Anderson2005 Cut Marks

CUT MARKS AS EVIDENCE OF PRECOLUMBIAN HUMAN SACRIFICE AND
POSTMORTEM BONE MODIFICATION ON THE NORTH COAST OF PERU

A DISSERTATION
SUBMITTED ON THE FIFTEENTH OF NOVEMBER, 2005
TOTHEDEPARTMENTOFANTHROPOLOGY
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF
TULANE UNIVERSITY
FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
BY
APPROVED: ~ l-..J . t..-J ~
Jo W. Verano, Ph.D.
Director
--r;;:[ w - ~
Trenton W yon:day: Ph.D. J
; U ~ L -
Harvey M. Bricker, Ph.D.
UMI Number: 3210863
Copyright 2005 by
Hamilton, Laurel Anderson
All rights reserved.
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CUT MARKS AS EVIDENCE OF PRECOLUMBIAN HUMAN SACRIFICE AND
POSTMORTEM BONE MODIFICATION ON THE NORTH COAST OF PERU
AN ABSTRACT
SUBMITTED ON THE FIFTEENTH DAY OF NOVEMBER, 2005
TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF
TULANE UNIVERSITY
FOR THE DEGREE OF
DOCTOR OF PIDLOSOPHY
BY
l.Dwu.! ~ ~ 1 ~ ~ r .
Laurel Anderson amilto
APPROVED: J ,l_ W LJ -L.....-l
Jo W. Verano, Ph.D.
Director
Harvey M. Bricker, Ph.D.
ABSTRACT
This study uses macroscopic and microscopic techniques to analyze cut mark
morphology and patterning on the bones of human sacrificial victims excavated from
Moche (A.D. 100-800) sites on the north coast of Peru. This project represents the first
in-depth investigation of the methods and tools used in perimortem and postmortem
modification of human remains from the north coast of Peru and provides detailed
comparisons of iconographic and skeletal evidence of trauma. The data sample consists
of human bones from the Moche sites of Huaca de la Luna, El Brujo and Dos Cabezas,
and three comparative samples composed of human bones from a Lambayeque (A.D.
800-1375) mass burial at Pacatnamu, butchered fauna! remains, and human bones from a
modem forensic case. Cut marks were recorded and analyzed using drawings,
photographs, negative and positive casts, thin sections, a light microscope, a scanning
electron microscope and a micro X-ray fluorescence spectrometer. Results indicate that
the perimortem and postmortem treatment of the sacrificial victims at each site was
regular and systematic and, depending on the site, included activities such as facial and
genital mutilation, throat slitting, opening of the chest cavity, decapitation, defleshing and
dismemberment. With few exceptions, all cut marks in my sample are morphologically
similar and have features characteristic of metal tool use. It is likely that metal tumis, the
crescent-bladed knives used to slit the throats and decapitate sacrificial victims in Moche
and Lambayeque art, were used for the same purposes in real life. Although cut marks on
hwnan and faunal bones show similarities in their location and morphology, the hwnan
bones' lack of breakage and other evidence of conswnption found in the butchered faunal
remains argues against ritual cannibalism. Although there was some variation in the
practice ofhwnan sacrifice within and between Moche sites and between the Moche and
Lambayeque cultures, overall patterns suggest behavioral continuity through time. The
many similarities between the physical evidence and the iconography strongly support
the argument that Moche and Lambayeque artistic depictions of prisoner capture, torture,
sacrifice and mutilation reflect actual practices.
DEDICATION
To Conard.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Financial support for this project was provided in part by the Fulbright-Hays
Doctoral Dissertation Research Abroad Program (Grant #P022A000057), a doctoral
dissertation improvement grant by the National Science Foundation (Grant #0075174), a
summer research grant by the Middle American Research Institute at Tulane University
and a dissertation write-up grant by the Tulane Anthropology Department. I am
extremely grateful to all of these sources.
I had the good fortune of being adopted by two very special Peruvian families
while I was in Peru. The Patsias V alle family welcomed me into their hearts and home
whenever I was in Lima. In Trujillo, the Montoya Vera family accepted me as one of
their own and treated me to many cozy afternoon teas and spirited conversations. I would
like to give special thanks to Mellisa Lund Valle, Macy Montoya Vera, Florencia
Bracamonte Ganoza, and Ulla Holmquist Pachas for their treasured friendship and many
kindnesses. I would also like to thank Florencia Bracamonte and family for providing me
with lab space in Trujillo and Tania Delabarde for the use of her apartment in Huanchaco.
I am extremely grateful to Juan Julio Bracamonte for being a dear friend and for
coming to my rescue over and over again. The staff at the Hostal Bracamonte in
Huanchaco went out of their way to make my stay on the north coast as comfortable as
ii
possible. Others who assisted me while I was in Peru include Kendall Campbell,
Dr. Tom Wake, and Dr. Jean Hudson, who graciously helped me in identifying faunal
remains, and Dr. Glenn Russell, who generously loaned me a microscope. Special thanks
to Dr. George (Wolf) Gumerman N, who shared with me faunal remains with cut marks
from the Moche Foodways Archaeological Project and enabled my husband to join me in
Peru for my last three months of fieldwork by employing him as his project mapping
expert.
This project was immensely facilitated by Dr. Santiago Uceda, eo-director of the
Proyecto Arqueol6gico Huacas del Sol y de la Luna, who wrote me a letter of support,
generously provided me access to the osteological material from Huaca de la Luna, and
assisted me in exporting samples for elemental analysis. I am indebted to Cesar Galvez
for writing me a letter of support and I am appreciative of all of the directors of the
Proyecto Arqueol6gico Complejo El Brujo for providing me access to the bone
collections at El Brujo. I am grateful to Dr. Steve Bourget for his permission to study the
human remains from Plaza 3A at Huaca de la Luna, to Dr. Christopher Donnan for
helping me to access the osteological collections from Dos Cabezas and Pacatnamu, and
to Rose Tyson and Dr. Alana Cordy-Collins for sharing their data with me on the Dos
Cabezas material.
I owe many thanks to Ventura Perez for kindly teaching me how to cast and thin
section cut marks on bones, to Dr. Ronald Parsley for his general support and helpful
casting and photography suggestions, and to Dr. Robert Dotson for his valued assistance
with the scanning electron microscope. I am very appreciative of Dr. T.R. Kidder for
iii
teaching me how to use several pieces of equipment in the Center for Archaeology,
lending me a digital camera to take to Peru, and providing me with abundant space in the
CF A in which to do my lab analysis. Other technical support and general assistance was
generously given to me by Terri Brown, Kathe Lawton, Tony Ortmann, Lori Roe, Jeb
Card, Kit Nelson, Pierre Burnside, Jocelyn Wright, Carlos Ayesta, Gustavo Perez, and
Moises Tufinio. I could not ask for a better emotional support group and cheering squad
than my dear friends Nancy and David Morgan, and Cassie White and Chris DeFrancisco,
who were always just a phone call away.
I am extremely appreciative of the support, helpful suggestions, and editorial
assistance of my doctoral committee, Dr. Margaret Clarke, Dr. Harvey Bricker, Dr. Trent
Holliday, and Dr. John Verano. I am particularly indebted to Dr. Verano, my editor
nonpareil, who read countless drafts of my research proposal, helped me fine-tune my
grant applications and reports, engaged me in intellectual discussions about the Moche,
and diligently tweaked my dissertation manuscript. Dr. Verano also generously shared
his lab space and equipment with me while in Peru and exported fauna! bones on my
behalf. I am immensely grateful for copies of Dr. Verano's Plaza 3A and 3C field notes,
drawings and photographs, copies of his unpublished manuscripts, his permission to
include bones from a modem forensic case in my comparative sample, and for partially
funding my SEM analysis. In addition, I am very thankful for his help in gaining access
to various osteological collections in Peru and for the opportunity to assist in the
excavation of two mass burials of human sacrifice victims.
iv
I would like to thank my sister, Melanie Bryant, for keeping me sane by sending
me care packages of chocolate and People magazine while I was in the field, and my in-
laws, John and Janet Hamilton, for their love and support, both emotional and financial,
throughout this project. I am grateful to my parents, Gary and Janice Anderson, for their
constant support of my education, their encouragement to explore foreign cultures, and
their frequent financial assistance. I am thankful for my faithful feline companions,
Gromit and Dashiell, who did wonders to ameliorate the writing process. Words are
inadequate to express my gratitude to my husband, Conard Hamilton, for being my rock
of emotional support, for listening, for celebrating my achievements and prodding me to
finish, and most of all, for loving me, no matter what.
Finally, I wish to gratefully acknowledge some very special teachers who inspired
me to become an anthropologist and strongly encouraged me to seek a graduate degree:
Mr. Rene Peron and Dr. Margaret Bond at Santa Rosa Junior College, and especially Dr.
Henry McHenry at University of California, Davis, whose boundless enthusiasm for
teaching and fascination with the human skeleton ignited my own passion for old bones.
V
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS................................................................ n
LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................... xi
LIST OF FIGURES....................................................................... xvii
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
Introduction......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 1
Purpose of Research.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Significance of Project...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 3
Research Overview.................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction ........................................................................... .
Ritual Death and Mutilation in Precolumbian Peru: Iconographic Evidence
Ritual Death and Mutilation on the North Coast of Peru: Archaeological
Evidence ....................................................................................................... .
Previous Cut Mark Studies ......................................................................... ..
Violence, Human Sacrifice and Cannibalism ....................................... ..
Postmortem Modification ....................................................................... .
Modem Forensic Applications ............................................................ ..
Other Cut Mark Research ....................................................................... .
Analytical Techniques Used in Bone Modification Studies .......................... .
Results of Cut Mark Research ..................................................................... ..
Cut Mark Morphology ................................................................... .
Differential Diagnosis ........................................................................ .
Classes of Tool Marks ........................................................................... .
Slicing Marks ..................................................................................... .
Scrape Marks ................................................................ ..
Saw Marks ......................................................................................... .
Chop Marks ..................................................................................... .
Identification of Metal Versus Stone Tools ......................................... ..
D
. . nal'
trectto lty ........................................................................................ .
