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Phm Th Hon, Phm Th Anh L Khoa Cng ngh thng tin Trng i hc S phm H Ni
H ni, 2011
MC LC
Chng 1 Gii thiu ............................................ Error! Bookmark not defined.
1. Tr tu nhn to l g? .........................................................Error! Bookmark not defined. 2. Lch s ................................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined. 3. Cc lnh vc ca AI ............................................................Error! Bookmark not defined. 4. Ni dung mn hc...............................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Chng 2 Cc phng php tm kim li gii .... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1. Hnh thnh bi ton .............................................................Error! Bookmark not defined. 2. Tm kim c h thng .........................................................Error! Bookmark not defined. 3. Tm kim c s dng hm nh gi ....................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
Chng 3 Cc gii thut tm kim li gii cho tr chi ..... Error! Bookmark not defined.
1. Cy tr chi y .............................................................Error! Bookmark not defined. 2. Gii thut Minimax .............................................................Error! Bookmark not defined. 3. Gii thut Minimax vi su hn ch ..............................Error! Bookmark not defined. 4. Hm nh gi ......................................................................Error! Bookmark not defined. 5. Gii thut Minimax vi ct ta alpha-beta ..........................Error! Bookmark not defined.
7. Thut ton suy din da trn lut phn gii ....................................................................... 15 8. Thut ton suy din tin, li da trn cc cu Horn .......................................................... 17 9. Kt chng ......................................................................................................................... 20
Chng 5 Cc phng php lp lun trn logic cp mt .....................................22 Chng 5 Cc phng php lp lun trn logic cp mt .....................................22
1. C php ng ngha .......................................................................................................... 24 2. Lp lun trong logic v t cp mt ..................................................................................... 28 3. Php ng nht hai v t, thut gii ng nht .................................................................. 30 4. Cu dng chun hi, lut phn gii tng qut .................................................................... 32 5. Cu dng Horn v tam on lun tng qut trong logic cp 1 ........................................... 34 6. Gii thut suy din phn gii ............................................................................................. 36 7. Thut ton suy din tin da trn cu Horn ....................................................................... 39 8. Thut ton suy din li da trn cu Horn ......................................................................... 41
Chng 7 Lp lun vi tri thc khng chc chn.................................................57 Chng 8 Hc mng nron nhn to ....................................................................58
2.1 C php: Cc k hiu: Hng: true, false K hiu: P, Q, Mi k hiu gi l k hiu mnh hoc mnh Cc kt ni logic: , , Cc k hiu ( v ) Qui tc xy dng cu: C hai loi cu: cu n v cu phc true v false l cc cu (true l cu n hng ng, false l cu hng sai). Mi k hiu mnh l mt cu, v d P, Q l cc cu (Cu n) Nu A v B l cc cu th cc cng thc sau cng l cu (cc cu phc): A (A B) (A B) (A B) (A B) Cc khi nim v qui c khc: Sau ny, cho gn, ta b i cc du (, ) khng cn thit. Nu cu ch c mt k hiu mnh th ta gi cu l cu n hoc cu phn t. Cc cu khng phi l cu n th gi l cu phc. Nu P l k hiu mnh th P v P gi l cc literal, P l literal dng cn P l literal m. Cc cu phc dng A1 A2 An, trong cc Ai l cc literal, c gi l cc cu tuyn (clause). 2.2 Ng ngha: Qui nh cch din dch v cch xc nh tnh ng (true) hay sai (false) cho cc cu. true l cu lun c gi tr ng, false l cu lun c gi tr sai
