Notes

Eng9977 - Computational Fluid Dynamics 1
1 Introduction
Why use computational uid dynamics (CFD)?
Analytical solution may be: (1) tedious; (2) too complicated; and/or (3) not
possible (due to geometry or boundary conditions).
Experiments may be unfeasible.
Empirical correlations may not be available.
The key idea of any numerical method is to discretize" the governing dierential
equation(s) algebraic equations that may be solved by one of several methods.
The rst step in CFD is to discretize the calculation domain, i.e. the region in which
the solution is desired. For example, a regular shaped domain can be discretized with
a line-by-line mesh, with nodes located at the intersection of the mesh (or grid) lines.
The domain has been discretized with a set of distinct nodes, i.e. we are no longer
concerned with the domain as a continuum, but with the values of unknowns at each
node (similar to experimental measurement).
The techniques used to discretize the governing dierential equation depend upon the
method used:
1. Finite Dierence (FD)
original method
common technique presented in numerical methods courses to solve Laplaces
equation, and in undergraduate heat transfer texts (e.g. Incropera and De-
Witt (Sections 4.44.5))
straightforward application of Taylors series approximations to the deriva-
tives in the governing equation(s)
limited by geometry
2. Finite Elements (FE)
discretize the domain with elements of varying shape (well suited to irregular
geometries)
can be quite complex to derive
Galerkin method of weighted residuals
origins in stress analysis
3. Finite Volume (FV)
developed in the context of heat transfer and uid ow
discretization based on the application of conservation principles (e.g. 1st
Law) to control volumes constructed around the nodes in a mesh
physically meaningful
limited by geometry
The dierential form of the governing equation is not required!
4. Finite Volume Element (FVE) or Control Volume Finite Element (CVFE)
use the advantageous features of nite volume and nite element methods
suitable for irregular geometries
possess the physically meaningful interpretations present in FV methods
5. Boundary Elements (BE)
only the boundary of a domain is discretized
Useful (and very ecient) when only information on the boundary of the
domain is required (e.g. free surface ows).
highly mathematical
2 One-Dimensional Heat Conduction
2.1 Governing Equation
Consider one-dimensional, steady state conduction heat transfer, which is governed
by the following equation:
d
dr
_
/
dT
dr
_
+ _ = 0 (1)
2.2 Domain discretization
A one-dimensional problem (e.g. a plane wall with sources) can be discretized with a
series of nodes as shown below.
Control volumes are dened for each node by placing control volume faces in between
each node. The control volume faces do not have to be mid way between the nodes.
Focusing attention on only three nodes in this domain, and in particular a node 1, and
its two neighbour nodes, 1 (east) and \ (west), allows the denition of nomenclature
that will be used in the derivation of the discretized form of the governing equation.
Note:
c and n indicate the east and west faces of the cv.
cr is the spacing between nodes, and cr
e
is not necessarily equal to cr
w
, i.e. the
nodal distribution may be nonuniform.
r is the width of the control volume (cv)
For convenience in the folllowing derivations, the cv faces are placed midway
between the nodes, therefore, r = (cr
e
+ cr
w
),2.
2.3 Conservation Equation
Two methods may be used to derive the conservation equation that will be applied
to the control volume that is constructed around node 1:
1. Integrate the governing equation over the cv from the n face to the c face:
_
e
w
d
dr
_
/
dT
dr
_
dr +
_
e
w
_ dr = 0 (2)
/
e
dT
dr
e
/
w
dT
dr
w
+ _ r = 0 (3)
2. Apply the 1st Law to the cv around node 1:
_
_
Rate of heat
conducted
in the n face
_
_
+
_
_
Rate of heat
generation
within the cv
_
_
_
_
Rate of heat
conducted
out the c face
_
_
= 0 (4)
w
+ _ \
e
= 0 (5)
Using Fouriers Law:
/
w
dT
dr
w
+ _ r + /
e
dT
dr
e
= 0 (6)
or
/
e
dT
dr
e
/
w
dT
dr
w
+ _ r = 0 (7)
Note:
1. Both methods give exactly the same equation.
2. Method one integrates the dierential equation, which governs conservation in a
dierential cv, over a nite cv. Since the derivation of the dierential equation
is based on the balance on a cv, by integrating this equation we are taking a
backwards step.
3. Method two applies conservation of energy to a nite cv. We did not need the
dierential form of the governing equation. The FV method is based on the
application of conservation laws (energy, mass, momentum) to nite cvs.
2.4 Prole Assumptions
The conservation equation must be written in terms of the unknown nodal temper-
atures (i.e. an algebraic form of the conservation equation), therefore, an expression
for dT,dr is required (i.e. a prole assumption for T, or how T is assumed to vary
between nodes).
Step prole, or prevailing assumption:
simplest
The value at a node is assumed to prevail over the cv associated with that node.
This method is unsatisfactory for T, since dT,dr is undened at cv faces.
This assumption is suitable for _ .
Piecewise linear prole:
second simplest
Temperature is assumed to vary linearly between two nodes, with discontinuous
changes in slope at the nodes.
This prole is suitable for T, as dT,dr will be dened at cv faces.
exact for 1D, no source
as accurate as a parabola if cv faces are located midway between nodes
The temperature gradients at the c and n faces are:
dT
dr
e
=
T
E
T
P
cr
e
;
dT
dr
w
=
T
P
T
W
cr
w
(8)
2.5 Discretized Equation
Substitution of Eq. (8) into Eq. (7) gives:
/
e
(T
E
T
P
)
cr
e
/
w
(T
P
T
W
)
cr
w
+ _ r = 0
or
_
/
e
cr
e
+
/
w
cr
w
_
T
P
=
/
e
cr
e
T
E
+
/
w
cr
w
T
W
+ _ r
which may be rewritten in the following standard form:
a
P
T
P
= a
E
T
E
+ a
W
T
W
+ / (9)
where
a
E
=
/
e
cr
e
(10)
a
W
=
/
w
cr
w
(11)
a
P
=
/
e
cr
e
+
/
w
cr
w
= a
E
+ a
W
=

a
nb
(12)
/ = _ r (13)
where the subscript :/ indicates all the neighbour nodes of node 1.
This is the discretized form of the governing equation for each control volume in the
calculation domain (i.e. one such equation exists for each node in the domain).
2.6 Boundary Conditions
The following discretization exists at the left side (or boundary) of the one-dimensional
domain:
Applying the 1st Law to the cv for node 1 gives:
B
+ _ \
e
= 0 (14)
A discretized form of this equation, that can be written in the standard form (i.e.
similar to Eq. (9)) is desired.
Consider the following three boundary conditions:
1. Specied temperature, i.e. T
P
is known (T
Pspec
):
a
P
= 1 (15)
a
E
= 0 (16)
a
W
= 0 (17)
/ = T
Pspec
(18)
2. Specied boundary heat ux, i.e.
00
B
is known:
using a piecewise linear prole for T
00
B
+ /
e
(T
E
T
P
)
cr
e
+ _ r = 0 (19)
This equation can be written in the standard form when:
a
P
=
/
e
cr
e
= a
E
+ a
W
(20)
a
E
=
/
e
cr
e
(21)
a
W
= 0 (22)
/ = _ r +
00
B
(23)
3. Boundary heat ux
00
B
is specied by a heat transfer coecient / and uid
temperature, T
f
(both known):
00
B
= /(T
f
T
P
) (24)
Note: this equation is written assuming heat transfer in the positive r di-
rection.
Substituting Eq. (24) into Eq. (19) and writing the result in the standard
form gives:
a
P
=
/
e
cr
e
+ / = a
E
+ a
W
+ / (25)
a
E
=
/
e
cr
e
(26)
a
W
= 0 (27)
/ = _ r + /T
f
(28)
Note: the third boundary condition can be used to simulate the others.
1. The specied temperature boundary condition results when:
/ = (29)
T
f
= T
Pspec
2. The specied ux boundary condition results when:
/ = 1, (30)
T
f
=
00
B
2.7 Interface Conductivity

When a cv face is common to two control volumes, the ux across the face must be
represented by the same expression in the discretization used for the two cvs. This
is very important for a conservation law based method, otherwise a violation of that
law could exist, e.g. energy could be created or destroyed.
Consider the cv face between nodes 1 and 1, then
e
= /
e
dT
dx
[
e
at the c face for
the 1 cv must be equal to the amount of heat entering the cv for node 1 (
w
when
it is considered as node 1).
The piecewise linear prole for T ensures this consistency of uxes, but problems may
arise when a nonuniform thermal conductivity exists.
If the thermal conductivity varies throughout the domain (e.g. a function of temper-
ature), values of thermal conductivity will be available at the nodes.
A temptation may be to assume the nodal values prevail over the associated cv, e.g.
the rate of heat transfer leaving the 1 cv and going to the 1 cv is:
/
P
dT
dr
e
= /
P
(T
E
T
P
)
cr
e
which would not be the same as the rate of heat transfer entering the 1 cv: /
E
(T
E
T
P
)
xe
An interface conductivity, /
e
, must be dened:
1. The arithmetic mean would seem the obvious choice (it isnt).
/
e
=
/
P
+ /
E
2
(31)
2. The harmonic mean is a much better (although less obvious) choice.
/
e
=
2/
P
/
E
/
P
+ /
E
(32)
Consider the following two cases:
1. If /
E
= 0, i.e. the material in the 1 cv is a perfect insulator, then there should
be no heat ux across the cv face. The harmonic mean gives /
e
= 0 (no ux),
but the arithmetic mean gives /
e
= /
P
,2 and will give a false heat ux across
the cv face.
2. /
P
/
E
, e.g. 1 is copper, and 1 is asbestos. The harmonic mean gives
/
e
= 2/
E
and the arithmetic mean gives /
e
= (/
P
+ /
E
),2. Which is correct?
The harmonic mean is correct, because there will be negligible thermal resis-
tance in 1, and the temperature drop will occur in 1, therefore, /
P
should
not be included in /
e
.
The 2 arises in /
e
since all of the temperature drop will occur in cr
e
,2,
but the equations use
e
= /
e
(T
E
T
P
),cr
e
, the half is automatically
incorporated in /
e
.
To simulate a composite slab, locate the cv faces at the material interfaces, and use
the harmonic mean to handle abrupt changes in thermal conductivity.
Where does the harmonic mean come from? Consider a control volume face placed
midway between nodes 1 and 1.
Using the resistance analogy, the ux across the cv face is:
00
e
=
T
P
T
E
xe
2k
P
+
xe
2k
E
=
T
1
th
(33)
then
1
th
= cr
e
/
E
+ /
P
2/
E
/
P
=
cr
e
/
e
(34)
which means the eective (or interface) conductivity is:
/
e
=
2/
P
/
E
/
P
+ /
E
(35)
i.e. the harmonic mean.
2.8 Solution of the Discretized Equations
2.8.1 The Discretized Equations
The discretized form of the governing equation for one-dimensional, steady state heat
conduction in Cartesian co-ordinates has been derived.
For the one-dimensional case, at a node i:
a
P
i
T
i
= a
E
i
T
i+1
+ a
W
i
T
i1
+ /
i
(36)
The result is : (i.e. number of nodes) simultaneous linear algebraic equations, which
when solved give a temperature distribution throughout the calculation domain.
2.8.2 Matrix Inversion
For the one-dimensional case, the set of algebraic equations can be written in the
following form:
_
_
a
P
1
a
E
1
0 0 0 0
a
W
2
a
P
2
a
E
2
0 0 0
0 a
W
3
a
P
3
a
E
3
0 0
0 0 a
W
4
a
P
4
a
E
4
0
0 0 0 a
W
5
a
P
5
a
E
5
0 0 0 0 a
W
6
a
P
6
_
_
_
_
T
1
T
2
T
3
T
4
T
5
T
6
_
_
=
_
_
/
1
/
2
/
3
/
4
/
5
/
6
_
_
Note: the coecient matrix is tridiagonal
The temperature distribution is found by determining the inverse of the coecient
matrix:
[][T] = [1]
[T] = []
1
[1]
This is a direct solution method. Such methods become very expensive for two-
and three-dimensional applications, due to the sparse matrices that arise in multi-
dimensional problems iterative methods.
2.8.3 Gauss-Seidel
The standard forms of the discretized equations can be rewritten as:
a
P
T
P
=

