23483

Theology and Religious Studies Dissertation THRS 30026

A Comparison o !ntelle"tual and #motional orms o Bhakti De$otion in Hindu Tradition %ith Re eren"e to the Rele$ant Roles o &RSNa and his 'emale De$otees as (ortrayed in the Bhgavata PurNa, Bhagvad-Gt and )ther De$otional Te*ts+

Candidate number: 23483 Word count: 7994 Dissertation adviser: Dr Rupert Gethin

Table of Contents:
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Theology and Religious Studies Dissertation THRS 30026

Title page...1 Contents page....2 Introduction..3 Main contents: 1) The characters of KRSNa in VaiSNava de otion.! 1+i/ Identifi ati!n !f the hara ter" !f #RSNa.! - $arri!r - Divine %!ver&'!(herd 1+ii/ )he p!rtra*a+ !f ea h in art and +iterature." - $arri!r - Divine %!ver&'!(herd 1+iii/ ,ppea+ !f hara ter" t! (h!- and (h*...............................................................# - '!(herd&Divine %!ver t! (!-en and +!(er +a""e", - $arri!r t! -en and upper +a""e" ,++ taken in re+ati!n t! the re+evant te/t" 2) $%otional and intellectual bha&ti' 2+i/ 0ut+ine !f 1!th f!r-" !f 1hakti..1( - 2-!ti!na+ 1hakti - Inte++e tua+ 1hakti 2+ii/ Dev!tee" intera ti!n.12 - $ith e-!ti!na+ 1hakti - $ith inte++e tua+ 1hakti 2+iii/ 2va+uati!n !f their purp!"e.1) 3) The roles and positions of *o%en in bha&ti..1! 3+i/ ,ale and fe-a+e appea+ !f 1hakti.. 1! 3+ii/ R!+e" and hara ter" !f (!-en in p!etr*. 1! 3+iii/ )(! (a* re+ati!n"hip nature !f 1hakti1" - Dev!tee identifi ati!n (ith the fe-a+e a"pe t - Dev!tee identifi ati!n (ith the deit* 3+i$/ 2viden e !f 3e-a+e d!-inan e&"hift" in gender d!-inan e (ithin 4indu te/t".1+ 3+$/ 5ignifi an e !f Rdh a" "eparate fr!- the !ther g!p"..1' Conclusion...2( I%age reference...2(

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Theology and Religious Studies Dissertation THRS 30026

,ibliograph- ...2(

Introduction This dis"ussion aims to "ompare t%o orms o Hindu de$otion and the "hara"ters used to distinguish them in relation to the spe"i i" te*ts in %hi"h they are portrayed+ The term 1hakti meaning de$otion "omes rom the 5an"kriti root 1ha6 literally meaning 0to share or parti"ipate in+11 !n essen"e this des"ri2es de$otional %orship in %hi"h 2oth the de$otee and deity 3in this "ase &RSNa/ parti"ipate e4ually+ #arly 1hakti %as 2ased on meditation and "on"entration 2ut %as not ne"essarily o"used on a deity5 ho%e$er %ith the rise o te*ts that did o"us the de$otion thus5 the general aim o 1hakti re ormed+ !t %as e$entually esta2lished as the third path to li2eration along %ith the paths o #ar-a 3a"tion/ and 78na 36no%ledge+/2 The main o"us o this %or6 is on the 9aiSNava 1hakti traditions7 the de$otional mo$ements atta"hed to the deity 8iSNu and his avatra" 3in"arnations+/ (arti"ular re eren"e %ill 2e made to 1hakti in the de$otional te*ts o 9oo6 : o the 0Bhagavata PurANa13 and the 0Bhagvad-Gt:14 'urther to these original te*ts5 others %ere inspired 2y the de$otional mo$ements %hi"h %ill 2e re eren"ed %ithin this dis"ussion %here appropriate+ )ne o the irst te*ts to 2e"ome truly de$otional %ithin the 9aiSNava tradition %as the Bhagvad-Gt %ithin the epi" 0;ah1hrata+1; <ater $arious PurANa te*ts %ere pi"6ed up or their de$otional appeal+ =ith re eren"e to & RSNa the most rele$ant PurANa is the Bhgavata PurANa5 and in parti"ular the >R" %+? se"tion "ontained %ithin 9oo6 : %hi"h dis"usses the relationships 2et%een & RSNa and the "o%herd girls 3g!p"/+ The great %or6s o Hindu traditions are di$ided into t%o "ategories@ <ruti and S-Rti loosely de ined as 0that %hi"h has 2een per"ei$ed through hearing1 6 and 0that %hi"h has 2een remem2ered+1A Traditionally <ruti %as all that %as "ontained in the 9eda"+ This in ormation had 2een re$ealed to the sages 3 Si"/ and 5-Rti %as essentially all else+8 5-Rti has "ome to en"ompass e$erything5 e*"luding the 9eda"5 rom the 5=tra" to the %a(" !f ;an=5 the PurANa" to the 2pi "+B As ar as de$otional te*ts go5 the Bhagvad-Gt had a airly general popularity despite not 2eing parti"ularly %ell 6no%n in any sort o detail+ !t really "ame to the ore ront o traditions %ith the rise o 9ritish "olonialism in !ndia5 %hi"h set a2out translating te*ts and ma6ing them more a""essi2le to the >e$eryday? population+10 The Gt itsel is lo"ated %ithin the ;ah1hrata5 the great epi" that outlines the "i$il %ar 2et%een the ( ANDa$as and &aura$as+ The suggested dates or this te*t are 2et%een the 4 th "entury 9C# and 4th

1 2

Caehner 1B665 B3 Hop6ins 1B685 6DA 3 9ryant 2003 4 Eohnson 1BB4 ; 8an 9uitenen 1BA3 6 &lostermaier 1BB85 1; A &lostermaier 1BB85 1; 8 -oodall 1BB65 ** B Caehner 1B665 10 10 Eohnson 1BB45 $iii

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Theology and Religious Studies Dissertation THRS 30026

"entury C#+11 The Gt %ithin it is thought to 2e dated alongside the "on li"t itsel 5 2et%een 1400 and B009C# %hi"h hugely predates the ;ah1hrata as a %hole+ The ;ah1hrata %as "onstantly amended5 and the Gt it is assumed %as one o these amendments added to the te*t around 2009C#+12 The PurANa" are a "olle"tion o eighteen $olumes o "-Rti te*t "ontaining 400000 $erses5 and are the largest 2ody o s"riptural %ritings in 5an"krit+13 #a"h PurANa details mythologi"al and legendary stories o 6ings and deities+ )ne god %ill al%ays "ome to the ore ront o these stories7 in the earlier PurANa"5 these %ere either 8iSNu or Fi$a5 then later De$G also 2e"ame an eminent igure+ 14 The Bhgavata PurNa details the e*perien"es and li e stories o the in"arnations o 8i SNu rom ,atsya the 'ish to &al6i %ho %ill 0terminate this present age+1 1; The Bhgavata "onsists o 12 2oo6s or "kandha"5 ea"h %ith a primary o"us on a di erent avatara o 8iSNu+16 9oo6 : is the largest o the "kandha"5 disproportionately "ontaining almost H o the entire te*t+ The in"arnation o 8iSNu as &RSNa dominates 9oo6 : and gi$es 0his title o Bhagavan11A 3<ord/ to the "omplete episode o PurNa+ This te*t %as slo% to 2e translated into #nglish5 sin"e most te*ts that %ere translated seemed to the 9ritish to "o$er Hinduism "ompletely5 the PurANa" ho%e$er appeared as more o a airy tale than religious te*t to the 8i"torians+ Dating translations o su"h te*ts is relati$ely easy5 ho%e$er dating the te*ts su"h as the Bhgavata in its original orm "an 2e"ome highly 4uestiona2le5 and they ha$e "ome under mu"h de2ate to the e*tent that the pre"ise dates are still disputed today+ Dates suggested or this parti"ular te*t7 the Bhgavata PurANa or e*ample stret"h rom 12009C# to 1300C# 2ut 2ased on re eren"es to Southern !ndian )a-i+ poetry sung 2y the >+vr" 3saints/ they are most "ommonly attri2uted to the Bth or 10th "entury C#+18 Io spe"i i" dates "an 2e assigned to the te*t5 as it is a 0 luid 2ody o literature1 1B %hi"h has "ontinued to 2e adapted throughout the "enturies+20 =ithin the 9aiSNava 1hakti traditions "on"erned %ith this essay5 there are t%o 6ey roles portrayed 2y &RSNa5 in the rele$ant te*ts+ The irst is the intelle"tual image o &RSNa as the %arrior o the Bhagvad-Gt5 se"ond is that o the emotional de$otion 2et%een the "o%herd &RSNa gopala5 and the g!p" in the Bhgavata PurNa+ The irst "hapter o this essay %ill in$estigate the t%o "hara"ters o &RSNa and ho% they are ea"h portrayed in Hindu art and literature in order to set the s"ene as to ho% they are in turn %orshipped %ithin the 1hakti traditions+ The dis"ussion %ill lead to the 4uestion o %hi"h o these t%o "hara"ters is more a""essi2le5 and to %hom they appeal5 or instan"e %hether the Di$ine <o$er must appeal only to %omen and lo%er "lasses5 and the =arrior to men and the upper intelle"tual "lasses or %hether there may 2e some transitionJ All o this in$estigation %ill 2e ta6en %ith re eren"e to the appropriate te*t o the Bhagvad-Gt and Bhgavata PurNa5 and %ith a $ie%
11 12