Patterns of Modification ofFaunal Remains ........................................... .
vi
7
7
15
20
21
23
24
25
25
29
29
30
33
34
34
35
35
36
40
42
CHAPTER TWO (continued)
Modification ofFaunal Remains from Precolumbian Sites on the North
Coast of Peru................................................................................................... 44
Patterns of Modification of Human Remains ........... ........... .................. ......... 44
Throat Slitting..................................................................................... 45
Decapitation........................................................................................ 45
Defl.eshing.... ...................................................................................... 47
Dismembel'Illent ........ .. .. .. ... ............... .... .. .. .. ........ .. ... . .......... ......... ....... 50
Research Questions and Hypotheses .. ...... ... ..... .. .. .. .. .. ..... ..................... .... ............ 52
Question 1.. . ......... ............ ...................... .................. .... .... .. .. .. .. .... .... ... .... .. .. .. . 52
Hypothesis 1... ................................................................................................ 52
Question 2... ................................................................................................... 53
Hypothesis 2.. ................................................................................................. 53
Question 3... .. .. .. .. .. ................ .... ..... .. .. .. .. ..... .. .. ...... .. .. .... .. .. .. .. .. .. ..................... 54
Hypothesis 3................................................................................................... 54
Question 4... ... .. . ..... ............... ..... .. ....... .... . . .. . . ... .. ... . ... .. ...... ...... .. . .. .... .. .... .. . ... .. 54
Hypothesis 4................................................................................................... 55
Discussion for Hypothesis 2.... ...................................................................... 55
Discussion for Hypothesis 3. . . . ............. .... ....................... .......... .... .... .. .. ........ 56
CHAPTER THREE: METHODS AND MATERIALS
Introduction .......................................................................................................... .
S8Ill.ple ...... .......................................................................................................... .
Huaca de la Luna ........................................................................................... .
S
. D ..
1te escnpt1on ........................................................................................ .
Sample Description-Plaza 3A ............................................................... .
Sample Description-Plaza 3C ................................................ .
El Brujo .......................................................................................................... .
Site Description ........................................................................................ .
Sample Description .................................................................................. .
Dos Cabezas .......................................................................... .
Pacatn.am.u ...................................................................................................... .
Forensic Case ................................................................................................. .
Faunal Remains .............................................................................................. .
Data Collection .................................................................................................... .
Cut Mark Examination Techniques .................................................................. .
Cut Mark Documentation ................................................................ .
vii
58
58
59
59
62
62
63
63
64
65
65
66
67
67
68
68
68
69
69
70
72
74
CHAPTER THREE (continued)
Casting Methods ...... ........ .. ........ .. ..... ... .... .. .......... .... .. .. .... .. .. ..... .. . .. .. ....... .... .. .. .. .... 7 5
Negative Casts................................................................................................ 76
Positive Casts.................................................................................................. 79
Thin Sectioning Technique.................................................................................. 80
Scanning Electron Microscope Analysis.... ......................................................... 83
Elemental Analysis.............................................................................................. 84
CHAPTERFOUR: RESULTS
Introduction........................................................................................................... 86
Cut Mark Patterning and Perimortem Treatment.................................................. 86
Huaca de la Luna-Plaza 3A.......................................................................... 86
Skull Vault ............. ...... .... ......... .......... ... .. .... .. .... .. .. ...... .. .... .. . . ............... .... 87
Facial Bones.............................................................................................. 92
Cervical Vertebrae .......... .............................. ............ .................. ...... ..... ... 92
Ribs......................................................................................................... 98
Clavicle............................................................................ 100
Scapula......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Humerus........................................................................... 103
Radius....................................................................................................... 104
Ulna........................................................................................................... 106
Hand Bones............................................................................................... 107
Os Coxae........................................................................... 110
Femur....................................................................................................... 110
Tibia........................................................................................................ 112
Fibula............................................................................... 113
Foot Bones................................................................................................. 114
Huaca de la Luna-Plaza 3C..... .................................................................... 115
Skull Vault....... ............. ......... ......... .... ............ ....... ............ .......... ....... .. ... 116
Facial Bones.............................................................................................. 122
Mandible................................................................................................... 125
Cervical Vertebrae................................................................................... 127
Thoracic Vertebrae................................................................................... 133
Lumbar Vertebrae...... ...................................... .. .. ...... ............................. 13 5
Ribs......................................................................................................... 138
Sternum.................................................................................................... 145
Clavicle ........................................................................ ,.......................... 145
Scapula..................................................................................................... 148
Humerus................................................................................................... 151
Radius....................................................................................................... 154
Ulna ...................................................... ,. ......... ,. .................................... ,...... 156
Hand Bones............................................................................................... 158
Os Coxae.................................................................................................. 164
viii
CHAPTER FOUR (continued)
Sacrum....................................................................................................... 168
Femur........................................................................................................ 169
Patella........................................................................................................ 173
Tibia........................................................................................................ 174
Fibula....................................................................................................... 177
Foot Bones................................................................................................ 180
El Brujo--"Danzantes" ................................................................................... 185
El Brujo--Entierro 2 ........... ....... ...... .. . ...... .. .. .................... ................. .... .. ....... 186
El Brujo--Entierro 1....................................................................................... 187
Dos Cabezas--Cuarto de Ios Craneos .... ...... .................................................. 189
Pacatnamu-Lambayeque Mass Burial......................................................... 192
Group !-Individuals 1-4.. . . . . . . . .. ....... .......... .... .. .. .. .. .. .... ................. ........ 192
Individual 1 .... ............ .... ......... ..... .... ...... .............. ........ .... ........ ..... .... .. 193
Individual 2 ...... .......... ...... .............. .... ........ .... ...... ............ ................... 193
Individual 3 ........ .............. ..... . .......... .... ........ .............. .... ......... .... .. .... .. 194
Individual 4 .................. ............. ....... .... .......... ...... .... .. ................... ...... 196
Group 11-Individuals 5-12......... .......................................................... 197
Individual 5 ...................... ..... ..... . . .. ...... .... .. .... .. .. .. .... .. .... .. .. .... .. ..... ...... 197
Individual 6 .......... ...................... .................. .................. ..................... 198
Individual 7 .. .... ...... .... ............. ............. ...... .. .. .............. ........... ............ 198
Individual 8 ........................... ..... ........ .............. ............ .... ............. ...... 199
Individual 9 ........ .... .. .... ..... ............. ....... ......... .......... ........ ... . ... ......... ... 200
Individual 10 ................... .... ........................ .... ......... .... . ...... ........... .... . 202
Individual 11 ............ ....... .... ..... .......... .......... .... .... ...... .. ................. ...... 202
Individual 12 ............ .................... .... ........ ...... .. .. .......... .................... ... 203
Group Ill-Individuals 13-14.. ................................................................. 203
Individual 13....... ................................................... .... ....................... 203
Individual 14 ............ ........ ... ....... ........ .......... .... .. .. .. .. .. .... .. .. ............. ... . 204
Forensic Case.................................................................................................. 207
Faunal Remains............................................................................................... 208
Metric and Directionality Studies and Elemental Analysis ..... ......................... .... 215
Cross Section Analysis Results....................................................................... 215
The Utility of the SEM in Cut Mark Analyses ................................. ;............. 223
Directionality Study Results .. .. .. ......... .... .. . . .. ..... .. .. ...... ...... .. ...... .. .... .... .. ......... 223
Elemental Analysis Results............................................................................ 225
Trauma Analysis................................................................................................... 227
Huaca de la Luna-Plaza 3A.......................................................................... 229
Huaca de la Luna-Plaza 3C............ .......................................................... 231
El Brujo "Danzantes," Entierro 2 (1994) and Entierro 1 (2000) ................. 232
Dos Cabezas--Cuarto de los Craneos ............................................................ 232
Pacatnamu-Lambayeque Mass Burial......................................................... 233
Forensic Case.................................................................................................. 235
Fauna! Remains............................................................................................... 235
ix
CHAPTER FNE: DISCUSSION
Introduction............................................................................................................ 236
Comparative Analysis of Cut Mark and Trauma Patteming ................................ 236
Huaca de la Luna Plaza 3C Below the Floor Versus Plaza 3C Above the
Floor............................................................................................................... 236
Huaca de la Luna Plaza 3C Versus Plaza 3A ................................................. 240
Huaca de la Luna Versus Other Moche Sites ................................................. 245
Moche Versus Lam.bayeque............................................................................ 248
Moche Human Remains Versus Faunal Bones............................................... 251
Tool Analysis....................................................................................................... 252
Moche and Lambayeque Weaponry: Iconographic and Archaeological
Evidence.......................................................................................................... 252
Tool Material Diagnosis................................................................................. 254
Tool Type Diagnoses...................................................................................... 257
Prisoner Capture, Torture, Sacrifice and Mutilation: A Comparative Analysis
of the Physical and Iconographic Evidence......................................................... 259
CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Introduction........................................................................................................... 267
Summary of Research........................................................................................... 267
Hypothesis 1... ................................................................................................ 268
Hypothesis 2... ................................................................................................ 268
Hypothesis 3... ... ....... .... .......... ................. ........... .... ....... ..... .. .... .... .... .. .. ...... .... 269
Hypothesis 4.... ................ .................................... ...... .... .. .... .... .... .. .. ... ... . ........ 270
Related Research by Others.................................................................................. 272
Suggestions for Future Research.......................................................................... 272
Final Remarks...................................................................................................... 274
TABLES....................................................................................................... 275
FIGURES........................................................................................................... 355
ENDNOTES... ..................................................................................................... 562
BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................. 569
X
Table 1.
Table 2.
Table 3.
Table 4.
Table 5.
Table 6.
Table 7.
Table 8.
Table 9.
Table 10.
Table 11.
Table 12.
Table 13.
Table 14.
Table 15.
Table 16.
Table 17.
Table 18.
Table 19.
LIST OF TABLES
Minimum Element Counts of Major Human Bones From Plaza
3A, Huaca de la Luna ................................................................ ..
Individuals Below and Above the Floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de
la Luna Included in Data Sample ................................................ .
Minimum Element Counts of Major Human Bones from Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna .................................................................. .
Data Sample from the Cuarto de Ios Craneos, Dos Cabezas .... ..
Estimation of Sex as Determined by Tyson and Cordy-Collins
(1998) and the Author for Individuals from the Cuarto de los
Cr3lleos, Dos Cabezas ................................................................ .
Data Sample from the Lambayeque Mass Burial at Pacatnamu
Codes Used in Bone Inventory .................................................. .
Codes Used in Cut Mark Inventory .......................................... ..
Number ofNegative Casts (Both Originals and Duplicates)
Made per Each Data Sample ...................................................... ..
Number of Positive Casts (Both Originals and Duplicates)
Made per Each Data Sample ...................................................... ..
Number of Thin Sections (Both Originals and Duplicates) Made
per Each Data Sample .............................................................. ..