nb
a
nb
T
nb
+ /
and T
P
can be evaluated as follows:
T
P
=
nb
a
nb
T
nb
+ /
a
P
(37)
Each node is visited in turn to update T
P
, and the most current neighbour values are
used in the RHS of Eq. (37). Iteration continues until convergence has been reached.
This method can be slow to converge, and may diverge under certain situations.
2.8.4 TriDiagional Matrix Algorithm (TDMA)
A TDMA takes advantage of the tridiagonal nature of the coecient matrix.
The discretized equation for a node i in a one-dimensional formulation is:
a
P
i
T
i
= a
E
i
T
i+1
+ a
W
i
T
i1
+ /
i
(38)
At node 1, a
W
1
= 0, therefore:
a
P
1
T
1
= a
E
1
T
2
+ /
1
(39)
i.e. T
1
can be expressed as a function T
2
.
At node 2:
a
P
2
T
2
= a
E
2
T
3
+ a
W
2
T
1
+ /
2
(40)
but T
1
= )(T
2
), therefore, T
2
= )(T
3
).
Each nodal value of T
i
can be written as a function of T
i+1
, i.e. a functional relation
can be dened as:
T
i
= 1
i
T
i+1
+ Q
i
(41)
At node i 1 then:
T
i1
= 1
i1
T
i
+ Q
i1
(42)
Substituting Eq. (42) into Eq. (38) gives:
a
P
i
T
i
= a
E
i
T
i+1
+ a
W
i
(1
i1
T
i
+ Q
i1
) + /
i
(43)
which can be rearranged in the form of Eq. (41) to give:
1
i
=
a
E
i
a
P
i
a
W
i
1
i1
(44)
Q
i
=
/
i
+ a
W
i
Q
i1
a
P
i
a
W
i
1
i1
(45)
Equations (44) and (45) are recursion relations which give 1
i
and Q
i
as functions of
1
i1
and Q
i1
.
The following series of steps are used in a TDMA:
1. At node 1, evaluate:
1
1
= a
E
1
,a
P
1
; Q
1
= /
1
,a
P
1
(46)
2. Step from node 2 (: 1) evaluating 1
i
and Q
i
at each node using Eqs. (44)
and (45).
3. At node ::
1
n
= 0 (47)
Q
n
=
/
n
+ a
Wn
Q
n1
a
Pn
a
Wn
1
n1
(48)
therefore, at node :, T
n
= Q
n
.
4. Step backwards, (: 1) 1, using:
T
i
= 1
i
T
i+1
+ Q
i
(49)
to give a value for T
i
at each node.
The TDMA is a direct solution method for a line in a mesh.
2.9 Solution Algorithm
The solution algorithm followed by a numerical heat transfer program is as follows:
1. DATA
dene inputs
problem dependent
input the number of nodes, :, all /s, T
1
s, and properties required to specify
a problem
2. GRID
dene grid (domain discretization)
problem dependent
set up the (uniform or nonuniform) grid by specifying the r
i
co-ordinates of
each node
all r and cr terms are dened later in COEFF
3. GAMSOR
dene thermophysical properties and sources
problem dependent
dene the thermal conductivities and source terms at each node in the mesh
4. COEFF
evaluate coecients in the discretized equations (including boundary condi-
tions)
problem independent
evaluate the coecients a
P
, a
E
, a
W
and / for each node
use the harmonic mean for interface conductivities
evaluate coecients for boundary nodes using the convection boundary con-
dition
most ecient if all internal nodes (i = 2 (: 1)) are included in a loop,
and separate sections are used for the boundary nodes (note: the duplications
that are present when programming)
5. SOLVE
solve the set of simultaneous linear algebraic equations
problem independent
3 A Two-Dimensional Finite Volume Method
3.1 Discretization
The formulation of the one-dimensional FV method can be extended to develop the
discretized equations for steady-state, two-dimensional heat conduction in Cartesian
co-ordinates.
Consider a rectangular calculation domain, discretized by a line by line mesh. Control
volumes are constructed around each node in the mesh.
Consider the control volume around a node 1 within the mesh, as shown below.
Note:
cr and cj are the grid spacings in the r and j directions, respectively.
r and j are the r and j extents of the cv for node 1.
Assume the cv faces are placed midway between the nodes, and the mesh may
be nonuniform.
3.1.1 Conservation Equation
Applying the 1st Law to the cv about node 1 gives:
w
+
s
+ _ \ =
e
+
n
(50)
i.e.
_
_
Rate of heat
conducted
in to the cv
_
_
+
_
_
Rate of heat
generation
within the cv
_
_
=
_
_
Rate of heat
conducted
out of the cv
_
_
(51)
Writing all heat transfer rates in the positive r and j directions:
/
w
w
0T
0r
w
/
s
s
0T
0j
s
+ _ \ = /
e
e
0T
0r
e
/
n
n
0T
0j
n
(52)
3.2 Discretized Equations
Assuming a piecewise linear prole for T, a stepwise prole for _ , the harmonic mean
for interface conductivities, and unit depth of the domain Eq. (52) can be written as
follows:
/
w
j
(T
P
T
W
)
cr
w
/
s
r
(T
P
T
S
)
cj
s
+ _ rj =
/
e
j
(T
E
T
P
)
cr
e
/
n
r
(T
N
T
P
)
cj
n
This equation can be written in the following standard form:
a
P
T
P
= a
E
T
E
+ a
N
T
N
+ a
W
T
W
+ a
S
T
S
+ / (53)
where
a
E
=
/
e
j
cr
e
(54)
a
N
=
/
n
r
cj
n
(55)
a
W
=
/
w
j
cr
w
(56)
a
S
=
/
s
r
cj
s
(57)
a
P
= a
E
+ a
N
+ a
W
+ a
S
(58)
/ = _ rj (59)
3.3 Boundary Conditions
Only the convection boundary condition will be considered, since the other boundary
conditions can be simulated by manipulating / and T
f
.
Consider the top (t) surface of a two-dimensional calculation domain.
Applying the 1st Law to the 1 cv:
w
+
s
conv
+ _ \ = 0 (60)
substituting expressions for the heat transfer rates gives:
/
w
w
0T
0r
w
/
s
s
0T
0j
s
+ /
e
e
0T
0r
e
/
t
conv
(T
P
T
t
1
) + _ rj = 0 (61)
Using a piecewise linear prole for T in the derivatives, and stepwise proles for T
and _ in the convection and source terms, respectively, Eq. (61) can be written as
follows:
/
w
j
(T
P
T
W
)
cr
w
/
s
r
(T
P
T
S
)
cj
s
+/
e
j
(T
E
T
P
)
cr
e
/
t
r
_
T
P
T
t
1
_
+ _ rj = 0
This equation can be written in the standard form:
a
P
T
P
= a
E
T
E
+ a
W
T
W
+ a
S
T
S
+ / (62)
where
a
E
=
/
e
j
cr
e
(63)
a
W
=
/
w
j
cr
w
(64)
a
S
=
/
s
r
cj
s
(65)
a
P
= a
E
+ a
W
+ a
S
+ /
t
r (66)
/ = _ rj + /
t
rT
t
1
(67)
Consider node 1 at the top (t) right (r) corner of a rectangular domain:
Applying the 1st Law to the 1 cv:
w
+
s
t
conv
r
conv
+ _ \ = 0 (68)
Using a piecewise linear prole for T in the conduction terms, and prevailing assump-
tions for T and _ in the convection and source terms, respectively:
/
w
j
(T
P
T
W
)
cr
w
/
s
r
(T
P
T
S
)
cj
s
/
t
(T
P
T
t
1
)r
/
r
(T
P
T
r
1
)j + _ rj = 0
Rewriting this equation in the standard form:
a
P
T
P
= a
W
T
W
+ a
S
T
S
+ / (69)
where
a
W
=
/
w
j
cr
w
(70)
a
S
=
/
s
r
cj
s
(71)
a
P
= a
W
+ a
S
+ /
t
r + /
r
j (72)
/ = _ rj + /
t
rT
t
1
+ /
r
jT
r
1
(73)
3.4 Solution of the Discretized Equations
3.4.1 The Discretized Equations
The discretized forms of the governing equations for two-dimensional, steady state
heat conduction problems in Cartesian co-ordinates have been derived.
For node (i, ,):
a
P
i;j
T
i;j
= a
E
i;j
T
i+1;j
+ a
N
i;j
T
i;j+1
+ a
W
i;j
T
i1;j
+ a
S
i;j
T
i;j1
+ /
i;j
(74)
The result is : : (i.e. number of nodes) simultaneous linear algebraic equations,
which when solved give a temperature distribution throughout the calculation domain.
3.4.2 Solution Algorithm
The solution algorithm followed by a numerical heat transfer program is as follows:
1. DATA
dene inputs
problem dependent
input the number of nodes, : and :, in the r and j directions, all /s, T
1
s,
and properties required to specify a problem
2. GRID
dene grid (discretization)
problem dependent
set up the (uniform or nonuniform) grid by specifying the r(i, ,) and j(i, ,)
co-ordinates of each (i, ,) node
all r, j, cr, and cj terms are dened later in COEFF
3. GAMSOR
dene thermophysical properties and sources
problem dependent
dene the thermal conductivities and source terms at each node in the mesh
4. COEFF
evaluate coecients (including boundary conditions)
problem independent
evaluate the coecients a
P
, a
E
, a
N
, a
W
, a
S
, and / for each node
use the harmonic mean for interface conductivities
evaluate coecients for boundary nodes using the convection boundary con-
dition
most ecient if all internal nodes (i = 2 (: 1) and , = 2 (:1))
are included in a loop, and separate loops are used for the boundaries (note:
the duplications that are present when programming)
5. SOLVE
solve the set of simultaneous linear algebraic equations
A TDMA can be used along each line in the mesh. The o line terms are
evaluated with available values of temperature and lumped into the /
i
term.
Iterations are required, because the o line terms are not correct until a
converged solution has been obtained
4 Some Details
4.1 Nonlinearities
The coecients of the discretized equations are dependent on the thermophysical
properties of the material in which heat is being conducted. These properties, e.g.
thermal conductivity, may be functions of temperature. Therefore, the coecients
and the temperature solution obtained from them will be incorrect until the correct
temperature eld (and properties) have been calculated. A nonlinearity has been
introduced due to the nonuniform thermal conductivity.
Another possible nonlinearity is that a source (or sink) may be dependent on temper-
ature. This dependence may be ignored, but that will slow convergence to a solution.
The source term may be linearized in a fashion to promote convergence.
4.1.1 Temperature Dependent Properties
Consider the case of heat conduction where the thermal conductivity, /, is a linear
function of T:
/ = /
o
+ , (T T
o
)
The previously derived coecients may be used, where the thermal conductivity is
evaluated at each node, and the harmonic mean is used to determine the interface
conductivity. However, since the nodal values determined for / will be incorrect
unless the correct T eld is obtained an iterative solution technique is required.
The original solution algorithm is:
DATA
GRID
GAMSOR
COEFF
SOLVE
To account for a T dependence of /, modify the algorithm as follows:
DATA
GRID
For i=1,#
+ GAMSOR
COEFF
SOLVE
End
The information in DATA and GRID will never change so those routines are visited
once to set up the problem.
A loop will be performed on GAMSOR (update nodal /s based on the current nodal
Ts), COEFF (evaluate coecients with latest available properties), and SOLVE (solve
the current set of discretized equations).
The loop is repeated until a converged solution is obtained.
This algorithm can be used in one- and two-dimensions.
4.1.2 Source Term Linearization
It is quite feasible that a source term will be dependent on temperature (e.g. chemical
reaction where the reaction rate is a function of temperature). The source term can
be taken as a constant evaluated with the currently available nodal Ts. But if we
are creating a linear equation for T, why not create a linear function for the source
term? This will accelerate the convergence.
So, dene the source term _ as a linear function of temperature:
_ = o
C
+ o
P
T (75)
This denition of _ will modify the a
P
and / coecients of the discretized equations.
For example the one-dimensional equations would become:
a
P
T
P
= a
E
T
E
+ a
W
T
W
+ /
where
a
E
=
/
e
cr
e
a
W
=
/
w
cr
w
a
P
= a
E
+ a
W
o
P
r (76)
/ = o
C
r (77)
The modied two-dimensional equations will be shown later.
If o
C
and o
P
themselves are not functions of T, the original solution algorithm is
used. If they are a function of T then the algorithm shown for nonlinear / would be
used.
4.2 Discretization
Thus far we have assumed (for convenience) that control volume faces are placed
midway between nodes:
Note: If the grid is nonuniform the node associated with a control volume will not
be located at the geometric center of the control volume. Why is this an issue?
Remember that properties (e.g. /) and source terms are evaluated using the nodal
temperatures. Is that nodal value a good representation of a value prevailing over
the volume if it is not evaluated using a centroidal value?
To avoid this problem, the calculation domain can be discretized with a set of volumes,
and the nodes can be placed at the geometric center of each volume:
This discretization gives a better approximation for values assumed to prevail over a
volume.
However, if piecewise linear proles are used for T, and cv faces are midway between
nodes, the gradient between two nodes is the same as that for a parabolic function
between the nodes, i.e. the method we have developed would give the exact solution
for a one-dimensional, steady uniform source, uniform / problem! If cv faces are not
midway between nodes we do not get this accuracy.
Given that modern commercial codes are based on nite element discretizations, I do
not believe that volumes are constructed rst, also, given the potential for skewed
nonuniform meshes it is impossible to place cv faces midway between nodes, so this
is a non-issue.
If the cv faces are not midway between nodes this would aect how the interface
thermal conductivity is calculated:
Consider the case where the cv face is not midway between nodes:
The heat ux at the c face is:
e
=
/
e
(T
P
T
E
)
(cr)
e
If the cv face is the interface between two materials having dierent thermal
conductivities, /
P
and /
E
, then the resistance analogy can be used to give:
e
=
(T
P
T
E
)
(cr)
e
,/
P
+ (cr)
e+
,/
E
Dening the length ratio:
)
e
=
(cr)
e+
(cr)
e
then:
/
e
=
_
1 )
e
/
P
+
)
e
/
E
_
1
(78)
If the cv face is midway between nodes 1 and 1, )
e
= 0.5 and:
/
e
=
2/
P
/
E
/
P
+ /
E
as before.
4.3 Golden Rules
To aid in the development of a discretization method it would be helpful to have some
guiding principles. Any eective discretization should give the same solution with a
suitably rened grid. However, since we are using a consersative method (i.e. based
on conservation principles) it would be useful to specify that any discretization used
would guarantee: (1) physically realistic behaviour; and (2) overall balance.
Physical realism would require that a solution on even a coarse grid would be physically
realistic. For example, consider one-dimensional heat conduction with no source. The
temperature should decrease between two nodes.
Since the method is based on conservation laws applied to individual control volumes,
when all of these control volumes are added to give the total calculation domain
volume, conservation must be maintained. This would imply that we would have to
guarantee the consistency of uxes between control volumes.
These guiding principles help to dene the following four rules:
1. Consistency at control volume faces
When a cv face is common to two control volumes, the ux across it must be
represented by the same expression in the discretization equation for each of
the control volumes.
The use of the piecewise linear prole for T and the interface thermal con-
ductivity help provide this consistency.
2. Positive coecients
All a
P
and a
nb
coecients should be positive. Actually they should all be
of the same sign, positive is more conventional than negative. If the sign
of a
p
is not the same as a particular a
nb
then an increase in T
nb
leads to a
decrease in T
P
. This is not physically realistic.
3. Negative o
P
The source term has been linearized as follows:
_ = o
C
+ o
P
T
and the a
P
coecient is:
a
P
= a
E
+ a
W
o
P
r
Obviously if o
P
0 it is possible for a
P
< 0 which would violate Rule 2 and
lead to unrealistic solutions.
Also, if o
P
0, an increase in T would increase _ , which would increase
T and the system would become unstable. Physically, whatever you are
simulating would melt. This is not physically realistic.
4. Sum of the neighbour coecients
When the the solutions T and T +c are both satisfy the governing dierential
equations (which they do for Laplaces equation), it is required that:
a
P
=

a
nb
This would guarantee that if the boundary temperatures were increased by
a constant, all other temperatures would increase by the same constant, i.e.
physical realism.
5 Transient Problems
Thus far the discretization method has been applied to steady state situations only.
What changes are required to simulate transient situations?
Consider one-dimensional transient heat conduction with nonuniform / and no source
term:
0
0r
_
/
0T
0r
_
= jc
0T
0t
(79)
Time is a one-way co-ordinate, i.e. current temperatures are only functions of previous
values. This will allow a time marching procedure, i.e. given the values at a previous
time t what are the values at the new time t + t. Use the superscript
o
to denote
values at time t, i.e. T
o
P
, T
o
E
and T
o
W
, and no superscript to designate values at time
t + t, (T
P
, T
E
, T
W
).
To derive the discretization equation integrate the dierential equation over a control
volume (from n to c faces).
_
t+t
t
_
e
w
0
0r
_
/
0T
0r
_
drdt = jc
_
e
w
_
t+t
t
0T
0t
dtdr (80)
where the order of the integration depends on the nature of the term.
For the transient term assume the nodal value prevails over the control volume:
jc
_
e
w
_
t+t
t
0T
0t
dtdr = jcr(T
P
T
o
P
) (81)
Using the practices developed for steady state problems:
_
t+t
t
_
e
w
0
0r
_
/
0T
0r
_
drdt =
_
t+t
t
_
/
e
(T
E
T
P
)
cr
e
/
w
(T
P
T
W
)
cr
w
_
dt (82)
How do T
P
, T
E
and T
W
vary with time from t to t + t? Dene:
_
t+t
t
T
P
dt = [)T
P
+ (1 )) T
o
P
] t (83)
where ) is a weighting factor between 0 and 1.
The discretized equation can bewritten as:
)
_
/
e
(T
E
T
P
)
cr
e
/
w
(T
P
T
W
)
cr
w
_
+(1 ))
_
/
e
(T
o
E
T
o
P
)
cr
e
/
w
(T
o
P
T
o
W
)
cr
w
_
= jc
r
t
(T
P
T
o
P
)
which can be rearranged into something that looks like our standard form:
a
P
T
P
= a
E
[)T
E
+ (1 )) T
o
E
]+a
W
[)T
W
+ (1 )) T
o
W
]+[a
o
P
(1 )) a
E
(1 )) a
W
] T
o
P
(84)
where
a
E
=
/
e
cr
e
(85)
a
W
=
/
w
cr
w
(86)
a
o
P
= jc
r
t
(87)
a
P
= )a
E
+ )a
W
+ a
o
P
(88)
5.1 Explicit, Crank-Nicolson and Fully Implicit Schemes
The type of time integration scheme is dened by the value of the weighting function
).
Explicit scheme () = 0)
The explicit scheme assumes that the old value (T
o
P
) prevails over the entire time
step except at t + t
Fully implicit scheme () = 1)
The fully implicit scheme assumes the value suddenly drops to the new value
(T
P
) which then prevails over the entire time step
Crank-Nicolson scheme () = 0.5)
The Crank-Nicolson scheme assumes that a linear variation of T
P
during the
time step. This would seem to be the sensible one.
For the explict scheme the discretized equation becomes:
a
P
T
P
= a
E
T
o
E
+ a
W
T
o
W
+ (a
o
P
a
E
a
W
) T
o
P
i.e. T
P
is not related to T
E
and T
W
at the new time step, but can be calculated
explicitly from previous values.
PROBLEM: Remember Rule 2 requiring positive coecients. Note that the coe-
cient multiplying T
o
P
can become negative (T
o
P
is considered a neighbour node of T
P
in the time direction). To guarantee positive coecients the time step would have to
be small.
a
o
P
a
E
+ a
W
jc
r
t