Ar"her 1B;A5 1A Cross 1BB45 A8 13 9ryant 20035 *i 14 9ryant 20035 *i 1; &lostermaier 20005 34 16 9ryant 20035 *iiD*iii 1A 9ryant 20035 *iii 18 -oodall 1BB65 *l 1B 9ryant 20035 *iii 20 9ryant 20035 *iii

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Theology and Religious Studies Dissertation THRS 30026

to%ards loo6ing at the issue o intelle"tual 1hakti $erses emotional 1hakti %hi"h %ill 2e loo6ed at in the ollo%ing "hapter+ #arly de$otional te*ts li6e the Bhagvad-Gt %ere more intelle"tual in design as they "ame to the ore ront at a time %hen those most a2le to read and interpret su"h te*ts %ere only the intelle"tual elite+ <ater as lo%er "lasses 2e"ame more de$otionally in$ol$ed5 te*ts %ith more simplisti" stories 2e"ame the o"us o de$otion+ 'or e*ample the Bhgavata PurNa telling stories o 2attles %ith demons and the su""ess o good o$er e$il tied %ith relationships and de$otion on a humanisti" le$el despite the main "hara"ter?s reality o 2eing a deity+ The se"ond "hapter %ill loo6 at the distin"tions 2et%een intelle"tual and emotional 1hakti+ !t %ill dis"uss ho% the di erent "hara"ters o &RSNa it into them along %ith the other "hara"ters that surround him5 and ho% they intera"t %ith the deity+ Ho% do the de$otees intera"t %ith these traditionsJ Are there gender di eren"es or "aste allo"ations to 2e 6ept in mind %hen studying su"h orms o 1haktiJ These issues %ill 2e dis"ussed here+ To support these issues5 the 1hakti traditions o Caitanya and RKmKnuLa %ill 2e tou"hed upon to highlight the use o emotional and intelle"tual approa"hes+ The t%o ormats o 1hakti %ill 2e e$aluated to as"ertain or %hat purpose they are used+ The inal "hapter %ill dis"uss the role and position o %omen %ithin 1hakti5 loo6ing at the apparent appeal o the Di$ine lo$er in parti"ular+ The 4uestion %ill 2e raised as to %hat role the emale "hara"ters in the stories ul il5 2y loo6ing at %omen in poetry and ho% they are de ined7 5vak* %omen >2elonging to one?s o%n? %hereas parak* %omen >2elonging to another?21 9ut %hat rele$an"e does this ha$e to the %ay they are portrayed and the %ay in %hi"h they 2eha$e to%ards the deity in the Bhgavata PurNaJ This lin6s into the nature o the t%oD%ay relationship o 1hakti and the emotional e*perien"es that "ome rom su"h a relationship+ Does the 1hakta 3de$otee/ al%ays need to identi y %ith the emale "hara"ters %ithin the story5 or "an they identi y %ith the deity himsel J Ho% does this relate to male and emale de$otees spe"i i"allyJ 'urther to support the idea o the Bhgavata?" appeal to %omen in parti"ular5 4uestions o gender dominan"e %ill 2e raised5 and ho% it has "hanged through s"riptural traditions+ This %ill 2e loo6ed at %ith spe"i i" re eren"e to the signi i"an"e o RKdhK as separate rom the other g!p"+ Main contents: 1) The characters of KRSNa in VaiSNava de otion @:iA Identifi ati!n !f the hara ter" !f #RSNa The $ery earliest re eren"es to >#RSNa? in any orm o Hindu literature all %ithin the g 9eda5 ho%e$er here #RSNa is merely gi$en in its adLe"ti$e orm7 the %ord meaning >2la"6? in Sans6rit5 %ithout any in eren"e to the deity+ 22 The irst plausi2le mention that might imply &RSNa as a deity is ound in the 'hnd!g*a BpaniSad o around the 6th "entury 9C# 2ut this portrayal still remains in"on"lusi$e+ 23 8arious ragmentary re eren"es are made therea ter5 2ut nothing truly "on"lusi$e is mentioned o &RSNa as deity or avatra until the ;ah1hrata+ There are at around this time also some passing "omments %ithin -ree6 literature that ha$e 2een ta6en %ith
21 22

Dimo"6 1B685 ;; 9ryant 20035 *$ii 23 9ryant 20035 *$ii

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Theology and Religious Studies Dissertation THRS 30026

re eren"e to &RSNa+ An !ndian tri2e is mentioned as a 2ran"h o the Cadu dynasty to %hi"h &RSNa 2elonged+ Hera"les is seen as a spe"i i" "hara"ter among these people5 and is thought to 2e synonymous %ith &RSNa as Hari+24 The irst true mention o &RSNa in the ;ah1hrata des"ri2es him as a human %arrior %ith some supernatural po%ers that ma6e him stand out rom the "ro%d+ He has re4uently 2attled and de eated numerous demons5 and thus his ame has spread+ <ittle is mentioned o his youth or "hildhood in this te*t5 and it is not until his later appearan"es %ithin Purni te*ts that any details o these elements are gi$en at all5 ho%e$er mention is made or the irst time o &RSNa in his ull di$ine orm+ 8arious PurANa" o er des"riptions o the young &RSNa5 2ut the 0most e*pli"itly de$oted to glori ying &RSNa12; o these has to 2e the Bhgavata PurANa that e$en ta6es its name rom &RSNa as avatra+26 The Bhgavata des"ri2es the 2irth o &RSNa5 and ho% he %as already threatened %ith death5 and then through an e*"hange %ith another "hild he %as sa$ed+ <i$ing amongst the "o%herds5 the young & RSNa is des"ri2ed as a mis"hie$ous play ul 2oy %ho steals 2utter to eed to the mon6eys+ 2A He 2attles %ith demons again although in this "hara"ter the demons are made part o &RSNa?s un5 and appear in a dreamli6e ashion as o$ersiMed animals or riends in disguise+ <ater as a young adult the nature o his play or ++ %ith the g!p" around him in the 8rndK$ana orest is ela2orated upon5 and turns more to%ards an eroti" lo$e play %ith the g!p"+28 'or the purposes o this essay5 the "hara"ters o &RSNa as %arrior in the Gt5 and di$ine lo$er in the later episodes o >R" %+? in the Bhgavata %ill 2e o"used upon+ @:iiA )he p!rtra*a+ !f ea h in art and +iterature !n Hindu poeti" tradition5 the most "ommon orm used is that o "ourtly poetry5 and this is o ten tied in %ith aspe"ts o religious and ol6 traditions+ The literary tradition o 5an"kriti "ourt poetry %as designed to 2e 0impersonal5 learned5 arti i"ial andN "on$entional512B a design that "an easily 2e e4uated %ith the Bhagvad-Gt+ !t "ontained mostly aspe"ts des"ri2ing se"ular 0%orldly a"ti$ity1 30 rather than the di$ine5 although this said5 they o ten dealt %ith gods as %ell+ Eust 2e"ause it had a se"ular outloo6 did not ne"essarily imply a similarly se"ular theme as "an 2e seen in more PurNi literature that ollo%s this "ourtly tradition+ 0(ro ane mani estations o the sa"red131 %ere o ten used in "ourtly poetry5 espe"ially depi"tions o the gods? se* li$es+ This se"ular outloo6 on the 2eha$iour o the di$ine is one o the main appeals o the Bhgavata PurANa+ !ndian lo$e poetry %as a"ademi"ally %ritten a2out lo$e 2y s"holars ne$er %ritten 2y a lo$er a2out his o%n eelings+ Siegel "laims that 0 5an"krit lo$eDpoetry generallyN is ornamental and sensual rather than dis"ursi$e or philosophi"al+132 This suggests that although a di$ine "hara"ter is represented5 and any a"tion relating to them must 2e seen as di$ine also5 it is depi"ted in a truly se"ular
24 2;

9ryant 20035 *$ii &lostermaier 20005 33 26 9ryant 20035 *iii 2A 9ryant 20035 **ii 28 Dimo"6 1B685 4B 2B Siegel 1BA85 31 30 Siegel 1BA85 32 31 Siegel 1BA85 32 32 Siegel 1BA85 33

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Theology and Religious Studies Dissertation THRS 30026

ashion+ Any philosophi"al or moral instru"tion that may 2e ound %ithin it is 2ound up %ithin the simple depi"tion o the "ouple in lo$e+ The lo$e that might other%ise 2e seen as pro ane is made sa"red not simply 2y the a"t that a deity is parti"ipating5 2ut also through the religious phraseology that is used+ <o$e in separation 3vipra+a-1haA and lo$e in enLoyment 3"a-1h!ga/ that is lo$e in union %ith the godhead in %+ aided 2y ;*5 are 2oth dis"ussed+ (assionate lo$e and se*ual relationships 2e"ome sa"red as an e*pression o 1hakti@ 0the lo$ingD %oman?s longing O or her partnerP 2e"ame de$otion and lo$eDma6ing 2e"ame %orship+133 <iterature surrounding &RSNa gopala o the Bhgavata originated initially rom ol6 traditions des"ri2ing the se*ually heightened relationships o &RSNa and the g!p"+ These %ere "omposed in $erna"ular languages5 and although this tradition did not hold or the PurNi literature5 many aspe"ts o their ormation did5 in"luding aspe"ts su"h as the repetiti$e re rain 3dhruva-pada-/ rhythmi" measure 3t+a/ and signature lines 31hanita/ that are o ten repeated !n the Bhagvad-Gt &RSNa is portrayed as the "harioteer5 riend and ad$iser to ArLuna5 one o the sons o (ANDu in their ight to rule 0%hat is no% Delhi+134 !n the Gt ArLuna is seen as a %arrior %ho is suddenly o$erta6en 2y 0apparently disa2ling moral s"ruples13; %hen a"ed %ith an army o riends5 relati$es and tutors5 0and in despair he said@ >&rishna5 %hen ! see these my o%n people eager to ightN my lim2s gro% hea$yN my 2ody trem2les and my hair 2ristlesN my mind is reeling+?136 At this point5 time apparently stops %hile &RSNa ta"6les the dispassionate ArLuna and e*plains to him %hy it is his dhar-i duty to ight+ The Gt holds to the theme o 2attle5 2e it the physi"al 2attle 2et%een enemies or the internal 2attle a"ed 2y ArLuna o$er his s"ruples+ =ith ea"h 2attle5 & RSNa is seen to lend the moral guiding hand5 "ounselling ArLuna through+ & RSNa is portrayed as a "hara"ter o se"ure moral "ondu"t+ As a human he is a prin"e o a neigh2ouring land5 and a good riend and relati$e to the (ANDus+ He is a dedi"ated %arrior5 "ourteous and gra"ious %ho %or6s %ithout atta"hment to his goals as he tries to tea"h ArLuna to do li6e%ise+ =ithin this te*t as the inal push in "on$in"ing ArLuna o his duty to ight5 &RSNa re$eals himsel in his multi orm "apa"ity@ 0Although ! am un2orn and ha$e a sel that is eternal5 although ! am lord o all 2eings5 2y "ontrolling my o%n material nature ! "ome into 2eingN age a ter age5 to prote"t the $irtuous and to destroy e$ilDdoers+13A