Mi k hiu biu din (nh x vi) mt pht biu/mnh trong th gii thc; k hiu mnh c gi tr l ng (true) nu pht biu/mnh l ng, c gi tr l sai (false) nu pht biu/mnh l sai, hoc c gi tr cha xc nh (true hoc false) Cc cu phc biu din (nh x vi) mt ph nh, mi quan h hoc mi lin kt gia cc mnh /pht biu/cu phc trong th gii thc. Ng ngha v gi tr ca cc cu phc ny c xc nh da trn cc cu con thnh phn ca n, chng hn: A c ngha l ph nh mnh / cu A, nhn gi tr true nu A l false v ngc li A B c ngha l mi lin kt A v B, nhn gi tr true khi c A v B l true, v nhn gi tr false trong cc trng hp cn li. A B biu din mi lin kt A hoc B, nhn gi tr true khi hoc A hoc B l true, v nhn gi tr false ch khi c A v B l false. (A B) biu din mi quan h A ko theo B, ch nhn gi tr false khi A l true v B l false; nhn gi tr true trong cc trng hp khc (A B) biu din mi quan h A ko theo B v B ko theo A Nh vy, vic xc nh tnh ng/sai ca mt k hiu mnh (mnh n) l da trn tnh ng sai ca s kin hoc thng tin m n m ch, cn vic xc nh tnh ng sai ca mnh phc phi tun theo cc qui tc trn. Trong nhiu trng hp, chng ta (cn ch) bit tnh ng/sai ca cc cu phc, cn tnh ng/sai ca cc cu n l khng cn bit hoc c th lp lun ra t cc cc cu phc bit ng/sai v cc qui tc chuyn i tnh ng/sai gia cc cu n v cu phc theo cc qui tc trn. 2.3 Cc v d:
Gi A l mnh ti chm hc, B l mnh ti thng minh, C l mnh ti thi t im cao mn Tr tu nhn tao; Ta c th biu din cc cu sau trong logic mnh : - Nu ti chm hc th ti thi t im cao mn Tr tu nhn to: A C - Ti va chm hc li va thng minh: A B - Nu ti chm hc hoc ti thng minh th ti thi t im cao mn Tr tu nhn to: A B C 2.4 Cc cu hng ng: Trong logic mnh , ta c: A A (lut ph nh kp) A A (lut loi tr) (A B) (AB) (BA) (AB) A B (AB) A B (lut DeMorgan i vi php ) (AB) A B (lut DeMorgan i vi php ) C (AB) (CA) (CB) (lut phn phi php i vi php ) C (AB) (CA) (CB) (lut phn phi php i vi php ) (A (AB)) B (Tam on lun) Lut phn gii (xem mc 4)
KB v cho q v kim tra xem tt c cc trng hp lm cho KB nhn gi tr true cng lm cho q nhn gi tr true khng? Nu c th ta kt lun KB q, ngc li th kt lun l khng. Phng php suy lun ny gi l phng php lit k v c th thut ton ha c (chi tit xem trong mc 6 ca Chng ny). Mt cch tip cn khc tr li cho cu hi KB q l s dng cc lut hng ng ca logic mnh (xem trong mc 2.4). Ban u KB bao gm tp cc cu (hi ca cc cu), chng ta p dng cc lut ca logic mnh trn tp cc cu ny sinh ra cu mi, ri b sung cu mi ny vo KB, lp li p dng lut ca logic v sinh ra cu mi, v.v., n khi no xut hin cu q trong KB th dng li (khi KB q) hoc khng th sinh ra cu mi no na t KB (khi ny ta kt lun KB khng suy ra c q) Li gii cho bi ton suy din theo cch ny l mt ng i t trng thi u n trng thi ch ca bi ton tm ng sau: Trng thi u: KB Cc php chuyn trng thi: cc lut trong logic mnh , mi lut x p dng cho KB sinh ra cu mi x(KB), b sung cu mi ny vo KB c trng thi mi KB x(KB) Trng thi ch: trng thi KB cha q Chi ph cho mi php chuyn: 1 V s lut hng ng trong logic mnh l tng i ln nn nhn t nhnh ca bi ton trn cng l ln (tt c cc cch p dng cc lut trn tp con tt c cc cu ca KB), v vy khng gian tm kim li gii ca bi ton trn l rt ln. hn ch khng gian tm kim li gii ca bi ton, chng ta biu din KB v q bng ch cc cu dng chun hi (xem mc 4), khi chng ta ch cn p dng mt loi lut l lut phn gii trn KB v mi php chuyn l mt php phn gii hai cu c cha t nht mt literal l ph nh ca nhau trong KB, kt qu ca php phn gii hai cu dng chun hi li l mt cu dng chun hi v c b sung vo KB, lp li p dng lut phn gii trn KB n khi no KB cha cu q th dng. Chi tit
thut ton suy din da trn lut phn gii KB q c trnh by trong mc 7 ca Chng ny (thc t th thut ton suy din phn gii tr li bi ton tng ng (KB q) [].) Gii thut suy din phn gii l gii thut y trong logic mnh , tc l vi mi cu q m ko theo c t KB (q ng khi KB ng) th s dng gii thut suy din phn gii u c th suy din c KB q (tc l khng c cu no ko c t KB l khng suy din phn gii c); bi v bt c cu trong logic mnh u c th biu din c bng cu dng chun hi (xem mc 4). Do lin tc phi b sung cc cu mi vo KB v lp li tm kim cc cp cu c th phn gii vi nhau c nn nhn t nhnh ca cy tm kim li gii tng dn theo su ca cy tm kim. V vy khng gian v thi gian ca gii thut s tng rt nhanh, gii thut phn gii lm vic khng hiu qu. khc phc nhc im ny, ngi ta tm cch biu din KB dng cc cu Horn v p dng ch mt loi lut (tam on lun, xem mc 5) suy din (tam on lun p dng trn 2 cu dng Horn v sinh ra cu mi cng l cu dng Horn). Thut gii suy din tin/li trn c s tri thc dng Horn trnh by chi tit trong mc 8, n c phc tp tuyn tnh i vi s cu trong KB. Tuy nhin thut gii suy din tin/li li l khng y trong logic mnh , bi v c nhng cu trong logic mnh khng th biu din c di dng Horn c th p dng c gii thut suy din tin/li.