Quantification of Cut Marks on Skeletal Elements from Plaza
3A, Huaca de la Luna ............................................................... ..
The Number of Regions with Cut Marks per Number of
Regions Present on Bones from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna
Individuals from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna with Assigned
Field Codes and Cut Marks on Their Cervical Vertebrae ..... .
Quantification of Cut marks on Skeletal Elements from Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna .................................................................. .
The Number of Regions with Cut Marks per Number of
Regions Present on Bones from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna .....
Possible Torture and Mutilation Suffered by Individuals with
Cut Marks on Bones of the Face from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna ............................................................................................ .
Bones with Cut Marks from the Cuarto de Ios Craneos: Tyson
and Cordy-Collins (1998) vs. This Author ............................... ..
Summary of Cut Marks on Faunal Bones from Huaca de la
Luna, El Brujo and Pacatnamu and Comparison with Binford's
(1981) Inventory of Skinning and Butchering Marks ................ .
xi
276
276
277
278
279
279
280
282
285
285
285
286
287
291
292
294
308
309
310
Table 20. Sample Size, Mean and Standard Deviation for Cut Mark
Samples in Assemblage, Separated by Width, Depth and
Depth/Width Ratio...................................................................... 315
Table21. ANOVAofCutMarkSamplesinAssemblage........................... 315
Table 22. Sample Size, Mean and Standard Deviation for Cut Marks on
Moche Human Remains, Lambayeque Human Remains and
Faunal Elements, Separated by Width, Depth and Depth/Width
Ratio............................................................................................ 316
Table 23. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Moche Human Remains,
Lambayeque Human Remains and Faunal Elements........ ........ 316
Human Axial and Appendicular Bones, Separated by Width,
Depth and Depth/Width Ratio ... .. ................... .... ......... .... ..... .. .. .. . 317
Table 25. ANOVA of Cut Marks on Human Axial and Appendicular
Bones.......................................................................................... 317
Faunal Axial and Appendicular Bones, Separated by Width,
Depth and Depth/Width Ratio .. ..... .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ........ ......... ... 318
Table 27. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Faunal Axial and Appendicular
Bones.......................................................................................... 318
Table 28.
Table 29.
Table 30
Table 31.
Table 32.
Table 33.
Table 34.
Table 35.
Table 36.
Table 37.
Sample Size, Mean and Standard Deviation for Cut Marks on
Human and Faunal Axial Bones, Separated by Width, Depth
and Depth/Width Ratio ............................................................. ..
ANOVA of Cut Marks on Human and Faunal Axial Bones ..... .
Human and Faunal Appendicular Bones, Separated by Width,
Depth and Depth/Width Ratio ................................................... ..
ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human and Faunal Appendicular
Bones ......................................................................................... .
Human Upper Long Bones, Lower Long Bones and Non-Long
Bones, Separated by Width, Depth and Depth/Width Ratio ..... .
ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human Upper Long Bones, Lower
Long Bones and Non-Long Bones ........................................... ..
Faunal Upper Long Bones, Lower Long Bones and Non-Long
Bones, Separated by Width, Depth and Depth/Width Ratio ..... .
ANOV A of Cut Marks on Faunal Upper Long Bones, Lower
Long Bones and Non-Long Bones .......................................... .
Human and Faunal Upper Long Bones, Separated by Width,
Depth and Depth/Width Ratio ................................................... ..
AN OVA of Cut Marks on Human and Faunal Upper Long
Bones ...................................................................................... ..
xii
319
319
320
320
321
321
322
322
323
323
Human and Faunal Lower Long Bones, Separated by Width,
Depth and Depth/Width Ratio ..................................................... 324
Table 39. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human and Faunal Lower Long
Bones .......................................................................................... 324
Human and Faunal Non-Long Bones, Separated by Width,
Table 41. ANOVA of Cut Marks on Human and Faunal Non-Long Bones 325
Human Bones from Huaca de la Luna and Other Moche Sites,
Separated by Width, Depth and Depth/Width Ratio ................. 326
Table 43. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human Bones from Huaca de la
Luna and Other Moche Sites ................................................. 326
Table 44. Comparative Means and Standard Deviations for Cut Marks on
Human Axial and Appendicular Bones from Huaca de la Luna
and Other Moche Sites, Separated by Width, Depth and
Depth/Width Ratio .................................................................... 327
Table 45. Comparative Means and Standard Deviations for Cut Marks on
Bones from Huaca de la Luna and Other Moche Sites,
Separated by Width, Depth and Depth/Width Ratio ............... 328
Human Bones from Plaza 3A and Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna,
Separated by Width, Depth and Depth/Width Ratio ................... 329
Table 47. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human Bones from Plaza 3A and
Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ......................................................... 329
Human Axial and Appendicular Bones from Plaza 3A, Huaca
de la Luna, Separated by Width, Depth and Depth/Width Ratio 330
Table 49 ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human Axial and Appendicular
Bones from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna ..................................... 330
Human Axial and Appendicular Bones from Plaza 3C, Huaca 331
de la Luna, Separated by Width, Depth and Depth/Width Ratio
Table 51 ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human Axial and Appendicular
Bones from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ..................................... 331
Human Axial Bones from Plaza 3A and Plaza 3C, Huaca de la 332
Luna, Separated by Width, Depth and Depth/Width Ratio .........
Table 53. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human Axial Bones from Plaza 3A
and Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna .................................................. 332
Human Appendicular Bones from Plaza 3A and Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna ......................................................................... 333
xiii
Table 55. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human Appendicular Bones from
Plaza 3A and Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ................................... 333
Bones from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna, Separated by Width,
Table 57. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human Upper Long Bones, Lower
Long Bones and Non-Long Bones from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la
Luna ............................................................................................. 334
Bones from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna, Separated by Width,
Long Bones and Non-Long Bones from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna ............................................................................................. 335
Human Upper Long Bones from Plaza 3A and Plaza 3C, Huaca
Table 61. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human Upper Long Bones from
Human Lower Long Bones from Plaza 3A and Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna, Separated by Width, Depth and
Table 63. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human Lower Long Bones from
Human Non-Long Bones from Plaza 3A and Plaza 3C, Huaca
Table 65. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human Non-Long Bones from Plaza
3A and Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ......................................... 338
Human Bones from Above the Floor and Below the Floor of
Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna, Separated by Width, Depth and
Depth/Width Ratio ................................................................ 339
Table 67. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human Bones from Above the Floor
and Below the Floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna .................. 339
Human Axial and Appendicular Bones from Above the Floor
of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna, Separated by Width, Depth and
Table 69. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human Axial and Appendicular
Bones from Above the Floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ..... 340
xiv
Human Axial and Appendicular Bones from Below the Floor
Table 71. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human Axial and Appendicular
Bones from Below the Floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ..... 341
Human Axial Bones from Above and Below the Floor of Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna, Separated by Width, Depth and
Table 73. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human Axial Bones from Above
and Below the Floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna .................. 342
Human Appendicular Bones from Above and Below the Floor
Table 75. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human Appendicular Bones from
Above and Below the Floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ....... 343
Bones from Above the Floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna,
Separated by Width, Depth and Depth/Width Ratio ................. 344
Long Bones and Non-Long Bones from Above the Floor of
Bones from Below the Floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna,
Separated by Width, Depth and Depth/Width Ratio ............... 345
Long Bones and Non-Long Bones from Below the Floor of
Human Upper Long Bones from Above and Below the Floor of
Table 81. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human Upper Long Bones from
Human Lower Long Bones from Above and Below the Floor
Table 83. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human Lower Long Bones from
XV
Hwnan Non-Long Bones from Above and Below the Floor of
Depth/Width Ratio................................................................ 348
Table 85. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Hwnan Non-Long Bones from
Table 86. Counts ofDirectionality Criteria and Cutting Strokes..... .......... 349
Table 87. Throat-Slitting Directionality Results by Individual................... 349
Table 88. Quantification of Cut Marks on Identifiable Skeletal Elements
Deposited Below and Above the Floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de
la L'Uila....... .... ........................................................................... 350
Table 89. Quantification of Cut Marks on Identifiable Skeletal Elements
from Plaza 3C and Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna.......................... 352
Table 90. Assailant-Victim Positioning Possibilities During Throat-
Slitting Events Based on Directionality of Cut Marks Located
on the Anterior Aspect of Cervical Vertebrae........................ 354
Table 91. Chi-Square Test of Plaza 3A Directionality Results By
Individual Assuming a Global Population of90% Right-
Handed......................................................................................... 354
xvi
Figure 1.
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
Figure 4.
LIST OF FIGURES
Map of the north coast of Peru showing the locations of the
sites included in the sample .................................................. ..
Map of the Pyramids at Moche ............................................. ..
Plan of Huaca de la Luna ...................................................... ..
Reconstruction drawing of the north f ~ d e ofHuaca Cao
356
357
358
VteJo........................................................................................ 359
Figure 5.
Figure 6.
Figure 7.
The human and camelid bones inserted into the modeled clay
foot of one of the "Danzantes" at Huaca Cao Viejo .............. .
Plan ofHuaca Eat Dos Cabezas ............................................ .