33 34

Siegel 1BA85 3A Cross 1BB45 A8 3; Eohnson 1BB45 *$iii 36 Eohnson 1BB45 ; DBhagvad-Gt @E28-3FA 3A Eohnson 1BB45 1B DBhagvad-Gt 4EG-8A

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Theology and Religious Studies Dissertation THRS 30026

!n art the %arrior &RSNa is portrayed as a solemn yet 6ind a"ed man o 2lue s6in to de ine his status as deity "ompared to the other "hara"ters around him+ He is o ten 2ede"6ed %ith gold and Le%els to display his %ealth and status and may ha$e a 2anner o Hanuman in the 2a"6ground or a num2er o "on"h shells on display that in the Gt %ere seen as omens or the su""ess o the ( ANDa$as on %hose side &RSNa ought+ )nly in his multi orm di$ine appearan"e does &RSNa "ome %ith numerous arms5 other%ise he is seen as a mere human+ ,ore "ommonly depi"ted than the %arrior is &RSNa gopala %ho is again depi"ted %ith 2lue s6in5 2ut is more o ten surrounded 2y "o%s5 groups o %omen or playing %ith riends+38 This image is o ten "hildDli6e in appearan"e again %ith the 6ind and gentle a"e5 yet ar less solemn than the %arrior5 %ith a more mis"hie$ous t%in6le+ -opala "an 2e portrayed either as "hild or young adult7 more o ten %hen sho%n as an adult he is either alone re"lining against a tree playing the lute or is portrayed em2ra"ing RKdhK+ <iterary de$i"es "an 2e noted in some o the images "reated %hen setting the s"ene or the lo$ers+ !mages o dar6ness7 gathering "louds5 #RSNa5 3as the adLe"ti$e 2la"6/ are pla"ed in the orest at night+ These dar6 images are "ontrasted against the lo$ers %ith 0interplay 2et%een the ear ul and the eroti" moods1 3B 3YRGgra-r"a+/ There is use o suggestion also to "reate the YRGgra-r"a that surrounds the lo$ers+40 Despite these re4uent aspe"ts o dar6ness5 the a"tual "hara"ter o &RSNa in the Bhgavata is one o a 6ind and play ul lo$er+ He gently teases the g!p" 2y luring them in 2e ore sending them straight 2a"6 home again@ 0=el"omeN ortunate ladiesQ =hat a$our "an ! do or youJ+++ Tell me the reason or your "oming+ This is the night and it is righteningN go 2a"6 to 8raLa+141 The g!p" $ie% &RSNa as a person o unending 6indness despite the %ays in %hi"h he torments them+ =hen he lea$es %ith his > a$oured? g!p5 the others are Lealous5 and yet they imagine all the gentle things he must 2e doing or his 2elo$ed+ -opala to the reader "an "ome a"ross as deta"hed rom the g!p"? eelings at times5 yet he understands ho% they are not di$ine in themsel$es and "annot there ore totally "omprehend this5 and so is %arm and tolerant o their "hastisement5 and e$entually re$eals himsel in his mani old orm in order to pla"ate them5 and re%ard them or 2eginning to understand the notions o lo$e %ithout atta"hment that he is tea"hing+ @:iiiA ,ppea+ !f hara ter" t! (h!- and (h*. &RSNa portrayed in the Bhgavata is o ten thought to appeal more to %omen and the lo%er "lasses or many reasons+ Hop6ins notes that the poor may ha$e more a""ess to 1hakti in "omparison to higher "astes or %ealthier people sin"e in 2eing poor they ha$e ar less atta"hment to the %orld around them and are there ore a2le to "ast a%ay notions o atta"hment in a$our o de$otion to the deity+ This is ta6en to a point %here po$erty is seen as an ad$antage+ Another appeal o & RSNa gopala is that any gi t
38 3B

&nott 1BB85 ;6 Siegel 1BA85 3; 40 Siegel 1BA85 3; 41 -oodall 1BB65 3A; 3Bhgavata Purna H: 29E@8-@9A

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Theology and Religious Studies Dissertation THRS 30026

o ered to Him5 2e it a simple lea or gold5 is most %el"omed through his unending 6indness so long as the o ering is made %ith true de$otion in the heart+ 0Something 2rought %ith lo$e 2y my de$otees5 e$en i insigni i"ant5 2e"omes great5 %hile something 2rought 2y a nonDde$otee is not a2le to gi$e me satis a"tion5 e$en i it is great+142 =ith this in mind5 de$otion 2e"omes possi2le or e$eryone no matter their "aste or station+ True de$otion is the only thing %ith utmost importan"e5 and this is a"hie$a2le 2y anyone+ This orm o 1hakti appears to ta6e similar $ie%s on "aste and gender to those o %ealth5 in that the lo%er the status the 2etter or de$otion+ & RSNa o the Bhgavata does not "riti"ise "aste 2ut a""epts it as an institution that supports so"iety5 ho%e$er he disappro$es o the a"t that it seems to support the %ealthy more than anyone else7 "aste should not 2e an 0ine$ita2le result o one?s 2irth+1 43 #$en the 9rahmins must %or6 or their sal$ation and not assume it is gi$en+ The re%ard o -od?s lo$e "an 2e a"hie$ed 2y anyone5 2ut their entire 2eing must 2e de$oted or su"h a re%ard+ This notion o in"lusi$eness appeals to many %omen and lo%er "aste mem2ers as this is one o e% Hindu traditions to o er su"h an opening or all+ !n "ontrast5 it is 2elie$ed that & RSNa as %arrior appeals more to men5 and the "ontemplati$e attitude o the Gt to upper "lasses %ith re le"tion on 1rah-ani a+ traditions o meditation and "ontemplation+ !n the Gt5 &RSNa ad$o"ates paths to ,o6Sa as #ar-a and 78na5 2ut no dire"t mention is made to 1hakti as another path here@ 0! ha$e taught o old that in this %orld t%o %ays are open@ the dis"ipline o 6no%ledgeN and the dis"ipline o a"tion+144 This approa"h appeals to traditionalists parti"ularly those o a 1rah-ani a+ orientation %ho %ould opt or a path o 78na 36no%ledge/ as opposed to 1hakti+ The %arrior &RSNa has some o his greatest attri2utes lying in his persona7 he is a "alm and gra"ious hero %ith a gentleness that appeals to %omen and a steady resol$e that appeals to men+ As a %arrior he demonstrates strength %ith rationale7 pursuits are not entered into as a result o o$er%helming emotion5 2ut rather are planned and "onsidered+ As diplomat and prin"e5 &RSNa o the Bhagvad-Gt has urther appeal to higher "lass ollo%ers %ho are 2etter a2le to empathise %ith him and the dire"tion he gi$es as tea"her and role model+ !t has 2een said that 0the avatar o the Bhagavad-Gita is only or the thin6ing e%+ 9ut the avatar o the Bhagavata is enshrined in the lo$ing hearts o millions+14; Farma?s 4uote "learly sho%s the e*tent o popularity the Di$ine lo$er has o$er the %arrior among the general pu2li"+ The &RSNa o the Gt is seen as a less a""essi2le "hara"ter designed only or the elite in "ontrast to &RSNa gopala %ho e$o6es
42 43

9ryant 20035 342 DBhgavata Purna H: 8@E3A Hop6ins 1B685 16 44 Eohnson 1BB45 1; DBhagvad-Gt 3E3A 4; Farma 1BA35 3B