/
e
cr
e
+
/
w
cr
w
Assume, for convenience, /
e
= /
w
= / and cr
e
= cr
w
= r:
jc
r
t

2/
r
t <
jc (r)
2
2/
(89)
If this time step is exceeded, physically unrealistic solutions can arise due to the
negative coecient on T
o
P
. Note: as a grid is rened for a more accurate solution the
time step must be reduced.
The Crank-Nicolson scheme is dened as unconditionally stable, which means that it
will give a solution, but not necessarily a physically realistic one. For this scheme
the coecient multiplying T
o
P
is a
o
P
(a
E
+ a
W
) ,2. Again there is the potential for
a negative coecient on T
o
P
, which can lead to unrealistic solutions.
The only way to guarantee the coecient multiplying T
o
P
is positive (i.e. satisfy Rule
2) is to set ) = 1, i.e. use the fully implicit scheme. Note: for small time steps the
Crank-Nicolson scheme is more accurate.
6 Discretization Equations for Heat Conduction
We are now ready to write the discretization equations for transient heat conduction
in materials with nonuniform properties and source terms.
6.1 One-Dimension
The governing equation for transient one-dimensional heat conduction in materials
with nonuniform properties and source terms is:
0
0r
_
/
0T
0r
_
+ _ = jc
0T
0t
(90)
Using all of the approximations developed the discretized equations for one-dimensional
conduction are:
a
P
T
P
= a
E
T
E
+ a
W
T
W
+ / (91)
where
a
E
=
/
e
cr
e
(92)
a
W
=
/
w
cr
w
(93)
a
o
P
= jc
r
t
(94)
/ = o
C
r + a
o
P
T
o
P
(95)
a
P
= a
E
+ a
W
+ a
o
P
o
P
r (96)
6.2 Two-Dimensions
The governing equation for transient two-dimensional heat conduction in materials
with nonuniform properties and source terms is:
0
0r
_
/
0T
0r
_
+
0
0j
_
/
0T
0j
_
+ _ = jc
0T
0t
(97)
Using all of the approximations developed the discretized equations for two-dimensional
conduction are:
a
P
T
P
= a
E
T
E
+ a
N
T
N
+ a
W
T
W
+ a
S
T
S
+ / (98)
where
a
E
=
/
e
j
cr
e
(99)
a
N
=
/
n
r
cj
n
(100)
a
W
=
/
w
j
cr
w
(101)
a
S
=
/
s
r
cj
s
(102)
a
o
P
= jc
rj
t
(103)
/ = o
C
rj + a
o
P
T
o
P
(104)
a
P
= a
E
+ a
N
+ a
W
+ a
S
+ a
o
P
o
P
rj (105)
6.3 Solution Algorithms
6.3.1 Steady-State, No Nonlinearities
This is the simplest case as no iterations or time stepping is required. The solution
algorithm is:
DATA
GRID
GAMSOR
COEFF
SOLVE
6.3.2 Steady-State, Temperature Dependent Properties
To account for a T dependence of / (or other properties such as o
C
or o
P
), modify
the steady-state algorithm as follows:
DATA
GRID
For i=1,#
+ GAMSOR
COEFF
SOLVE
End
The properties would be updated in GAMSOR. The loop is completed # times until
convergence (see discussion below).
6.3.3 Transient, No Nonlinearities
To simulate transient problems, a time stepping procedure is required. The algorithm
would be:
DATA
GRID
GAMSOR
For t=t
init
: t : t
end
+ COEFF
SOLVE
End
Note: no iterations are required per time step as the properties are not functions of
T.
6.3.4 Transient, Temperature Dependent Properties
To account for a T dependence of / (or other properties such as o
C
or o
P
), modify
the transient algorithm as follows:
DATA
GRID
For t=t
init
: t : t
end
+ For i=1,#
GAMSOR
COEFF
SOLVE
End
End
Note: iterations are required at each time step to update the temperature dependent
properties and coecients. The iterations continue until convergence (see discussion
below).
6.4 Convergence
The residual of the discretized equation for each node can be evaluated as follows:
1 =

a
P
T
P

a
nb
T
nb
/
(106)
If the discretization gives an exact approximation of the governing equation and the
exact answer for T is used the residual would be zero. If an approximate solution for
T is used 1 0. The magnitude of 1 is an indication of how close the approximate
solution is to the "correct" solution. In an iterative solution algorithm "correct"
implies converged as the discretized equation is an approximation to the governing
equation, so even if the exact answer is used there will still be a residual.
How can the residual be used?
1. To terminate the iterations in algorithms with temperature dependent properties.
During each iteration the residual would be evaluated at all nodes in the
mesh.
The iterations would terminate when the sum of all residuals (or mean, or
maximum) is below a certain threshold.
The threshold would be determined by performing test runs to determine
how many iterations are required to obtain a suitably converged solution.
This information would then be correlated with the size of the residuals.
2. To terminate iterations in an iterative solver
The TDMA gives a solution for all unknowns along a line. The one-
dimensional application of the TDMA is not iterative. The two-dimensional
TDMA is iterative, however, as it is used to solve along lines in the mesh,
with o-line terms evaluated with latest available values. Each line is visited
in turn (both i and j lines). One iteration of the solver consists of a sweep of
all mesh lines in the domain. The iterations are continued until a suitably
converged solution is obtained. The term "suitably converged" would have
dierent interpretations depending on the algorithm used.
(a) Steady-State or Transient, No Nonlinearities: In this algorithm the prop-
erties are not functions of temperature, and the coecients are evaluated
once. The TDMA is then used to solve the equations to convergence.
Iterations in the TDMA would stop when the sum of all residuals (or
mean, or maximum) is below a certain threshold (as in (1) above).
(b) Steady-State or Transient, Temperature Dependent Properties: In this
algorithm the properties are temperature dependent, therefore, the co-
ecients are not correct until a converged solution is obtained. Here
it would be wasteful to solve the equations (with incorrect coecients)
to convergence. A faster solution can be obtained by solving the equa-
tons until the residuals (or mean, or maximum) is a fraction of that at
the beginning of the iterations. In other words, evaluate the residuals
before the iterations begin in the TDMA (i.e. with new coecients and
old solution), then evaluate the residuals during each iteration of the
TDMA. Evaluate the ratio (current residuals)/(initial residuals) and
compare this ratio to some threshold. When the ratio is below a thresh-
old stop the iterations in the TDMA and begin another iteration in the
iterative solution algorithm. To determine when to stop the iterations
in the solution algorithm compare the current residuals (or mean, or
maximum) in the TDMA to a threshold (as in (1) above). Note: there
are two thresholds here, a ratio and a magnitude.
6.5 Under-relaxation
In an iterative solution algorithm the coecients change between iterations. The
new coecients depend on the new solution eld for T. Depending on the quality
of the initial guess eld for T, grid renement and magnitude of the coecients there
may be a large change in T between iterations. This would lead to a large change in
coecients, and another large change of T, etc. The solution may diverge. To counter
this possibility of divergence the change in T between iterations can be controlled.
The two-dimensional TDMA is iterative, and large changes in T between solver iter-
ations can also lead to divergence.
The standard form of our discretized equation is:
a
P
T
P
=

a
nb
T
nb
+ /
which can be rearranged to:
T
P
=
a
nb
T
nb
+ /
a
P
Add and subtract T
P
, the value from the previous iteration, on the right side of the
equation:
T
P
= T
P
+
_
a
nb
T
nb
+ /
a
P
T
P
_
The bracketed terms are the change in T
P
in the current iteration. The change can
be modied by using the relaxation parameter c:
T
P
= T
P
+ c
_
a
nb
T
nb
+ /
a
P
T
P
_
where the change is reduced for c < 1 (under-relaxation) and the change is increased
for c 1 (over-relaxation). This equation can be rearranged to look like our standard
form:
a
P
c
T
P
=

a
nb
T
nb
+ / + (1 c)
a
P
c
T
P
(107)
Note: when the solution is converged T
P
= T
P
and we get the original discretization
equation.
Modication of the coecients in the discretized equations as shown will slow down
changes in T
P
and help promote stability for iterative algorithms and solvers. There
is an optimum value of c that will give the quickest solution, however, the actual
value can vary between problems. Generally you will nd a range of c below which
the solution takes too long, and above which the solution becomes unstable.
7 Equations
7.1 General Scalar Transport Equation
The equation governing the transport of a scalar c can be written as:
0 (jc)
0t
+

\ (jnc) =

\
\c + o (108)
The rst term is the unsteady or transient term. The second term is the convection
term, i.e. transport due to bulk uid motion. The third term is the diusion term,
i.e. transport due to a gradient driven process. The fourth term is the source or
generation term. This general form of the scalar transport equation can be used to
model many equations of natural processes.
7.2 Mass Conservation
The mass conservation or continuity equation can be written as:
0j
0t
+
0(jn)
0r
+
0(j)
0j
+
0(jn)
0.
= 0
or in vector form
0j
0t
+

\ (jn) = 0 (109)
The general scalar transport equation models this equation if j = 1, c = j (in the
continuity equation), and = o = 0.
7.3 Momentum Equations
The rmometum (or r component of the Navier-Stokes) equation is:
0 (jn)
0t
+
0(jnn)
0r
+
0(jn)
0j
+
0(jnn)
0.
=
0j
0r
+ 2
0
0r
_
j
0n
0r
_
2
3
0
0r
_
j
_
0n
0r
+
0
0j
+
0n
0.
__
+
0
0j
_
j
_
0
0r
+
0n
0j
__
+
0
0.
_
j
_
0n
0.
+
0n
0r
__
+ jq
x
Expanding the right side of the equation:
0 (jn)
0t
+
0(jnn)
0r
+
0(jn)
0j
+
0(jnn)
0.
=
0j
0r
+
0
0r
_
j
0n
0r
_
+
0
0j
_
j
0n
0j
_
+
0
0.
_
j
0n
0.
_
2
3
0
0r
_
j
_
0n
0r
+
0
0j
+
0n
0.
__
+
0
0r
_
j
0n
0r
_
+
0
0j
_
j
0
0r
_
+
0
0.
_
j
0n
0r
_
+ jq
x
Which can be written as:
0 (jn)
0t
+
0(jnn)
0r
+
0(jn)
0j
+
0(jnn)
0.
=
0j
0r
+
0
0r
_
j
0n
0r
_
+
0
0j
_
j
0n
0j
_
+
0
0.
_
j
0n
0.
_
+o
u
or in vector form
0 (jn)
0t
+

\ (jnn) =

\ j
\n + o
u
0j
0r
(110)
where o
u
contains all stress terms not included in the diusion term:
o
u
=
2
3
0
0r
_
j
_
0n
0r
+
0
0j
+
0n
0.
__
+
0
0r
_
j
0n
0r
_
+
0
0j
_
j
0
0r
_
+
0
0.
_
j
0n
0r
_
+jq
x
The general scalar transport equation models this equation if c = n, and = j and
o = o
u
@p
@x
.
Note: o
u
simplies to a more familiar form when j is uniform:
o
u
=
1
3
j
0
0r
_
0n
0r
+
0
0j
+
0n
0.
_
+ jq
x
=
1
3
j
0
0r
_
\ n
_
+ jq
x
and if the uid is incompressible:
o
u
= jq
x
7.4 Energy Equation
The energy equation can be written as:
0 (jc
p
T)
0t
+

\ (jc
p
nT) =

\ /
\T + (111)
where is the viscous dissipation term:
= j
_
2
_
0n
0r
_
2
+ 2
_
0
0j
_
2
+ 2
_
0n
0.
_
2
+
_
0
0r
+
0n
0j
_
2
+
_
0n
0j
+
0
0.
_
2
+
_
0n
0.
+
0n
0r
_
2
_
2
3
j
_
0n
0r
+
0
0j
+
0n
0.
_
2
This equation has the same form as the general scalar transport equation when c = T,
j = jc
p
, = / and o = .
Note: the viscous dissipation term causes frictional heating, and is signicant with
large velcoity gradients (i.e a vehicle travelling at very high speeds). Usually it is
neglected. The validity of neglecting will be proven later when the nondimensional
form of the energy equation is presented.
7.5 Summary
The equations that govern heat transfer and uid ow can be cast in the form of a
general scalar transport equation. If a discretization method can be developed for
the general scalar transport equation we will have a method that can be applied to
all of the equations of interest.
8 General Discretization Procedure
Dene a convection diusion ux

J:
J = jnc
\c (112)
The general scalar transport equation can be written as:
0 (jc)
0t
+

\

J = o (113)
and for steady state:
\

J = o (114)
This is a very simple form of the governing equation for convection diusion processes.
If this equation is integrated over a volume:
_
V
\

Jd\ =
_
V
od\ (115)
Using Gauss divergence theorem:
_
V
\

Jd\ =
_
s
J :d: (116)
which converts the volume integral of the divergence of

J into the integral of the ux
J across the surface of the volume. The normal : is perpendicular to the surface :
and points out of the control volume. In eect this equation determines the net rate
of transport of c out of a control volume. So the volume integral of the governing
equation has become.
_
s
J :d: =
_
V
od\ (117)
i.e. net rate of transport out equals the rate of generation (for steady state).
Lets look at this in the context of a one-dimensional situation. Apply the equation
to the control volume shown below:
In a one-dimensional situation the area of the control volume faces can be set to 1,
and the ux is uniform over the control volume face. The normal points out of the
control volume. The ux

