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Summary Nr

Event Date 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60

Report ID

Fat

SIC

Event Description 1731 3711 3469 3492

201085701 07/14/2004 0950625 201058633 04/19/2004 0950642 200822450 03/17/2004 0521400 201165941 03/17/2004 0950641 202086609 12/01/2003 0524700 201691037 11/21/2003 0950662 201157880 07/12/2003 0950633 201157807 07/07/2003 0950633 201157682 06/03/2003 0950633 202086484 04/25/2003 0524700 201690849 02/20/2003 0950662 202339404 11/22/2002 0352430 171135080 09/09/2002 1055360 200800712 09/03/2002 0523300 200772200 08/20/2002 0134000 200821841 07/08/2002 0521400 201796018 06/07/2002 0950644 201795614 03/25/2002 0950644 201503273 03/06/2002 0950614 201056272 12/15/2001 0950642

Employee'S Fingers Crushed By Jaw Crimper Head

Employee Is Injured In Fall From Hyd Press

Employee Injured When Operating Hydraulic Press

Employee'S Fingers Partially Amputat Press

3493 Employee'S Arm Is Caught In Hydrauli 3444 3499 7629 Employee Thumb Is Amputated After Crushed

Employee Amputates Fingers When C In Hydraulic Press

Employee Injures Fingers While Oper Hydraulic Press

3089 Employee'S Hand Crushed In Hydraulic 3714 3443 3544 5521 3585 3499 3363 3398 3089 3444 3444

Employee Injured When Hand Lacerat Hydraulic Press Employee'S Fingers Amputated While Up A Press

Employee Suffers Finger Amputati

Employee'S Fingers Are Crushed In Hy Press Brake

Employee'S Fingers Are Amputated In Brake Employee'S Thumb Is Amputated In

Employee Ampuataes Arm In Hydrauli Accident

Employee'S Finger Amputated By Hyd Press

Employee Struck In The Head By Fl Object Hand Crushed In Hydraulic Shearing

Employee Injured When Right Finger Caught By Press

Safety regulators are investigating the death of a 38-year-old worker after a hydraulic press accident yesterday in Oakford, south of Perth. According to a WorkSafe, the man was working with a manual hydraulic press in the workshop when a metal cylinder shattered, striking him in the chest. Inspectors travelled to the site soon after the incident to interview witnesses and investigate the circumstances. A WorkSafe WA spokesperson told Safe to Work that the investigation will continue, and it still too early in the process to determine the exact circumstances of the incident. The hydraulic press will be examined thoroughly to find out what went wrong and what other factors may have contributed to the workers death. WorkSafe WA Commissioner Lex McCulloch said any work-related death was a tragedy, and relayed his sincere condolences to the mans family. In a statement, the safety regulator reiterated that its mission is to thoroughly investigate serious work-related injuries and deaths in WA with a view to preventing future incidents of a similar nature. ABC Radio Australia's news site and ABC News online also ran stories about this incident.

ACCIDENT INVOLVING HYDRAULIC PILING MACHINE

Photo 1: Hydraulic Piling Machine at accident sce took place on 20th May 2008 at around 8:00pm when piling work was being carried out. The accident occurred AT a constructio xt to the public parking area. The Hydraulic Pile Jacking Machine (model YZY 240) was equipped with a crane and a hydraulic n revealed that the machine is located about 2 meters from the site hoarding which is adjacent to the public parking area. During concrete piles which weigh about 2.8 tonnes with the dimensions of 12 meters (Length) x 300 mm (Width) X 300mm (Thicknes o vehicles in the parking area. The accident happened due to the failure of the lifting lug and sling which were used to tie the co Recommendations:

ard identification, risk assessment and risk control (HIRARC) shall be implemented before any piling activity. lighting is crucial if the piling activity is carried out at night. Piling activity should only be done during broad daylight. fting procedure should be updated. Use of spreader device is necessary to e the stability of the 12 meters length concrete pile during lifting. Use of will ease the process and prevent the concrete pile from colliding with the e boom section due to limited clearance between pile and crane boom.

inspection of lifting gear should be carried out prior to any lifting activity to check for defects. Furthermore, all attachments invo or shackle with lifting lug must be done correctly to ensure safe lifting.

Good communication between crane operator and signalman is vital during such piling activity: ignalman appointed should be properly trained to provide clear two-way communication and correct information to the crane op Lifting and piling should be supervised and adequate number of workers should be provided. References:

RIKEN OPTECH
RIKEN OPTECH - Safety Light curtain sensor for Press machine, Area safety sensor for Press Machine, Safety of Stamping machine.The Safety and Automation Systems of RIKEN OPTECH is involved in developing and marketing equipment for use in stamping operations, such as safety equipment for preventing accidents, malfunction detectors and load monitor for maintaining quality control. -www.tjsolution.com

RIKEN Optech - Safety Device product lineup 1. Riken Optech - SE2 Safety Light curtain sensor (Reflection Type)

Feature of SEII 1. Reflection type, light can be adjusted easily. 2. Special filter protects device from dirt and fog. 3. Tolerant of ambient light. 4. Built-in self-check circuit automatically checks the electronic circuit to monitor the safety of operation. 5. It is designed to be vibration resistant so as to mitigate the influence from the action of the press machine. All Riken Optech SE2 model : SEII-24 (H.200 mm.), SEII-32 (H.280 mm.), SEII-40 (H.360 mm.), SEII-48 (H.480 mm.)

2. Riken Optech - RPH4 Safety Light curtain sensor (Direct Protection Type)

Spec. of Press machine that can apply this model(RPH4) to use Type of the machine a press machine ---> having an emergency stop and nor-repeat mechanism. Emergency stop time ---> 300ms or less Safety distance ---> (Response Time + emergency stop time of the press machine) x 1.6 or more Pressure Capacity ---> (50,000kN or less) Scope of the die size ---> within the width of the bolster -www.tjsolution.com Feature of RPH4 1. It will turn off the output through the action of a self-diagnosis function. Fail-safe design is thoroughly pursued. 2. When an abnormal incident occurs, the press machine will be stopped instantly! We have created a system that provides a high level of safety. 3. The goal of creating a safety system supported by technology has been realized. 4. This safety equipment is the result of using the highest level of safety design expertise and FMEA analysis. 5. The system complies with global standards for safety sensors. 6. The Type 4 Sensor conforms to the IEC Standards and EN Standards. 7. Various safety functions are built in to the sensor. 8. The introduction of an LED bar supports ease of use. -www.tjsolution.com 9. The compact size is perfect for installation in dangerous areas. 10. The detection width and the sensor length are identical thus keeping the space required to the minimum. All Riken Optech RPH4 model : (RPH425-n ; n=13~120 <no.of beam>), (RPH414-n ; n=21~125<no.of beam>)

3. Riken Optech - RBS(PSDI) Presence Sensing Device Initiaion System. Photo-electric safety
device withactivation function will improve production efficiency and reduce production fatigue.

Riken Optech - RBS(PSDI) Function - Optional functions for RBS type devices designed to elevate labor efficiency and safety also have acquired the official approval of the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare of Japan. 1. Movable Guards The movable guard not only will reduce the time required to exchange dies, confirm the safety, and resume formal work but also will improve the overall safety of the press machine. 2. Three-Optical-Axes Floating Blanking Function is available. This is an optional item for enhancing the function of the light curtain used for processing long strip work-pieces with pass the sensing field of the light curtain. Press machines will not be stopped even when up to three optical axes are interrupted. When four optical axes are interrupted, the press machine will be forcibly stopped.

Spec. of Press machine that can apply this model(RBS) to use -www.tjsolution.com - Press machines with an emergency stop mechanism and an anti-reactivation mechanism that can accept a safety light curtain. - Height of the bolster is 75mm or more. - Depth of the bolster is 1,000mm or less. - Length of the stroke is 600mm or less. - Set angle of overrun is within 15 degrees. (excluding hydraulic press machines) - Emergency stopping time is 300ms or less. - Pressure capacity is 5,000t or less.

4. Riken Optech - Safety Laser Scanner sensor for safety area (RS-4)

Riken Optech model RS-4 Laser scanner safety sensor, it performs continuous scanning over the wide range of 190 degrees covering the entire operating range and if an object or person happens to enter the protective area, it outputs a stop signal. The specifications of this equipment conform to the Type 3, IEC61496-3 Standards. Therefore, it is best suited for safety-related uses. The area sensor with high sensitivity and high resolution has wide-ranging applications. RS-4 is best suited for the protection of humans from mobile systems and static systems requiring safety measures up to the extent of the EN954-1 Type 3 Standards. - Four Protection Areas are Programmable Areas can randomly be set with the radius of 4 meters for the protection of humans or for an area with the radius of 15 meters for the detection of objects.

- Setting up the Protective Area. There are two ways to set the protective area. 1. Directly inputting the data from a PC As a rectangular area by using numerical data. 2. Learning functions Make an outline of a protective area out of cardboard and place it before this equipment. The read-in process starts when the learning function command is executed. The device will scan the outline of the cardboard. A new protective area will be decided based on the data acquired. It also has a function to store the parameters into the database.

- Protection by Password Input process can be restricted to specific passwords so that it runs only when the specified passwords are inputted. Passwords corresponding to the levels of importance and safety can be set to the equipment. www.tjsolution.com

1. Small Body Dimensions 140 x 155 x 135 (W x H x D) in mm

4. Number of detection zones: 4 (changeover via switch inputs)

2. High Speed Scanning / High resolution - Scanning rate: 25 scans/s or 40 ms/scan - Angle range: 190 degrees(Max.) - Angle resolution: 0.36 degrees

5. The protection area is set by a personal computer.

3. With 2 different protection areas are programmable at the same time. - Caution Area: 4m - Warning Area: 15m

6. EN regulation - IEC 61496-1 type 3 - IEC 61496-3 type 3

For more information about "RIKEN Optech" please contact our sale engineer.