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empathy rom a more uni$ersal mass o ollo%ers %ho "an relate his 2eha$iour to their o%n li$es+ Ret the hero o the Gt also holds pu2li" appeal as a "hampion o$er e$il on the sur a"e %ithout loo6ing into the depth o this "hara"ter?s tea"hings+ 'or 1hakti to truly %or65 the de$otee is e*pe"ted to assume the eelings and emotions o the "hara"ters that intera"t %ith &RSNa+ 2) $%otional and intellectual bha&ti During 9ritish "olonisation o !ndia5 Hindu te*ts %ere translated and or a long time many su"h as the Bhgavata PurNa %ith its eroti" o$ertones %ere ignored+ They %ere seen as > alse religion? and o ten o ended 8i"torian sensi2ilities %ith the amorous nature o &RSNa+46 The 9ritish too6 their $ie%s rom a predominantly Brah-in upper "aste %ho $ie%ed su"h te*ts as 2ase and degrading %ithout 1rah-ani a+ authority+ They %ere $ie%ed as 0a stupendous memorial to the easy "redulity o an im2e"ile ra"e514A lea$ing &RSNa gopala o ten passed o$er in a$our o the more gallant and "hi$alrous &RSNa o the Bhagvad-Gt+48 'rom an intelle"tual point o $ie%5 the 0poetry and e"stati" 1hakti o the >+vr"14B that in luen"ed later 9aiSNava traditions %as "ondoned 2y the Brah-in"+ The 1rah-ani a+ tradition a$oured an approa"h to ;!kSa through 78na as opposed to de$otion+ !t %as seen as the most intelle"tual and original path to ta6e5 and 1hakti, as the path o de$otion through lo$e %as seen as the third %ay to sal$ation5 designed as a less intelle"tual path or the lo%er "lasses+ Ret 1hakti does hold "ertain intelle"tual elements %ithin it+ IGla6aNTa FKstrG suggests that the Bhgavata PurANa %as %ritten in Southern !ndia sin"e this is the only pla"e in %hi"h 0simple surging emotional 2ha6ti1 ;0 "ould 2e "om2ined %ith the intelle"tual 0Ad$aita philosophy o <akara+1;1 2:iA 0ut+ine !f 1!th f!r-" !f 1hakti <o$e o -od "ould 2e ta6en as de$otion to the a2solute reality as an a2stra"t spirit5 2ut %as o ten seen as more ad$antageous %hen $ie%ed as lo$e to%ard a li6e%ise 0lo$ing person+1;2 ! -od is lo$ed %ith a "omplete singleDmindedness and adoration5 then it %as 2elie$ed that the same lo$e %ould 2e returned to the 1hakta+ This re%ard "ould 2e "on erred 0immediately OinP the 2lessing o sal$ation+1;3 !n the Bhgavata de$otion 0must 2e a trans er to the <ord o a++ emotion and desires that are ordinarily e*pended on the %orld and its pleasures+1 ;4 This 0emotional er$or1;; is ne"essary or true puri i"ation7 it de$otes e$erything5 atta"hing all emotion to the deity so that it "an 2e remo$ed rom more earthly pursuits+ The purpose o 1hakti is5 li6e 78na and #ar-a to5 0destroy men?s atta"hment to the %orld+1 ;6 !t is said in the Bhgavata o a person so ull o emotion that they laugh and "ry5 sing and dan"e %ithout reason that7

46 4A

9ryant 20035 *iii -oodall 1BB65 ***$iii 48 9ryant 20035 *iii 4B 'lood 1BB65 132 ;0 Hop6ins 1B685 ; ;1 Hop6ins 1B685 ; ;2 Ar"her 1B;A5 1B ;3 Ar"her 1B;A5 1B ;4 Hop6ins 1B685 B ;; Hop6ins 1B685 B ;6 Hop6ins 1B685 8

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0su"h a person5 atta"hed 2y 1hakti to me5 O&RSNaP puri ies the %orld+1;A !n the emotional de$otion most re4uently displayed 2y the 1hakti traditions o Southern !ndia5 the greatest s"riptural o"us is upon the >R"a %+? se"tion o the Bhgavata PurANa+;8 This is %here the g!p" are dra%n into the orest a%ay rom their duties 2y the sound o &RSNaSs lute5 and one g!p in parti"ular5 most o ten thought to 2e RKdhK5 orms a lo$ing relationship %ith Him+ The te*t as a %hole is interspersed %ith the YRGgra-r"a in predominan"e and a "a"ophony o other emotions are in use throughout+ This eroti" mood that predominates is 2uilt up rom the start o "hapter 2B %here the >R"a %+? is introdu"ed+ The moon rises and@ 0Co$ering the a"e o the hea$ens %ith its "opperD"oloured soothing rays+ !t %iped a%ay the "ares o the onloo6ers5 li6e a lo$er %ho has 2een a2sent or a long time+1;B Then &RSNa 2egins to play his lute@ 0"apturing the hearts o the 2eauti ulDeyed %omen+160 =hen the g!p" "ome into "onta"t %ith &RSNa and gain his attention5 they are illed %ith pride at their a"hie$ement5 at %hi"h point & RSNa then deserts them lea$ing them to lament their loss+61 He then spends time %ith his > a$oured? g!p and the others 2e"ome Lealous until he returns to sedate them %ith a r"a dan"e %hi"h sho%s &RSNa as his mani old di$ine sel +62 They are then all illed %ith su2lime happiness and the 2liss o 5a-adhi+ The prote"tion o aith in -od is sho%n to them resulting rom their un ailing de$otion+63 Anything that "ausesed su"h strong emotion that "an 2e dire"ted to%ard &RSNa %as then seen as the height o de$otion+ The more intelle"tual approa"h to de$otion tends to "entre on the traditions o the Bhagvad-Gt+ Certain te*ts it more easily into the intelle"tual rame%or6 o 1hakti as opposed to an emotional one+ The 1hakti o the Gt or e*ample is more "ontemplati$e and 4uiet in its stru"ture than that o the Bhgavata+64 The Gt is set in 2attle 2ut still has #RSNa-rati 3lo$e o &RSNa/ in play as its de$otional element 2ut the lo$ing emotion is more intelle"tual in its pursuit5 in that the lo$e here as %ith e$erything else is "ontemplati$e and rational rather than 2eing emotional outpourings %ithout thought+ !ts purpose here is to o"us de$otion on &RSNa so that atta"hment to all else might 2e orgotten+ &RSNa says@ 0! "onsider the most e*pert in yoga to 2e those %ho e$erDdis"iplined5 ha$ing i*ed their minds on me5
;A ;8

Hop6ins 1B685 B 3Bhgavata Purna HI: @4E23-24A 8en6ates%aran 1B685 141 ;B 9ryant 20035 12; DBhgavata Purna H: 29E2A 60 9ryant 20035 12; DBhgavata Purna H: 29E3A 61 8en6ates%aran 1B685 1;; 62 8en6ates%aran 1B685 1;; 63 8en6ates%aran 1B685 1;; 64 Hop6ins 1B685 B

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Theology and Religious Studies Dissertation THRS 30026

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attend on me illed %ith the highest aith+16; "learly sho%ing a more traditional meditation 2ased approa"h to 1hakti through *!ga5 and the ideal o deta"hment rom the %orld+ Sal$ation in this orm o 1hakti is o ered through 4uiet "ontemplation o the tea"hing o the deity+ 0'or those %ho resign e$ery a"tion to meN meditating on me5 %ith e*"lusi$e dis"ipline %orship me5 ! am the one %ho rapidly hauls them out o the o"ean o N "ontinual re2irth+166 All o the tea"hings o ered in this te*t are set out in a similarly matterDo D a"t tone %ithout any use o emoti$e language to 2ring a point to 2ear+ This is thought to 2e the strongest appeal to intelle"tuals o this orm o 1hakti+ 8an 9uitenen has suggested that the 05an"kritiIati!n16A o 1hakti mo$ements 2y s"holars su"h as RKmKnuLa5 may ha$e helped to in"orporate 1hakti studies into the 1rah-ani a+ traditions5 and in e e"t intelle"tualised them+ There are t%o general ideas 2ehind the "on"ept o 0"an"ktitiIati!n51 the irst is the notion o translation and rendering something rom a $erna"ular into 5an"krit+ The se"ond $ie%s 5an"krit as a %ay o li e5 or %hi"h the language is merely the $ehi"le+ > 5an"kritiIati!n? is then adaptation o traditions so that they it into the 5an"kriti %ay o li e+68 The pro"ess %here2y a 0person or a group "ons"iously relates himsel or itsel to an a""epted notion o true and an"ient ideology+16B Some te*ts as outlined a2o$e are more easily adapta2le to this 5an"kriti ormation 2ased on their a"tual "ontent+ )$erall5 it %ould seem that these s"holars managed to e4uate 08i SNu o personal de$otion1A0 %ith 9rahman5 the 0supreme prin"iple o the BpaniSad"+1A1 The adoration o the %orshipper e4uated %ith ;!kSa+A2 'or the Bhgavata PurANa it is suggested that most >"an"kritiIati!n? %as done in order to ma6e the te*ts sound more 9edi in origin sin"e 0old oundations1A3 need to 0support the ne% edi i"e+1 A4 Although or many years the "laim has 2een made that the PurANa" are thought o as the fifth 9eda any %ay+ Through this the 0a"ts o %orship and $eneration1 A; o the 1hakti traditions "an 2e "lassed alongside 0rites pres"ri2ed 2y s"ripture and tradition51A6 %ith 9edi authority+ 2:iiA Dev!tee intera ti!n The PurANa" in their simplest orm are %or6s o poetry designed to pass on in ormation "on"erning genealogies and legends o eminent "hara"ters+ The reason or
6; 66

Eohnson 1BB45 ;; DBhagvad-Gt @2E2A Eohnson 1BB45 ;; DBhagvad-Gt @2EG-7A 6A 8an 9uitenen 1B685 33 68 8an 9uitenen 1B685 34 6B 8an 9uitenen 1B685 3; A0 8an 9uitenen 1B685 36 A1 8an 9uitenen 1B685 33 A2 8an 9uitenen 1B685 33 A3 8an 9uitenen 1B685 36 A4 8an 9uitenen 1B685 36 A; 8an 9uitenen 1B685 33 A6 8an 9uitenen 1B685 33

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Theology and Religious Studies Dissertation THRS 30026