J is dened in the positive r direction. Then the integrated
equation becomes:
J
e
J
w
= or (118)
where the source term has been assumed uniform over the control volume to perform
the integral (i.e. stepwise prole). Note: the negative sign on J
w
arises because the
normals always point out of the control volume, and the uxes are always dened in
the positive r direction.
The uxes on the east and west faces are:
J
e
= j
e
n
e
c
e
e
dc
dr
e
(119)
J
w
= j
w
n
w
c
w
w
dc
dr
w
(120)
So:
j
e
n
e
c
e
e
dc
dr
e
j
w
n
w
c
w
+
w
dc
dr
w
= or (121)
To dene an algebraic approximation to this equation we need prole assumptions for
c. Since we havent considered convection yet, lets assume there is no uid ow, so
n
e
= n
w
= 0, and the process will reduce to a diusion process:
e
dc
dr
e
+
w
dc
dr
w
= or (122)
Assume a piecewise linear prole for c between two nodes, then:
dc
dr
e
=
c
E
c
P
cr
e
;
dc
dr
w
=
c
P
c
W
cr
w
(123)
and
e
c
E
c
P
cr
e
+
w
c
P
c
W
cr
w
= or (124)
which can be rearranged into the following general form:
a
P
c
P
= a
E
c
E
+ a
W
c
W
+ / (125)
where
a
E
=

e
cr
e
(126)
a
W
=

w
cr
w
(127)
a
P
=

e
cr
e
+

w
cr
w
= a
E
+ a
W
=

a
nb
(128)
/ = or (129)
Compare this to our previous derivation of the discretized equation for steady one-
dimensional heat conduction (set c = T, = / and o = _ ). We have derived
a discretized form of the equation that governs any diusion process (steady state,
one-dimensional), i.e.:
d
dr
_
dc
dr
_
+ o = 0 (130)
Next we look at the convection terms.
9 Convection and Diusion
Convection arises due to a uid ow. In the following derivations the uid ow eld
will be assumed known.
We have studied the diusion, source and transient terms in the context of conduction
heat transfer.
The equations governing uid ow have been cast in the form of a general convection-
diusion scalar transport equation. You will nd that convection and diusion are
strongly linked as the relative magnitudes of convection and diusion have a signicant
eect on how we should model both the convection and diusion terms.
9.1 One-Dimensional Convection and Diusion
Consider steady, one-dimensional convection and diusion transport of a scalar c in
the absence of any source terms. The equation governing the transport of c can be
written as:
dJ
dr
= 0 (131)
where J is the convection-diusion ux of c in the r direction:
J = jnc
dc
dr
(132)
The uid ow must satisfy mass conservation (or the continuity equation):
d (jn)
dr
= 0 (133)
i.e. the mass ux, jn, is constant.
Using our standard nomenclature for discretization of a one-dimensional domain:
The governing equation can be inegrated over the control volume:
_
s
J :d: = 0 (134)
As before, in a one-dimensional situation the area of the control volume faces can be
set to 1, and the ux is uniform over the control volume face. The normal points out
of the control volume. Then the integrated equation becomes:
J
e
J
w
= 0 (135)
The uxes on the east and west faces are:
J
e
= j
e
n
e
c
e
e
dc
dr
e
J
w
= j
w
n
w
c
w
w
dc
dr
w
So:
j
e
n
e
c
e
e
dc
dr
e
j
w
n
w
c
w
+
w
dc
dr
w
= 0 (136)
Assume a piecewise linear prole for c between two nodes to dene the diusion terms:
dc
dr
e
=
c
E
c
P
cr
e
;
dc
dr
w
=
c
P
c
W
cr
w
The continuity equation denes j
e
n
e
= j
w
n
w
. How are the interface values of c
e
and
c
w
to be evaluated?
9.1.1 Piecewise Linear Convection Approximation
Lets try the seemingly sensible assumption of a piecewise linear approximation. If
we assume (for convenience) that the cv faces are midway between the nodes:
c
e
=
c
E
+ c
P
2
c
w
=
c
P
+ c
W
2
Then the discretized equation can be written as:
j
e
n
e
c
E
+ c
P
2

e
c
E
c
P
cr
e
j
w
n
w
c
P
+ c
W
2
+
w
c
P
c
W
cr
w
= 0
which can be rearranged into the following general form:
a
P
c
P
= a
E
c
E
+ a
W
c
W
(137)
where
a
E
=

e
cr
e

j
e
n
e
2
(138)
a
W
=

w
cr
w
+
j
w
n
w
2
(139)
a
P
=

e
cr
e
+
j
e
n
e
2
+

w
cr
w

j
w
n
w
2
= a
E
+ a
W
+ (j
e
n
e
j
w
n
w
) (140)
From the continuity equation (j
e
n
e
j
w
n
w
) = 0, therefore, Rule 4 is satised since
a
P
= a
E
+ a
W
.
The ow may be from left to right (positive n by our convention) or right to left
(negative n). It is possible that either a
E
or a
W
can be less than zero, which would
violate Rule 2 (all positive coecients). This would lead to unrealistice solutions.
Assuming
e
=
w
= , and cr
e
= cr
w
= cr, this would occur when:
jn(cr,2)
1 (141)
Note: this expression has the same form as the Reynolds number: Re = jn1,j. It is
the measure of the relative strengths of convection to diusion. For a general scalar
variable c we use the Peclet number:
1c =
jn1
(142)
where 1 is characteristic dimension.
This would limit the method to low grid Peclet numbers.
The method derived above is what results from a central-dierence (or Taylors se-
ries based) method. All codes based on a central-dierence formulation suer this
problem. The problem arises mathematical but it really stems from the fact that
the piecewise linear prole is not a good approximation of the behaviour of c in the
presence of a uid ow.
9.1.2 Exact Solution
The governing equation can be solved analytically if is assumed constant (jn is
constant from continuity). Consider a domain 0 _ r _ 1, with boundary conditions:
c(r = 0) = c
0
c(r = 1) = c
L
The solution is:
c c
0
c
L
c
0
=
exp(1c (r,1)) 1
exp(1c) 1
(143)
Plotting this solution for various values of 1c:
Note:
The behaviour of c is linear for 1c = 0 only (i.e. no ow, pure diusion, as
should be expected)
As 1c is increased the solution diverges strongly from the linear behaviour.
For 1c 1 the upstream value of c would give a good approximation of c at
1,2. Also note that the gradient dc,dr ~ 0 at 1,2.
9.1.3 Upwind Scheme
One of the rst attempts to model the upwind nature of the convection term was to
use an upwind scheme. In this scheme a piecewise linear approximation was used for
the diusion terms, and the upwind value of c was used to dene the interface value
of c.
Since the ow can be left or right, the upwind scheme would imply c
e
= c
P
when
(jn)
e
0, and c
e
= c
E
when (jn)
e
< 0, and vice versa for the west interface.
Assuming ow in the positive r direction, the discretized equation can be written as:
j
e
n
e
c
P

e
c
E
c
P
cr
e
j
w
n
w
c
W
+
w
c
P
c
W
cr
w
= 0
If the ow is in the negative r direction:
j
e
n
e
c
E
e
c
E
c
P
cr
e
j
w
n
w
c
P
+
w
c
P
c
W
cr
w
= 0
Both equations can be written in a single form if we dene |, 1| to mean the
maximum of and 1, then:
j
e
n
e
c
e
= c
P
| (jn)
e
, 0| c
E
| (jn)
e
, 0|
j
w
n
w
c
w
= c
W
| (jn)
w
, 0| c
P
| (jn)
w
, 0|
So the discretized equation can bewritten as:
(c
P
| (jn)
e
, 0| c
E
| (jn)
e
, 0|)
e
c
E
c
P
cr
e
(c
W
| (jn)
w
, 0| c
P
| (jn)
w
, 0|) +
w
c
P
c
W
cr
w
= 0
which can be rearranged into the standard form:
a
P
c
P
= a
E
c
E
+ a
W
c
W
where
a
E
=

e
cr
e
+| (jn)
e
, 0| (144)
a
W
=

w
cr
w
+| (jn)
w
, 0| (145)
a
P
=

e
cr
e
+| (jn)
e
, 0| +

w
cr
w
| (jn)
w
, 0|
= a
E
+ a
W
+ (j
e
n
e
j
w
n
w
) (146)
Note:
None of the coecients can be negative, therefore, Rule 2 is satised, and realistic
solutions will arise.
Rule 4 is satised.
The upwind scheme is a very straightforward approximation to the exact solution.
Since it uses piecewise linear approximation to the diusion term it will overes-
timate diusion gradients for high 1c number ows. Remember dc,dr ~ 0 at
1,2 for 1c 1. It will also overestimate the inuence of the upstream nodal c
on the interface value of c for low 1c ows.
9.1.4 Exponential Scheme
What happens if the exact solution is used to evaluate the convection-diusion ux
at a control volume face? Consider the exact solution applied between nodes 1 and
1. The domain would be 0 _ r _ cr
e
, and the boundary conditions would be:
c(r = 0) = c
P
c(r = cr
e
) = c
E
The solution is:
c c
P
c
E
c
P
=
exp(1c
e
(r,cr
e
)) 1
exp(1c
e
) 1
(147)
where:
1c
e
=
j
e
n
e
cr
e
e
(148)
Evaluating the convection-diusion ux at the c face:
J
e
= j
e
n
e
c
e
e
dc
dr
e
J
e
= j
e
n
e
_
c
P
+ (c
E
c
P
)
_
exp(1c
e
(r
e
,cr
e
)) 1
exp(1c
e
) 1
__
e
_
(c
E
c
P
)
1c
e
cr
e
_
exp(1c
e
(r
e
,cr
e
))
exp(1c
e
) 1
__
= j
e
n
e
_
c
P
+
c
P
c
E
exp(1c
e
) 1
_
(149)
Similarly, on the west face:
J
w
= j
w
n
w
_
c
W
+
c
W
c
P
exp(1c
w
) 1
_
(150)
Note: these expressions for the uxes at the east and west cv faces are not dependent
on the location of the face between the relevant nodes!
The discretized equation can be written as:
j
e
n
e
_
c
P
+
c
P
c
E
exp(1c
e
) 1
_
j
w
n
w
_
c
W
+
c
W
c
P
exp(1c
w
) 1
_
= 0
which can be written in the standard form:
a
P
c
P
= a
E
c
E
+ a
W
c
W
where
a
E
=
j
e
n
e
exp(1c
e
) 1
(151)
a
W
=
j
w
n
w
exp(1c
w
)
exp(1c
w
) 1
(152)
a
P
=
j
e
n
e
exp(1c
e
)
exp (1c
e
) 1
+
j
w
n
w
exp(1c
w
) 1
= a
E
+ a
W
+ (j
e
n
e
j
w
n
w
) (153)
If these coecients are used to simulate the steady, one-dimensional, no source, uni-
form problem the solution returned will be the analytical solution for any number
of nodes.
This scheme is not exact for multi-dimensions or in problems with a source term, so
two approximations were developed to allow quicker computations.
9.1.5 Hybrid Scheme
The hybrid scheme is a simple approximation to the behaviour of the coecients using
the exponential scheme. First, consider the behaviour of the coecient a
E
, or its
dimensionless form a
E
, (
e
,cr
e
) for the exponential scheme:
a
E
e
,cr
e
=
1c
e
exp(1c
e
) 1
For ow in the positive r direction 1c
e
0, the 1 node would be the downstream
neighbour, and its inuence decreases as 1c
e
increases. For ow in the negative r
direction 1c
e
< 0, the 1 node would be the upstream neighbour, and its inuence
increases as [1c
e
[ increases.
The hybrid scheme uses three straight lines to approximate the exact solution:
For 1c
e
< 2:
a
E
e
,cr
e
= 1c
e
(154)
For 2 _ 1c
e
_ 2, the tangent to the curve at 1c
e
= 0 is used:
a
E
e
,cr
e
= 1
1c
e
2
(155)
For 1c
e
2:
a
E
e
,cr
e
= 0 (156)
These three functions can be combined as follows:
a
E
=

e
cr
e
| 1c
e
, 1
1c
e
2
, 0|
or:
a
E
= | j
e
n
e
,

e
cr
e

j
e
n
e
2
, 0| (157)
Using the hybrid scheme, the discretized equation is:
a
P
c
P
= a
E
c
E
+ a
W
c
W
where
a
E
= | j
e
n
e
,

e
cr
e

j
e
n
e
2
, 0| (158)
a
W
= |j
w
n
w
,

w
cr
w
+
j
w
n
w
2
, 0| (159)
a
P
= a
E
+ a
W
+ (j
e
n
e
j
w
n
w
) (160)
Note:
Once again the discretization does not depend on the location of the cv faces
between nodes.
Rules 2 and 4 are satised.
It behaves like the central-dierence scheme for 2 _ 1c _ 2.
For [1c[ 2 it behaves like an upwind scheme where the diusion term is set to
zero.
It is a hybrid of the central-dierence and upwind schemes.
9.1.6 Power Law
A better approximation to the exact solution can be obtained by using a curve to
approximate the behaviour of a
E
in the region of 1c
e
~ 0. The power law scheme
can be dened as follows:
For 1c
e
< 10:
a
E
e
,cr
e
= 1c
e
(161)
For 10 _ 1c
e
_ 0:
a
E
e
,cr
e
= (1 + 0.11c
e
)
5
1c
e
(162)
For 0 < 1c
e
_ 10:
a
E
e
,cr
e
= (1 0.11c
e
)
5
(163)
For 1c
e
10:
a
E
e
,cr
e
= 0 (164)
These four functions can be combined as follows:
a
E
=