Machine press
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article's tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Wikipedia. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for suggestions. (February
2013)

Manual goldsmith press

Power press with a fixed barrier guard

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (November 2009)

A forming press, commonly shortened to press, is a machine tool that changes the shape of a workpiece by the application of pressure.[1]Presses can be classified according to

their mechanism: hydraulic, mechanical, pneumatic;

their function: forging presses, stamping presses, press brakes, punch press, etc.

their structure, e.g. Knuckle-joint press, screw press their controllability: conventional vs. servo-presses

Contents
[hide]

1 An example of peculiar press structure: shop press

2 Some examples of presses by application

3 An example of peculiar press control: servo-press

4 A table of comparison among presses

5 History 6 Safety 7 References

8 External links

An example of peculiar press structure: shop press[edit]


A simple frame, fabricated from steel, containing a bottle jack or simple hydraulic cylinder. Good for generalpurpose work in the auto mechanic shop, machine shop, garage or basement shops, etc. Typically 1 to 30 tons of pressure, depending on size and expense. Classed with engine hoists andengine stands in many tool catalogs.

Some examples of presses by application[edit]

A press brake is a special type of machine press that bends sheet metal into shape. A good example of the type of work a press brake can do is the backplate of a computer case. Other examples include brackets, frame pieces and electronic enclosures just to name a few. Some press brakes have CNC controls and can form parts with accuracy to a fraction of a millimetre. Bending forces can exceed 4,000 kilonewtons (900,000 lbf).[citation needed]

A punch press is used to form holes.

A screw press is also known as a fly press.

A stamping press is a machine press used to shape or cut metal by deforming it with a die. It generally consists of a press frame, a bolster plate, and a ram.

Capping presses form caps from rolls of aluminium foil at up to 660 per minute.

An example of peculiar press control: servo-press[edit]


A servomechanism press, also known as a servo press or a 'electro press, is a press driven by an AC servo motor. The torque produced is converted to a linear force via a ball screw. Pressure and position are controlled through a load cell and an encoder. The main advantage of a servo press is its low energy consumption; its only 10-20% of other press machines. Another advantage is a quiet and clean work environment.

A table of comparison among presses[edit]


Comparison of various machine presses

Position of Typ Type of frame frame e of pre O St A P S T V Ho Inc In G ss p rai r il o i er riz lin cli a e gh c l li e ti on abl n

Action

Method of actuation

Type of drive

Suspen Ram sion

Bed

Si D T C F Ec T S R Pi O Ge U Ge O T F Si M S O Adj C n o ri r r ce o c a st v ar n are n w o n ul o p ust a gl u p a o nt g r ck o e ed d d, e o u gl ti li e abl

n p t- h e d ca tal si r r l b de o a d c k

e e bl le n n ric gl e m n r , e d e k te w & d ov r t pi ir er di o ni e dri r o c ve e b n t ct a c k cr a n k

un der dri ve

p o i n t

p o i n t

r- e pl d n p e o i n t

Be X X nch

X X

X X

X X X

Op enbac k X X incl ina ble

X X

X X X

X X

X X

Ga pX X fra me

X X X

X X X

X X X X

X X X

X X X X X X X

Adj ust abl ebe d hor n

X X X

X X

X X X

En dwh eel

X X

X X

X X

Arc hfra me

X X

X X

X X

Str aig htsid e

X X

X X X

X X X X X X X

X X X X X

X X X X X X X X

Re duc X X X ing

X X X

X X X

Kn uck lelev er

X X X

X X X

X X

X X

X X X X

Tog gle dra w

X X X

X X X

X X

X X X X

Ca mdra X X X wi ng

X X X

X X

Tw opoi nt sin gle acti on

X X

X X X

X X

X X

Hig hpro duc tio n

X X X

X X

X X

X X

Dy ein g ma chi ne

X X

Tra nsf er

X X

X X X

X X X X

X X

Fla ted ge tri m mi ng

Hy dra

X X

X X

X X X

X X

X X X X X

ulic

Pre ss X X bra ke

X X X

History[edit]
Historically, metal was shaped by hand using a hammer. Later, larger hammers were constructed to press more metal at once, or to press thicker materials. Often a smith would employ a helper or apprentice to swing the sledgehammer while the smith concentrated on positioning the workpiece. Adding windmill or steam power yielded still larger hammers such as steam hammers. Most modern machine presses use a combination of electric motors and hydraulics to achieve the necessary pressure. Along with the evolution of presses came the evolution of the dies used within them.

Safety[edit]
Machine presses can be hazardous, so safety measures must always be taken. Bi-manual controls (controls the use of which requires both hands to be on the buttons to operate) are a very good way to prevent accidents, as are light sensors that keep the machine from working if the operator is in range of the

DC motor
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Workings of a brushed electric motor with a two-pole rotor (armature) and permanent magnet stator. "N" and "S" designate polarities on the inside faces of the magnets; the outside faces have opposite polarities. The + and - signs show where the DC current is applied to the commutator which supplies current to the armature coils

Electromagnetism

Electricity Magnetism

Electrostatics[show]

Magnetostatics[show]

Electrodynamics[show]

Electrical network[show]

Covariant formulation[show]

Scientists[show]

V T

The Pennsylvania Railroad's class DD1 locomotive running gear was a semi-permanently coupled pair of third rail direct current electric locomotive motors built for the railroad's initial New York-area electrification when steam locomotives were banned in the city (locomotive cab removed here).

A DC motor relies on the fact that like magnet poles repel and unlike magnetic poles attract each other. A coil of wire with a current running through it generates a electromagnetic field aligned with the center of the coil. By switching the current on or off in a coil its magnet field can be switched on or off or by switching the direction of the current in the coil the direction of the generated magnetic field can be switched 180. A simple DC motor typically has a stationary set of magnets in the stator and an armature with a series of two or more windings of wire wrapped in insulated stack slots around iron pole pieces (called stack teeth) with the ends of the wires terminating on a commutator. The armature includes the mounting bearings that keep it in the center of the motor and the power shaft of the motor and the commutator connections. The winding in the armature continues to loop all the way around the armature and uses either single or parallel conductors (wires), and can circle several times around the stack teeth. The total amount of current sent to the coil, the coil's size and what it's wrapped around dictate the strength of the electromagnetic field created. The sequence of turning a particular coil on or off dictates what direction the effective electromagnetic fields are pointed. By turning on and off coils in sequence a rotating magnetic field can be created. These rotating magnetic fields interact with the magnetic fields of the magnets (permanent or electromagnets) in the stationary part of the motor (stator) to create a force on the armature which causes it to rotate. In some DC motor designs the stator fields use electromagnets to create their magnetic fields which allow greater control over the motor. At high power levels, DC motors are almost always cooled using forced air. The commutator allows each armature coil to be activated in turn. The current in the coil is typically supplied via two brushes that make moving contact with the commutator. Now, some brushless DC motors have electronics that switch the DC current to each coil on and off and have no brushes to wear out or create sparks. Different number of stator and armature fields as well as how they are connected provide different inherent speed/torque regulation characteristics. The speed of a DC motor can be controlled by changing the voltage applied to the armature. The introduction of variable resistance in the armature circuit or field circuit allowed

speed control. Modern DC motors are often controlled by power electronics systems which adjust the voltage by "chopping" the DC current into on and off cycles which have an effective lower voltage. Since the series-wound DC motor develops its highest torque at low speed, it is often used in traction applications such as electric locomotives, and trams. The DC motor was the mainstay of electric traction drives on both electric and diesel-electric locomotives, street-cars/trams and diesel electric drilling rigs for many years. The introduction of DC motors and an electrical grid system to run machinery starting in the 1870s started a new second Industrial Revolution. DC motors can operate directly from rechargeable batteries, providing the motive power for the first electric vehicles and today's hybrid cars and electric carsas well as driving a host of cordless tools. Today DC motors are still found in applications as small as toys and disk drives, or in large sizes to operate steel rolling mills and paper machines. If external power is applied to a DC motor it acts as a DC generator, a dynamo. This feature is used to slow down and recharge batteries on hybrid car and electric cars or to return electricity back to the electric grid used on a street car or electric powered train line when they slow down. This process is calledregenerative braking on hybrid and electric cars. In diesel electric locomotives they also use their DC motors as generators to slow down but dissipate the energy in resistor stacks. Newer designs are adding large battery packs to recapture some of this energy. Contents
[hide]

1 Brush 2 Brushless

3 Uncommutated

4 Permanent magnet stators

o o o

5 Wound stators 5.1 Series connection 5.2 Shunt connection 5.3 Compound connection

6 See also 7 External links 8 References

Brush[edit]
Main article: Brushed DC electric motor

A brushed DC electric motor generating torque from DC power supply by using an internal mechanical commutation. Stationary permanent magnets form the stator field. Torque is produced by the principle that any current-carrying conductor placed within an external magnetic field experiences a force, known as Lorentz force. In a motor, the magnitude of this Lorentz force (a vector represented by the green arrow), and thus the output torque,is a function for rotor angle, leading to a phenomenon known as torque ripple) Since this is a single phase two-pole motor, the commutator consists of a split ring, so that the current reverses each half turn ( 180 degrees).

The brushed DC electric motor generates torque directly from DC power supplied to the motor by using internal commutation, stationary magnets (permanent or electromagnets), and rotating electrical magnets. Advantages of a brushed DC motor include low initial cost, high reliability, and simple control of motor speed. Disadvantages are high maintenance and low life-span for high intensity uses. Maintenance involves regularly replacing the carbon brushes and springs which carry the electric current, as well as cleaning or replacing the commutator. These components are necessary for transferring electrical power from outside the motor to the spinning wire windings of the rotor inside the motor. Brushes consist of conductors.

Brushless[edit]
Main articles: Brushless DC electric motor and Switched reluctance motor Typical brushless DC motors use a rotating permanent magnet in the rotor, and stationary electrical current/coil magnets on the motor housing for the stator, but the symmetrical opposite is also possible. A motor controller converts DC to AC. This design is simpler than that of brushed motors because it eliminates the complication of transferring power from outside the motor to the spinning rotor. Advantages of brushless motors include long life span, little or no maintenance, and high efficiency. Disadvantages include high initial cost, and more complicated motor speed controllers. Some such brushless motors are sometimes referred to as "synchronous motors" although they have no external power supply to be synchronized with, as would be the case with normal AC synchronous motors.

Uncommutated[edit]
Other types of DC motors require no commutation.