Plan of the northern portion of the Huaca 1 Complex at
Pacatnamu showing the location of the Lambayeque mass
359
360
burial...................................................................................... 361
Figure 8. Cut marks on the left side of the frontal of Individual II from
Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna.................................................... 362
Figure 9. Cut marks on the right frontal of Individual IV from Plaza
3A, Huaca de la Luna.............................................................. 363
Figure 10. Cut marks on the frontal and right malar around the lateral
margin of the right orbit ofCraneo IX from Plaza 3A, Huaca
de la Luna... ............................................ .............. ............ ...... 364
Figure 11. Cut marks on the left side of the frontal and left parietal of
HG96-53 from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna. .......................... 365
Figure 12. Cut mark above the temporal line on the left parietal of
Craneo XIV from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna.. .................... 366
Figure 13. Cut marks on the right parietal and occipital squama of
Individual IV from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna .................... 366
Figure 14. Cut marks on the occipital squama of Individual XX from
Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna.. ... .............................................. 367
Figure 15. Cut marks on the occipital squama oflndividual XXI from
Figure 16. Skull vault fragments with cut marks from Plaza 3A, Huaca
de la Luna............................................................................... 369
Figure 17. Chart illustrating the ratio of cervical vertebrae with cut
marks per total number of cervical vertebrae from Plaza 3A,
Huaca de la Luna .................................................................... 3 70
Figure 18. Cut marks on the inferior aspect of the anterior arch of an
atlas (Cl) vertebra from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna ............ 370
xvii
Figure 19. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the right transverse
process and the anterior margin of the right inferior articular
facet of the atlas (Cl) vertebra ofHG96-61 from Plaza 3A,
Huaca de la L"Una ................................................................... 371
Figure 20. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of an atlas (C 1) and axis
(C2) vertebra from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna ..................... 371
Figure 21. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the axis (C2) and third
cervical vertebrae associated with Craneo XVIIIa from Plaza
3A, Huaca de la Luna .............................................................. 371
Figure 22. Cut marks near the left inferior articular facet on an axis (C2)
vertebra from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna ............................ 372
Figure 23. Cut marks on and near the right superior articular facet of an
axis (C2) vertebra from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna ............. 372
Figure 24. Chart showing the number of cut marks per axis(C2) vertebra
from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna ........................................... 372
Figure 25. Scanning electron micrograph illustrating the straight, sheer
walls typical of anterior body cuts on axis (C2) vertebrae
from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna .......................................... 373
Figure 26. Cut marks on the anterior bodies of C3 and C4 of Individual
XX from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna .................................... 373
Figure 27. Anterior view of C3 of Individual 3 from Plaza 3A, Huaca de
la LllDa .................................................................................... 373
Figure 28. Cut marks on the inferior margin of the body and right
inferior articular facet ofC3 ofHG96-102 from Plaza 3A,
Huaca de la L"Una ................................................................... 374
Figure 29. Cut marks on the lateral margin of the right inferior articular
facet ofC4 ofHG96-18 from Plaza 3A, Huacade la Luna .... 374
Figure 30. Cut marks on the anterior body of C7 of HG96-1 0 from Plaza
3A, Huaca de la Luna .............................................................. 374
Figure 31. Cut marks on the lateral aspect of the right superior articular
facet of a cervical vertebra (C3-C7) fragment from Plaza 3A,
Huaca de la Luna .................................................................... 375
Figure 32. Chart illustrating the number of cut marks per cervical
vertebra (C3-C7) from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna .............. 375
walls typical of anterior body cuts on C3-C7 vertebrae from
Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna .................................................... 375
Figure 34. Superior view of cut marks across the tubercle of a left first
rib fragment from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna ...................... 376
Figure 35. Cut marks located just anterior to the tubercle on the superior
aspect of a right first rib from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna ... 376
Figure 36. Cut marks on the external aspect of the shaft of the right
eighth rib oflndividual3 from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la L"Una .. 376
Figure 37. Cut marks on the superior aspect of the sternal Y.. of the shaft
of a left clavicle from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la L'Uila ................ 377
xviii
Figure 38. Cut marks on the superior-posterior aspect of the acromial Y4
of the shaft of the left clavicle ofHG96-l from Plaza 3A,
Huaca de la Luna........... ... ................................................... 377
Figure 39. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the spine and
infraspinous fossa of the left scapula ofHG96-1 from Plaza
3A, Hua.ca de la L'U11a.............................................................. 378
Figure 40. Two parallel cut marks on the spine of the left scapula of
HG96-44 from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna.. ...... ................. 378
Figure 41. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the left humerus of
HG96-1 from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna......... .................. 379
Figure 42. Cut marks on the posterior-lateral aspect of the left humerus
ofHG96-1 from Plaza 3A, Hua.ca de la Luna..................... 379
Figure 43. Cut marks on the medial aspect of the proximal Yz of the shaft
of the right humerus of HG96-1 from Plaza 3A, Hua.ca de la
Luna ........................................................................................ 380
Figure 44. Cut marks on the lateral aspect of the shaft of a right humerus
from Plaza 3A, Hua.ca de la Luna ........................................... 381
Figure 45. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the proximal Y4 of the
shaft of a left humerus from Plaza 3A, Hua.ca de la Luna...... 3 81
Figure 46. Perimortem blow with chop marks or chattermarks on the
medial aspect of the proximal shaft of a right humerus from
Plaza 3A, Hua.ca de la Luna.................................................... 382
Figure 4 7. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the left ulna and radius of
HG96-1 from Plaza 3A, Hua.ca de la Luna.......... ................ 383
Figure 48. Cut marks on the anterior-lateral aspect of the proximal shaft
of the right radius ofHG96-1 from Plaza 3A, Hua.ca de la
Luna ........................................................................................ 383
Figure 49. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the right ulna ofHG96-1
from Plaza 3A, Hua.ca de la Luna........................................... 384
Figure 50. Cut marks on the medial aspect of the shaft of a right ulna
Figure 51. Cut marks on the palmar aspect of the shaft of a right first
metacarpal from Plaza 3A, Hua.ca de la Luna......................... 384
Figure 52. Cut marks on the palmar and dorsal aspects of the shafts of
the left second through fifth proximal hand phalanges of an
individual from Plaza 3A, Hua.ca de la Luna... ...................... 385
Figure 53. Cut marks on the lateral aspect of the iliac blade and on the
medial aspect across the superior border of the ischial
tuberosity of the right os coxae ofHG96-60 from Plaza 3A,
Huaca de la Luna ...................................................... ..... ......... 3 86
Figure 54. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the shaft of a left femur
Figure 55. Cut marks on the lateral aspect of the proximal Y4 of the shaft
of a right femur from Plaza 3A, Hua.ca de la Luna.... ............ 387
xix
Figure 56. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the proximal shaft of the
left femur of HG96-1 from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna ........ 388
Figure 57. Cut marks on the anterior aspect at midshaft of the right femur
of HG96-1 from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna ......................... 388
Figure 58. Cut marks on the lateral aspect of the proximal Yz of the shaft
of the left femur of HG96-1 from Plaza 3A, Iiuaca de la Luna 389
Figure 59. Cut mark on the medial aspect of the distal shaft of the right
femur ofHG96-1 from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna .............. 389
Figure 60. Chop mark on the lateral aspect, just distal to midshaft, of a
left femur from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna .......................... 389
Figure 61. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the distal Yz of the shaft
and on the posterior aspect of the proximal Y4 of the shaft of a
right tibia from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna .......................... 390
Figure 62. Cut marks on a tibial shaft fragment (side and aspect
indeterminate) from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna ................... 391
Figure 63. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the shaft of the left
fibula and the anterior aspect of the shaft of the right fibula of
HG96-60 from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna .......................... 391
Figure 64. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the proximal Y4 of the
shaft of a left fibula from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna ........... 392
Figure 65. Cut mark on the posterior aspect of the proximal Yz of the
shaft of the left fibula of Individual XV from Plaza 3A,
Huaca de la Luna .................................................................... 392
Figure 66. Cut marks on the anterior-lateral aspect of the proximal Yz of
the shaft and the lateral aspect of the distal Y4 of the shaft of
the left fibula ofHG96-44 from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna 392
Figure 67. Cut marks on the plantar aspects of the left first and fourth
proximal foot phalanges and the plantar-lateral aspect of the
left fifth proximal foot phalanx of Individual XV from Plaza
3A, Huaca de la Luna .............................................................. 393
Figure 68. Cut marks on the left frontal and zygomatic arch of the left
temporal of HG99-5 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna .......... 394
Figure 69. Cut marks above the nasal root on the frontal and on the right
maxilla ofE15 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ................... 395
Figure 70. Cut marks on the frontal of E 18 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna ........................................................................................ 396
Figure 71. Cut marks on the left parietal and occipital ofH27 SK2 from
Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna .................................................... 397
Figure 72. Cut marks near the parietal-temporal suture on the right
parietal ofHG99-5 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ............ 397
Figure 73. Cut marks on the occipital ofHG99-6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca
de la L'Ull.a .... ........................................................................... 398
Figure 74. Cut marks on the left temporal and left malar of E 18 from
XX
Figure 75. Cut marks on the right temporal and right malar ofE18 from
Figure 76. Cut marks on the nasal bones ofHG99-5 from Plaza 3C, Huaca
de la Lun.a....... .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . ... .. .. . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . 401
Figure 77. Cut marks on the left maxilla ofHG99-5 from Plaza 3C, Huaca
de la Luna.......... ...... .... .... ........... ..... ........................ ............ .... 402
Figure 78. Cut marks on the left maxilla ofE12 from Plaza 3C, Huaca
de la Luna. . .. ............................... .... .................................... .... 402
Figure 79. Cut marks on the left maxilla ofE13 from Plaza 3C, Huaca
de la L'UD.a.... .......... ........... ......... .............. ...... ......................... 403
Figure 80. Cut marks on the nasals, maxillae and right malar ofH17
SKl from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ................................... 403
Figure 81. Cut marks on the left side of the mandible ofHG99-5 from
Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.... ........... .... ................................ 404
Figure 82. Cut marks on the right side of the mandible of H99-6 from
Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna .... ........................... .......... ........... 405
Figure 83. Cut marks on the inferior aspect of the mandible ofE18 from
Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ....... .......... ........................... ........ 406
Figure 84. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the right ramus of the
mandible ofH17 SK3 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.. .. .. 406
Figure 85. Cut marks on the left side of the mandible ofH25 from Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna ............................................................. .
Figure 86. Chart illustrating the ratio of cervical vertebrae with cut 407
marks per total number of cervical vertebrae from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna ....... ........... ......... .............. ...................... .... . 407
Figure 87. Cut marks on the inferior aspect of the posterior arch of the
atlas (Cl) vertebrae ofH36 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna
Figure 88. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the axis (C2) and third 408
cervical vertebra of HG99-l from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Lun.a ......................................................................................... 408
Figure 89. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of C2-C4 of E2 from Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna.............................................................. 409
Figure 90. Cut marks on the left lateral and right lateral aspects of the
axis (Cl) vertebra ofH36 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. 409
Figure 91. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the axis (Cl) vertebra of
H36 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ................................... 410
Figure 92. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of C3 ofEntierro 3 from
Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna .......................................... .......... 410
Figure 93. Cut marks on the left lateral aspect ofC3-C4 ofHG99-5 from
Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.... ....... .... .. .... .............. ............. ... 411
Figure 94. Cut marks on the posterior aspect ofC4 ofH36 from Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna.............................................................. 411
Figure 95. Cut marks on the right lateral aspect ofC6-C7 ofHG99-7
from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ........................................... 411
xxi
Figure 96. Chart illustrating the number of cut marks per cervical vertebra 411
(C3-C7) from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna .............................
Figure 97. Cut marks on the anterior aspect ofC3 ofH33 from Plaza 3C, 412
Huaca de la Luna ....................................................................