e
cr
e
|0,
_
1
0.1 [j
e
n
e
[
e
,cr
e
_
5
| +|0, j
e
n
e
| (165)
9.1.7 Comparison of the Five Schemes
Consider the case where c
E
= 1, c
W
= 0,
e
=
w
= , cr
e
= cr
w
= cr, therefore,
1c
e
= 1c
w
= 1c. The ve schemes would give the following values for c
P
as a
function of 1c:
Note:
All schemes give realistic values except for the central-dierence scheme. The
central-dierence scheme could be made to work by rening the grid such that
the grid Peclet number [1c[ < 2, however, that is usually not feasible.
The power law and exponential scheme give pretty much the same result.
The hybrid scheme approximates the exponential scheme fairly well, except in
the transition regions.
the upwind scheme smears the solution at high grid Peclet numbers as it overes-
timates the diusion term.
9.2 Transient, One-Dimensional Convection and Diusion
Consider the more general case of transient, one-dimensional convection diusion in
the presence of a source term. The governing equation is:
0 (jc)
0t
+
0J
0r
= o (166)
J = jnc
dc
dr
The domain discretization is:
Integrating the governing equation over a control volume r and time step t:
_
e
w
_
t+t
t
0 (jc)
0t
dtdr +
_
t+t
t
_
e
w
0J
0r
drdt =
_
t+t
t
_
e
w
odrdt (167)
For the transient term assume the nodal value prevails over the control volume:
_
e
w
_
t+t
t
0 (jc)
0t
dtdr = r(j
P
c
P
j
o
c
o
P
)
where the superscript
o
indicates the value at time t.
Using fully implicit time integration, the integral of the ux term is:
_
t+t
t
_
e
w
0J
0r
drdt =
_
t+t
t
(J
e
J
w
) dt = (J
e
J
w
) t
where J
e
and J
w
are evaluated at the new time t + t.
The source term is linearized as o = o
C
+o
P
c
P
, the nodal value is assumed to prevail
over the control volume, and fully implicit time integration is used:
_
t+t
t
_
e
w
odrdt = (o
C
+ o
P
c
P
) rt
So the integrated equation can be written as:
(j
P
c
P
j
o
P
c
o
P
)
r
t
+ (J
e
J
w
) = (o
C
+ o
P
c
P
) r (168)
Using the exponential scheme:
(j
P
c
P
j
o
P
c
o
P
)
r
t
+ j
e
n
e
_
c
P
+
c
P
c
E
exp(1c
e
) 1
_
j
w
n
w
_
c
W
+
c
W
c
P
exp(1c
w
) 1
_
= (o
C
+ o
P
c
P
) r
To clean things up, use the following from the steady state derivations:
a
E
=
j
e
n
e
exp(1c
e
) 1
a
W
=
j
w
n
w
exp(1c
w
)
exp(1c
w
) 1
a
P
=
j
e
n
e
exp(1c
e
)
exp (1c
e
) 1
+
j
w
n
w
exp(1c
w
) 1
= a
E
+ a
W
+ (j
e
n
e
j
w
n
w
)
Then:
(j
P
c
P
j
o
P
c
o
P
)
r
t
+(a
E
+ a
W
+ (j
e
n
e
j
w
n
w
)) c
P
= a
E
c
E
+a
W
c
W
+(o
C
+ o
P
c
P
) r
or
_
j
P
r
t
+ j
e
n
e
j
w
n
w
_
c
P
+ (a
E
+ a
W
o
P
r) c
P
(169)
= a
E
c
E
+ a
W
c
W
+ o
C
r + j
o
P
c
o
P
r
t
This sort of looks like our usual standard form, but there are extra terms on the left.
Hmmm...Remember there is a uid ow, which must satisfy the continuity equation
(in one-dimension):
0j
0t
+
0 (jn)
0r
= 0 (170)
Integrating the continuity equation over the volume r and time step t:
_
e
w
_
t+t
t
0j
0t
dtdr +
_
t+t
t
_
e
w
0 (jn)
0r
drdt = 0 (171)
Assuming the nodal value of j prevails over the control volume when integrating the
transient term, and using fully implicit time integration for the mass ux term:
(j
P
j
o
P
)
r
t
+ j
e
n
e
j
w
n
w
= 0 (172)
Multiply this equation by c
P
and subtract the result from Eq.(169):
_
a
E
+ a
W
o
P
r + j
o
P
r
t
_
c
P
= a
E
c
E
+ a
W
c
W
+ o
C
r + j
o
P
c
o
P
r
t
(173)
which can be rearranged into the standard form:
a
P
c
P
= a
E
c
E
+ a
W
c
W
+ /
where
a
E
=
j
e
n
e
exp(1c
e
) 1
(174)
a
W
=
j
w
n
w
exp(1c
w
)
exp(1c
w
) 1
(175)
a
o
P
= j
o
P
r
t
(176)
/ = o
C
r + a
o
P
c
o
P
(177)
a
P
= a
E
+ a
W
+ a
o
P
o
P
r
Note: Comparing these coecients to those for steady convection and diusion using
the exponential scheme, it is very easy to develop the discretized equations for upwind,
hybrid and power law schemes.
9.3 Transient, Two-Dimensional Convection and Diusion
Consider the transient, two-dimensional convection-diusion transport of the general
scalar dependent variable c. The governing equation is:
0 (jc)
0t
+

\ (jnc) =

\
\c + o (178)
which can be written as:
0 (jc)
0t
+

\

J = o (179)
where

J is the convection diusion ux vector:
J = jnc
\c (180)
Integrating the governing equation over the volume \ and the time interval t:
_
V
_
t+t
t
0 (jc)
0t
dtd\ +
_
t+t
t
_
V
\

Jd\ dt =
_
t+t
t
_
V
od\ dt (181)
Using Gauss divergence theorem:
_
V
\

Jd\ =
_
s
J :d:
gives:
_
V
_
t+t
t
0 (jc)
0t
dtd\ +
_
t+t
t
_
s
J :d:dt =
_
t+t
t
_
V
od\ dt (182)
Using the domain discretization shown below:
The convection-diusion uxes are dened in the positive co-ordinate directions:
J
e
= j
e
n
e
c
e
e
dc
dr
e
J
n
= j
n
n
c
n
n
dc
dj
n
J
w
= j
w
n
w
c
w
w
dc
dr
w
J
s
= j
s
s
c
s
s
dc
dj
s
Using the exponential scheme to evaluate the convection-diusion uxes:
J
e
= j
e
n
e
_
c
P
+
c
P
c
E
exp(1c
e
) 1
_
J
n
= j
n
n
_
c
P
+
c
P
c
N
exp(1c
n
) 1
_
J
w
= j
w
n
w
_
c
W
+
c
W
c
P
exp(1c
w
) 1
_
J
s
= j
s
s
_
c
S
+
c
S
c
P
exp(1c
s
) 1
_
As in the one-dimensional derivation assume the nodal value prevails over the control
volume in the transient term, the source term is linearized as o = o
C
+ o
P
c
P
where
the nodal value is assumed to prevail over the control volume, and fully implicit time
integration is used for the source term and ux terms. The resulting integrated form
of the governing equation is:
rj
t
(j
P
c
P
j
o
P
c
o
P
) +J
e
j +J
n
rJ
w
j J
s
r = (o
C
+ o
P
c
P
) rj (183)
Substituting in the mess that is the Js:
rj
t
(j
P
c
P
j
o
P
c
o
P
) + j
e
n
e
_
c
P
+
c
P
c
E
exp(1c
e
) 1
_
j
+j
n
n
_
c
P
+
c
P
c
N
exp(1c
n
) 1
_
r j
w
n
w
_
c
W
+
c
W
c
P
exp(1c
w
) 1
_
j
j
s
s
_
c
S
+
c
S
c
P
exp(1c
s
) 1
_
r = (o
C
+ o
P
c
P
) rj (184)
Integrating the continuity equation over the volume and time step (prevailing assump-
tion for the volume integral of the transient term, fully implicit time integration for
the mass ux terms):
0j
0t
+
0(jn)
0r
+
0(j)
0j
= 0
_
V
_
t+t
t
0j
0t
dtd\ +
_
t+t
t
_
V
0(jn)
0r
+
0(j)
0j
d\ dt = 0
rj
t
(j
P
j
o
P
) + j
e
n
e
j + j
n
n
r j
w
n
w
j j
s
s
r = 0 (185)
Multiply this equation by c
P
and subtract the result from Eq. (184) the resulting
mess can be written in the standard form:
a
P
c
P
= a
E
c
E
+ a
N
c
N
+ a
W
c
W
+ a
S
c
S
+ / (186)
where
a
E
=
j
e
n
e
j
exp(1c
e
) 1
(187)
a
N
=
j
n
n
r
exp(1c
n
) 1
(188)
a
W
=
j
w
n
w
exp(1c
w
) j
exp(1c
w
) 1
(189)
a
S
=
j
s
s
exp(1c
s
) r
exp(1c
s
) 1
(190)
a
o
P
= j
o
P
rj
t
(191)
/ = o
C
rj + a
o
P
c
o
P
(192)
a
P
= a
E
+ a
N
+ a
W
+ a
S
+ a
o
P
o
P
rj
9.4 Transient, Three-Dimensional Convection and Diusion
Observing the patterns in the one- and two-dimensional formulations, the discretized
equation for transient, three-dimensional convection-diusion transport of the scalar
variable c is:
a
P
c
P
= a
E
c
E
+ a
N
c
N
+ a
W
c
W
+ a
S
c
S
+ a
T
c
T
+ a
B
c
B
+ / (193)
where
a
E
=
j
e
n
e
j.
exp(1c
e
) 1
(194)
a
N
=
j
n
n
r.
exp(1c
n
) 1
(195)
a
W
=
j
w
n
w
exp(1c
w
) j.
exp(1c
w
) 1
(196)
a
S
=
j
s
s
exp(1c
s
) r.
exp(1c
s
) 1
(197)
a
T
=
j
t
n
t
rj
exp(1c
t
) 1
(198)
a
B
=
j
b
n
b
exp(1c
b
) rj
exp(1c
b
) 1
(199)
a
o
P
= j
o
P
rj.
t
(200)
/ = o
C
rj. + a
o
P
c
o
P
(201)
a
P
= a
E
+ a
N
+ a
W
+ a
S
+ a
T
+ a
B
+ a
o
P
o
P
rj.
9.5 False Diusion
False diusion is a multidimensional phenomenon in which sharp changes in a trans-
ported scalar can be unrealistically smeared over a nite distance.
Consider the case where two parallel streams of equal velocity but unequal temper-
ature come in to contact. If the diusion coecient, , is nonzero a mixing layer
forms in which the temperature gradually changes from the higher to lower value.
The thickness of the mixing layer will grow in the downstream direction.
If the diusion coecient is zero, no mixing-layer forms, and the temperature dis-
continuity would be maintained downstream. If a simulation of such a situation
yields a mixing-layer when = 0 the numerical method is inducing numerical or false
diusion.
Will an upwind scheme induce false diusion? Consider the situation below, where
ow is aligned with the grid lines. Hot and cold streams are separated by the dashed
line, which would be control volume faces.
Since = 0, and there is no ow in the j direction, the a
N
and a
S
coecients would be
zero. The a
E
coecient of the dowstream node would also be zero, so the discretized
equation would reduce to:
c
P
= c
W
and the temperature discontinuity would be maintained.
Consider uniform ow at 45
to the grid lines. For convenience, set r = j. For

ow at 45
to this uniform mesh the velocity components are the same in the r and j
directions. This results in a
E
= a
N
= 0 for the downstream neighbours, and a
W
= a
S
for the upstream neighbours. Since a
P
=

a
nb
:
c
P
=
1
2
(c
W
+ c
S
)
i.e. smearing. This smearing is illustrated below where the bottom boundary was set
to 0 and the left boundary was set to 100. The smearing caused by the false diusion
is quite evident. If there was no false diusion, the temperature would be 100 and 0
above and below the diagonal, respectively.
Note:
False diusion exist when the ow is oblique to the grid lines, and there is a
nonzero gradient of the dependent variable normal to the ow.
The amount of false diusion can be reduced by reducing r and j, and/or
orienting the grid such that the grid is aligned with the ow direction. Neither
remedy may be feasible, especially for ow in complex domains.
Realistically, there is a real diusion coecient, so it is only necessary to make
the false diusion small relative to the real diusion.
The basic cause of false diusion is treating the ow across a control volume
face as locally one-dimensional. So...schemes were developed to incoporate the
multi-dimensional nature of the ow, i.e. some type of upwinding along the local
ow direction, not along global axes.
10 Viscous Fluid Flow
10.1 Governing Equations
The equations governing viscous uid ow are the Navier-Stokes:
0 (jn)
0t
+

\ (jnn) =

\ j
\n + o
u
0j
0r
(202)
0 (j)
0t
+

\ (jn) =

\ j
\ + o
v
0j
0j
(203)
0 (jn)
0t
+

\ (jnn) =

\ j
\n + o
w
0j
0.
(204)
and continuity equation:
0j
0t
+

\ (jn) = 0 (205)
The governing equation for the convection and diusion transport of a general scalar
dependent variable is:
0 (jc)
0t
+

\ (jnc) =

\
\c + o (206)
As discussed earlier, the Navier-Stokes equations can be modelled by this general
convection-diusion equation with the appropriate interpretation of c, and o.
The dependent variables for a three-dimensional viscous uid ow simulation are n,
, n and j. The three Navier-Stokes equations are used as equations for the veloc-
ity components. An equation for pressure is derived from the continuity equation.
The appropriate pressure gradient in the momentum equations is evaluated from the
pressure eld obtained from the continuity equation. When a correct (or converged)
solution is obtained the pressure eld will satisfy the discretized continuity equation
and the velocity eld obtained from the momentum equations will also satisfy mass
conservation.
We have developed suitable techniques to solve a convection diusion equation. It
would, therefore, seem that we can solve the Navier-Stokes equations. All that is
needed is an evaluation of the appropriate pressure gradient.
There are issues!
10.2 Issues
10.2.1 The Pressure Gradient
Consider one-dimensional ow in the r direction. The r momentum equation is:
0 (jn)
0t
+
0 (jn(n))
0r
=
0
0r
_
j
0n
0r
_
+ o
u
0j
0r
(207)
which can be written in the following form:
0 (jn)
0t
+
0J
0r
= o (208)
where J is the convection-diusion ux of n in the r direction:
J = jn(n) j
dn
dr
(209)
Note: the similarity with the general convection-diusion equation.
0 (jc)
0t
+
0J
0r
= o
J = jnc
dc
dr
Using our usual one-dimensional domain discretization:
the governing equation is integrated over a control volume r and time step t:
_
e
w
_
t+t
t
0 (jn)
0t
dtdr +
_
t+t
t
_
e
w
0J
0r
drdt =
_
t+t
t
_
e
w
o
u
drdt
_
t+t
t
_
e
w
0j
0r
drdt
The only dierence from the previous derivation is the pressure gradient term. Using
a fully implicit time integration:
_
t+t
t
_
e
w
0j
0r
drdt = (j
e
j
w
) t = (j
w
j
e
) t (210)
So...we need cv face values for j. Lets assume a piecewise linear assumption for
the behaviour of j between nodes. For convenience, assume the cv faces are midway
between the nodes:
j
w
j
e
=
j
W
+ j
P
2

j
P
+ j
E
2
=
j
W
j
E
2
(211)
This means that j
P
would not appear in the discretized r momentum equation for
node 1. Further, the discretized equation would contain the dierence in pressure
between alternate nodes, rather than adjacent nodes. What does that imply? This
would lead to a decrease in accuracy of the solution (i.e. a coarser discretization is
being used). More importantly, the physically unrealistic pressure eld:
would be perceived as a uniform pressure eld in the discretized momentum equation!
In two-dimensions, the checkerboard pressure eld:
would be perceived as uniform!
BIG PROBLEM! A numerical method cannot allow this. For example, if such a
eld arose in an iterative solution algorithm, there would be nothing in the method
to destroy this unrealistic solution. Also, if a truly uniform pressure eld did arise,
it could be corrupted by a checkerboard solution that would not be corrected by the
algorithm.
10.2.2 The Continuity Equation
A discretized form of the continuity equation will be obtained by integrating the
continuity equation over a control volume.
Considering one-dimensional incompressible ow, the continuity equation is:
0n
0r
= 0 (212)
Using the standard one-dimensional domain discretization:
the continuity equation can be integrated over the volume r:
_
e
w
0n
0r
dr = n
e
n
w
(213)
Assuming the cv faces are midway between nodes, and a piecewise linear behaviour
of n between the nodes:
n
e
n
w
=
n
P
+ n
E
2