Homopolar motor A homopolar motor has a magnetic field along the axis of rotation and an electric current that at some point is not parallel to the magnetic field. The name homopolar refers to the absence of polarity change. Homopolar motors necessarily have a single-turn coil, which limits them to very low voltages. This has restricted the practical application of this type of motor.

Ball bearing motor A ball bearing motor is an unusual electric motor that consists of two ball bearing-type bearings, with the inner races mounted on a common conductive shaft, and the outer races connected to a high current, low voltage power supply. An alternative construction fits the outer races inside a metal tube, while the inner races are mounted on a shaft with a non-conductive section (e.g. two sleeves on an insulating rod). This method has the advantage that the tube will act as a flywheel. The direction of rotation is determined by the initial spin which is usually required to get it going.

Permanent magnet stators[edit]


Main article: Permanent-magnet electric motor A PM motor does not have a field winding on the stator frame, instead relying on PMs to provide the magnetic field against which the rotor field interacts to produce torque. Compensating windings in series with the armature may be used on large motors to improve commutation under load. Because this field is fixed, it cannot be adjusted for speed control. PM fields (stators) are convenient in miniature motors to eliminate the power consumption of the field winding. Most larger DC motors are of the "dynamo" type, which have stator windings. Historically, PMs could not be made to retain high flux if they were disassembled; field windings were more practical to obtain the needed amount of flux. However, large PMs are costly, as well as dangerous and difficult to assemble; this favors wound fields for large machines. To minimize overall weight and size, miniature PM motors may use high energy magnets made with neodymium or other strategic elements; most such are neodymium-iron-boron alloy. With their higher flux density, electric machines with high-energy PMs are at least competitive with all optimally designed singly fed synchronous and induction electric machines. Miniature motors resemble the structure in the illustration, except that they have at least three rotor poles (to ensure starting, regardless of rotor position) and their outer housing is a steel tube that magnetically links the exteriors of the curved field magnets.

Wound stators[edit]

A field coil may be connected in shunt, in series, or in compound with the armature of a DC machine (motor or generator)

Main article: universal motor

See also: Excitation (magnetic) There are three types of electrical connections between the stator and rotor possible for DC electric motors: series, shunt/parallel and compound ( various blends of series and shunt/parallel) and each has unique speed/torque characteristics appropriate for diffent loading torque profiles/signatures. [1]

Series connection[edit]
A series DC motor connects the armature and field windings in series with a common D.C. power source. The motor speed varies as a non-linear function of load torque and armature current; current is common to both the stator and rotor yielding current squared (I^2) behavior[citation needed]. A series motor has very high starting torque and is commonly used for starting high inertia loads, such as trains, elevators or hoists.[2] This speed/torque characteristic is useful in applications such as dragline excavators, where the digging tool moves rapidly when unloaded but slowly when carrying a heavy load. With no mechanical load on the series motor, the current is low, the counter-EMF produced by the field winding is weak, and so the armature must turn faster to produce sufficient counter-EMF to balance the supply voltage. The motor can be damaged by over speed. This is called a runaway condition. Series motors called "universal motors" can be used on alternating current. Since the armature voltage and the field direction reverse at (substantially) the same time, torque continues to be produced in the same direction. Since the speed is not related to the line frequency, universal motors can develop higher-than-synchronous speeds, making them lighter than induction motors of the same rated mechanical output. This is a valuable characteristic for hand-held power tools. Universal motors for commercial power frequency are usually small, not more than about 1 kW output. However, much larger universal motors were used for electric locomotives, fed by special low-frequency traction power networks to avoid problems with commutation under heavy and varying loads.

Shunt connection[edit]
A shunt DC motor connects the armature and field windings in parallel or shunt with a common D.C. power source. This type of motor has good speed regulation even as the load varies, but does not have the starting torque of a series DC motor.[3] It is typically used for industrial, adjustable speed applications, such as machine tools, winding/unwinding machines and tensioners.

Compound connection[edit]
A compound DC motor connects the armature and fields windings in a shunt and a series combination to give it characteristics of both a shunt and a series DC motor.[4] This motor is used when both a high starting torque and good speed regulation is needed. The motor can be connected in two arrangements: cumulatively or differentially. Cumulative compound motors connect the series field to aid the shunt field, which provides higher

starting torque but less speed regulation. Differential compound DC motors have good speed regulation and are typically operated at constant speed.

Transformer
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia This article is about the electrical device. For the media and toy franchise, see Transformers. For other uses, see Transformer (disambiguation).

Pole-mounted distribution transformerwith center-tapped secondary winding used to provide 'split-phase' power for residential and light commercial service, which in North America is typically rated 120/240 volt.[1][2]

A transformer is an electrical device that transfers energy between two circuits through electromagnetic induction. A transformer may be used as a safe and efficient voltage converter to change the AC voltage at its input to a higher or lower voltage at its output. Other uses include current conversion, isolation with or without changing voltage and impedance conversion.

A transformer most commonly consists of two windings of wire that are wound around a common core to provide tight electromagnetic coupling between the windings. The core material is often a laminated iron core. The coil that receives the electrical input energy is referred to as the primary winding, while the output coil is called the secondary winding. An alternating electric current flowing through the primary winding (coil) of a transformer generates a varying electromagnetic field in its surroundings which causes a varying magnetic flux in the core of the transformer. The varying electromagnetic field in the vicinity of the secondary winding induces anelectromotive force in the secondary winding, which appears a voltage across the output terminals. If a load impedance is connected across the secondary winding, a current flows through the secondary winding drawing power from the primary winding and its power source. A transformer cannot operate with direct current; although, when it is connected to a DC source, a transformer typically produces a short output pulse as the current rises. Contents
[hide]

1 Invention 2 Applications

3 Basic principles

4 Basic transformer parameters and construction

5 Construction

6 Classification parameters

7 Types 8 Applications 9 History 10 See also 11 Notes

12 References 13 Bibliography 14 External links

Invention[edit]
The invention of transformers during the late 1800s allowed for longer-distance, cheaper, and more energy efficient transmission, distribution, and utilization of electrical energy. In the early days of commercial electric power, the main energy source was direct current (DC), which operates at low-voltage high-current. According

to Joule's Law, energy losses are directly proportional to the square of current. This law revealed that even a tiny decrease in current or rise in voltage can cause a substantial lowering in energy losses and costs. Thus, the historical pursuit for a high-voltage low-current electricity transmission system took shape. Although high voltage transmission systems offered many benefits, the future fate of high-voltage alternating current still remained unclear for several reasons: high-voltage sources had a much higher risk of causing severe electrical injuries; many essential appliances could only function at low voltage. Regarded as one of the most influential electrical innovations of all time, the introduction of transformers had successfully reduced the safety concerns associated with alternating current and had the ability to lower voltage to a value that was required by most essential appliances.[3]

Applications[edit]
Transformers perform voltage conversion; isolation protection; and impedance matching. In terms of voltage conversion, transformers can step-up voltage/step-down current from generators to high-voltage transmission lines, and step-down voltage/step-up current to local distribution circuits or industrial customers. The step-up transformer is used to increase the secondary voltage relative to the primary voltage, whereas the step-down transformer is used to decrease the secondary voltage relative to the primary voltage. Transformers range in size from thumbnail-sized used in microphones to units weighing hundreds of tons interconnecting the power grid. A broad range of transformer designs are used in electronic and electric power applications, including miniature, audio, isolation, high-frequency, power conversion transformers, etc.

Basic principles[edit]
The functioning of a transformer is based on two principles of the laws of electromagnetic induction: An electric current through a conductor, such as a wire, produces a magnetic field surrounding the wire, and a changing magnetic field in the vicinity of a wire induces a voltage across the ends of that wire. The magnetic field excited in the primary coil gives rise to self-induction as well as mutual induction between coils. This self-induction counters the excited field to such a degree that the resulting current through the primary winding is very small when no load draws power from the secondary winding. The physical principles of the inductive behavior of the transformer are most readily understood and formalized when making some assumptions to construct a simple model which is called theideal transformer. This model differs from real transformers by assuming that the transformer is perfectly constructed and by neglecting that electrical or magnetic losses occur in the materials used to construct the device.

Ideal transformer[edit]

Ideal transformer with a source and a load. NP and NS are the number of turns in the primary and secondary windings respectively.

The assumptions to characterize the ideal transformer are:

The windings of the transformer have no resistance. Thus, there is no copper loss in the winding, and hence no voltage drop.

Flux is confined within the magnetic core. Therefore, it is the same flux that links the input and output windings.

Permeability of the core is infinitely high which implies that net mmf (amp-turns) must be zero (otherwise there would be infinite flux) hence IP NP - IS NS = 0.

The transformer core does not suffer magnetic hysteresis or eddy currents, which cause inductive loss. If the secondary winding of an ideal transformer has no load, no current flows in the primary winding. The circuit diagram (right) shows the conventions used for an ideal, i.e. lossless and perfectly-coupled transformer having primary and secondary windings with NP and NS turns, respectively.

The ideal transformer induces secondary voltage VS as a proportion of the primary voltage VP and respective winding turns as given by the equation

, where, a is the winding turns ratio, the value of these ratios being respectively higher and lower than unity for step-down and step-up transformers,[4][5][a][b] VP designates source impressed voltage, VS designates output voltage, and,

According to this formalism, when the number of turns in the primary coil is greater than the number of turns in the secondary coil, the secondary voltage is smaller than the primary voltage. On the other hand, when the number of turns in the primary coil is less than the number of turns in the secondary, the secondary voltage is greater than the primary voltage. Any load impedance ZL connected to the ideal transformer's secondary winding allows energy to flow without loss from primary to secondary circuits. The resulting input and output apparent powerare equal as given by the equation . Combining the two equations yields the following ideal transformer identity

. This formula is a reasonable approximation for the typical commercial transformer, with voltage ratio and winding turns ratio both being inversely proportional to the corresponding current ratio. The load impedance ZL and secondary voltage VS determine the secondary current IS as follows

. The apparent impedance ZL' of this secondary circuit load referred to the primary winding circuit is governed by a squared turns ratio multiplication factor relationship derived as follows[7][8]

. For an ideal transformer, the power supplied to the primary and the power dissipated by the load are equal. If ZL = RL where RL is a pure resistance then the power is given by:[9][10]

The primary current is given by the following equation:[9][10]

Induction law[edit]
A varying electrical current passing through the primary coil creates a varying magnetic field around the coil which induces a voltage in the secondary winding. The primary and secondary windings are wrapped around a core of very high magnetic permeability, usually iron,[c] so that most of the magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils. The current through a load connected to the secondary winding and the voltage across it are in the directions indicated in the figure.

