bound to lose. If Lyndon is going to win the
election, he will have to be known to a lot of
students. But hardly anyone knows Lyndon.