n
W
+ n
P
2
=
n
E
n
W
2
(214)
So...eectively a coarser discretization is being used AND a physically unrealistic
oscillatory velocity eld would be perceived as uniform! ANOTHER BIG PROBLEM!
10.3 A Solution: Grid Staggering
It would be nice if all dependent variables were stored at the same nodal points in
the calculation domain, however, this is not necessary. This realization gives rise to
a potential solution to the two issues raised above. What if the storage of velocity
components and pressure were staggered?
In this gure of a two-dimensional domain discretization, the arrows indicate storage
locations for n and , and other dependent variables and properties (e.g. j, T, /, j
and j) would be stored at , i.e the main grid points.
Dierent control volumes would be used to derive the discretized forms of the mo-
mentum and contnuity equations.
Note:
For the continuity control volume, the velocities required to determine the mass
ow rates in and out of the control volume are located at the control volume
faces. Therefore, the dierence of adjacent velocity component values would be
used in the discretized continuity equation. An oscillatory velocity eld would
NOT be perceived as uniform.
For the r momentum equation the pressure gradient (0j,0r) would be evalu-
ated using pressures stored at the control volume faces, therefore, an oscillatory
pressure eld would NOT be perceived as uniform.
For the j momentum equation the pressure gradient (0j,0j) would be evalu-
ated using pressures stored at the control volume faces, therefore, an oscillatory
pressure eld would NOT be perceived as uniform.
Grid staggering eliminates the potential for physically unrealistic oscillatory so-
lution elds. It does, however, add some complexity to a code due to geometric
information, indexing and interpolation issues.
10.4 Form of the Momentum Equations
As discussed, the momentum equations have the same form as the general convection-
diusion equation, therefore, the coecients of the discretized equations can be de-
rived as before. A dierent labelling will be used, however, due to the grid staggering.
Consider the contol volume for n
e
shown below:
The control volume is staggered relative to a main grid control volume. It is staggered
in the r direction only.
The discretized form of the r momentum equation for this control volume can be
obtained by following the procedures presented for the equation for c. The resulting
equation may be written as follows:
a
e
n
e
=

a
nb
n
nb
+ / + (j
P
j
E
) j (215)
Note: the pressure gradient term is not lumped into the source term and included in
the coecient /.
Similarly, for the control volume for
n
:
The discretized j momentum equation can be written as:
a
n
n
=

a
nb
nb
+ / + (j
P
j
N
) r (216)
10.5 SIMPLE and its Variants
The Semi-Implicit Method for Pressure Linked Equations (SIMPLE) is a solution al-
gorithm developed to simulate uid ows. Two variants are SIMPLER (SIMPLE
Revised) and SIMPLEC (SIMPLE Consistent) which were developed to address lim-
itations of the original SIMPLE algorithm.
The algorithm is based on the use of pressure and velocity corrections.
10.5.1 Pressure and Velocity Corrections
The solution of the momentum equations requires a pressure eld. The resulting
velocity eld will only satisfy continuity if the correct pressure eld is used. Indicating
a guessed or incorrect eld by the superscript

, the momentum equations can be
written as:
a
e
n
e
=

a
nb
n
nb
+ / + (j
P
j
E
) j (217)
a
n
n
=

a
nb
nb
+ / + (j
P
j
N
) r (218)
The aim is to improve the guessed pressure eld so that the resulting starred velocity
eld will get closer to satisfying continuity.
Propose that the correct pressure is obtained as follows:
j = j
+ j
0
(219)
where j
0
is a pressure correction.
Dene the velocity corrections:
n = n
+ n
0
(220)
=
+
0
(221)
Subtract Eq. (217) from Eq. (215):
a
e
n
0
e
=

a
nb
n
0
nb
+
_
j
0
P
j
0
E
_
j (222)
For now, lets drop the

a
nb
n
0
nb
term, therefore:
a
e
n
0
e
=
_
j
0
P
j
0
E
_
j
or
n
0
e
= d
e
_
j
0
P
j
0
E
_
(223)
where
d
e
=
j
a
e
(224)
This allows the denition of a velocity correction formula:
n
e
= n
e
+ d
e
_
j
0
P
j
0
E
_
(225)
indicating that n
e
can be "corrected" or improved by pressure corrections.
A similar equation can be obtained for the j component of velocity:
n
=
n
+ d
n
_
j
0
P
j
0
N
_
(226)
where
d
n
=
r
a
n
(227)
10.5.2 A Pressure Correction Equation
Lets discretize the continuity equation. Consider two-dimensional ow in which j
does not depend directly on j. The continuity equation is:
0j
0t
+
0(jn)
0r
+
0(j)
0j
= 0
Using the main grid control volume shown below:
the governing equation will be integrated over the control volume \ and time step
t:
_
V
_
t+t
t
0j
0t
dtd\ +
_
t+t
t
_
V
0(jn)
0r
+
0(j)
0j
d\ dt = 0 (228)
Assuming (as before) the nodal value prevails over \ in the transient term, use of
Gauss divergence theorem, and fully implicit time integration of the mass ux terms:
(j
P
j
o
P
)
rj
t
+ [(jn)
e
(jn)
w
] j + [(j)
n
(j)
s
] r = 0 (229)
Substituting Eqs. (225) and (226) for the velocity components the resulting equation
can be written as a pressure correction equation:
a
P
j
0
P
= a
E
j
0
E
+ a
N
j
0
N
+ a
W
j
0
W
+ a
S
j
0
S
+ / (230)
where
a
E
= j
e
d
e
j (231)
a
N
= j
n
d
n
r (232)
a
W
= j
w
d
w
j (233)
a
N
= j
n
d
n
r (234)
a
P
= a
E
+ a
N
+ a
W
+ a
S
(235)
/ = (j
o
P
j
P
)
rj
t
+ [(jn
)
w
(jn
)
e
] j + [(j
)
s
(j
)
n
] r (236)
Note: / is really the negative of the discretized continuity equation written in terms
of the starred velocity components. Therefore, if / is zero, the starred velocity eld
with the available value of (j
o
P
j
P
) satises continuity and there will be no need of
a pressure correction. The / term is eectively a "mass source" which the pressure
corrections try to destroy.
10.5.3 SIMPLE
The SIMPLE is a solution algorithm based on the pressure correction equation derived
above.
1. Guess the pressure eld, j
.
2. Solve the momentum equations (217) and (218) to give n
and
.
3. Solve the pressure correction equation (230) to give j
0
.
4. Update the pressure eld using Eq. (219), i.e. add j
0
to j
.
5. Update the velocity components using Eqs. (225) and (226).
6. Solve the discretization equations for other cs that inuence the ow properties
or source terms (e.g. T, and turbulence properties). Note: if a particular c
does not inuence the ow properties it is more ecient to evaluate it after a
converged ow eld solution has been obtained.
7. Using the corrected pressure j obtained in step (4) as a new guessed pressure
j
, return to step (2) and repeat steps (2) to (7) until a converged solution is
obtained.
Note:
Omission of the

a
nb
n
0
nb
leads to a simpler pressure correction equation. If
included, each :/ would have to be expressed in terms of its pressure corrections,
which would bring in the neighbours of neighbours. In eect the whole solution
eld would be required for each nodal equation. this is not feasible.
The use of Semi-Implicit in SIMPLE reects the omission of

a
nb
n
0
nb
. Since
this term is neglected the inuence of all neighbouring nodes is omitted and the
method is not truly implicit.
Does the omission of

a
nb
n
0
nb
cause any error in the nal converged solution
eld? No. In the nal iteration, we have new j
, n
and
elds after step

(2). Since we have the converged solution, the / term evaluated using n
and
would be practically zero, therefore, the pressure correction j

0
obtained in step
(3) would be zero. That means the current j
, n
and
eld is correct as
both momentum and continuity are satised. Since / is eectively zero in this
iteration, solution of the j
0
equation is not required, therefore, the form of the
j
0
equation has no inuence on the nal converged solution. All of this means
that omission of the

a
nb
n
0
nb
term does not inuence the nal solution.
Since / is a mass source term, it should be zero, so a good way to monitor
convergence is to watch this term, and insure it is small in all control volumes.
The rate of convergence of the algorithm is inuenced by how many terms are
neglected in the pressure correction equation. SIMPLE is actually prone to
divergence unless some under-relaxation is used. The momentum equations
would be relaxed as described earlier using c. The pressure correction is also
relaxed as:
j = j
+ c
p
j
0
(237)
where 0 _ c
p
_ 1, i.e. a fraction of the pressure correction is used. Typical
values used are c - 0.5 and c
p
- 0.8.
A useful feature of SIMPLE is that the velocity eld is corrected such that it
satises mass conservation during each iteration. The algorithm converges with
a series of continuity satisfying velocity elds. So, other c equations solved in
step (6) would use a continuity satisfying velocity eld.
10.5.4 Boundary Conditions for the j
0
Equation
There are two typical boundary conditions at the boundary of a uid ow calculation
domain:
1. The pressure at the boundary is known (and the velocity is unknown).
If the pressure at a boundary is known, i.e. j
= j
spec
, then the pressure
correction is set to zero at that location. This is equaivalent to the specied
temperature boundary condition in heat conduction.
2. The velocity normal to the boundary is known (and the pressure is unknown).
If the grid is dened so that the domain boundary coincides with a main
grid control volume face:
then the velocity n
e
would be known. In the derivation of the j
0
equation
for this node, the mass ow rate across the boundary would be evaluated
in terms of the known value of n
e
, not n
0
e
and n
e
, therefore, j
0
E
would not
appear and a
E
would be zero.
10.6 SIMPLER
It was found that neglect of the
a
nb
n
0
nb
in the derivation of j
0
equation led to exager-
ated pressure corrections, and this necessitated the under-relaxation of the pressure
correction (j = j
+ c
p
j
0
). Under-relaxation is necessary to prevent divergence, but
slows convergence. The SIMPLER algorithm was developed to address this issue.
SIMPLER emplys a pressure correction equation AND a pressure equation. Although
it requires the solution of another discretized equation it has been proven to be more
ecient than SIMPLE.
The discretized momentum equation Eq. (215) can be rewritten as:
n
e
=
a
nb
n
nb
+ /
a
e
+ d
e
(j
P
j
E
) (238)
Dene a pseudo-velocity:
^ n
e
=
a
nb
n
nb
+ /
a
e
(239)
Then Eq. (238) can be rewritten as:
n
e
= ^ n
e
+ d
e
(j
P
j
E
) (240)
similarly
n
= ^
n
+ d
n
(j
P
j
N
) (241)
Comparison of Eqs. (240) and (241) with Eqs. (225) and (226) illustrates that the
continuity equation can be discretized using the same procedure as for the derivation
of the j
0
equation and the result would be:
a
P
j
P
= a
E
j
E
+ a
N
j
N
+ a
W
j
W
+ a
S
j
S
+ / (242)
where
a
E
= j
e
d
e
j
a
N
= j
n
d
n
r
a
W
= j
w
d
w
j
a
N
= j
n
d
n
r
a
P
= a
E
+ a
N
+ a
W
+ a
S
/ = (j
o
P
j
P
)
rj
t
+ [(j^ n)
w
(j^ n)
e
] j + [(j^ )
s
(j^ )
n
] r (243)
Actually, the coecients are the same as for Eq. (230) except for / where ^ n and ^
replace n
and
.
One BIG dierence between the pressure and pressure correction equations: NO ap-
proximations were used in the derivation of the pressure equation. This means that
if the correct velocity eld was used to calculate the psuedo-velocities, the pressure
equation would give the correct pressure eld directly.
The SIMPLER algorithm is:
1. Guess the velocity eld n and .
2. Evaluate the coecients for the momentum equations, and evaluate the pseudo
velocities ^ n and ^ using equations like Eq. (239). Use the available values of n
and to perform the

a
nb
n
nb
and

a
nb
nb
summations.
3. Evaluate the coecients in and solve the pressure equation, Eq. (242).
4. Treat the pressure eld found in step (3) as j
and solve the momentum equations

to get n
and
.
5. Evaluate the mass source term, Eq. (236) and solve the j
0
equation, Eq. (230).
Note: the other coecients are available from step (3).
6. Correct the velocity eld using Eqs. (225) and (226). Note: DO NOT correct
pressure.
7. Solve the discretized equation for other cs if required.
8. Return to step (2) and repeat steps (2) to (8) until convergence.
Note:
A guessed pressure eld plays an important role in SIMPLE. SIMPLER does not
use a guessed pressure eld, instead it obtains a pressure eld from the velcoity
eld.
If the given velocity eld is correct, then the SIMPLER pressure equation would
give the correct pressure eld and the solution is complete. If the correct velocity
eld and a guessed (wrong) pressure eld were input to SIMPLE, the situation
would at rst deteriorate. The guessed pressure would give starred velocities
dierent from the correct velocities. The approximations in the pressure cor-
rection equation would produce incorrect velocity and pressure elds at the end
of the rst iteration. Convergence would take many iterations, even though we
had the correct velocity eld at the start.
The boundary conditions used for the pressure equation are similar to those used
for the pressure correction equation.
SIMPLER converges faster than SIMPLE, but more work is required per itera-
tion (solution of the pressure equation and evaluation of the pseudo-velocities),
however, the reduction in solution algorithm iterations leads to a faster numerical
method.
10.7 SIMPLEC
The SIMPLE algorithm is developed by neglecting the

a
nb
n
0
nb
term in the velocity
correction equation, Eq. (222):
a
e
n
0
e
=

a
nb
n
0
nb
+
_
j
0
P
j
0
E
_
j
But is that really feasible? Wouldnt

a
nb
n
0
nb
and a
e
n
0
e
be of the same order of
magnitude? Remember a
P
= a
E
+ a
N
+ a
W
+ a
S
, and the velocity corrections will
be approximately the same size.
The SIMPLEC (SIMPLE-Consistent) algorithm tkes this into account by subtracting
a
nb
n
0
e
from each side of the equation:
_
a
e
a
nb
_
n
0
e
=