Ideal transformer and induction law

The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's law of induction, which states that:

where Vs is the instantaneous voltage, Ns is the number of turns in the secondary coil, and d/dt is the derivative[d] of the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the turns of the coil are oriented perpendicularly to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the product of the magnetic flux density B and the area A through which it cuts. The area is

constant, being equal to the cross-sectional area of the transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time according to the excitation of the primary. Since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary coils in an ideal transformer,[7] the instantaneous voltage across the primary winding equals

Taking the ratio of the above two equations gives the same voltage ratio and turns ratio relationship shown above, that is,

. The changing magnetic field induces an emf across each winding.[11] The primary emf, acting as it does in opposition to the primary voltage, is sometimes termed the counter emf.[12] This is in accordance with Lenz's law, which states that induction of emf always opposes development of any such change in magnetic field. As still lossless and perfectly-coupled, the transformer still behaves as described above in the ideal transformer.

Polarity[edit]

Instrument transformer, with polarity dot and X1 markings on LV side terminal

The relationships of the instantaneous polarity at each of the terminals of the windings of a transformer depend on the direction the windings are wound around the core. Identically wound windings produce the same polarity of voltage at the corresponding terminals. This relationship is usually denoted by the dot convention in transformer circuit diagrams, nameplates, and on terminal markings, which marks the terminals having an in-phase relationship.[13][14][15][e][f]

Real transformer[edit]
The ideal transformer model neglects the following basic linear aspects in real transformers. Core losses, collectively called magnetizing current losses, consist of[18]

Hysteresis losses due to nonlinear application of the voltage applied in the transformer core, and

Eddy current losses due to joule heating in the core that are proportional to the square of the transformer's applied voltage. Whereas windings in the ideal model have no

impedance, the windings in a real transformer have finite non-zero impedances in the form of:

Joule losses due to resistance in the primary and secondary windings[18]

Leakage flux that escapes from the core and passes through one winding only resulting in primary and secondary reactive impedance.

If a voltage is applied across the primary terminals of a real transformer while the secondary winding is open without load, the real transformer must be viewed as a simple inductor with an impedance Z:

Leakage flux[edit]
Main article: Leakage inductance

Leakage flux of a transformer

The ideal transformer model assumes that all flux generated by the primary winding links all the turns of every winding, including itself. In practice, some flux traverses paths that take it outside the windings.[19] Such flux is termed leakage flux, and results in leakage inductance in series with the mutually coupled transformer windings.[12] Leakage flux results in energy being alternately stored in and discharged from the magnetic fields with each cycle of the power supply. It is not directly a power

loss, but results in inferior voltage regulation, causing the secondary voltage not to be directly proportional to the primary voltage, particularly under heavy load.[19]Transformers are therefore normally designed to have very low leakage inductance. Nevertheless, it is impossible to eliminate all leakage flux because it plays an essential part in the operation of the transformer. The combined effect of the leakage flux and the electric field around the windings is what transfers energy from the primary to the secondary.[20] In some applications increased leakage is desired, and long magnetic paths, air gaps, or magnetic bypass shunts may deliberately be introduced in a transformer design to limit the short-circuit current it will supply.[12] Leaky transformers may be used to supply loads that exhibit negative resistance, such as electric arcs, mercury vapor lamps, and neon signs or for safely handling loads that become periodically short-circuited such as electric arc welders.[21] Air gaps are also used to keep a transformer from saturating, especially audio-frequency transformers in circuits that have a DC component flowing in the windings.[22] Knowledge of leakage inductance is also useful when transformers are operated in parallel. It can be shown that if the percent impedance (Z) and associated winding

leakage reactance-to-resistance (X/R) ratio of two transformers were hypothetically exactly the same, the transformers would share power in proportion to their respective volt-ampere ratings (e.g. 500 kVA unit in parallel with 1,000 kVA unit, the larger unit would carry twice the current). However, the impedance tolerances of commercial transformers are significant. Also, the Z impedance and X/R ratio of different capacity transformers tends to vary, corresponding 1,000 kVA and 500 kVA units' values being, to illustrate, respectively, Z ~ 5.75%, X/R ~ 3.75 and Z ~ 5%, X/R ~ 4.75.[23][24]

Equivalent circuit[edit]
See also: Steinmetz equivalent circuit Referring to the diagram, a practical transformer's physical behavior may be represented by an equivalent circuit model, which can incorporate an ideal transformer.[25] Winding joule losses and leakage reactances are represented by the following series loop impedances of the model:

Primary winding: RP, XP Secondary winding: RS, XS.

In normal course of circuit equivalence transformation, RS and XS are in practice usually referred to the primary side by

multiplying these impedances by the turns ratio squared, (NP/NS) 2 = a2.

Real transformer equivalent circuit

Core loss and reactance is represented by the following shunt leg impedances of the model:

Core or iron losses: RC Magnetizing reactance: XM.

RC and XM are collectively termed the magnetizing branch of the model. Core losses are caused mostly by hysteresis and eddy current effects in the core and are proportional to the square of the core flux for operation at a given frequency.[26] The finite permeability core requires a magnetizing current IM to maintain mutual flux in the core. Magnetizing current is in phase with the flux, the relationship between the two being non-linear due to saturation effects. However, all impedances of the equivalent circuit shown are by definition linear and such non-linearity effects are not typically

reflected in transformer equivalent circuits.[26] With sinusoidal supply, core flux lags the induced emf by 90. With open-circuited secondary winding, magnetizing branch current I0 equals transformer no-load current.[25] The resulting model, though sometimes termed 'exact' equivalent circuit based on linearity assumptions, retains a number of approximations.[25] Analysis may be simplified by assuming that magnetizing branch impedance is relatively high and relocating the branch to the left of the primary impedances. This introduces error but allows combination of primary and referred secondary resistances and reactances by simple summation as two series impedances. Transformer equivalent circuit impedance and transformer ratio parameters can be derived from the following tests: opencircuit test,[g] short-circuit test, winding resistance test, and transformer ratio test.

Basic transformer parameters and construction[edit]


Effect of frequency[edit]
Transformer universal emf equation If the flux in the core is purely sinusoidal, the relationship for either winding between its rmsvoltage Erms of the winding, and the supply frequency f, number of turns N, core cross-sectional area a in m2 and peak

magnetic flux density Bpeakin Wb/m2 or T (tesla) is given by the universal emf equation:[18]

If the flux does not contain even harmonics the following equation can be used for half-cycle average voltage Eavg of any waveshape:

The time-derivative term in Faraday's Law shows that the flux in the core is the integral with respect to time of the applied voltage.[28]Hypothetically an ideal transformer would work with direct-current excitation, with the core flux increasing linearly with time.[29] In practice, the flux rises to the point where magnetic saturation of the core occurs, causing a large increase in the magnetizing current and overheating the transformer. All practical transformers must therefore operate with alternating (or pulsed direct) current.[29] The emf of a transformer at a given flux density increases with frequency.[18] By operating at higher frequencies, transformers can be physically more compact because a given core is able to transfer more power without reaching saturation and fewer turns are needed to achieve the same impedance. However, properties such as core loss and conductor skin effect also increase with

frequency. Aircraft and military equipment employ 400 Hz power supplies which reduce core and winding weight.[30] Conversely, frequencies used for somerailway electrification systems were much lower (e.g. 16.7 Hz and 25 Hz) than normal utility frequencies (50 60 Hz) for historical reasons concerned mainly with the limitations of early electric traction motors. As such, the transformers used to step-down the high over-head line voltages (e.g. 15 kV) were much heavier for the same power rating than those designed only for the higher frequencies.

Power transformer over-excitation condition caused by decreased frequency; flux (green), iron core's magnetic characteristics (red) and magnetizing current (blue).

Operation of a transformer at its designed voltage but at a higher frequency than intended will lead to reduced magnetizing current. At a lower frequency, the magnetizing current will increase.

Operation of a transformer at other than its design frequency may require assessment of voltages, losses, and cooling to establish if safe operation is practical. For example, transformers may need to be equipped with 'volts per hertz' overexcitation relays to protect the transformer from overvoltage at higher than rated frequency. One example of state-of-the-art design is traction transformers used for electric multiple unit and high-speed train service operating across the country border and using different electrical standards, such transformers' being restricted to be positioned below the passenger compartment. The power supply to, and converter equipment being supply by, such traction transformers have to accommodate different input frequencies and voltage (ranging from as high as 50 Hz down to 16.7 Hz and rated up to 25 kV) while being suitable for multiple AC asynchronous motor and DC converters & motors with varying harmonics mitigation filtering requirements. Large power transformers are vulnerable to insulation failure due to transient voltages with high-frequency components, such as caused in switching or by lightning.[31]