Figure 98. Posterior and inferior views of the perimortem fracture to the
vertebral arch ofC3 ofH33 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna 412
Figure 99. Cut marks on the left lamina of a thoracic vertebra associated
with Entierro 5 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna .................. 413
Figure 100. Cut marks on the left transverse process of a thoracic
vertebra associated with Entierro 5 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de
la Luna ..................................................................................... 413
Figure 101. Cut marks on the spinous processes ofT6-T7 ofHG99-5
Figure 102. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the left and right superior
articular facets of T2 of E 14 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Lllll.a ........................................................................................ 413
Figure 103. Cut marks on the inferior aspect of the transverse process of
T9 ofE14 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Lllll.a .......................... 413
Figure 104. Cut marks on the right pedicles across the rib facets of T9-
T10 ofE14 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ........................ 413
Figure 105. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the left transverse process
of L5 of Entierro 6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ............ 414
Figure 106. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the right transverse
processes ofL2-L3 ofE4 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Lllll.a .. 414
Figure 107. Cut marks on the right lamina and spinous processes of L2 of
E15 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna .................................... 414
Figure 108. Cut mark on the superior aspect of the left first rib ofE9 from
Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ................................................... 414
Figure 109. Cut marks on the inferior aspect of an isolated right first rib
from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna .......................................... 415
Figure 110. Cut marks on the superior aspect of the vertebral 'iS of the
shaft of the left second rib of E7 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
L'Wla .... ................................................................................... 415
Figure 111. Cut marks on the external aspect of the vertebral Y2 of the
shaft of the left tenth rib ofHG99-2 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de
laLun.a .................................................................................... 415
Figure 112. Cut marks on the superior-external aspect of the sternal 'iS of
the shaft of the left third rib ofHG99-4 from Plaza 3C, Huaca
de la Lun.a ............................................................................... 416
Figure 113. Cut marks on the external aspect of the shafts of the right
third, fourth and fifth ribs ofE7 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Lllll.a ....................................................................................... 416
Figure 114. Cut marks on the internal aspect of the necks of four right
ribs ofEntierro 3 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ............. 417
xxii
Figure 115. Cut marks on the external aspect of the tubercle and vertebral
'14 of the shaft of a right rib of E 10 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Lwta......................................................................................... 417
Figure 116. Cut marks on the inferior aspect below the tubercle of an
isolated left rib 3-10 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.......... 417
Figure 117. Cut marks on the external aspect of the vertebral Y2 of the
shaft of the left eleventh rib ofHG99-3 from Plaza 3C, Huaca
de la Luna................................................................................ 418
eleventh rib of HG99-5 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna..... 418
Figure 119. Cut marks on the external aspect of the shaft of the left twelfth
rib ofHG99-2 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ................... 418
twelfth rib ofHG99-5 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna...... 418
walls of a cut mark on the left twelfth rib of HG99-3 from
Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.. . .. .... .... .......... .......... .......... .... .. .. 419
Figure 122. Perimortem neck and tubercle fractures of left and right ribs
of E 10 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna................................ 419
Figure 123. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the sternal body ofE7
from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna... ....................................... 420
Figure 124. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the left clavicle of
HG99-l from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna... ......................... 420
Figure 125. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the left clavicle of
HG99-3 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna... ......................... 421
Figure 126. Cut marks on the inferior aspect of the left clavicle ofE7
from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.... ...................................... 421
Figure 127. Cut marks on the inferior aspect of the acromial Y3 of the
shaft of the left clavicle of E 13 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
L-un.a... .................................................................................... 422
Figure 128. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the acromial '14 of the
shaft of the right clavicle ofHG99-1 from Plaza 3C, Huaca
de la Luna............................................................................... 422
Figure 129. Cut marks on the inferior aspect of the sterna! '14 of the shaft
of the right clavicle ofE9 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.. 422
Figure 130. Cut marks on the posterior aspect on the supraspinous fossa
and spine of the left scapula of HG99-l from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna... . . . .................. ...................................... .... 423
Figure 131. Cut marks on the posterior aspect on the infraspinous fossa of
the left scapula ofHG99-5 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna 423
Figure 132. Cut marks on the posterior aspect on the spine and axillary
border of the left scapula ofE2 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
L'llDa... .................................................................................... 423
Figure 133. anterior aspect of the right scapula ofE2 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna ... ............... , ........................... ,..................... 423
xxiii
Figure 134. Cut mark and scrapes on the anterior aspect below the
glenoid margin of the right scapula ofHG99-1 from Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna .............................................................. 424
Figure 135. Cut marks on the posterior aspect on the spine of the right
scapula ofHG99-5 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ............ 424
Figure 136. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the right scapula of E2
Figure 137. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the right scapula of E6
Figure 138. Cut marks on the medial aspect of the proximal Y3 of the shaft
of the left humerus ofHG99-3 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna ... ..................................................................................... 425
Figure 139. Cut marks on the posterior-lateral aspect of the lateral
supracondylar ridge and the lateral epicondyle of the left
humerus ofHG99-3 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ......... 425
Figure 140. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the lateral epicondyle of
the left humerus ofE12 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ..... 425
Figure 141. Cut marks on the anterior-medial aspect at midshaft of the
left humerus of E 18 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ......... 426
Figure 142. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the left humerus of E 18
Figure 143. Cut marks on the right humerus of Entierro 6 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna ................................................................... 427
Figure 144. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the right humerus of
HG99-5 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ............................ 428
Figure 145. Cut marks on the lateral aspect of the distal 'l2 of the shaft
and the lateral supracondylar ridge of the right humerus of
Figure 146. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the right humerus of E 10
Figure 147. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the medial epicondyle of
the right humerus ofE13 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna .. 428
Figure 148. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the distal Yz of the left
radius of Entierro 4 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ........... 429
Figure 149. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the styloid process of the
left radius ofEntierro 6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna .... 429
of the left radius ofHG99-1 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna 429
Figure 151. Cut mark on the anterior aspect of the head of the left radius
ofE8 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ................................. 429
Figure 152. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the distal 'l2 of the shaft
and the styloid process of the right radius of Entierro 6 from
Figure 153. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the middle 113 of the shaft
of the right radius of E2 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna .... 430
xxiv
shaft of the right radius ofE6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna ........................................................................................ 430
Figure 155. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the distal shaft of the left
radius and lateral aspect of the distal shaft of the left ulna of
HG99-3 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ............................. 431
Figure 156. Cut marks on the posterior aspect at midshaft of the right ulna
and posterior aspect at midshaft of the right radius ofHG99-3
Figure 157. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the shaft of the left ulna
ofE18 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ................................ 432
Figure 158. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the left ulna of E 18 from
Figure 159. Cut marks on the medial aspect of the shaft of the left ulna of
E18 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna .................................... 433
Figure 160. Cut marks on the lateral aspect of the shaft of the left ulna of
E 18 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna .................................... 433
Figure 161. Cut marks on the medial aspect of the proximal shaft below
the coronoid process of the right ulna ofHG99-3 from Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna .............................................................. 434
shaft of the right ulna of E2 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna 434
Figure 163. Cut mark on the hamulus of the left hamate of E6 from Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna .............................................................. 435
Figure 164. Cut marks on the left lunate, triquetra!, capitate and scaphoid
of an extra left hand associated with E7 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna .................................................................. 435
Figure 165. Cut mark on the tubercle of the left trapezium ofH13 from
Figure 166. Cut marks on the right triquetra! and lunate of an extra right
hand associated with E7 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ... 435
Figure 167. Cut marks on the tubercle of an isolated right scaphoid from
Figure 168. Cut marks on the palmar aspect of the left ftrst and ftfth
metacarpals ofHG99-1 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ..... 436
Figure 169. Cut marks on the dorsal aspect of the left ftrst and third
metacarpals, the lateral aspect of the left fourth metacarpal
and the medial aspect of the left ftfth metacarpal ofHG99-1
Figure 170. Cut marks on the palmar aspect of the right ftrst metacarpal
ofHG99-1 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ......................... 436
Figure 171. Cut marks on the palmar and dorsal aspects of the left hand
Figure 172. Cut marks on the dorsal aspect of the left ftrst proximal hand
phalanx ofHG99-6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna .......... 437
XXV
Figure 173. Cut marks on the medial aspect of the left third middle hand
phalanx ofHG99-6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ........... 437
Figure 174. Cut marks on the dorsal-medial aspect of the left fourth
middle hand phalanx ofHG99-6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
L"UU18 ........................................................................................ 437
Figure 175. Cut marks on the palmar aspect of the left fifth middle hand
Phalanx of HG99-6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la L"UU18 ........... 437
Figure 176. Cut marks on the palmar and dorsal aspects of the right hand
Figure 177. Cut marks on the medial aspect of the right first proximal
hand phalanx ofHG99-6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ... 438
Figure 178. Cut marks on the palmar aspect of the right second and fourth
middle hand phalanges and the dorsal aspect of the right third
and fifth middle hand phalanges ofHG99-6 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna ................................................................... 438
Figure 179. Cut marks on the palmar-medial aspect of the left first
metacarpal of E6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ............... 439