a
nb
_
n
0
nb
n
0
e
_
+
_
j
0
P
j
0
E
_
j (244)
Since n
0
nb
and n
0
e
will have approximately the same magnitude it is justiable to drop
the rst term on the right side of the equation, therefore:
_
a
e
a
nb
_
n
0
e
=
_
j
0
P
j
0
E
_
j
or
n
0
e
= d
e
_
j
0
P
j
0
E
_
(245)
where
d
e
=
j
(a
e
a
nb
)
(246)
Comparison of Eq. (246) with Eq. (224) for SIMPLE shows that the only dierence
is in the denominator of d
e
. Therefore, the same velocity correction formulae can be
used:
n
e
= n
e
+ d
e
_
j
0
P
j
0
E
_
(247)
n
=
n
+ d
n
_
j
0
P
j
0
N
_
(248)
where
d
n
=
r
(a
e
a
nb
)
(249)
These equations illustrate that n
e
and
n
can be "corrected" or improved by pressure
corrections.
A pressure correction equation is derived following the same procedure as for SIMPLE.
The resulting equation and coecients are the same except for the denition of the d
terms, Eqs. (246) and (249). The equations are repeated below:
a
P
j
0
P
= a
E
j
0
E
+ a
N
j
0
N
+ a
W
j
0
W
+ a
S
j
0
S
+ / (250)
where
a
E
= j
e
d
e
j
a
N
= j
n
d
n
r
a
W
= j
w
d
w
j
a
N
= j
n
d
n
r
a
P
= a
E
+ a
N
+ a
W
+ a
S
/ = (j
o
P
j
P
)
rj
t
+ [(jn
)
w
(jn
)
e
] j + [(j
)
s
(j
)
n
] r
The SIMPLEC algorithm follows the same steps as for the SIMPLE algorithm, except
no relaxation is required on the correction of pressure. The algorithm is repeated
here:
1. Guess the pressure eld, j
.
2. Solve the momentum equations (217) and (218) to give n
and
.
3. Solve the pressure correction equation (250) to give j
0
.
4. Update the pressure eld using Eq. (219), i.e. add j
0
to j
.
5. Update the velocity components using Eqs. (247) and (248).
6. Solve the discretization equations for other cs that inuence the ow properties
or source terms (e.g. T, and turbulence properties). Note: if a particular c
does not inuence the ow properties it is more ecient to evaluate it after a
converged ow eld solution has been obtained.
7. Using the corrected pressure j obtained in step (4) as a new guessed pressure
j
, return to step (2) and repeat steps (2) to (7) until a converged solution is
obtained.
Note:
The more consistent derivation of the pressure-correction equation for SIMPLEC
does not produce large changes in j
0
, therefore, the changes in j do not have to
be relaxed.
A typical value for c used to under-relax the momentum equations is 0.7.
Similar to SIMPLE, however, SIMPLEC is based on a guessed pressure eld
and it will destroy an input correct velocity eld if the guessed presure eld is
incorrect.
The SIMPLEC algorithm is more stable than SIMPLE and does not require
pressure relaxation, therefore it is faster. SIMPLEC is faster than SIMPLER,
because it does not require solution of a pressure equation at each iteration.
So...a very simple rethink in 1984-ish of SIMPLE (from 1969-ish) led to a far
more ecient and stable algorithm. It took fteen years as everyone had the
same mindset. Patankar and Spalding invented SIMPLE, Raithby and Patankar
worked together in the mid-70s, then Raithby and his group (CFX-Tascow)
developed SIMPLEC. Most others were followers of these research groups.
Boundary conditions for the pressure-correction equation in SIMPLEC are similar to
those used in SIMPLE.
11 Non-Dimensional Governing Equations
11.1 Introduction
Thus far, all governing equations have been written in dimensional form, therefore,
an individual simulation applies for a specic combination of geometry and property
parameters. An innite number of runs would be required to determine the behaviour
of a uid ow given how each parameter can be modied.
A more general solution can be obtained if the governing equations are written in
non-dimensional form. This would allow for parametric studies of uid ows based
on the Reynolds number for example.
The following subsections discuss the non-dimensionalization of the governing equa-
tions for viscous uid ow, and then presents an order of magnitude analysis that
illustrates how some terms in the governing equations can be neglected.
11.2 Flow Over Flat Surfaces
11.2.1 Non-Dimensional form of the Equations of Motion
Consider a two-dimensional, steady state, incompressible ow of a constant property,
Newtonian uid, with freestream velocity n
1
, past a at plate of length 1.
The governing equations for this ow are the continuity equation:
0n
0r
+
0
0j
= 0 (251)
and the Navier-Stokes equations:
jn
0n
0r
+ j
0n
0j
=
0j
0r
+ j
_
0
2
n
0r
2
+
0
2
n
0j
2
_
(252)
jn
0
0r
+ j
0
0j
=
0j
0j
+ j
_
0
2
0r
2
+
0
2
0j
2
_
(253)
Dene the following non-dimensional variables:
r
= r,1 n
= n,n
1
j
= j,jn
2
1
j
= j,1
= ,n
1
Substitution of these non-dimensional variables into Eq. (251) results in the following
form of the continuity equation:
n
1
1
0n
0r
+
n
1
1
0
0j
= 0 (254)
which can be written in the following non-dimensional form:
0n
0r
+
0
0j
= 0 (255)
Substitution of the non-dimensional variables into the r-component of the Navier-
Stokes equations, Eq. (252), gives:
jn
2
1
1
n
0n
0r
+
jn
2
1
1

0n
0j
=
jn
2
1
1
0j
0r
+
jn
1
1
2
_
0
2
n
0r
2
+
0
2
n
0j
2
_
(256)
Multiplying this equation by 1,jn
2
1
gives:
n
0n
0r
0n
0j
=
0j
0r
+
j
jn
1
1
_
0
2
n
0r
2
+
0
2
n
0j
2
_
(257)
But 1c
L
= jn
1
1,j, therefore, the non-dimensional form of the r-component of the
Navier-Stokes equations can be written as:
n
0n
0r
0n
0j
=
0j
0r
+
1
1c
L
_
0
2
n
0r
2
+
0
2
n
0j
2
_
(258)
Similarly, the non-dimensional form of the j-component of the Navier-Stokes equations
is:
n
0r
0j
=
0j
0j
+
1
1c
L
_
0
2
0r
2
+
0
2
0j
2
_
(259)
Equations (255), (258), and (259) are the non-dimensional forms of the equations that
govern the steady state, two-dimensional, incompressible ow of a constant property,
Newtonian uid, with freestream velocity n
1
, past a at plate of length 1.
Note: the only parameter in these equations is the Reynolds number, therefore, 1c
should appear as a parameter in the solutions for the hydrodynamic boundary layer
on a at plate.
11.2.2 Order of Magnitude Analysis for a Boundary Layer Flow
Consider the order of magnitude of the non-dimensional variables that appear in Eqs.
(255), (258), and (259):
O(r
) = 1 O(n
) = 1 O(
) =?
O(j
) = c,1 = c
1 O(j
) =? O(1c
L
) =?
Now, consider the order of magnitude of each term in Eqs. (255), (258), and (259):
0n
0r
+
0
0j
= 0
n
0n
0r
0n
0j
=
0j
0r
+
1
1c
L
_
0
2
n
0r
2
+
0
2
n
0j
2
_
n
0r
0j
=
0j
0j
+
1
1c
L
_
0
2
0r
2
+
0
2
0j
2
_
Note:
1. From the continuity equation O(
) = c
1 (since both terms must be of the

same magnitude).
2. For the viscous terms to be the same order as the inertia terms in the r-
component of the Navier-Stokes equations O(1c
L
) = 1,c
2
1.
3. For the pressure term to be the same order as the inertia terms in the r-
component of the Navier-Stokes equations (to prevent innite accelerations)
O(j
) = 1.
The non-dimensional forms of the equations governing the ow in the boundary layer
are:
0n
0r
+
0
0j
= 0 (260)
n
0n
0r
0n
0j
=
0j
0r
+
1
1c
L
_
0
2
n
0j
2
_
(261)
0 =
0j
0j
(262)
Or in dimensional form:
0n
0r
+
0
0j
= 0 (263)
jn
0n
0r
+ j
0n
0j
=
0j
0r
+ j
_
0
2
n
0j
2
_
(264)
0 =
0j
0j
(265)
One term has been eliminated from the r-component of the Navier-Stokes equations.
The j-component of the Navier-Stokes equations has been reduced to a hydrostatic
pressure distribution.
By performing the order of magnitude analysis one equation has been simplied, and
the number of equations that must be solved has been reduced by one.
11.2.3 Non-Dimensional form of the Energy Equation
Consider a two-dimensional, steady state, incompressible ow of a constant property,
Newtonian uid at freestream temperature T
1
and velocity n
1
past a at plate of
length 1, maintained at a constant temperature T
s
.
The energy equation may be written as:
jc
p
n
0T
0r
+ jc
p
0T
0j
= /
_
0
2
T
0r
2
+
0
2
T
0j
2
_
+ j (266)
where
= 2
_
0n
0r
_
2
+ 2
_
0
0j
_
2
+
_
0n
0j
+
0
0r
_
2
(267)
Dene the following non-dimensional variables
r
= r,1 n
= n,n
1
0 = (T T
s
),(T
1
T
s
)
j
= j,1
= ,n
1
Substituting these non-dimensional variables into Eqs. (266) and (267) gives:
jc
p
n
1
(T
1
T
s
)
1
_
n
00
0r
00
0j
_
=
/(T
1
T
s
)
1
2
_
0
2
0
0r
2
+
0
2
0
0j
2
_
+
jn
2
1
1
2

(268)
where
= 2
_
0n
0r
_
2
+ 2
_
0
0j
_
2
+
_
0n
0j
+
0
0r
_
2
(269)
Simplifying Eq. (268):
n
00
0r
00
0j
=
/
jc
p
n
1
1
_
0
2
0
0r
2
+
0
2
0
0j
2
_
+
jn
1
jc
p
1(T
1
T
s
)
But
/
jc
p
n
1
1
=
/
jc
p
n
1
1
_
j
j
_
=
_
/
jc
p
__
j
jn
1
1
_
=
1
1r1c
L
=
1
1c
jn
1
jc
p
1(T
1
T
s
)
=
jn
1
jc
p
1(T
1
T
s
)
_
n
1
n
1
_
=
_
n
2
1
c
p
(T
1
T
s
)
__
j
jn
1
1
_
=
_
n
2
1
c
p
(T
s
T
1
)
__
j
jn
1
1
_
=
1c
1c
L
Note:
Reynolds # = 1c
L
=
jn
1
1
j

inertia forces
viscous forces
Prandtl # = 1r =
jc
p
/
=
i
c

rate of diusion of momentum
rate of diusion of thermal energy
Peclet # = 1c = 1r1c
L

convective transport of thermal energy
conductive transport of thermal energy
Eckert # = 1c =
n
2
1
c
p
(T
s
T
1
)

kinetic energy/unit volume of ow
thermal energy/unit volume of ow
The non-dimensional form of the energy equation can be written as follows:
n
00
0r
00
0j
=
1
1c
_
0
2
0
0r
2
+
0
2
0
0j
2
_
1c
1c
L
(270)
Note: the only parameters in the thermal problem are 1r, 1c
L
, and 1c.
11.2.4 Order of Magnitude Analysis for a Thermal Boundary Layer
Similar to the analysis of the hydrodynamic boundary layer, consider the order of
magnitude of each term in Eq. (270):
O(r
) = 1 O(n
) = 1 O(1c) =?
O(j
) = c
T
,1 = c
T
1 O(
) = c
1 O(1r) =?
O(0) = 1 O(1c
L
) = 1,c
2
O(1c) =?
Expanding all terms of the non-dimensional form of the energy equation:
n
00
0r
00
0j
=
1
1c
_
0
2
0
0r
2
+
0
2
0
0j
2
_
1c
1c
L
_
2
_
0n
0r
_
2
+ 2
_
0
0j
_
2
+
_
0n
0j
+
0
0r
_
2
_
Note:
1. For the conduction terms to be of the same order as the convection terms
O(1,1c) = c
2
T
. This is sensible, since O(1c
L
) = 1,c
2
, and O(1r) - 1 for
most common uids.
2. For any of the viscous dissipation terms to be of the same order as the remainder
of the equation, the only possibility is for O(1c) - 1, then the (0n
,0j
)
2
term
will remain
The non-dimensional form of the energy equation for the thermodynamic boundary
layer on a at plate (steady state, constant property, Newtonian uid, incompressible
ow) is:
n
00
0r
00
0j
=
1
1c
0
2
0
0j
2

1c
1c
L
_
0n
0j
_
2
(271)
But 1c _ 1 only at high velocities,
e.g. for air, (c
p
- 1000 J/kg
o
C, (T
s
T
1
) - 100
o
C n
1
- 316 m/s for 1c =
n
2
1
,(c
p
(T
s
T
1
)) = 1. The speed of sound at 300K is 347 m/s.
therefore, at low velocities, viscous dissipation is negligible. Viscous dissipation is very
important at high velocities, e.g. the space shuttle, and SR-71 Blackbird spy plane.
Viscous dissipation gives rise to frictional heating.
Neglecting viscous dissipation, the equation governing the thermal boundary layer on
a at plate for steady, two-dimensional, incompressible ow of a constant property,
Newtonian uid is:
jc
p
n
0T
0r
+ jc
p
0T
0j
= /
0
2
T
0j
2
(272)
or
n
0T
0r
+
0T
0j
= c
0
2
T
0j
2
(273)
11.2.5 Skin Friction and Heat Transfer Coecients
We would be interested in the frictional drag due to the hydrodynamic boundary
layer. The frictional drag is due to the shear stress at the plate surface, i.e.:
t
s
= j
0n
0j
y=0
The shear stress is often written in terms of a skin friction coecient, C
f
:
t
s
= C
f
jn
2
1
2
(274)
Since the velocity gradient 0n,0j at j = 0 varies with r, the skin friction coecient
will also be a function of r. Further, the non-dimensional Navier-Stokes equations,
Eqs. (258) and (259) illustrate that the only parameters that would inuence the
solution for the velocity gradient at the wall (i.e. j = 0) are 1c and 0j,0r. But, the
pressure gradient is only a function of r, and it is determined by the geometry of the
ow, therefore, for ows of dierent uids past the same geometry, only the Reynolds
number and position on the body should inuence the skin friction coecient:
C
f
= C
f
(r, 1c
x
) (275)
To solve for C
f
we need the velocity distribution in the boundary layer, therefore, we
need to solve Eqs. (263) and (264).
The heat ux at the surface of the plate exposed to the convection environment,
00
s
,
can be written as follows:
00
s
= /(T
s
T
1
) = /
0T
0j
y=0
(276)
Heat is transferred from the wall to the uid by conduction (since the molecules of
uid next to the wall have zero velocity relative to the plate).
The heat transfer coecient is dened as follows:
/ =
/
@T
@y
y=0
T
s
T
1
(277)
To determine / we need the temperature gradient at the wall, i.e. the temperature
distribution, therefore, we need to solve the energy equation for the boundary layer,
i.e. Eq. (272), which will require a prior solution for the hydrodynamic boundary layer.
The non-dimensional form of the energy equation, Eq. (271), illustrates that the only
non-dimensional parameters that should appear in the thermal boundary layer solu-
tion are r
, j
, 1c (or 1c and 1r), and 1c.