Energy losses[edit]
A theoretical (ideal) transformer does not experience energy losses, i.e. it is 100%

efficient. The power dissipated by its load would be equal to the power supplied by its primary source. In contrast, a real transformer is typically 95 to 99% efficient, due to several loss mechanisms, including winding resistance, winding capacitance, leakage flux, core losses, and hysteresis loss. Larger transformers are generally more efficient than small units, and those rated for electricity distribution usually perform better than 98%.[32] Experimental transformers using superconducting windings achieve efficiencies of 99.85%.[33] The increase in efficiency can save considerable energy in a large heavily loaded transformer; the trade-off is in the additional initial and running cost of the superconducting design. As transformer losses vary with load, it is often useful to express these losses in terms of no-load loss, full-load loss, halfload loss, and so on. Hysteresis and Eddy current losses are constant at all load levels and dominate overwhelmingly without load, while variable winding joule losses dominating increasingly as load increases. The no-load loss can be significant, so that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on the electrical supply. Designing energy efficient transformers for lower loss requires a larger core, good-quality silicon steel, or even amorphous steel for the core and thicker wire, increasing initial

cost. The choice of construction represents a trade-off between initial cost and operating cost.[34] Transformer losses arise from: Winding joule losses Current flowing through winding conductors causes joule heating. As frequency increases, skin effect and proximity effect causes winding resistance and, hence, losses to increase. Core losses Hysteresis losses Each time the magnetic field is reversed, a small amount of energy is lost due to hysteresis within the core. According to Steinmetz's formula, the heat energy due to hysteresis is given by , and, hysteresis loss is thus given by

where, f is the frequency, is the hysteresis coefficient and max is the maximum flux density, the empirical exponent of which varies from about 1.4 to 1 .8 but is often given as 1.6 for iron. [34][35][36] Eddy current losses Ferromagnetic materials are also good conductors and a core made from such a material also constitutes a single short-circuited turn throughout its entire length. Eddy currents therefore circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flux, and are responsible for resistive heating of the core material. The eddy current loss is a complex function of the square of supply frequency and inverse square of the material thickness.[34] Eddy current losses can be reduced by making the core of a stack of plates electrically insulated from each other, rather than a solid block; all transformers operating at low frequencies use laminated or similar cores. Magnetostriction related transformer hum Magnetic flux in a ferromagnetic material, such as the core, causes it to physically expand and contract slightly with each cycle of the magnetic field, an effect known as magnetostriction, the frictional energy of which produces an audible noise known as mains hum or transformer hum.[4][37] This transformer hum is especially objectionable in transformers supplied at power frequencies[h] and in highfrequency flyback transformers associated with PAL system CRTs. Stray losses

Leakage inductance is by itself largely lossless, since energy supplied to its magnetic fields is returned to the supply with the next half-cycle. However, any leakage flux that intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformer's support structure will give rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat.[38] There are also radiative losses due to the oscillating magnetic field but these are usually small. Mechanical vibration and audible noise transmission In addition to magnetostriction, the alternating magnetic field causes fluctuating forces between the primary and secondary windings. This energy incites vibration transmission in interconnected metalwork, thus amplifying audible transformer hum.[39]

Core form and shell form transformer s[edit]

Core form = core type; shell form = shell type

Closed-core transformers are constructed in

'core form' or 'shell form'. When windings surround the core, the transformer is core form; when windings are surrounded by the core, the transformer is shell form. Shell form design may be more prevalent than core form design for distribution transformer applications due to the relative ease in stacking the core around winding coils.[40] Core form design tends to, as a general rule, be more economical, and therefore more prevalent, than shell form design for high

voltage power transformer applications at the lower end of their voltage and power rating ranges (less than or equal to, nominally, 230 kV or 75 MVA). At higher voltage and power ratings, shell form transformers tend to be more prevalent.[40][41][
42][43]

Shell form

design tends to be preferred for extra high voltage and higher MVA applications because, though more labor-intensive to manufacture, shell form transformers are characterized as having

inherently better kVA-toweight ratio, better shortcircuit strength characteristics and higher immunity to transit damage.[43]

Construct ion[edit]
Cores[edit] Laminated steel cores[edit]

Laminated core transformer showing edge of laminations at top of photo

Power transformer inrush current caused by residual flux at switching instant; flux (green), iron core's magnetic characteristics (red) and magnetizing current (blue).

Transformers for use at power or audio frequencies typically have cores made of high permeability sil icon steel.[44] The steel has a permeability many times

that of free space and the core thus serves to greatly reduce the magnetizing current and confine the flux to a path which closely couples the windings.[45] Ea rly transformer developers soon realized that cores constructed from solid iron resulted in prohibitive eddy current losses, and their designs mitigated this effect with cores consisting of bundles of insulated iron wires.[46] Later designs constructed the core by stacking layers of thin steel

laminations, a principle that has remained in use. Each lamination is insulated from its neighbors by a thin nonconducting layer of insulation.[47]Th e universal transformer equation indicates a minimum cross-sectional area for the core to avoid saturation. The effect of laminations is to confine eddy currents to highly elliptical paths that enclose little flux, and so reduce their magnitude. Thinner laminations reduce losses,[48] but are more

laborious and expensive to construct.[49] T hin laminations are generally used on highfrequency transformers, with some of very thin steel laminations able to operate up to 10 kHz.

Laminating the core greatly reduces eddycurrent losses

One common design of laminated core is made from interleaved stacks of Eshaped steel

sheets capped with Ishaped pieces, leading to its name of 'E-I transformer'.[49] Such a design tends to exhibit more losses, but is very economical to manufacture. The cut-core or C-core type is made by winding a steel strip around a rectangular form and then bonding the layers together. It is then cut in two, forming two C shapes, and the core assembled by binding the two C halves together with a steel strap.[49] They have the advantage that the flux is always

oriented parallel to the metal grains, reducing reluctance. A steel core's remane nce means that it retains a static magnetic field when power is removed. When power is then reapplied, the residual field will cause a high inrush current until the effect of the remaining magnetism is reduced, usually after a few cycles of the applied AC waveform.[50] O vercurrent protection devices such as fuses must be selected to allow this harmless inrush to pass.

On transformers connected to long, overhead power transmission lines, induced currents due to geomagneti c disturbances d uring solar storms can cause saturation of the core and operation of transformer protection devices.[51] Distribution transformers can achieve low no-load losses by using cores made with lowloss highpermeability silicon steel or amorphous (noncrystalline) metal alloy. The higher

initial cost of the core material is offset over the life of the transformer by its lower losses at light load.[52]

Solid cores[edit]
Powdered iron cores are used in circuits such as switchmode power supplies that operate above mains frequencies and up to a few tens of kilohertz. These materials combine high magnetic permeability with high bulk electrical resist ivity. For frequencies extending beyond the VHF band, cores made

from nonconductive magnetic cera mic materials called ferrites a re common.[49] So me radiofrequency transformers also have movable cores (sometimes called 'slugs') which allow adjustment of the coupling coefficient (and bandwidth) of tuned radiofrequency circuits.

Toroidal cores[edit]

Small toroidal core transformer

Toroidal transformers are built around a ringshaped core, which, depending on operating frequency, is made from a long strip of silicon steel orpermall oy wound into a coil, powdered iron, or ferrite.[53] A strip construction ensures that the grain boundaries are optimally aligned, improving the transformer's efficiency by reducing the core's reluctan ce. The closed ring shape eliminates air gaps inherent

in the construction of an E-I core.[21] The cross-section of the ring is usually square or rectangular, but more expensive cores with circular crosssections are also available. The primary and secondary coils are often wound concentrically to cover the entire surface of the core. This minimizes the length of wire needed, and also provides screening to minimize the core's magnetic field from generating ele ctromagnetic interference.

Toroidal transformers are more efficient than the cheaper laminated E-I types for a similar power level. Other advantages compared to E-I types, include smaller size (about half), lower weight (about half), less mechanical hum (making them superior in audio amplifiers), lower exterior magnetic field (about one tenth), low offload losses (making them more efficient in standby circuits), single-bolt mounting, and greater choice of shapes. The main

disadvantages are higher cost and limited power capacity (see Classificat ion parameters bel ow). Because of the lack of a residual gap in the magnetic path, toroidal transformers also tend to exhibit higher inrush current, compared to laminated E-I types. Ferrite toroidal cores are used at higher frequencies, typically between a few tens of kilohertz to hundreds of megahertz, to reduce losses, physical size, and weight of inductive components. A drawback of

toroidal transformer construction is the higher labor cost of winding. This is because it is necessary to pass the entire length of a coil winding through the core aperture each time a single turn is added to the coil. As a consequence, toroidal transformers rated more than a few kVA are uncommon. Small distribution transformers may achieve some of the benefits of a toroidal core by splitting it and forcing it open, then inserting a bobbin

containing primary and secondary windings.

Air cores[edit]
A physical core is not an absolute requisite and a functioning transformer can be produced simply by placing the windings near each other, an arrangement termed an 'aircore' transformer. The air which comprises the magnetic circuit is essentially lossless, and so an air-core transformer eliminates loss due to hysteresis in the core material.[12] Th

e leakage inductance is inevitably high, resulting in very poor regulation, and so such designs are unsuitable for use in power distribution.[12] They have however very high bandwidth , and are frequently employed in radiofrequency applications,[54] for which a satisfactory coupling coefficient is maintained by carefully overlapping the primary and secondary windings. They're also used for resonant transformers s uch as Tesla coils where

they can achieve reasonably low loss in spite of the high leakage inductance.

Windings[e

dit]

Windings are usually arranged concentrically to minimize flux leakage.

I t h a s b e e n

s u g g e s t e d t h a t C o m p e n s a t i o n w i n d i n g b e m e r g e

d i n t o t h i s a r t i c l e . ( D i s c u s s )
P r o p o s e d s i n c e M a r c

h 2 0 1 4 .

The conductin g material used for the windings depends upon the application, but in all cases the individual turns must be electrically insulated from each other to ensure that the current travels throughout every turn.[55] For small power and signal transformers, in which currents are low and the potential difference between adjacent turns is small, the coils are often

wound from enamelle d magnet wire, such as Formvar wire. Larger power transformers operating at high voltages may be wound with copper rectangular strip conductors insulated by oilimpregnated paper and blocks ofpressboard.[5
6]

Cut view through transformer windings. White:

insulator. Green spiral: Grain oriented silicon steel. Black: Primary winding made of oxygenfree copper. Red: Secondary winding. Top left: Toroidal transformer. Right: C-core, but E-core would be similar. The black windings are made of film. Top: Equally low capacitance between all ends of both windings. Since most cores are at least moderately conductive they also need insulation. Bottom: Lowest capacitance for one end of the secondary winding needed for low-power high-voltage transformers. Bottom left: Reduction ofleakage inductance woul

d lead to increase of capacitance.