Figure 180. Cut marks on the dorsal aspect of the left first proximal hand
phalanx ofE6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna .................... 439
Figure 181. Cut marks on the dorsal aspect of the right hand of E6 from
Figure 182. Cut marks on the lateral aspect of the ilium of the left os
coxae ofEntierro 3 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ........... 440
Figure 183. Cut marks on the medial aspect of the left os coxae of
Entierro 6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna .......................... 440
Figure 184. Cut marks on the lateral aspect of the ilium of the left os
coxae of H20 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ..................... 440
Figure 185. Cut marks on the lateral aspect above the ischial tuberosity
and on the obturator crest and anterior margin of the
obturator foramen of the left os coxae ofH27 SKI from
Figure 186. Cut marks on the lateral aspect of the ilium of the right os
coxae of Entierro 6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ........... 442
Figure 187. Cut marks on the medial aspect of the ilium and ischial
tuberosity of the right os coxae ofE15 from Plaza 3C, Huaca
de la Luna ............................................................................... 442
Figure 188. Cut marks on the lateral aspect of the right os coxae of E 15
Figure 189. Cut marks on the medial aspect of the right os coxae of H 17
SK3 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ................................... 443
Figure 190. Cut marks on the lateral aspect of the ilium and around the
rim of the acetabulum of the right os coxae ofH30 from
Figure 191. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the sacrum of Entierro 6
xxvi
Figure 192. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the sacrum ofHG00-4
Figure 193. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the sacrum of E 10 from
Figure 194. Cut marks on the medial aspect of the proximal V.. of the shaft
of the left femur ofEntierro 3 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna ......................................................................................... 445
Figure 195. Cut marks on the lateral aspect of the proximal V.. of the shaft
of the left femur of HG99-1 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna 445
Figure 196. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the shaft of the left femur
ofHG99-l from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ......................... 445
Figure 197. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the lesser trochanter of
the left femur ofHG99-3 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna .. 446
Figure 198. Cut marks on the anterior-superior aspect of the greater
trochanter of the left femur of E6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna ........................................................................................ 446
Figure 199. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the shaft of the left
femur of E 11 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ..................... 446
Figure 200. Cut marks on the lateral aspect of the proximal V.. of the shaft
of the left femur ofE13 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna .... 446
Figure 201. Cut marks on the medial aspect of the neck of the left femur
ofE18 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ................................ 447
Figure 202. Cut marks on the anterior-medial aspect of the proximal YJ of
the shaft of the left femur of H17 SKI from Plaza 3C, Huaca
de la Luna ............................................................................... 447
Figure 203. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the distal YJ of the shaft
of the left femur ofH27 SKI from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna ... .................................................................................... 447
Figure 204. Cut marks on the medial aspect of the proximal V.. of the
shaft, including the base of the neck and around the lesser
trochanter of the right femur of Entierro 3 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Lun.a .................................................................... 448
Figure 205. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the lesser trochanter and
proximal Y4 of the shaft of the right femur of Entierro 6 from
Figure 206. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the neck, greater
trochanter and distal V.. of the shaft of the right femur of E7
Figure 207. Cut marks on the lateral aspect of the distal Y4 of the shaft of
the right femur of E 11 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ....... 449
of the right femur of E 13 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna .. 450
Figure 209. Cut marks on the medial aspect of the distal YJ of the shaft of
the right femur ofH17 SK2 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna 450
xxvii
Figure 210. Cut marks on the lateral aspect of the distal Y3 of the shaft of
the right femur ofH17 SK2 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna 450
Figure 211. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the neck and shaft of the
right femur ofH24 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ............ 451
Figure 212. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the head and neck of the
right femur ofH30 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ............ 451
Figure 213. Cut mark on the posterior aspect of the apex of the right
patella of H31 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ................... 451
shaft of the left tibia of Entierro 3 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Llllla ... .................................................................................... 452
Figure 215. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the distal Y4 of the shaft
of the left tibia ofHG99-3 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna 452
Figure 216. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the shaft of the left tibia
of E4 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ................................. 452
Figure 217. Cut mark on the lateral aspect of the proximal shaft of the left
tibia of E6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ......................... 453
Figure 218. Cut mark on the posterior aspect at midshaft of the left tibia
of E 18 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ................................ 453
Figure 219. Cut marks on the anterior aspect at midshaft of the left tibia
of H7 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ................................. 453
Figure 220. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the distal epiphysis
(medial malleolus) of the left tibia ofH27 SK2 from Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna .............................................................. 453
Figure 221. Cut mark on the medial malleolus of the right tibia of
Entierro 3 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna .......................... 454
Figure 222. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the middle Y3 of the shaft
of the right tibia ofE4 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ....... 454
Figure 223. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the distal Y3 of the shaft
of the right tibia ofH17 SK2 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
L'Uila ........................................................................................ 454
Figure 224. Cut marks on the lateral aspect at midshaft of the right tibia
of H29 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ............................... 454
walls typical of cut marks on tibiae from Plaza 3C, Huaca de
la L'Wla .................................................................................... 455
Figure 226. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the proximal Y4 of the
shaft of the right tibia and right fibula ofH12 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la LllDa ... ................................................................ 455
Figure 227. Cut marks on the lateral aspect of the neck and proximal Y4 of
the shaft of the left fibula of Entierro 3 from Plaza 3C, Huaca
de la Luna ............................................................................... 456
Figure 228. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the left fibula of Entierro
3 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ........................................ 456
xxviii
Figure 229. Cut mark on the anterior aspect of the lateral malleolus of the
left fibula of HG99-1 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ........ 456
Figure 230. Cut marks on the anterior and posterior aspects of the left
fibula ofE4 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ....................... 457
Figure 231. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of an isolated left fibula
Figure 232. Cut marks on the posterior-medial aspect of the lateral
malleolus and posterior aspect of the distal Y. of the shaft and
lateral malleolus of an isolated left fibula fragment from
Figure 233. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the head and posterior
aspect of the distal of the shaft of the right fibula of
Figure 234. Cut marks on the posterior-lateral aspect of the proximal Y. of
the shaft of the right fibula ofHG99-5 from Plaza 3C, Huaca
de la Luna ............................................................................... 459
Figure 235. Cut mark on the lateral aspect of the distal Y2 of the shaft of
the right fibula of E 11 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ...... 459
Figure 236. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the right fibula of E 18
Figure 237. Cut marks on the plantar aspect of the right first metatarsal of
Figure 238. Cut marks on the medial aspect of the left calcaneus of
Figure 239. Cut marks on the dorsal aspect of the left foot of E6 from
Figure 240. Cut marks on the plantar aspect of the left cuboid of E6 from
Figure 241. Cut marks on the plantar aspect of the left fifth metatarsal of
E6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ..................................... 460
Figure 242. Cut marks on the dorsal-lateral aspect near the margin of the
cuboid articular surface of the right calcaneus of E6 from
Figure 243. Cut marks on the plantar aspect of the right first metatarsal of
E6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ..................................... 461
Figure 244. Cut marks on the dorsal-lateral aspect of the head and neck of
the left talus ofE7 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ............. 461
Figure 245. Cut marks on the dorsal aspect of the left tal us of H2 from
Figure 246. Cut marks on the right talus of Hll from Plaza 3C, Huaca de
la Luna .................................................................................... 462
Figure 247. Cut marks on the dorsal aspect of the left calcaneus, tal us
navicular and medial cuneiform ofH19 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Lun.a .................................................................... 463
xxix
Figure 248. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the calcaneal tuber of
the left calcaneus ofH33 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna .. 463
Figure 249. Cut marks on the anterior and posterior aspects of the El
Brujo "Danzantes" human right femur ................................... 464
Figure 250. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the neck of the El Brujo
"Danzantes" human right femur ............................................. 464
Figure 251. Scanning electron micrograph of one of the cut marks on the
posterior aspect of the neck of the El Brujo "Danzantes"
human right femur illustrating the straight, sheer walls typical
of incisions on this bone ......................................................... 465
Figure 252. Cut marks on C2-C3 of Entierro 2 from El Brujo .................. 465
Figure 253. Cut marks on the right lateral aspect of the axis (C2) of
Entierro 2 (1994) from El Brujo ............................................. 466
Figure 254. Cut marks on the inferior aspect of the axis (C2) ofEntierro 2
from El Brujo .......................................................................... 466
Figure 255. Cut marks on the posterior-medial aspect of the calcaneal
tuber of the left calcaneus and the dorsal and medial aspects
of the left talus ofEntierro 1 from El Brujo ........................... 467
Figure 256. Cut mark on the anterior body of CS of E-15-1 0 from the
Cuarto de Ios Craneos, Dos Cabezas ...................................... 468
Figure 257. Cut marks on the spinous processes of C2 and C6 of E-15-13
from the Cuarto de Ios Craneos, Dos Cabezas ....................... 468
Figure 258. Cut marks on the spinous processes of C2, C6 and C7 of
E-15-13 from the Cuarto de Ios Craneos, Dos Cabezas .......... 468
Figure 259. Cut marks on the left malar of E-15-16 from the Cuarto de
Ios Craneos, Dos Cabezas ....................................................... 469
Figure 260. Cut marks on the left mandible of E-15-13 from the Cuarto
de Ios Craneos, Dos Cabezas .................................................. 469
Figure 261. Cut marks on the radial articular surface of the left scaphoid
of Individual 1 from Pacatnamu ............................................. 470
Figure 262. Cut marks on the medial aspect of the distal shaft of the right
ulna of Individual 2 from Pacatnamu ...................................... 470
Figure 263. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the head of the left ulna
of Individual 3 from Pacatnamu ............................................ 471
Figure 264. Cut marks on and near the radial articular surface and
tubercle of the left scaphoid of Individual 3 from Pacatnamu 471
Figure 265. Cut marks on the tubercle and on areas between the articular
facets for the scaphoid and left first metacarpal of the left
trapezium of Individual 3 from Pacatnamu ............................ 471
Figure 266. Chop mark on the left malar of Individual 4 from Pacatnamu 472
Figure 267. Scanning electron micrograph of the chop mark on the left