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their set up in this predominantly poeti"al ormat %as to popularise the %or6s among the general pu2li" o !ndia+AA !t %as the simplest %ay o passing on "opious amounts o in ormation %ith little 2eing lost+ Through the poeti" genre5 the de$otees5 parti"ularly those o less edu"ated "lasses5 %ere 2etter a2le to intera"t %ith the te*ts+ (oetry is a2le to pro$o6e empathy rom the reader through emoti$e styles o %riting as opposed to a"tual do"umentary te*ts+ The poeti"al aspe"t %as parti"ularly ad$antageous in the earliest days o de$otion5 %hen e%er 2oo6s %ere %ritten5 and most religious traditions %ere passed on orally+ This allo%ed the de$otees to intera"t %ith the in ormation %hilst 2eing in ormed through poetry and stories+ !n the emotional pra"ti"e o 1hakti5 "omplete emotional o$erload is e*pe"ted o all de$otees+ 'or this reason many %ill o ten pra"ti"e together in temple 2ased5 "ommunity %orship+ They %ill o ten display madness %ith the e"stasy o their reLoi"ing in &RSNa+ Temple "eremonies demonstrate many orms o de$otion all in the name o the deity7 these "an range rom e"stati" singing and dan"ing or re"itations o passages o s"riptural poetry5 to the ritual %a6ing5 dressing5 eeding and later putting to 2ed o images+A8 (redominantly the "hara"ter o &RSNa most "ommonly used in this orm o de$otion is in the image o gopala5 %ho is 2est suited to the emotional outpourings o de$otees along %ith RKdhK+ All a"tions are per ormed through utter de$otion+ Hope o re%ard or the a"tion should ne$er 2e e*pe"ted5 they must 2e "arried out %ith "omplete deta"hment rom their e e"ts+ AB De$otion should 2e"ome a %ay o li e or the 1hakta illed %ith 0sel less dedi"ation to the <ord+1 80 =ithin this orm o 1hakti there are no restri"tions "on"erning 2irth rights or "aste status7 it is open to e$eryone+ ) ten %ithin emotional traditions o 1hakti the term 1hva-r"a is used+ !n poeti"al %or6s 1hva implies 0intense personal emotion that 2e"omes trans ormed 2y the 4ualities o poetry into a r"a7181 r"a 2eing the mood "on$eyed 2y the poetry as a %hole+ There are i$e di erent 1hva" dependent on %ho the 1hakta is identi ying %ith7 the most intense o these is ;dhur*aD1hva relating to the emotions e*perien"ed 2y the g!p"+82 !n this state5 0the 1hakta has no desire or material things or the grati i"ation o himsel 5 he is the true lo$er5 %ho see6s only the happiness o his 2elo$ed5183 %ho in this "ase is &RSNa+ Caitanya 3"+1486D1;33/ is o ten seen as one o the most 0signi i"ant igureOsP o the 9engal mo$ement5184 that is to say he %as one o the greatest igures %ithin the 1hakti mo$ements o Southern !ndia %ho 2ased their traditions on & RSNa gopala+ Caitanya %as 2elie$ed to 2e a mem2er o a 0<akara ,dvaita order18; in 9engal+ The main emphasis o the order %as a o"us on the relationship 2et%een RKdhK and &RSNa+ Caitanya?s 1hakti 2e"ame $ery in luential o$er later s"hools %hi"h displayed elements o his e"stati" traditions+ The o"us o the tradition %as on & RSNa gopala5 the supreme deity li$ing mani est in 8raL+ He %as not here as an avatar o 8iSNu5 2ut rather a deity in his o%n right+ The 6ey te*t to this tradition %as "learly the Bhgavata5 %ith some lin6s to other PurANi te*ts+ Caitanya?s 1hakti also in"luded
AA A8

Hop6ins 1B685 3 Hop6ins 1B685 11 AB Hop6ins 1B685 11 80 Hop6ins 1B685 10 81 Dimo"6 1B685 48 82 Dimo"6 1B685 4BD;0 83 Dimo"6 1B685 ;1 84 Dimo"6 1B685 41 8; Dimo"6 1B685 42

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aspe"ts o 6no%ledge seen in terms o 2eauty and estheti"s5 and 0se*ual and emotionalN e*perien"es as a means to the e*perien"e o the di$ine+1 86 9engali 9aiSNavi"- as a %hole tends to distinguish 2et%een do"trine and enthusiasti" pra"ti"e5 dra%ing a distin"tion 2et%een intelle"tual and emotional 1hakti+ Caitanya %as ho%e$er seen as the 0leader o the enthusiasm+1 8A His %ritings are ta6en rom a de$otional point o $ie%+ They are not 0theologi"al $erse1 88 that might 2e intelle"tualised in any %ay 2ut are purely de$otional in an enthusiasti" and emotional manner+ He %as so popular %ith his emotional 1hakti5 that he %as sometimes said to 2e an avatar7 the untied or"e o 0RKdhK and &rishna in a single 2ody+18B As dis"ussed a2o$e5 >"an"kritiIati!n? is pro2a2ly the 2iggest %ay in %hi"h s"holars ha$e intera"ted %ith intelle"tual orms o 1hakti in re"ent times5 dire"ting 1hakti de$otion to%ards a more traditional orm o religion+ Although this said there %ere "ertain elements %ithin it that %ere already 5an"kriti in origin+ The "hara"ter o the %arrior &RSNa through the ;ah1hrata tea"hes ArLuna many traditional approa"hes to duty5 kar-a and ;!kSa+ All o these are taught in a "lear e*planatory manner that is intelle"tually "on"ise and ormal %ithout urther ela2oration through e*tensi$e allegory as is o ten used in more emotional te*ts+ The nature o t-an is "lassi"ally e*plained thus@ 0Eust as a man "asting o %ornDout "lothes ta6es up others that are ne%5 so the em2odied sel 5 "asting o its %ornDout 2odies5 goes to other5 ne% ones+1B0 RKmKnuLa 3"+101AD113A/ %as a 8aiSNa$a theist and philosopher5 2elonging to a de$out se"t+ Their de$otion %as o"used on the Bhgavata PurANa5 2ut RKmKnuLa %anted to ma6e their tradition more orthodo* relating it to the te*ts used 2y FaG6ara5 o the Bhagvad-Gt and BpaniSad"+B1 RKmKnuLa?s philosophy "om2ined t%o threads o Hindu thought5 the irst %as the idea o the personal -od as portrayed in the Gt5 and the se"ond %as the "on"ept o the 0unity o ultimate reality and o its immanen"e in the uni$erse1B2 that is to say he attempted to "om2ine aspe"ts o 0theism and the philosophy o the a2solute+1 B3 The personal -od or RKmKnuLa %as 8iSNu5 or his avatar"5 %ho he 2elie$ed mer"i ully sa$ed us %hen true de$otion is sho%n+ !ntelle"tually he e4uated de$otion %ith li2eration at the hand o a mer"i ul 9rahman %ho %as "guna 3%ith 4ualities/ in the orm o &RSNa as avatara o 8iSNu+ !n tying these t%o an"ient threads o thought together5 RKmKnuLa "ould 2e seen to 2e >"an"kritiIing? 1hakti or a more elite group o ollo%ers+ 2:iiiA 2va+uati!n !f their purp!"e"

86 8A

Dimo"6 1B685 42 Dimo"6 1B685 43 88 Dimo"6 1B685 43 8B Dimo"6 1B685 43 B0 Eohnson 1BB45 B DBhagvad-Gt 2E22A B1 Hamilton 20015 131 B2 Hiriyanna 20005 383 B3 Hiriyanna 20005 383

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Theology and Religious Studies Dissertation THRS 30026

1;

The purpose o any orm o 1hakti is to surrender "ompletely to the deity in$ol$ed+ )ne must de$ote 0one?s %hole sel in "omplete surrender to the <ord+1 B4 !t is 2elie$ed that any orm o "on"entration5 %hether it is emotional or intelle"tual5 on the deity "an result in sal$ation+B; The only "ondition or this release rom ;* through 1hakti is that it 0must not 2e prompted 2y desire or su"h release+1 B6 )ne?s personal gain "annot 2e the sole moti$ation or 1hakti as this "an 2e more detrimental to the pro"ess than atta"hment to other %orldly things+ True 1hakti %ith deta"hment is the only thing that "an lead to pure satis a"tion or 2oth the indi$idual 6va and 9rahman+BA Although %here this dual element o satis a"tion is "on"erned5 there is more "omple*ity than it %ould appear on the sur a"e+ This %ill 2e urther dis"ussed under the >t%o %ay relationship nature o 1hakti? in the ne*t "hapter+ 3) The roles and positions of *o%en in bha&ti 3:iA ;a+e and fe-a+e appea+ !f 1hakti =omen in !ndian li e are generally seen as a pleasura2le ne"essity5 0she is merely among the needs o li e5 su"h as a seat5 a 2ed5 a $ehi"le5 a house+1 B8 <o$e is seen as a 0pastime or the hero5 an amusement+1BB 'or %omen ho%e$er5 sin"e the Bhgavata 0lo$e5 as de$otion to the hus2and5 is "onsidered the highest realisation o dhar-a and as su"h is sa"red+1100 A "lear distin"tion is made 2et%een male and emale attitudes to%ard lo$e in general 2ut also %ithin de$otion+ 'or a man5 lo$e might 2e a mere pastime or heroes5 2ut respe"t is also gi$en to the hero %ho ma6es his pastime o lo$e here2y signi ying male de$otion to the %arrior & RSNa+ Although the %orship is primarily intelle"tual in its appearan"e7 totally platoni" lo$ing respe"t5 it "an also 2e seen rom an emotional point o $ie% %ith a respe"t or di$ine authority in the "hara"ter o &RSNa+ This is inspired either through ear or a%e5 2oth o %hi"h "an 2e seen as $ery strong emotions+ This male de$otional attitude "an ho%e$er seem lippant %hen "ontrasted to emale emotional de$otion to & RSNa gopala %hi"h is rooted in the heart in "omplete sin"erity or lo$e and de$otion to & RSNa+ <o$e o a hus2and is seen as good pra"ti"e or 1hakti5 something that is parti"ipated in daily5 in "ontrast to the heroi" play o male lo$e %hi"h is seen as more o a game than a pra"ti"e or de$otion+ 3:iiA R!+e" and hara ter" !f (!-en in p!etr* 9engali traditions o 1hakti o"us their "anon on te*ts su"h as 9oo6 : o the Bhgavata5 and Eayade$a?s Gtag!vinda5 2oth te*ts in$ol$ed %ith the lo$e o the g!p" or &RSNa+ The %omen %ho are in$ol$ed in these lo$ing relationships %ith &RSNa5 are generally married to others5 resulting in adulterous a airs %hi"h %ould other%ise in !ndian traditions 2e ro%ned upon+ Ret here they are "ele2rated sin"e the male to %hom they lo"6 is mani est o -od+ =omen in poeti" theory are di$ided into t%o "lasses@ "vak*5 0she %ho is one?s o%n1101 32elonging to -od. &RSNa) and parak*, 0she %ho is another?s1102 3married to a man or single+/ !t %ould seem that the g!p" all into this se"ond "ategory5 yet Dimo"6 "laims that su"h %omen %ere not
B4 B;