High-frequency transformers operating in the tens to hundreds of kilohertz often have windings made of braided Litz wire to minimize the skin-effect and proximity effect losses.[28] Larg e power transformers use multiplestranded conductors as well, since even at low power frequencies non-uniform distribution of current would otherwise exist in high-current windings.[56] Ea ch strand is individually insulated, and

the strands are arranged so that at certain points in the winding, or throughout the whole winding, each portion occupies different relative positions in the complete conductor. The transposition equalizes the current flowing in each strand of the conductor, and reduces eddy current losses in the winding itself. The stranded conductor is also more flexible than a solid conductor of similar size, aiding manufacture.[56
]

The windings of signal

transformers minimize leakage inductance and stray capacitance to improve highfrequency response. Coils are split into sections, and those sections interleaved between the sections of the other winding. Powerfrequency transformers may have taps at intermediate points on the winding, usually on the higher voltage winding side, for voltage adjustment. Taps may be manually reconnected, or a manual or automatic

switch may be provided for changing taps. Automatic onload tap changers are used in electric power transmission or distribution, on equipment such as arc furnace transfo rmers, or for automatic voltage regulators for sensitive loads. Audiofrequency transformers, used for the distribution of audio to public address loudspeakers, have taps to allow adjustment of impedance to each speaker. A centertapped transformer is often used in the output

stage of an audio power amplifier in a push-pull circuit. Modulation transformers in AM transmitt ers are very similar. Dry-type transformer winding insulation systems can be either of standard openwound 'dipand-bake' construction or of higher quality designs that include vacuu m pressure impregnation ( VPI), vacuum pressure encapsulation ( VPE), and cast coil encapsulation processes.[57] I n the VPI process, a

combination of heat, vacuum and pressure is used to thoroughly seal, bind, and eliminate entrained air voids in the winding polyester resin insulation coat layer, thus increasing resistance to corona. VPE windings are similar to VPI windings but provide more protection against environmental effects, such as from water, dirt or corrosive ambients, by multiple dips including typically in terms of final epoxy coat.[58]

Cooling[edit

Cutaway view of liquid-immersed construction transformer. The conservator (reservoir) at top provides liquidto-atmosphere isolation as coolant level and temperature changes. The walls and fins provide required heat dissipation balance.

See also: Arrhenius equation

To place the cooling problem in perspective, the accepted rule of thumb is that the life expectancy of insulation in all electric machines inclu ding all transformers is halved for about every 7 C to 10 C increase in operating temperature, this life expectancy halving rule holding more narrowly when the increase is between about 7 C to 8 C in the case of transformer winding cellulose insulation.[59][60][
61]

Small dry-type and liquid-

immersed transformers are often selfcooled by natural convection and radiation h eat dissipation. As power ratings increase, transformers are often cooled by forced-air cooling, forced-oil cooling, watercooling, or combinations of these.
[62]

Large

transformers are filled with transform er oil that both cools and insulates the windings.[63] Tr ansformer oil is a highly refined mineral oil that cools the windings and insulation by circulating

within the transformer tank. The mineral oil and paper insu lation system has been extensively studied and used for more than 100 years. It is estimated that 50% of power transformers will survive 50 years of use, that the average age of failure of power transformers is about 10 to 15 years, and that about 30% of power transformer failures are due to insulation and overloading failures.[64][65] P rolonged operation at elevated temperature

degrades insulating properties of winding insulation and dielectric coolant, which not only shortens transformer life but can ultimately lead to catastrophic transformer failure.[59] With a great body of empirical study as a guide, transfor mer oil testing includin g dissolved gas analysis provid es valuable maintenance information. This underlines the need to monitor, model, forecast and manage oil and winding conductor insulation

temperature conditions under varying, possibly difficult, power loading conditions.[66][67


]

Building regulations in many jurisdictions require indoor liquid-filled transformers to either use dielectric fluids that are less flammable than oil, or be installed in fireresistant rooms.[68] Aircooled dry transformers can be more economical where they eliminate the cost of a fireresistant transformer room. The tank of liquid filled

transformers often has radiators through which the liquid coolant circulates by natural convection or fins. Some large transformers employ electric fans for forcedair cooling, pumps for forced-liquid cooling, or have heat exchangers for watercooling.[63] An oil-immersed transformer may be equipped with a Buchholz relay, which, depending on severity of gas accumulation due to internal arcing, is used to either alarm or de-energize the

transformer.[50] Oil-immersed transformer installations usually include fire protection measures such as walls, oil containment, and firesuppression sprinkler systems. Another protection means consists in fast depressurizatio n systems which are activated by the first dynamic pressure peak of the shock wave, avoiding transformer explosion before static pressure increases. Many explosions are reported to have been avoided thanks

to this technology.[69] Polychlorinate d biphenyls have properties that once favored their use as a dielectric coolant, though concerns over their environm ental persistence led to a widespread ban on their use.[70] Today, non-toxic, stable siliconebased oils, or fluorinated hydrocarbons may be used where the expense of a fire-resistant liquid offsets additional building cost for a transformer vault.[68][71] PC Bs for new

equipment was banned in 1981 and in 2000 for use in existing equipment in United Kingdom[72] Le gislation enacted in Canada between 1977 and 1985 essentially bans PCB use in transformers manufactured in or imported into the country after 1980, the maximum allowable level of PCB contamination in existing mineral oil transformers being 50 ppm.[73] Some transformers, instead of being liquidfilled, have

their windings enclosed in sealed, pressurized tanks and cooled by nitrogen or sulfur hexafluoride g as.[71] Experimental power transformers in the 500-to1,000 kVA range have been built with liquid nitrogen or heli um cooled sup erconducting w indings, which eliminates winding losses without affecting core losses.[74][75]

Insulation drying[edit]
Construction of oil-filled transformers requires that the insulation covering the

windings be thoroughly dried of residual moisture before the oil is introduced. Drying is carried out at the factory, and may also be required as a field service. Drying may be done by circulating hot air around the core, or by vapor-phase drying (VPD) where an evaporated solvent transfers heat by condensation on the coil and core. For small transformers, resistance heating by injection of current into the windings is

used. The heating can be controlled very well, and it is energy efficient. The method is called lowfrequency heating (LFH) since the current used is at a much lower frequency than that of the power grid, which is normally 50 or 60 Hz. A lower frequency reduces the effect of inductance, so the voltage required can be reduced.[76] Th e LFH drying method is also used for service of older transformers.[77
]

Bushings[e

dit]
Larger transformers are provided with highvoltage insulated bushi ngs made of polymers or porcelain. A large bushing can be a complex structure since it must provide careful control of the electric field gradient withou t letting the transformer leak oil.[78]

Classifica tion paramete rs[edit]


Transformers can be classified in many ways, such as the following:

Power capacity: From a fraction of a voltampere (VA) to over a thousand MVA.

Duty of a transforme r: Continuou s, shorttime, intermitten t, periodic, varying.

Frequency range: Po werfrequency, audiofrequency, or radiofrequency.

Voltage class: From a few volts to hundreds of kilovolts.

Cooling type: Dry and liquidimmersed - selfcooled, forced aircooled; liquidimmersed - forced oil-cooled, watercooled.

Circuit application : Such as power supply, impedanc e matching, output voltage and current stabilizer or circuit isolation.

Utilization: Pulse, po wer, distributio n, rectifier, arc

furnace, amplifier output, etc..

Basic magnetic form: Core form, shell form.

Constantpotential transforme r descriptor: Step-up, stepdown, isol ation.

General winding configurati on: By EIC vector group various possible twowinding combinati ons of the phase designatio ns delta, wye or star,

and zigza g or interconne cted star;[i] othe rautotransf ormer, Sc ottT, zigzag grounding transforme r winding.[79]
[80][81][82]

Rectifier phaseshift winding configurati on: 2winding, 6-pulse; 3winding, 12-pulse; . . . nwinding, [n-1]*6pulse; polygon; etc..

Types[edit
]
Various specific

electrical application designs require a variety of transformer types. Although they all share the basic characteristic transformer principles, they are customize in construction or electrical properties for certain installation requirements or circuit conditions.

Autotransf ormer: Transform er in which part of the winding is common to both primary and secondary circuits.[83]

Capacitor voltage transforme r: Transform er in which capacitor divider is used to reduce high voltage before application to the primary winding.

Distributio n transforme r, power transforme r: Internation al standards make a distinction in terms of distributio n transforme rs being used to distribute

energy from transmissi on lines and networks for local consumpti on and power transforme rs being used to transfer electric energy between the generator and distributio n primary circuits.[83][
84][j]

Phase angle regulating transforme r: A specialise d transforme r used to control the flow of

real power on threephase electricity transmissi on networks.

Scott-T transforme r: Transform er used for phase transforma tion from threephase to twophase and vice versa.[83]

Polyphase transforme r: Any transforme r with more than one phase.

Grounding transforme r: Transform er used for grounding

threephase circuits to create a neutral in a three wire system, using a wye-delta transforme r,[80][85] or more commonly , a zigzag grounding winding.[80]
[82][83]

Leakage transforme r: Transform er that has loosely coupled windings.

Resonant transforme r: Transform er that uses resonance to generate a

high secondary voltage.

Audio transforme r: Transform er used in audio equipment .

Output transforme r: Transform er used to match the output of a valve amplifier to its load.

Instrument transforme r: Potential or current transforme r used to accurately and safely represent voltage, current or phase position of high

voltage or high power circuits.[83]

Applicati ons[edit]

An electrical substation in Mel bourne, Australia showing three of five 220 kV 66 kV transformers, each with a capacity of 150 MVA[86]

Transformer at the Limestone Generating Station in Manito ba, Canada

Transformers are used to increase voltage before transmitting electrical energy over long distances through wires. Wires have resistanc e which loses energy through joule heating at a rate corresponding to square of the current. By transforming power to a

higher voltage transformers enable economical transmission of power and distribution. Consequently, transformers have shaped the electricity supply industry, permitting generation to be located remotely from points of demand.[87] All but a tiny fraction of the world's electrical power has passed through a series of transformers by the time it reaches the consumer.[38] Transformers are also used extensively in electronic

products to step-down the supply voltage to a level suitable for the low voltage circuits they contain. The transformer also electrically isolates the end user from contact with the supply voltage. Signal and audio transformers are used to couple stages of amplifiers an d to match devices such as microphone s and record players to the input of amplifiers. Audio transformers allowedtelepho ne circuits to carry on a twoway conversation o

ver a single pair of wires. A baluntransfor mer converts a signal that is referenced to ground to a signal that has balanced voltages to ground, such as between external cables and internal circuits.