malar oflndividual4 from Pacatnamu ................................... 472
Figure 268. Discontinuous cut mark across the anterior body and anterior
aspect of the right transverse process of C6 of Individual 8
from Pacamwnu ...................................................................... 473
XXX
Figure 269. Cut marks on the superior aspect of the sternal end of the
right clavicle oflndividual9 from Pacatnamu ....................... 473
Figure 270. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the stemal end of the left
clavicle of Individual 8 from Pacatnamu ................................ 474
Figure 271. Cut marks on the superior aspect of the sternal end of the
right clavicle of Individual 9 from Pacatnamu ....................... 474
Figure 272. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the manubrium of
Individual 9 from Pacatnamu .................................................. 475
Figure 273. Cut marks on the superior aspect of the shaft of the left first
rib of Individual 9 from Pacatnamu ........................................ 475
Figure 274. Cut marks on the superior aspect of the shaft of the left first
rib of Individual 11 from Pacatnamu ...................................... 475
Figure 275. Cut marks on the anterior body and inferior aspect of the axis
vertebra of Individual 13 from Pacatnamu ............................. 476
Figure 276. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of C3 of Individual 13 from
Pacatnamu ............................................................................... 477
walls typical of cut marks on C3 of Individual 13 from
Pacatnamu ............................................................................... 477
Figure 278. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the left lamina of C3 of
t:ll.e forensic case ................................................ ,. .................... 478
Figure 279. Scanning electron micrograph of cut marks on C3 of the
forensic case ............................................................................ 478
Figure 280. Cut marks on the distal articular surface of the left first
metacarpal of the forensic case ............................................... 479
Figure 281. Cut mark on the dorsal-lateral aspect of the proximal shaft of
the left third proximal hand phalanx of the forensic case ...... 479
Figure 282. Scanning electron micrograph of the most dorsal cut mark on
the left first metacarpal of the forensic case ........................... 479
Figure 283. Cut marks on the ventral arch of a camelid atlas from
Complejo 3.1, El Brujo ........................................................... 480
Figure 284. Cut marks on the ventral aspect of the left and right superior
articular facets of a came lid upper cervical vertebra from
Tomb 2 (1998), El Brujo ........................................................ 480
Figure 285. Cut marks on a spinous process fragment of a camelid
vertebra from Tomb 2 (1998), El Brujo .................................. 480
Figure 286. Cut marks on the ventral aspect of a camelid vertebral body
fragment from Tomb 2 (1998), El Brujo ............................... 480
Figure 287. Cut marks on the ventral aspect of the left and right superior
and inferior articular facets of a surface collected camelid
lumbar vertebra from Pacatnamu ............................................ 481
Figure 288. Cut marks on the ventral and left lateral aspects of a surface
collected came lid lumbar vertebra from Pacatnamu .............. 482
Figure 289. Cut marks on the neck and tubercle of a left camelid rib
associated with E2 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ............ 483
xxxi
Figure 290. Cut marks on the dorsal aspect of the vertebral '14 of the shaft
of an isolated camelid left rib from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
L"UDa ........................................................................................ 483
Figure 291. Cut marks on the dorsal aspect of an isolated camelid right
rib from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna...................................... 483
Figure 292. Cut marks on the head and neck of a camelid left rib from
Tomb 2 (1998), El Brujo......................................................... 483
Figure 293. Cut marks on the sternal '14 of the shaft of a surface collected
sea lion right rib from Pacatnamu .............................. ............. 484
Figure 294., Cut marks on the dorsal aspect on the infraspinous fossa of a
sea lion right scapula from Tomb 2 (1998), El Brujo ............. 484
Figure 295. Cut marks on the lateral aspect of the iliopubic ramus of an
isolated camelid right os coxae from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna... .................................................................................... 485
Figure 296. Cut marks on the lateral aspect near the rim of the
acetabulum of an isolated camelid left os coxae from Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna.............................................................. 485
walls typical of cut marks on faunal axial bones in the
comparative sample............................................................... 485
Figure 298. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of a camelid left distal
humerus fragment from Tomb 2 (1998), El Brujo.................. 486
Figure 299. Cut marks on the anterior shaft of a sea lion right humerus
from Complejo 3.1, El Brujo .................................................. 486
Figure 300. Cut marks on the left lateral and posterior aspects of a
camelid left humerus from Complejo 3.4, El Brujo............... 487
Figure 301. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the proximal '14 of the
shaft of an isolated camelid left radius-ulna from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna .................................................................... 488
Figure 302. Cut mark on the lateral aspect of the lateral condyle of an
isolated camelid right radius-ulna distal epiphysis from Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna........... .. .. .. .......... .... ........ ...... .. ............. .. 488
shaft of a camelid left radius-ulna from Tomb 2 ( 1998), El
Bru.jo... ................................................................................... 488
Figure 304. Cut mark on the anterior aspect of the head of a camelid left
femur from Tomb 2 (1998), El Brujo ..................................... 489
Figure 305. Cut marks on the medial aspect of the neck and lesser
trochanter of a camelid left femur from Tomb 2 (1998), El
Bru.jo... .................................................................................... 489
shaft of the El Brujo "Danzantes'' camelid right femur... . . . .. 489
Figure 307. Cut marks on the anterior aspect on the tibial crest of a
camelid left tibia from Tomb 2 (1998), El Brujo.................... 490
xxxii
Figure 308. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the proximal V.. of the
shaft of an isolated camelid left tibia from Plaza 3C, Huaca
de la Luna................. .......................................... ............... ...... 490
Figure 309. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of an isolated camelid left
calcaneus from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna........................... 491
Figure 310. Cut mark on the anterior-lateral aspect, near the margin of the
cuboid articular surface of a camelid left calcaneus from
Tomb 2 (1998), El Brujo......................................................... 491
Figure 311. Cut mark on the posterior aspect of a surface collected
camelid right calcaneus from Pacatnamu ............................... 491
Figure 312. Cut marks on the lateral aspect of a surface collected camelid
right calcaneus from Pacatnamu ......... .... .. .. .............. ...... .... .... 492
Figure 313. Cut marks on the anterior, posterior, medial and lateral aspects
of a camelid right astragalus from Tomb 2 (1998), El Brujo... 492
Figure 314. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of an isolated camelid
cuboid from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.. . .... .. .............. ....... 493
Figure 315. Cut marks on a camelid right fibulare from Complejo 3.1, El
Brujo... .................................................................................... 493
walls typical of cut marks on faunal appendicular bones in
the comparative sample.......................................................... 493
Figure 317. Scanning electron micrograph of two cut marks on the lateral
margin of the articular surface for the lateral malleolus of the
surface collected camelid right calcaneus from Pacatnamu ... 493
Figure 318. Cross-sectional profiles of cut marks..................................... 494
Figure 319. Means plot of width for the entire cut mark assemblage....... 495
Figure 320. Means plot of depth for the entire cut mark assemblage....... 495
Figure 321. Means plot of depth/width ratios for the entire cut mark
assemblage............................................................................... 496
Figure 322. Means plot of width of cut marks on Moche human remains,
Lambayeque human bones and faunal elements..................... 496
Figure 323. Means plot of depth of cut marks on Moche human remains,
Lambayeque human bones and faunal elements..................... 497
Figure 324. Means plot of depth/width ratios of cut marks on Moche
human bones, Lambayeque human remains and faunal
elements ................ .... ......... ................. ................... ..... ............ 497
Figure 325. Means plot of width of cut marks on human upper long
bones, lower long bones and non-long bones............... ..... 498
Figure 326. Means plot of depth of cut marks on human upper long
bones, lower long bones and non-long bones....... ................ 498
Figure 327. Means plot of depth/width ratios of cut marks on human
upper long bones, lower long bones and non-long bones... ... 499
Figure 328. Means plot of width of cut marks on faunal upper long bones,
lower long bones and non-long bones ... .............................. ... 499
xxxiii
Figure 329. Means plot of depth of cut marks on faunal upper long bones,
lower long bones and non-long bones .................................... 500
Figure 330. Means plot of depth/width ratios of cut marks on faunal
upper long bones, lower long bones and non-long bones....... 500
bones, lower long bones and non-long bones within Plaza 3A
sample..................................................................................... 501
bones, lower long bones and non-long bones within Plaza 3A
sample..................................................................................... 501
upper long bones, lower long bones and non-long bones
within Plaza 3A sample .......................................................... 502
bones, lower long bones and non-long bones within Plaza 3C
sample.................................................................................... 503
sample.................................................................................... 503
within Plaza 3C sample.......................................................... 504
above-floor sample................................................................. 504
above-floor sample................................................................. 505
within Plaza 3C above-floor sample...................................... 505
below-floor sample... ............................................................. 506
below-floor sample... ............................................................. 506
within Plaza 3C below-floor sample ...................................... 507
Figure 343. Scanning electron micrographs of a cut mark, scrape marks,
rodent gnawing and sand abrasion.......................................... 508
Bone smears on the floor of one of the cut marks on the
Figure 344. anterior aspect of C3 of HG99-5 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna........................................................................................ 508
xxxiv
Figure 345. Bone smears on the floor of another of the cut marks on the
anterior aspect of C3 of HG99-5 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Llllla ......................................................................................... 508
Figure 346. Element concentrations determined by X-ray fluorescence in
a human bone and within a cut mark on that bone ................. 509
Figure 347. Element concentrations determined by X-ray fluorescence in
a faunal bone and within a cut mark on that bone .................. 510
Figure 348. Healed depression fracture on the frontal bone of Craneo VII
from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna........................................... 511
Figure 349. Skull ofH96-216 from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna with a
healed broken nose.................................................................. 511
Figure 350. Thoracic vertebrae T6-T8 ofHG96-100 from Plaza 3A,
Huaca de la Luna showing a healed compression fracture of
T7 with associated anterior wedging...................................... 512
Figure 351. Left ribs with healed shaft fractures oflndividual XXIII from
Figure 352. A healed injury of the infraspinous fossa of the left scapula of
H96-205 from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna... ........................ 512
Figure 353. A healed parry fracture of the left radius and ulna of
Individual I from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna ....................... 513
Figure 354. Fracture of the left parietal and occipital oflndividual 11 from
Figure 355. Left rib with a perimortem shaft fracture from Plaza 3A,
Huaca de la Luna ........... .......................... .... .................. .... .. .. . 513
Figure 356. Perimortem shaft fracture of the left clavicle ofHG96-1 from
Figure 357. Perimortem fracture of the distal shaft of a right humerus
Figure 358. Two proximal hand phalanges with perimortem shaft
fractures from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna... ........................ 514
Figure 359. Perimortem shaft fracture of the head of the left talus of
H96-180 from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna ........ , ................ ..