Hop6ins 1B685 A Hop6ins 1B685 A B6 Dimo"6 1B685 4A BA Dimo"6 1B685 4AD8 B8 ,eyer 1B305 ;31 BB Siegel 1BA85 18 100 Siegel 1BA85 18 101 Dimo"6 1B685 ;; 102 Dimo"6 1B685 ;;

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re"ognised in standard "ourtly poetry5 and so the g!p" "ould not 2e su"h+103 The relationship 2et%een the g!p" and &RSNa is 2eyond normal 0standards o morality51104 a point %hi"h is pro$en %hen $ie%ing the g!p" as &RSNaSs <akti po%er+ !n this orm they are a part o him5 and not %omen o their o%n a""ord+ !n this %ay their marriages all $oid as ne$er truly "onsummated+ As & RSNaSs <akti they are there ore "vak* %omen5 2elonging to -od5 and there2y Lusti y their pla"es %ithin the poetry o the Bhgavata+10; !n the Gtag!vinda RKdhK is again seen as the personi i"ation o &RSNaSs <akti5 %here their union is e4ual+ They 2oth enLoy ++ under the "o$er o ;*+ !n this ormat ;* is no longer seen in a negati$e sense5 "asting the illusion o$er humanity that holds us in 2ondage to "a"ra+ Here ;* is used at the 2idding o & RSNa or the purpose o his +++ Thus 0;* has another a"e51106 this di erent persona is represented %ith the title C!ga-*+ =here ;* is generally lin6ed to "a"ra5 C!ga-* is more spe"i i"ally "onne"ted to &RSNa and his +++ ;* is su2ser$ient to &RSNa?s %ill+10A She is his <akti po%er sho%ing hersel as his aide+ )ne must note the emale gender o <akti5 as the typi"al ;* o illusion and the persisten"e o 2ondage+ !n 9edi traditions this gender lin6 is made to remo$e any positi$e attri2utes5 she is e4uated %ith %omen in general as a lo%er "lass+ Ret in the Bhgavata5 she is portrayed more positi$ely as an aide to &RSNa5 remo$ed o any "onnotations o 2ondage+ <akti is sent 2y 8iSNu to 8raL as &RSNa?s sister5 2ut her role is not so mu"h relati$e and playmate5 2ut rather is to "o$er the other souls 3 6va"/ %ith 0her po%er o illusion+1108 They then "annot re"ogniMe &RSNa in his di$ine orm5 and this allo%s him to reely enLoy his +++ C!ga-* is not a 2arrier to li2eration as ;* is+ !n hiding &RSNa?s true nature rom those around him5 she helps them to orm a more natural de$otion to him so they "an ind li2eration+ 3:iiiA )(!-(a* re+ati!n"hip nature !f 1hakti The nature o 1hakti as a %hole is that5 as de ined in the introdu"tion5 the term is ormed rom the 5an"kriti root 1ha6 literally meaning 0to share or parti"ipate in1 10B or %hi"h the sharing must 2e per ormed 2y t%o parties+ These are the 1hakta and the deity+ To ma6e this a satis ying pursuit5 there must 2e an ad$antage or 2oth parties in$ol$ed+ Dimo"6 "laims that 0%orship in the lo$eDrelationship o 1hakti is %holly and eternally satis ying 2oth to &rishna and to the 1hakta+1110 This suggests that to ma6e &RSNaSs ++ %orth%hile5 it must ha$e the in$ol$ement o another parti"ipant+ 'or this reason <akti is o ten said to 2e mani est in RKdhK and the g!p"5 then in turn rom these it is urther mani est in ea"h o his de$otees as they "ontemplate the relationship 2et%een &RSNa and his %omen+ Here the de$otee identi ies %ith the "onsort5 in other %ords the de$otee 2elie$es himsel to 2e synonymous %ith RKdhK+111 The 1Bth "entury mysti" RAmAkRSNa rea"hed 0the highest 6ind o 9ai"hnava "adhana in %hi"h the %orshipper identi ies himsel %ith Radha and loses himsel in
103 104

Dimo"6 1B685 ;6 Dimo"6 1B685 ;6 10; Dimo"6 1B685 ;6 106 9ryant 20035 **$i 10A 9ryant 20035 **$i 108 9ryant 20035 **$ii 10B Caehner 1B665 B3 110 Dimo"6 1B685 48 111 )S'laherty 1B805 8A

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an e"stasy o passionate lo$e or &rishna+1112 This orm o 5a-adhi ga$e him a sense o supreme e"stasy and union %ith -od through identi i"ation predominantly %ith His "onsort RKdhK+ Bhakti "an seem to ha$e an emphasis on su2mission 2e ore god5 0the mee6 ha$e a head start and %omen are %ell trained to 2e de$out+1 113 !n other %ords a %oman or lo% "lass Hindu has an ad$antage %ithin 1hakti as they are already pressed into su2mission 2y their natural role in li e+ The male 1hakta5 must either $isualise himsel in the role o a %oman intera"ting %ith the deity that is male as R AmAkRSNa did5 or see himsel 0through homose*ual imagery+1 114 'or %omen5 1hakti o ers an in"lusi$eness that "annot 2e ound in other traditions that per"ei$e them in the lo%est status no matter %hat their "aste+ The only thing lo%er than the a$erage %oman is the %ido%5 and 2elo% them are out"astes and untou"ha2les+ !ndian %omen5 no matter their "aste5 at some point %ill ind themsel$es 2eing shunned as a lesser order o 2eing to the men around them+ &insley suggests that de$otion or some %omen "an 2e seen as a %ay out o these pro2lems in that it "an help them a$oid marriage+ 11; 0The Bhagvad-Gt tea"hes that de$otion is "ompati2le1116 %ith dhar-a5 and yet here it %ould seem that the %omen %ho ta6e up 1hakti are doing so in order to a$oid marriage and there ore a$oid their dhar-a as GRha"tha 3householder+/ !n truth5 many emale saints asso"iated %ith 1hakti li6e ,ahade$iya66a and ,ira2ai %orshipped their gods as 0lo$er and hus2and+1 11A They o ten ound their passions or their lords? allD"onsuming so that they %ere una2le to intera"t %ith their %orldly hus2ands at all+ Dhar-a 2e"ame o2solete in the light o a2solute de$otion to -od+ !n ,ira2ai?s poetry her 0o$er%helming emotion o lo$e1118 is "learly $isi2le@ 0=hen ! am inally "onsumed5 smear your 2ody %ith my ashes5 merge my lame %ith your ire+111B Thus ar the predominan"e o identi i"ation or de$otees has 2een %ith emales in the stories+ This is 2elie$ed to 2e lin6ed to the Bhgavata predominantly5 and the $ie% that it "asts o %omen as the epitome o de$otion+ 120 The 1hakta relates to the emotions o the g!p" in order to eel a union %ith -od+ !n an"ient 9edi tradition5 the 1hakta "ould not 0approa"h god eroti"ally1 121 yet later traditions o ,dvaita -!ni"identi ied the %orshipper %ith god spe"i i"ally+ 122 )ther 2ha6ti traditions relating to Fi$a or De$G instead o 8iSNu more re4uently identi y the %orshipper %ith the deity+123 !n )antri"- on the other hand5 the de$otee may identi y himsel %ith the deity or the "onsort5 and in some "ases may e$en $isualise 0himsel as 2oth the god

112 113

Farma 1BA35 12A )S'laherty 1B805 88 114 )S'laherty 1B805 88 11; &insley 1B81 116 &insley 1B815 83 11A &insley 1B815 88 118 &insley 1B815 8B 11B Iandy 1BA;5 68 120 )S'laherty 1B805 88 121 )S'laherty 1B805 8A 122 )S'laherty 1B805 8A 123 )S'laherty 1B805 88