History[ed
it]
Discovery of induction[e

dit]

Faraday's experiment with induction

between coils of wire[88]

Electromagneti c induction, the principle of the operation of the transformer, was discovered independently and almost simultaneously by Joseph Henry and Mic hael Faraday in 1831. Although Henry's work likely having preceded Faraday's work by a few months, Faraday was the first to publish the results of his experiments and thus receive credit for the discovery.[89] T he relationship between emf

and magnetic flux is an equation now known as Faraday's law of induction:

. where is the magnitude of the emf in volts and B is the magnetic flux through the circuit in webers.[
90]

Faraday performed the first experimen ts on induction between coils of wire, including winding a pair of

coils around an iron ring, thus creating the first toroid al closedcore transforme r.[91] Howe ver he only applied individual pulses of current to his transforme r, and never discovere d the relation between the turns ratio and emf in the windings.

Inductio n coils[edi

t]

Faraday's ring transformer

Induction coil, 1900, Bremerhav n, Germany

The first type of transforme

r to see wide use was the inducti on coil, invented by Rev. Nich olas Callan of Maynooth College, Ireland in 1836. He was one of the first researcher s to realize the more turns the secondary winding has in relation to the primary winding, the larger the induced secondary emf will be. Induction coils

evolved from scientists' and inventors' efforts to get higher voltages from batteries. Since batteries produce di rect current (DC)rather than AC, induction coils relied upon vibrating e lectrical contacts t hat regularly interrupted the current in the primary to create the flux changes necessary for induction. Between

the 1830s and the 1870s, efforts to build better induction coils, mostly by trial and error, slowly revealed the basic principles of transforme rs.

First alternati ng current transfor mers[ed

it]
By the 1870s, efficient g enerators producing alternating current (AC) were available, and it was

found AC could power an induction coil directly, without an interrup ter. In 1876, Russian engineer Pavel Yablochko v invented a lighting system based on a set of induction coils where the primary windings were connected to a source of AC. The secondary windings could be connected to several 'el

ectric candles' ( arc lamps) of his own design.[92] [


93]

The

coils Yablochko v employed functioned essentially as transforme rs.[92] In 1878, the Ganz factory, Budapest, Hungary, began manufactu ring equipment for electric lighting and, by 1883, had installed over fifty systems in AustriaHungary. Their AC systems

used arc and incandesc ent lamps, generators , and other equipment .[94] Lucien Gaulard a nd John Dixon Gibbs first exhibited a device with an open iron core called a 'secondar y generator' in London in 1882, then sold the idea to the Westin ghouse co mpany in the United States.[46] They also exhibited the invention

in Turin, Italy in 1884, where it was adopted for an electric lighting system.[95] However, the efficiency of their open-core bipolar apparatus remained very low.[95]

Early series circuit transfor mer distribut ion[edit]


Induction coils with open magnetic circuits are inefficient at

transferrin g power to loads. Until about 1880, the paradigm for AC power transmissi on from a high voltage supply to a low voltage load was a series circuit. Open-core transforme rs with a ratio near 1:1 were connected with their primaries in series to allow use of a high voltage for transmissi on while presenting a low voltage to

the lamps. The inherent flaw in this method was that turning off a single lamp (or other electric device) affected the voltage supplied to all others on the same circuit. Many adjustable transforme r designs were introduced to compensa te for this problemati c characteri stic of the series circuit, including

those employing methods of adjusting the core or bypassing the magnetic flux around part of a coil.[95] Effi cient, practical transforme r designs did not appear until the 1880s, but within a decade, the transforme r would be instrument al in the War of Currents, and in seeing AC distributio n systems triumph over their

DC counterpar ts, a position in which they have remained dominant ever since.[96]

Shell form transformer . Sketch used by Uppenborn to describe ZBD engineers' 1885 patents and earliest articles.[95]

Core form, front; shell form, back. Earliest specimens of ZBDdesigned highefficiency constantpotential transformer s manufactur ed at the Ganz factory in 1885.

The ZBD team consisted of Kroly Zipernowsk y, Ott Blthy and Miksa Dri

Stanley's 1886 design for adjustable gap opencore induction coils[97]

Closedcore transfor mers and parallel power distribut ion[edit]


In the autumn of 1884, Kr oly Zipernows ky, Ott Blthy and Miksa Dri (ZBD) , three engineers associated with the Ganz factory, had determine d that open-core devices were impractica ble, as they were incapable of reliably

regulating voltage.[98] In their joint 1885 patent application s for novel transforme rs (later called ZBD transforme rs), they described two designs with closed magnetic circuits where copper windings were either a) wound around iron wire ring core or b) surroun ded by iron wire core.[95] Th e two designs

were the first application of the two basic transforme r constructi ons in common use to this day, which can as a class all be termed as either core form or shell form (or alternative ly, core type or shell type), as in a) or b), respectivel y (see images).[40
][41][99][100]

he Ganz factory had also in the autumn of 1884 made

delivery of the world's first five highefficiency AC transforme rs, the first of these units having been shipped on Septembe r 16, 1884.[101] T his first unit had been manufactu red to the following specificati ons: 1,400 W, 40 Hz, 120:72 V, 11.6:19.4 A, ratio 1.67:1, onephase, shell form.[101]

In both designs, the magnetic flux linking the primary and secondary windings traveled almost entirely within the confines of the iron core, with no intentional path through air (see Toroi dal cores belo w). The new transforme rs were 3.4 times more efficient than the open-core bipolar devices of Gaulard

and Gibbs.[102] The ZBD patents included two other major interrelate d innovation s: one concernin g the use of parallel connected , instead of series connected , utilization loads, the other concernin g the ability to have high turns ratio transforme rs such that the supply network voltage could be much higher (initially

1,400 to 2,000 V) than the voltage of utilization loads (100 V initially preferred).
[103][104]

Wh

en employed in parallel connected electric distributio n systems, closedcore transforme rs finally made it technically and economic ally feasible to provide electric power for lighting in homes, businesse s and public spaces.[105
][106]

Blthy

had suggested the use of closed cores, Zipernows ky had suggested the use of parallel shunt connectio ns, and Dri had performed the experimen ts;[107] Transform ers today are designed on the principles discovere d by the three engineers. They also popularize d the word 'transform er' to describe a device for

altering the emf of an electric current,[105]


[108]

althou

gh the term had already been in use by 1882.[109][11


0]

In 1886,

the ZBD engineers designed, and the Ganz factory supplied electrical equipment for, the world's first power station tha t used AC generators to power a parallel connected common electrical network, the steampowered Rome-

Cerchi po wer plant.[111] Although George Westingho use had bought Gaulard and Gibbs' patents in 1885, the Edison Electric Light Company held an option on the US rights for the ZBD transforme rs, requiring Westingho use to pursue alternative designs on the same principles. He assigned to William

Stanley th e task of developin g a device for commerci al use in United States.[112] Stanley's first patented design was for induction coils with single cores of soft iron and adjustable gaps to regulate the emf present in the secondary winding (see image).[97] This design[113] was first used commerci ally in the

US in 1886[96]but Westingho use was intent on improving the Stanley design to make it (unlike the ZBD type) easy and cheap to produce.[11
3]

Westingho use, Stanley and associates soon developed an easier to manufactu re core, consisting of a stack of thin 'E-shaped' iron plates, insulated by thin

sheets of paper or other insulating material. Prewound copper coils could then be slid into place, and straight iron plates laid in to create a closed magnetic circuit. Westingho use applied for a patent for the new lowcost design in December 1886; it was granted in July 1887.[107][11
4]

Other early transfor mers[ed

it]
In 1889, Russianborn engineer Mikhail DolivoDobrovols ky develop ed the first threephase tran sformer at the Allgem eine Elektricitt sGesellsch aft('Gener al Electricity Company' ) in Germany.[
115]

In 1891, Niko la Tesla inve nted the Tesla

coil, an air-cored, dual-tuned resonant transforme r for generating very high voltages a t high frequency.
[116][117]

See also[ed
it]

Step Down Transformer


Posted by P. Marian in Power supply, Theory with 37 comments Tagged with: transformers

What is a step down transformer: is one whose secondary voltage is less than its primary voltage. It is designed to reduce the voltage from the primary winding to the secondary winding. This kind of transformer steps down the voltage applied to it. As a step-down unit, the transformer converts high-voltage, low-current power into lowvoltage, high-current power. The larger-gauge wire used in the secondary winding is necessary due to the increase in current. The primary winding, which doesnt have to conduct as much current, may be made of smaller-gauge wire.

Buy transformers

Model: GPC-1003 220V primary to 110V secondary Power Rating: 300VA Price: $49.95 more details

Model: GPC-1005 220V primary to 110V secondary Power Rating: 500VA Price: $69.95 more details Jump to chapter Step Down Tranformer Considerations how to wire a step down transformer how to check a step down transformer

Step-Down Tranformer Considerations

It is possible to operate either of these transformer types backwards (powering the secondary winding with an AC source and letting the primary winding power a load) to perform the opposite function: a step-up can function as a step-down and visaversa. One convention used in the electric power industry is the use of H designations for the higher-voltage winding (the primary winding in a step-down unit; the secondary winding in a step-up) and X designations for the lower-voltage winding. you can buy transformers at very low prices from here One of the most important considerations to increase transformer efficiency and reduce heat is choosing the metal type of the windings. Copper windings are much more efficient than aluminum and many other winding metal choices, but it also costs more. Transformers with copper windings cost more to purchase initially, but save on electrical cost over time as the efficiency more than makes up for the initial cost. Step-down transformers are commonly used to convert the 220 volt electricity found in most parts of the world to the 110 volts required by North American equipment.

How to Wire a Step Down Transformer


1. Observe and identify the schematic and rating of the step down transformer to be installed. Remove the terminal connection box cover placed at the lower side of the transformer. Only the high amperage types will have this enclosure, while lower powered transformers will have an exposed screw terminal. 2. Know termination identification follows for all step down transformers: H1, H2, H3 and H4 signify the high voltage side or power feed end of the transformer. This holds true regardless of the size of the transformer. Interconnection of the transformer will vary depending on the manufacturer and voltage used for feeding the transformer. 3. Terminate the feed power wires first by cutting the wires to length. If you are using large wire lugs be sure to take into consideration the length of the lug and the amount of wire that can be inserted into the female crimp area. 4. Strip back the outer insulating of the wires with the pocketknife or wire strippers. Insert the eye ring or wire lug over the bare copper wire and crimp the connection device, using the appropriate-size crimper, permanently to the wire.