Instead of working with the heat transfer coecent, it is common to use a non-
dimensional variable called the Nusselt number (n):
n
L
=
/1
/

Actual heat transfer in the presence of ow
Heat transfer if only conduction occurs
or locally:
n
x
=
/r
/
(278)
Since only 1r, 1c, and 1c are the parameters of the ow:
/ = /(1r, 1c, 1c) (279)
n = n(1r, 1c, 1c) (280)
If 1c is small, / and n are only functions of 1r and 1c and:
/ = /(1r, 1c) (281)
n = n(1r, 1c) (282)
11.3 Natural Convection
Natural (or free) convection occurs when a body force acts on a uid in which there
are density gradients buoyancy forces.
Fluid velocities in natural convection are much smaller than for forced convection,
therefore, the heat transfer coecients are much smaller. Natural convection often is
the largest resistance in multi-mode heat transfer analyses.
In general, uid density decreases with increasing temperature (0j,0T < 0), therefore,
uids rise when heated.
The presence of a density gradient, however, does not guarantee the presence of natural
convection.
If T
2
is suciently larger than T
1
, the buoyancy forces become large enough to over-
come the viscous forces, and an unstable uid recirculation develops. When T
1
T
2
,
the ow is stable as the lower density uid is above the higher density uid, and the
ow is thermally stratied.
If a vertical at plate possessing a uniform temperature T
s
is placed in an innite
quiescent medium at temperature T
1
, where T
s
T
1
, the uid near the plate will
be heated and begin to rise. This uid motion will entrain uid from the quiescent
region, and lead to formation of a boundary layer.
The velocity of the uid at the plate and at j = is zero.
The boundary layer will initially be laminar, but instabilities in the ow will eventually
overcome the damping eects of viscosity, and the ow will go through a transition
to a turbulent boundary layer (with the expected increase in heat transfer rates).
The equations governing the uid motion are the continuity, Navier-Stokes and energy
equations. The equations reduce to the same form as those used for a forced convection
boundary layer on a at plate, except for a modication in the momentum equation.
Consider steady, two-dimensional natural convection of a constant property New-
tonian uid driven by a constant temperature (T
s
T
1
) vertical at plate. The r
momentum equation is:
n
0n
0r
+
0n
0j
=
1
j
0j
0r
q + i
0
2
n
0j
2
(283)
The ow is assumed incompressible, however, a variable density must be accounted
for in a buoyancy force term (Boussinesq approximation).
The at plate boundary layer approximation illustrated that pressure is constant in
the j direction, therefore, the r pressure gradient inside the boundary layer is the r
pressure gradient (hydrostatic) in the quiescent portion of the uid.
0j
0r
= j
1
q (284)
Substituting Eq. (284) into Eq. (283) gives:
n
0n
0r
+
0n
0j
=
q
j
(j
1
j) + i
0
2
n
0j
2
(285)
The rst term on the RHS is the buoyancy force term. Dening the volume coecient
of expansion, ,:
, =
1
j
_
0j
0T
_
p
which can be expressed in the following approximate form:
, -
1
j
_
j
1
j
T
1
T
_
then
j
1
j - j,(T T
1
) (286)
and the buoyancy force term can be replaced, to give the following form of the r
momentum equation:
n
0n
0r
+
0n
0j
= q,(T T
1
) + i
0
2
n
0j
2
(287)
The dependence of the buoyancy force on the temperature dierence is now shown
explicitly in the momentum equation.
The equations that must be solved for the natural convection boundary layer are the
following forms of the continuity, r momentum, and energy equations.
0n
0r
+
0
0j
= 0 (288)
n
0n
0r
+
0n
0j
= q,(T T
1
) + i
0
2
n
0j
2
(289)
n
0T
0r
+
0T
0j
= c
0
2
T
0j
2
(290)
Note: the energy and momentum equations must be solved simultaneously, due to the
coupling through the buoyancy force term.
Using the following nondimensional variables:
r
=
r
1
j
=
j
1
n
=
n
n
o

=

n
o
0 =
T T
1
T
s
T
1
where n
o
is an arbitrary reference velocity, the r momentum and energy equations
can be written in the following nondimensional forms:
n
0n
0r
0n
0j
=
q,(T
s
T
1
)1
n
2
o
0 +
1
1c
L
0
2
n
0j
2
(291)
n
00
0r
00
0j
=
1
1c
L
1r
0
2
0
0j
2
(292)
The dimensionless parameter on the RHS of the momentum equation can be written
in a more convenient form (without n
o
), by multiplying it by 1c
2
L
. The result is the
Grashof number, Gr
L
:
Gr
L
=
q,(T
s
T
1
)1
n
2
o
_
n
o
1
i
_
2
=
q,(T
s
T
1
)1
3
i
2
(293)
The Grashof number is the ratio of buoyancy forces to viscous forces, and it plays a
role similar to the Reynolds number in forced convection.
From the nondimensional form of the governing equations we should expect:
n
L
= )(Gr
L
, 1c
L
, 1r) (294)
This would be true when forced and free convection are of similar magnitude, i.e.
Gr
L
,1c
2
L
- 1. When Gr
L
,1c
2
L
1 natural convection dominates and n
L
=
)(Gr
L
, 1r). When Gr
L
,1c
2
L
1 forced convection dominates and n
L
= )(1c
L
, 1r).
12 Test Problems
12.1 Two-Dimensional Convection Diusion
12.1.1 Square Enclosure, Recirculating Flow
This is a test problem involving the convection-diusion transport of a scalar in a
recirculating ow, for which an analytical solution is available. The problem is illus-
trated schematically below, in which a square enclosure is located with its center at
the origin of the Cartesian co-ordinate system r, j. The dimensions of the square are
2 by 2.
The recirculating velocity eld is dened as:
n =
_
j j
3
_ _
2r
2
r
4
1
_
(295)
=
_
r r
3
_ _
2j
2
j
4
1
_
(296)
where
is a free parameter to be specied.

The following temperature eld is proposed as a solution to this problem:
T = 1
_
1 r
2
_ _
1 j
2
_
(297)
where 1
is a free parameter specied by the user.

For steady state conditions, negligible viscous dissipation, and a constant proerty
Newtonian uid, the temperature distribution in the uid is governed by the following
form of the energy equation:
j
_
n
0T
0r
+
0T
0j
_
=
_
0
2
T
0r
2
+
0
2
T
0j
2
_
+ o
(298)
where o
= o,c
p
and = /,c
p
.
When Eqs. (295) to (297) are substituted into Eq. (298), the following expression for
the source term o
is obtained:
o
= 21
_
j
_
1 r
2
_ _
r r
3
_ _
2j
2
j
4
1
_
r
_
1 j
2
_ _
j j
3
_ _
2r
2
r
4
1
_
+
__
1 j
2
_
+
_
1 r
2
_
(299)
If j = = 1
= 1 the temperature is a maximum of one at the center of the domain,

and zero on all boundaries.
With T = 0 on all boundaries the maximum and the recirculating velocity eld as
dened above, the problem has symmetry planes as shown, and advantage can bet
taken of this to solve in the calculation domain: 0 _ r _ 1, 0 _ j _ 1. The paramter
that would be varied is
.
The numerical solution would be compared with the analytical solution, Eq. (297).
12.2 Two-Dimensional Fluid Flow
12.2.1 Square Driven Cavity
In this problem, the steady, two-dimensional, laminar recirculation of an incompress-
ible Newtonian uid contained in a square enclosure is considered. The motion of
the uid is driven by a sliding lid.
A square enclosure of dimension 1 has its lower left corner located at the origin of
a Cartesain co-ordinate system (r, j). All walls are xed except for the lid, which
moves in the r direction with constant velocity n
w
.
The equations which describe this problem are the r and j momentum and contnuity
equations. Using the following non-dimensionalization:
r
= r,1 n
= n,n
w
j
= j,jn
2
w
j
= j,1
= ,n
w
Re
w
= jn
w
1,j
the governing equations may be written in the following non-dimensional forms:
Continuity:
0n
0r
+
0
0j
= 0 (300)
r momentum:
n
0n
0r
0n
0j
=
0j
0r
+
1
1c
w
_
0
2
n
0r
2
+
0
2
n
0j
2
_
(301)
j momentum:
n
0r
0j
=
0j
0j
+
1
1c
w
_
0
2
0r
2
+
0
2
0j
2
_
(302)
with boundary conditions:
= 0 on all walls (303)

n
= 1, j
= 1, 0 < r
< 1 (304)
= 0 on other walls (305)
Note: there are singularities at the upper corners. If n
= 1 that would imply that

there would be mass ow in and out of the domain due to the discretization of the
boundaries, unless the code is modied. The other interpretation is that the n
at
the upper corner nodes is set to zero.
Numerical solutions are compared with experimental ow visualizations and other
numerical results.
12.3 Two-Dimensional Natural Convection
The simulation of two-dimensional natural convection in a square enclosure is a stan-
dard test problem used to evaluate the eectiveness of numerical methods in the
solution of coupled uid ow and heat transfer problems.
In this problem, steady, two-dimensional, laminar natural convection of a Newtonian
uid contained in a square enclosure is considered. The problem is illustrated
schematically below.
The origin of the Cartesian co-ordinate system is located at the lower left corner of
a square enclosure of dimension 1. The acceleration due to gravity q is directed in
the negative j direction. The vertical side walls, at r = 0 and 1, are maintained at
hot and cold temperatures, T
H
and T
C
, respectively. The two horizontal walls are
considered to be adiabatic, i.e. perfectly insulated.
The standard Boussinesq approximation is used in the analysis of this problem, i.e.
the mass density is considered to be constant in all terms except the buoyancy term,
in which it is assumed to decrease linearly with temperature:
j = j
C
[1 , (T T
C
)] (306)
where , is the thermal volumetric expansion coecient, and j
C
is the density of the
uid at the reference temperature T
C
. All other thermophysical properties of the
uid are considered to be constant.
The equations which govern this problem are the r and j momentum, continuity and
energy equations. Using the following non-dimensional variables:
r
= r,1 n
= n1,c j
= j1
2
,jc
2
c = (T T
C
) , (T
H
T
C
) Pr = i,c
j
= j,1
= 1,c c = /,jc
p
1a = ,qT1
3
,ci
the governing equations may be written in the following non-dimensional forms:
Continuity:
0n
0r
+
0
0j
= 0 (307)
r momentum:
n
0n
0r
0n
0j
=
0j
0r
+ Pr
_
0
2
n
0r
2
+
0
2
n
0j
2
_
(308)
j momentum:
n
0r
0j
=
0j
0j
+ Pr
_
0
2
0r
2
+
0
2
0j
2
_
+ 1a Pr c (309)
Energy:
n
0c
0r
0c
0j
=
0
2
c
0r
2
+
0
2
c
0j
2
(310)
with boundary conditions:
= n
= 0 on all walls
c = 1, r
= 0
= 0, r
= 1
0c
0j
= 0, j
= 0, 1
It should be noted that the j momentum equation has a source term which involves
c, and thus provides for coupling of the uid and heat transfer problems.
The output of this problem can be condensed to the evaluation of a local Nusselt
number that can be evaluated on the hot wall:
n =
/ (0T,dr)
x=0
(T
H
T
C
)
_
1
/
_
=
_
0c
0r
_
x
=0
(311)
and the average Nusselt number on the hot wall is:
n
av
=
1
_
0
_
0c
0r
_
x
=0
dj
(312)
Since the total amount of heat transferred from the hot wall to the uid must be the
same as the amount absorbed by the cold wall from the uid, and because the hot
and cold walls have the same areas, the average Nusselt numbers on both walls should
be the same. This can be used as validation of the overall conservative property of
the method.
Numerical results are compared with experimental visualizations and available nu-
merical simulations.
12.4 General Info for Validation of Codes
Perform initial checks on coarse grids to minimize execution times.
Verify the overall balance is satised for any number of grid points. We have developed
a method that should be conservative, i.e. all energy must be accounted for. So if
heat is generated in a calculation domain, that same amount of heat must leave the
domain under steady state conditions. If a mass ow enters a domain, the same
amount must leave the domain for steady state conditions. If not, the code is not
delivering conservation and there is probably a mismatch in the uxes between control
volumes.
Check that the converged solution is independent of the initial guess value and the
relaxation factors (if used).
Interchange the r,j and . directions and examine the resulting solutions.
If the problem has a line or plane of symmetry, it can be solved using the whole
domain or partial domain, and the solutions compared. They should be the same for
the same spatial and time discretization.
It is useful to see if the numerical solutions obey the principal of superposition for
problems to which it is applicable (e.g. heat conduction).
Limiting behaviour provides useful tests. A 3D code should demonstrate 2D solutions
when properly set up for 2D problems. A duct ow simulation should deliver a fully
developed solution in the far downstream region.
Quantitative checks can be made with analytical solutions, other numerical solutions
and experimental data.
A means of constructing exact solutions is as follows:
Propose a distribution of c;
Dene values for any required thermophysical properties and parameters (e.g.
Reynolds number);
Substitute your proposed c, properties and parameters into the governing dier-
ential equation to determine an expression for the source term o.
Use this derived expression for o in the numerical code to regenerate c.
Compare the calculated c with the proposed c-eld.
13 Miscellaneous Info
13.1 Iterations and time Stepping
Two roles of iterations:
The governing equations are, in general, nonlinear and interlinked. The dis-
cretization procedure produces a set of nominally linear and decoupled equa-
tions. The nonlinearity and interlinkage is handled by iterative re-evaluation of
of coecients and repeating until convergence.
The nominally linear equations are solved by an iterative method (e.g. the line-
by-line method we have used) as opposed to a direct method.
There is no basic dierence between solving a steady state problem and performing
one time step in an unsteady problem. As in a steady state problem, a number of
iterations must be performed per time step.
The solution of an unsteady problem seems to involve an eort equivalent to solving
a succession of steady state problems. But...
The number of iterations required within a time step are usually only a few,
because the value of c at a time t is a good guess for the value at time t + t.
When a solution is solved as a limiting solution of an unsteady problem, the
time steps are like iterations and the unsteady term provides a kind of under-
relaxation. Remember...
a
P
c
P
=

a
nb
c
nb
+ /
a
o
P
= j
o
P
\
t
/ = o
C
\ + a
o
P
c
o
P
a
P
=

a
nb
+ a
o
P
o
P
\
And if t is small, a
o
P
is large, therefore, c
P;new
- c
P;old
since the a
o
P
dominates.
This will slow down changes in c
P
, i.e. it is a form of under-relaxation.
13.2 Source Term Linearization
We have linearized the source term as follows:
o = o
C
+ o
P
c (313)
where o
P
< 0.
Linearizing the source in this manner allows for the inuence of c to be explicitly
included in the source term and leads to faster convergence. The goal is to make the
line of o = o
C
+ o
P
c approach as close as possible to the true o-c curve.
Taylors series approximation is a means of obtaining the values for o
C
and o
P
.
o = o
+
do
dc
(c c
) +
= o
do
dc
+ c
do
dc
= o
C
+ o
P
c
For example:
o = 4 5c
3
=
_
4 15c
2
_
_
15c
2
_
c
Note: you must also ensure that:
lim
!
(o
C
+ o
P
c) = o
And here is a numerical trick..You can use the source term to speciy a value of c
anywhere in the calculation domain. If you set;
o
C
= 10
30
c
spec
o
P
= 10
30
the other terms in the discretized equation become negligible and the discretized
equation reduces to c = (o
C
,o
P
) c
spec
.
13.3 Property Tricks
The harmonic mean allow the solution of conjugate problems in a neat manner. Con-
sider uid ow in the domain shown below.
Dene the control volume faces such that they are at the interface between the uid
and solid wall. The real value of j is used in the uid and j = in the solid. This
will prevent any "uid ow" in the solid wall. The energy equation would be solved
using the real property values in the uid and the wall.
What about a conduction problem in a very simple calculation domain shown below.
There is no need to discretize the actual calculation domain to obtain a solution.
Use the very simple domain to the right, match control volume faces with the actual
calculation domain, and use the source trick above to specify wall temperatures, or
set / = to simulate insulated surfaces.

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Eng9977 - Computational Fluid Dynamics 1

2.7 Interface Conductivity

to the grid lines. For convenience, set r = j. For

elds after step

would be practically zero, therefore, the pressure correction j

and solve the momentum equations

1 (since both terms must be of the

, 1c (or 1c and 1r), and 1c.

is a free parameter to be specied.

is a free parameter specied by the user.

= 1 the temperature is a maximum of one at the center of the domain,

= 0 on all walls (303)

= 1 that would imply that

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