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and the goddess+1124 !n per orming in the roles o RKdhK and &RSNa5 human6ind "an "ome "loser to a"hie$ing this realisation o reality and ultimately get "loser to li2eration+12; 3:ivA 2viden e !f 3e-a+e d!-inan e&"hift" in gender d!-inan e (ithin 4indu te/t" =hen loo6ing at Hindu s"ripture5 =endy )?'laherty has noted a great shi t in gender dominan"e as time progressed5 and more importantly that this shi t has "oin"ided %ith the rise o 1hakti orientated te*ts+ #arly s"ripture su"h as the 9eda" made $ery e% re eren"es to %omen at all+ ,ale dominan"e held its true strength in the 9edi s"riptures+ =ithin the g 9eda5 emale deities loo6ed upon the a$erage %oman in derogatory terms5 yet they %ere $ie%ed 2y the men as little 2etter+ 'emale deities %ere al%ays se"ond "lass %ith e%er re eren"es made to them+ =omen are des"ri2ed in terms o oolishness or aggression e$en 2y the goddesses@ 0The oolish %oman su"6s dry the panting %ise man+1126 The man is seen as %ise yet a $i"tim %ho is 0su"6ed dry1 to a point o %ea6ness and le t panting 2y the aggressi$e %oman+ The only 9edi praise %omen get is as the sour"e o li e5 2ut e$en this is mostly o$ershado%ed 2y negati$e "onnotations+ Da%n and Iight are 2oth praised as 2eauti ul %omen5 yet despite this praise o 2eauty it is "ondemned as a di$ersion rom their true natures sin"e Da%n is said to do e$il5 and so !ndra as the god o storms is made a hero or ha$ing slain Da%n+ 12A The position o %i$es in the 9eda" again are lo%ered as ar as possi2le5 su"h a role has no real position e$en i they are the %i$es o deities+ !ndra?s %i e or e*ample is not e$en named 2ut is merely 6no%n as !ndrK NG5 literally 0,rs !ndra+1128 Her sole purpose in the te*t is simply to gloat a2out her hus2and?s 0se*ual dimensions and pro%ess+112B ,o$ing onto the 2pi " )?'laherty 2egins to note the irst e$iden"e o this shi t in gender dominan"e+ Io longer do the male "hara"ters and gods e*"lusi$ely dominate the te*ts as the only "hara"ters %ith po%er and goodness+ At $arious times 2oth male and emale "hara"ters in the 2pi " are portrayed %ith aspe"ts o dominant "hara"teristi"s+ The ;ah1hrata maintains its male dominan"e primarily through the simple a"t that the %ar and 2attles are depi"ted through male "hara"ters+ The 6ey emale in the #pi" ho%e$er is &untG5 the %i e to ( ANDu+ (ANDu 6illed an as"eti" posing as a deer in the orest %hilst mating %ith his doe+ 130 As a result the "ouple are "ursed not to ha$e inter"ourse+ Thus &untG ta6es it upon hersel to "on"ei$e ea"h o her i$e sons 2y a di erent 9edi god+ This in turn adds to the po%er on their side5 and is seen as a good omen+ &untG?s dominant po%er is not only seen through the "reation o her sons5 2ut also 2y the a"t that to "reate them she %as the 0mortal %oman %ith i$e immortal "onsorts+1131 The other great epi"7 the 0 R-*aNa1132 also displays aspe"ts o 2oth male and emale dominan"e %ithin the relationship o RKmK
124 12;

)S'laherty 1B805 88 Siegel 1BA85 2; 126 )S'laherty 1B805 AB Dg 9eda @E@79E4A 12A )S'laherty 1B805 AB 128 )S'laherty 1B805 AB 12B )S'laherty 1B805 AB 130 8an 9uitenen 1BA35 246DA 3;ah1hrata @E@F9E@-3FA 131 )S'laherty 1B805 80 132 Iarayan 1BA2

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and SGtK+ Sometimes RKmK is depi"ted primarily as a mortal 6ing5 and at other times as the avatar o 8iSNu+ SGtK li6e%ise is sometimes seen %ith di$ine "hara"teristi"s as a goddess o the earth5 and at other times is merely the human %i e o a mortal 6ing+133 =hen the PurANa" are rea"hed5 there is a stronger o"us on emale dominated "ouples that o$ershado%s the am2iguity o "hangeo$er e*hi2ited in the 2pi "+ =omen are suddenly e4uated %ith the 0 emale prin"iple1 134 o the uni$erse7 PrakRti %ho is the 0"onstant "ompanion OtoP PuruSa5 the male+113; The main o"us o tales told %ithin the (urANas tend to 2e 2ased on one o t%o themes@ 2attle or marriage5 2oth o %hi"h are situations %rought %ith strong emotions+ <ust and hatred "an 2oth lead to "on li"t or %hi"h the only resolution is death+136 =orship %ithin the 1hakti mo$ement gre% up alongside %orship o the emale goddess urther promoting %omen %ithin PurANi $ision+ The g!p" o the Bhgavata are seen to 2e the epitome o %hat a de$otee should 2e5 urther enhan"ing the emale dominan"e in su"h te*ts+ 3:vA 5ignifi an e !f Rdh a" "eparate fr!- the !ther g!p" !t is o ten suggested that &RSNa and RKdhK are one in the same7 Brah-an di$ided into t%o or the purpose o 0di$ine sport1 or %++ Their 0lo$eDplayN is a "osmi" prin"iple5 allDper$asi$e5 the underlying truth o all 2eing+1 13A RKdhK and &RSNa together 2e"ame the 0Loint o"us o de$otion or many 9aiSNava"+1138 Their union is o t%o parts o the same thing "oming together ha$ing irst 2een separated or a long time@ the human 6va or t-an 2eing reunited %ith Brah-an+ !n RKdhK poets ha$e ound "om2ined elements o the human and the di$ine that ma6e her su"h a popular "hara"ter+ RKdhK and &RSNa united are seen as the di$ine5 yet their relationship is 0mar6ed %ith human passion+113B A 4uality not usually ound in religious poetry5 it is this that gi$es it a "ertain amount o %armth ma6ing it more attra"ti$e to 1hakti ollo%ers+ 0Sym2oli"ally she is understood to represent the human soul in lo$e %ith -od+1140 RKdhK %as a married %oman5 %ho upon hearing & RSNaSs lute %ent to him and 2e"ame allD"onsumed 2y his lo$e that all 0o2ligations to her hus2and and to so"iety1141 %ere orgotten as %as seen to happen %ith the emale saints dis"ussed a2o$e+ 'rom this perspe"ti$e RKdhK is seen as a role model %ho gi$es hope to 1hakta" %ho de$ote themsel$es to her as an e*ample o the ultimate in de$otion5 and the su2lime 2liss that "an result rom it+ The Gtag!vinda is 2ased on passages in the Bhgavata PurANa %hi"h do not a"tually mention RKdhK 2y name 2ut imply one g!p %ho is apart rom the others and "auses them mu"h Lealousy+ 0=hose ootprints are theseJ =ho %al6ed %ith the son o Ianda5 His orearm resting on her shoulder5 li6e a sheDelephant %ith a 2ull

133 134

)S'laherty 1B805 AB )S'laherty 1B805 81 13; )S'laherty 1B805 81 136 )S'laherty 1B805 83 13A Siegel 1BA85 24 138 -oodall 1BB65 382 13B Dimo"6 1B685 63 140 8en6ates%aran 1B685 1A1 141 &insley 1B815 B0

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Ohis trun6 resting on her 2a"6PJ1142 The g!p" spea6 o this %oman in the Bhgavata %ho has stolen &RSNa a%ay rom them as ana* rdhitaH5 the %oman %ho has 0propitiated1143 Hari5 and Hardy "laims that 0$arious authors ha$e dra%n attention to this phrase and ha$e suggested that rdhita is an allusion to &RSNaSs a$ourite RKdhK+1144 The reason he suggests that she is not spe"i i"ally named is in order to 6eep in line %ith the 9iSNu PurANa and $arious )a-i+ sour"es %hi"h do not name any g!p" either+14; !n a"t they do not e$en separate one g!p out as a$ourite5 2ut rather suggest that &RSNa reLe"ts one or the pride she displays at ha$ing re"ei$ed a lo%er rom him+146

Conclusion The se*ual lo$e o the g!p" and espe"ially RKdhK in the Bhgavata PurANa %ould seem to "ontradi"t the predominant tea"hings o the Bhagvad-Gt o ered to ArLuna %ho %as seen as the ideal de$otee o intelle"tual 1hakti+ RKdhK is portrayed as the epitome o emotional 1hakti5 so "onsumed 2y her de$otion that all so"ial duty is "ast aside5 in "ontrast to ArLuna %ho is taught to uphold his dhar-a and ight+ Ret despite this apparent opposition5 the tea"hings "an a"tually 2e e4uated in that ArLuna is taught to ollo% his dhar-a totally deta"hed rom its %orldly e e"ts5 and the g!p" "an 2e seen to ha$e already a"hie$ed su"h deta"hment 2y totally ignoring their so"ial o2ligations+ Deta"hment "an 2e seen as the main underlying theme o 1hakti %hi"h relates it to the "an*"in tradition that promoted it in its earliest orm+ The emotional stru"ture o 1hakti e$ol$ed later than the intelle"tual %hi"h "an 2e noted 2y this idea that the g!p" ha$e "ome urther than ArLuna in their 4uest or sal$ation+ Total surrender to the deity is assumed in 2oth ormats5 2ut in di erent manners+ 'or the %arrior &RSNa surrender is e*pe"ted rom ArLuna in a""eptan"e o & RSNaSs tea"hings5 and or the Di$ine <o$er5 surrender is understood to 2e emotionally enhan"ed through a se*ual relationship %ith the deity+ The role o the emale is there2y enhan"ed %ithin the emotional ormat as the predominant deity is male5 and yet the emales "an 2e seen as another aspe"t o His di$inity as 2e"oming the mani estation o <akti po%er+ !t is "lear ho% 1hakti "an 2e seen as an empo%ering tradition or %omen and the lo%er "lasses in its emotional orm5 and yet along side this 1rah-ani a+ dominan"e is still o2$ious in the po%er o intelle"tual de$otion+ The images ound on the "o$er page are lo"ated at the ollo%ing %e2 sites@ !mage 1 >&RSNa the Co%herd and Di$ine <o$er? http@..%%%+stephen6napp+"om.6rishnaTprintT i tyone+htm !mage 2 >&RSNa the %arrior? http@..%%%+6amat+"om.6alranga.hindu.3B00+htm