5. Terminate the high side, high voltage of the step down transformer. If the high side terminals are bolts, be sure to follow any torque requirements that are listed by the manufacturer. 6. Terminate the low side, low voltage of the transformer. Note these terminals will be identified by X1, X2, X3 and X4. Again follow the manufacturers individual schematics for that particular type of transformer. Note that on small control transformers there will only be an X1 and X2. X1 is the power or hot side and X2 is generally the grounding and neutral portion of the low voltage. 7. Terminate the small control transformer for X1 and X2. X1 will go directly to the control circuit after passing through a small fuse that is rated for the circuit. X2 will be terminated not only to the neutral side of the control circuit, but the grounding safety as well. In other words, the X2 side of the small control transformer must be tied to the grounding system of the electrical circuit. 8. Replace all covers on the transformer and any enclosures that protect you from electricity. Apply the high voltage to the transformer by switching on the feeder power circuit. Turn on the low side safety circuit control. 9. Use a volt meter to test for proper voltage on the step down side of the transformer. It should be the same that is listed on the specs tag provided by the manufacturer.

How to Check a Step Down Transformer


1. Remove all wires from the transformer terminals using the screwdriver. Identify the wires if they are not already identified. Use a clear tape and pen. Write the terminal that the wires are attached to and place the identified tape on the wires end. 2. Turn the volt ohmmeter to the Ohms position and place the red lead into the connector identified as Ohms. Touch the black lead to the metal frame of the transformer. 3. Touch the red lead to the transformers terminals in the following order: H1, H2, X1 and then X2. The meter should read infinite ohms or wide open. Infinite ohms on a digital meter will be identified as a blank screen or a wide open will have the word Open displayed. If the meter registers any form of resistance, there is an internal problem with the windings. The copper coils may be shorted to the metal frame of the transformer. The transformer will have to be replaced. 4. Check the continuity of each separate coil using the ohmmeter. Touch the black lead to H1 and the red lead to H2. The meter should give a resistance reading. Generally, it should read in the range of 3 to 100 ohms, depending on the style and type of transformer. Perform the same test to the X1 and X2 terminals. You should receive the same results. If the meter reads infinite ohms or a wide open when checking between the terminals of the same coil, the wires are broken. Replace the transformer. 5. Use the ohmmeter to conduct the transformers isolation circuit. Touch the red lead to H1 and the black lead to X1. The meter should read infinite ohms or a wide-open circuit. Perform the same test, but to H2 and X2 respectively. If any resistance at all

is read on the meter other than a wide-open circuit, the isolation of the transformer has been compromised and must be replaced.

An Introduction to Interrupts
Difficulty

Beginner, small amount of advanced code Skills Required

Familiarity with microcontrollers. Parts Required

Arduino, to run examples. Any microcontroller will do though.

Introduction to Interrupts
Why would I need an interrupt? Robots spend a lot of time waiting for things to happen. A common example: your robot wants to drive straight until an IR sensor says that an object is too close. Seems fairly simple:
Code:
driveForward(); while(sensor_value == DIGITAL_HIGH){ // maybe do some other stuff, like follow a wall. }; stop();

This code is "polling" the sensor. It keeps checking the value over and over again manually (in software). This works of course, but what if your "other stuff" starts to be a really long process - you might overshoot and run into the wall. What happens if the event we are trying to detect is really short - you might miss it. In these

instances you want to use an interrupt. Common examples where interrupts are used:

Counting pulses from an encoder (they are really short, and come very often) Catching some short pulse (like the 10ms pulse given off by a UVTron sensor) Using switches or digital IR sensors as bumpers (and you want an instant stop)

What is an interrupt?
The really cool thing about microcontrollers is they have fancy hardware that can do things like PWM, analog-to-digital conversion -- and interrupts. An interrupt is a little piece of hardware that sits, waiting to detect a trigger event, such as a particular pin going from a low state to a high state. When this event happens:
1. 2. 3. 4.

the interrupt triggers the microcontroller stops executing it's current program the microcontroller starts executing an Interrupt Service Routine, or ISR when the ISR is done, we return to the original program

So a hardware interrupt is sort of like when the President interrupts your nightly TV viewing to tell you the economy has crashed. The trigger event is the economy crashing, and immediately as that happens the hardware (President) runs an ISR (his talk to the nation). In your ISR, you would have code that does some processing to handle the event. For instance, your ISR would:

Increment the value of a counter, if you were counting pulses from an encoder Set a flag to say "fire found" if you were monitoring a UVTron Stop the robot if you were using interrupt bumpers

Most microcontrollers support a wide variety of interrupt triggers:


A particular pin state going from low to high A particular pin state going from high to low Any change on a particular pin

Typically, microcontrollers only have a few interrupts, on specific pins. We'll discuss a slight change to this below in the section "Wait, I've run out of interrupts". Another interesting point to note, that won't really be discussed much here, is that PWM and hardware timer/counters rely entirely on hardware that is similar to

interrupts.

The Interrupt-Driven Bumper


Let's now implement an example using the Arduino. The Arduino is based on an ATMEGA168 AVR. This chip has 2 hardware interrupts (named 0 and 1). The pins that can be used for interrupt triggers are tied to digital 2 and 3, respectively. The Arduino makes using interrupts quite easy, they have a function AttachInterrupt(interrupt, ISR, trigger):

interrupt is which hardware interrupt 0 (Digital 2) or 1 (digital 3). ISR is the function with is to be used as the ISR trigger is either: RISING, FALLING, or CHANGE, for which events to trigger on

The code below will use several psuedo functions which you will need to implement for your particular robot:

DriveForward() - make the robot move forward at some regular speed DriveBackward() - make the robot move backward at some regular speed Stop() - stops the robot TurnLeft() - make a little turn left, like 45 degrees or so

For our example, we will assume you have a bump switch. It should be tied between ground and the digital input pin (we'll use a pullup resistor to keep them at 5V when not pressed). There are a few things going on here. First, we start rolling forward. We have an integer used as a flag, that is either 0 when we have not hit an object, or 1 when we hit something. An interrupt occurs when we hit something, it will stop the robot to avoid any damage, and also set our flag. Then, our main loop will handle backing the robot up when it gets a chance. There are a few reasons to implement our code like this. First, delay() relies on interrupts. Second, you don't ever want interrupts to run for very long, as they will typically stop other interrupts from occurring -this can be devastating when you have something like a system clock that relies on interrupts (as the Arduino does).
Code:
// Interrupt-Driver Bumper Example // A bumper switch on the front of the robot should be tied to digital pin 2 and ground #include <avr/interrupt.h> volatile int bumper; // have we hit something

void setup(){ pinMode(2, INPUT); // Make digital 2 an input digitalWrite(2, HIGH); // Enable pull up resistor // attach our interrupt pin to it's ISR attachInterrupt(0, bumperISR, FALLING); // we need to call this to enable interrupts interrupts(); // start moving bumper = 0; DriveForward(); } // The interrupt hardware calls this when we hit our left bumper void bumperISR(){ Stop(); bumper = 1; } void loop(){ // if bumper triggered if(bumper > 0){ DriveBackward(); // set motors to reverse delay(1000); // back up for 1 second TurnRight(); // turn right (away from obstacle) bumper = 0; DriveForward(); // drive off again... } // we could do lots of other stuff here. }

Wait, I ran out of interrupts!


The Arduino library only supports 2 pin interrupts, because it only uses the 2 dedicated hardware interrupts. However, the ATMEGA168 (the chip that the Arduino is built out of) can actually generate interrupts on every port, it's just slightly more complicated. These are called the Pin Change Interrupts. Each port of the AVR has it's own interrupt vector, and you can turn on interrupts for as many of the pins as you want. There are a few limitations though. First, an interrupt is generated for any pin change, you can't limit the hardware to rising or falling only, although you could implement that in your ISR. Second, because all of the pins in a port share an interrupt vector, if you use more than one pin in a port you will have to manually check which pin generated the interrupt. It should be noted that switching into the ISR takes several clock cycles, so your ISR will not run instantaneously, and thus it may be difficult to "check" which pin generated the interrupt.Lastly, because there isn't a library out there, you have to write a little more code. Note that the Arduino has arbitrary names for its pins, that have no relevance to

the AVR names, you'll have to use the ATMEGA168 datasheet, plus the Arduino pin out chart to sort out register values. This is definately an advanced topic, but it is a great way to learn a few more details of the AVR architecture.
Code:
// Quick example of using pin change interrupts // This shows how to use Digital Pin 4 (PCINT18/PD2) as an interrupt #include <avr/interrupt.h> // we need to remember that the Arduino environment uses different pin numbers // than the ATMEGA168 itself. void setup(){ // Make digital 4 (PCINT18/PD2) an input pinMode(4, INPUT); // this is ATMEGA168 specific, see page 70 of datasheet // Pin change interrupt control register - enables interrupt vectors // Bit 2 = enable PC vector 2 (PCINT23..16) // Bit 1 = enable PC vector 1 (PCINT14..8) // Bit 0 = enable PC vector 0 (PCINT7..0) PCICR |= (1 << PCIE2); // Pin change mask registers decide which pins are enabled as triggers PCMSK2 |= (1 << PCINT18); // enable interrupts interrupts(); } void loop(){ // do nothing... } // we have to write our own interrupt vector handler.. ISR(PCINT2_vect){ // this code will be called anytime that PCINT18 switches // (hi to lo, or lo to hi) }

Some Warnings for Arduino Users


Don't use the delay() or millis() functions inside an ISR on the Arduino. The reason being that they depend on the system clock, which itself is generated from an interrupt. On the AVR architecture, when one interrupt starts processing its ISR, all other intterupts are disabled temporarily. For this same reason, you want to keep your ISR as short as possible (to avoid messing with the system clock itself).

End Notes
That about covers the basics of interrupts, with some examples using the Arduino. Take a look at my tutorial on closed loop feedback for more information about using encoders

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