142 143

-oodall 1BB65 382 DBhgavata PurANa 3FE27A -oodall 1BB65 382 144 Hardy 1B835 ;03 14; Hardy 1B835 ;03 146 Hardy 1B835 ;03

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,ibliograph-:
Anand+ S+ 1BB6+ )he $a* !f %!veE )he Bhgavata D! trine !f Bhakti 3Ie% Delhi@ ,unshiram ,anoharlal (u2lishers/ Ar"her+ =+ -+ 1B;A+ %!ve" !f #ri"hna in Indian painting and p!etr* 3<ondon@ -eorge Allen U Vn%in <td/ 9asham+ A+ <+ 1B6A+ )he (!nder that (a" IndiaE a "urve* !f the hi"t!r* and u+ture !f the Indian "u1- !ntinent 1ef!re the !-ing !f the ;u"+i-" 3<ondon@ Sidg%i"6 U Ea"6son/ 9ryant+ #+ '+ 3#d+/ 2003+ #ri"hnaE the Beautifu+ %egend !f G!d D<r-ad BhAgavata PurANa B!!k HA 3<ondon@ (enguin 9oo6s/ Cross+ S+ 1BB4+ )he 2+e-ent" !f 4indui"- 3Dorset@ #lement 2oo6s/ Dallapi""ola+ A+ <+ 3et al/ 1B82+ #ri"hnaE the divine +!verE -*th and +egend thr!ugh Indian ,rt 3<ondon@ Serindia/ Dasgupta+ S+ 1B32D1B;;+ 4i"t!r* !f Indian phi+!"!ph* 8ols+ 1D; 3Cam2ridge@ Vni$ersity (ress/ Dimmitt+ C+ and $an 9uitenen+ E+ A+ 9+ 1BA8+ '+a""i a+ 4indu -*th!+!g* 3(hiladelphia@ Temple Vni$ersity (ress/ Dimo"6+ #+ C+ 1B68+ 0Do"trine and pra"ti"e among the 8aiSNavas o 9engal1 in Singer+ ,+ 3#d+/ #ri"hnaE -*th", rite" and attitude" 3Chi"ago@ Vni$ersity o Chi"ago (ress/5 pp+ 41D63 'lood+ -+ 1BB6+ ,n Intr!du ti!n t! 4indui"- 3Cam2ridge@ Cam2ridge Vni$ersity press/ -oodall+ D+ 3#d+/ 1BB6+ 4indu 5 ripture" 3<ondon@ E+ ,+ Dent/ Hamilton+ S+ 2001+ Indian phi+!"!ph*E , ver* "h!rt intr!du ti!n 3)* ord@ )* ord Vni$ersity (ress/ Hardy+ '+ 1B83+ 9iraha-1haktiE )he 2ar+* 4i"t!r* !f #RSNa Dev!ti!n in 5!uth India 3Delhi@ )* ord Vni$ersity (ress !ndia/ Hiriyanna+ ,+ 2000+ 0ut+ine" !f Indian phi+!"!ph* 3Delhi@ ,otilal 9anarsidass (u2lishers/ Hop6ins+ T+ E+ 1BA1+ )he 4indu re+igi!u" traditi!n 39elmont@ =ads%orth/ Hop6ins+ T+ E+ 1B68+ 0The so"ial tea"hing o the BhAgavata PurANa1 in Singer+ ,+ 3#d+/ #ri"hnaE -*th", rite" and attitude" 3Chi"ago@ Vni$ersity o Chi"ago (ress/5 pp+ 3D22 Eohnson+ =+ E+ 3Trans+/ 1BB4+ )he Bhgavad Gta 3)* ord@ )* ord =orld Classi"s/ &insley+ D+ 1B81+ 0De$otion as an Alternati$e to ,arriage in the li$es o some Hindu =omen De$otees1 in <ele+ E+ 3#d+/ )raditi!n and -!dernit* in Bhakti -!ve-ent" 3<eiden@ #+ E+ 9rill/5 pp+ 83DB3 &insley+ D+ 1BAB+ )he Divine P+a*erE , 5tud* !f #RSNa %++ 3Delhi@ ,otilal 9anarsidass/ &lostermaier+ &+ &+ 1BB8+ , "h!rt intr!du ti!nE 4indui"- 3)* ord@ )ne%orld pu2li"ations/ &lostermaier+ &+ 1BB4+ , "urve* !f 4indui"- 3Al2any@ State Vni$ersity o Ie% Ror6 (ress/ &lostermaier+ &+ &+ 2000+ 4indu $riting"E , "h!rt intr!du ti!n t! the -a6!r "!ur e" 3)* ord@ )ne%orld pu2li"ations/

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&nott+ &+ 1BB8+ 4indui"-E , 9er* 5h!rt Intr!du ti!n 3)* ord@ )* ord Vni$ersity (ress/ <ele+ E+ 3#d+/ 1B81+ )raditi!n and -!dernit* in Bhakti -!ve-ent" 3<eiden@ #+ E+ 9rill/ <ipner+ E+ E+ 1BB4+ 4indu"E their re+igi!u" 1e+ief" and pra ti e" 3<ondon@ Routledge/ <ittleton+ C+ S+ 1BB6+ )he 5a red 2a"t 3<ondon@ Dun"an 9aird (u2lishers/ ,eyer+ E+ E+ 1B30+ 5e/ua+ +ife in an ient IndiaE a "t!r* in the !-parative hi"t!r* !f Indian u+ture 3<ondon@ ,otilal 9anarsidass/ ,iller+ 9+ S+ 3#d+ and Trans+/ 1BAA+ %!ve 5!ng !f the Dark %!rdE 2Fth ,nniver"ar* 2diti!nE 7a*adeva?" Gtag!vinda 3Ie% Ror6@ Colum2ia Vni$ersity (ress/ ,iller+ 9+ S+ 1BAA+ )he Gtag!vinda !f 7a*adevaE %!ve 5!ng !f the Dark %!rd 3Delhi@ ,otial 9anarsidass/ ,inor+ R+ I+ 1B82+ Bhagavad-GtE an e/egeti a+ !--entar* 3Ie% Delhi@ Heritage (u2lishers/ Iandy+ (+ 3Trans+/ 1BA;+ )he "!ng" !f ;ira1ai 3Ie% Delhi@ ArnoldDHeinemann/ Iarayan+ R+ &+ 1BA2+ )he Ra-a*anaE , 5h!rtened ;!dern Pr!"e 9er"i!n !f the Indian 2pi 3,iddlese*@ (enguin 2oo6s/ )S'laherty+ =+ D+ 1BA;+ 4indu -*th"E a "!ur e1!!k 3Harmonds%orth@ (enguin/ )S'laherty+ =+ D+ 1B80+ $!-en, ,ndr!g*ne" and 0ther ;*thi a+ Bea"t" 3Chi"ago@ Vni$ersity o Chi"ago (ress/ (oddar+ H+ 1BBB+ G!p"? %!ve f!r <r #RSNa 3Cal"utta@ -ita (ress/ (ra2hupAda+ A+ C+ 9+ 1BB1+ JArada-bhakti-sUtra: )he "e ret" !f tran" endenta+ +!ve 3<os Angeles@ 9ha6ti$edanta 2oo6 trust/ RKmKnuLa+ 1B68+ R-nu6a !n the BhagavadgtE a !nden"ed rendering !f hi" Gt1hS*a 3Delhi@ ,otilal 9anarsidass/ Ro"her+ <+ 1B86+ )he PurANas 3=ies2aden@ )tto Harrasso%itM/ Farma+ D+ S+ 1BA3+ 4indui"- thr!ugh the age" 39om2ay@ 9haratiya 8idya 9ha$an/ Siegel+ <+ 1BA8+ 5a red and Pr!fane Di-en"i!n" !f %!ve in Indian )raditi!n" a" 2/e-p+ified in the Gtag!vinda !f 7a*adeva: 3<ondon@ )* ord Vni$ersity (ress/ Singer+ ,+ 3#d+/ 1B68+ #ri"hnaE -*th", rite" and attitude" 3Chi"ago@ Vni$ersity o Chi"ago (ress/ Storm+ R+ 2000+ Indian ;*th!+!g*E ;*th" and +egend" !f India, )i1et and 5ri %anka 3<ondon@ Anness (u2lishing <td/ Tagare+ -+ 8+ 1BA6D1BA8+ )he BhAgavata PurANa 3Delhi@ ,otilal 9anarsidass/ 8an 9uitenen+ E+ A+ 9+ 1B68+ 0)n the ar"haism o the BhAgavata PurANa1 in Singer+ ,+ 3#d+/ #ri"hnaE -*th", rite" and attitude" 3Chi"ago@ Vni$ersity o Chi"ago (ress/5 pp+ 23D40 8an 9uitenen+ E+ A+ 9+ 3Trans+ and #d+/ 1BA3+ )he ;ahA1hArata @: the 1!!k !f the 1eginning 3Chi"ago@ Chi"ago Vni$ersity press/ 8en6ates%aran+ T+ &+ 1B68+ 0RKdhKD&rishna 1ha6ana" o South !ndia@ a phenomenologi"al5 theologi"al and philosophi"al study1 in Singer+ ,+ 3#d+/ #ri"hnaE -*th", rite" and attitude" 3Chi"ago@ Vni$ersity o Chi"ago (ress/5 pp+ 13BD1A2

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Theology and Religious Studies Dissertation THRS 30026

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