Figure 360. Perimortem fractures of the right fourth middle foot phalanx 514
and the right fifth proximal foot phalanx of Individual XXX
from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna ........................................... 514
Figure 361. Perimortem parry fracture near the midshaft of the left ulna
of H96-162 from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna.. ..................... 515
Figure 362. Perimortem injury to the left body ofL2 of Individual XI
Figure 363. Perimortem injury to the left cuboid and third and fouth
metatarsals oflndividual XV from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la
Luna ........................................................................................ 515
Figure 364. Anterior and posterior views of a penetrating injury ot the
upper body of the sternum ofHG96-1 from Plaza 3A, Huaca
de la Luna............................................................................... 515
XXXV
Figure 365. Penetrating wounds or bite marks on the dorsal and palmar
aspects of a right first proximal hand phalanx from Plaza 3A,
Huaca de la Luna ...... .. ........................................... ............ .... . 515
Figure 366. Healing impacted fracture of the distal shaft of the left fifth
metacarpal ofE5 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna............... 516
Figure 367. Palmar and lateral views of an isolated right first metacarpal
with a healed shaft fracture from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna 516
Figure 368. Healed fractures of the distal ends of the right tibia and fibula
ofE6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.................................. 516
Figure 369. Healing parry fracture of the distal shaft of the left ulna of E6
from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ................. .......................... 516
Figure 370. Posterior view of the swelling of the proximal shaft of the left
femur of E5 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ....................... 517
Figure 371. Anterior view of the swelling at midshaft of the left fibula of
El2 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.................................... 517
Figure 372. Perimortem fracture of the radial articular surface of an
isolated right scaphoid from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna... .. 517
Figure 373. Perimortem fracture of the distal end of the right first
proximal foot phalanx............................................................ 517
Figure 374. Perimortem fracture of the stemal Y3 of the shaft of the right
clavicle of E 1 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna .................... 517
Figure 375. Perimortem fractures of the necks of ribs ofE15 from Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna.............................................................. 518
Figure 376. Perimortem fractures of the proximal shafts ofleft ribs ofH9
SK 1 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ................................... 518
Figure 377. Penetrating injuries to the bodies ofC7 and T4 ofHG99-3
from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna .. ........ ...... ........ ..... .. ... .. .... .. . 518
Figure 378. Perimortem fractures of the right transverse process and
inferior body of C7 of E-15-16 from the Cuarto de los
Craneos, Dos Cabezas............................................................. 519
Figure 379. Healed shaft fracture of the right third metatarsal of
Individual 7 from Pacatnamu.................................................. 519
Figure 380. Posterior view of three penetrating wounds through the left
scapula of Individual 1 from Pacatnamu.. . ................... ......... 519
Figure 381. Perimortem shaft fracture of the left first rib oflndividual2
from Pacatnamu ....................... ................... ... ...... ................... 519
Figure 382. Penetrating wounds to the left eleventh and twelfth ribs of
Individual2 from Pacatnamu.................................................. 519
Figure 383. Penetrating injuries to the bodies ofT6-T8 oflndividual2
from Pacatnamu ...................................................................... 520
Figure 384. Anterior view of a penetrating wound to the manubrium of
Figure 385. Penetrating wound to the right sacroiliac joint oflndividual 2
from Pacatnamu ...................................................................... 520
xxxvi
Figure 386. Perimortem fractures of the left fifth metacarpal and
proximal phalanx oflndividual3 from Pacatnamu ................ 520
Figure 387. Perimortem fractures of the nasal bones oflndividual4 from
Pacatnamu............................................................................... 521
Figure 388. Perimortem fracture of the styloid process of the left ulna of
Individual1 from Pacatnamu.................................................. 521
Figure 389. Perimortem fracture across the distal end of the right
Humerus oflndividual6 from Pacatnamu.............................. 521
Figure 390. Perimortem shaft fracture of a right proximal foot phalanx of
Figure 391. Perimortem fractures of bones of the face and nose of
Figure 392. Anterior view of perimortem fractures of the left scapula of
lndividuall 0 from Pacatnamu................................................ 522
Figure 393. Perimortem compression fractures ofT12-L1 oflndividual
11 from Pacatnamu ..... ....... ......... .......... ... .. ..... .... ..... ............... 522
Figure 394. Camelid radius-ulna, femur and long bone fragments with
perimortem spiral fractures from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna 523
Figure 395. Cut marks on Entierro 3 and Entierro 4 from the subfloor
deposit of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna ................................... 524
Figure 396. Cut marks on Entierro 5 and Entierro 6 from the subfloor
Figure 397. Cut marks on E9 and ElO from the subfloor deposit of Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna........................................................... ... 526
Figure 398. Cut marks on Ell and E12 from the subfloor deposit of Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna.............................................................. 527
Figure 399. Cut marks on E13 and E14 from the subfloor deposit of Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna.............................................................. 528
Figure 400. Cut marks on E15 and E18 from the subfloor deposit of Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna.............................................................. 529
Figure 401. Cut marks on HG99-1 and HG99-2 from the above-floor
Figure 404. Cut marks on HG99-9 and E2 from the above-floor deposit
of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna... ............................................ 533
Figure 405. Cut marks on E4 and E5 from the above-floor deposit of
Figure 406. Cut marks on E7 and E8 from the above-floor deposit of Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna.............................................................. 535
xxxvii
Figure 407. Chart comparing the types of perimortem and postmortem
treatment suggested by cut marks on individuals represented
by articulated and semi-articulated skeletons deposited below
the floor and above the floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.. 536
Figure 408. Cut marks on the anterior and posterior aspects of HG96-1
Figure 409. Chart comparing the types ofperimortem and postmortem
treatment suggested by cut marks on individuals represented
by articulated and semi-articulated skeletons from Plaza 3C
and Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna ............................................. 538
Figure 410. Roll-out drawing of warriors in combat on a Moche stirrup-
spout vessel in the Phoebe Apperson Hearst Museum of
Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley ................. 539
Figure 411. Roll-out drawing of a combat scene on a Moche stirrup-spout
vessel in the Museum fiir V5lkerhunde, Berlin...................... 540
Figure 412. Roll-out drawing of victors using war clubs to strike nude
captive prisoners and make their noses bleed on a Moche
stirrup-spout vessel in a private collection.............................. 541
Figure 413. Wooden club covered in dried human blood found in a
Moche tomb on Platform 11, adjacent to Plaza 3A, Huaca de
laLuna .................................................................................... 542
Figure 414. Moche wooden clubs in the Museo Arqueol6gico Rafael
Larco Herrera, Lima................................................................ 542
Figure 415. Moche star-shaped copper mace heads in the Museo
Arqueol6gico Rafael Larco Herrera, Lima............................. 543
Figure 416. Moche stone mace heads in the Museo Arqueol6gico Rafael
Larco Herrera, Lima................................................................ 543
Figure 417. Roll-out drawing of the Sacrifice Ceremony on a Moche
stirrup-spout bottle in the Staatliches Museum fiir
V5lkerkunde, Munich............................................................ 544
Figure 418. Moche stirrup-spout vessel featuring a supernatural deity
holding a tumi and a severed human head in the Museo
Arqueol6gico Rafael Larco Herrera, Lima.......... ................ 545
Figure 419. Moche copper tumi found in the left hand of an elite
individual in a tomb burial at Dos Cabezas ............................ 545
Figure 420. Moche copper tumi in the Metropolitan Museum of Art........ 546
Figure 421. Moche copper tumi in the Norbert Mayrock Art Collection.. 546
Figure 422. Moche copper dart points in the Museo Arqueol6gico Rafael
Lru-co Herrera, Lima................................................................ 546
Figure 423. Moche knife with chisel-like edge in the Norbert Mayrock
Art Collection.......................................................................... 547
Figure 424. Sharpened non-human bone fragment from Plaza 3C, Huaca
de la Luna..................... .. ............... ............ .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .... .. .. .... 54 7
Figure 425. Lambayeque copper tumi in the Robert Woods Bliss
Collection of Precolumbian Art at Dumbarton Oaks.............. 548
xxxviii
Figure 426. Lambayeque silver tumi in the Museo Oro del Peru, Lima.... 548
Figure 427. Sharpened non-human bones found at Pacatnamu ................. 549
Figure 428. Moche vessel featuring an individual holding a star-shaped
mace in the Collection Tropenmuseum, Amsterdam.............. 549
Figure 429. Moche copper scepter-knife with three figures at the top in
the Norbert Mayrock Art Collection....................................... 550
Figure 430. Moche prisoner vessel in the Museo Arqueol6gico Cassinelli,
Trujillo .................................................................................... 551
Figure 431. Roll-out drawing of prisoners, stripped of their clothing and
weapons, being paraded by warriors on a Moche vessel in a
private collection..................................................................... 551
Figure 432. Rope fragments found around the neck ofE5 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna .................................................................... 552
Figure 433. Moche vessel featuring a prisoner with mutilated nose and
lips tied to a post and being attacked by a vulture in the
Museo Arqueol6gico Rafael Larco Herrera, Lima................. 552
Figure 434. Moche vessel featuring a prisoner tied to a rack in the
Museum fiir VBlkerkunde, Berlin........................................... 553
Figure 435. Moche vessel featuring an individual with mutilated nose and
lips in the Museo Arqueol6gico Rafael Larco Herrera, Lima.. 553
Figure 436. Detail of the prisoner relief on the north fayade of Huaca Cao
Viejo, El Brujo... .................................................................... 554
Figure 437. Moche stirrup-spout vessel featuring a supernatural figure
using a tumi to slit the throat of a sacrificial victim in the
Museum fiir VBlkerkunde, Berlin.......................................... 554
Figure 438. Reconstruction ofMoche assailant-victim positioning during
throat slitting.......................................................................... 555
Figure 439. Roll-out drawing of the presentation of prisoners to an elite
individual on a Moche vessel in the American Museum of
Figure 440. Natural History, New York..................................................... 555
Roll-out drawing of a version of the Sacrifice Ceremony on a
Moche stirrup-spout bottle in the Museo Nacional
Antropologia, Arqueologia e Historia, Lima.......................... 556
Figure 441. Roll-out drawing of another version of the Sacrifice
Ceremony on a Moche vessel in the Museum fiir
VBlkerkunde, Hamburg....................................................... 556
Figure 442. Roll-out drawing of anthropomorphized weapon-bundles
sacrificing captive prisoners on a Moche stirrup-spout vessel
in the Art Institute ofChicago...... ........................................ 556
Figure 443. Moche stirrup-spout vessel featuring an owl deity holding a
tumi in one hand and a severed human head in the other...... 557
Figure 444. Moche trophy head in the Jay Conger Collection................... 557
Figure 445. Roll-out drawing of individuals surrounded by a trophy head,
trophy arms and trophy legs on a Moche vessel in the
Museum fiir VBlkerkunde, Munich......................................... 558
XXXIX
Figure 446. Mountain Sacrifice scene on a Moche stirrup-spout bottle in
the Museo Arqueol6gico Rafael Larco Herrera, Lima ........... 558
Figure 447. Roll-out drawing of skeletons playing musical instruments on
a Moche stirrup-spout bottle in the Museum fl1r V<>lkerkunde,
Berlin ........................................................................................ 559
Figure 448. Roll-out drawing of skeletons dancing on a Moche stirrup-
spout bottle in the Museum fl1r V<>lkerkunde, Berlin ............. 559
Figure449. Roll-out drawing of prisoner dismemberment on a Moche
Stirrup-spout bottle in Museo Antropologia, Arqueologia e
Historia, Lima ......................................................................... 560
Figure 450. Three wooden captives found at the Lambayeque site of
Huaca Tacayna:rn.o ................................................................... 560
Figure 451. Oblique views of the third wooden captive from Figure 450 ... 561
Figure 452. Reconstruction of a polychrome painting on a plastered
textile found at Huaca las Ventanas, Batan Grande ................ 561
Figure 453. Lambayeque hammered gold arm in the Robert Woods Bliss
Collection of Precolumbian Art at Dumbarton Oaks .............. 561
xl
1
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION
Human sacrifice has long been a popular subject of study because it both
fascinates and repels us. According to social psychologist Rene Girard (1977:300),
"Sacrifice is the most crucial and fundamental of rites; it is also the most commonplace."
Without a doubt, nowhere in the Western Hemisphere was human sacrifice practiced
more vigorously than in Precolumbian Central and South America. Colonial period
literature abounds with references to hundreds, and in some cases, thousands of people
sacrificed to the gods among the Maya, Aztecs, and Inca. In addition, the art and
iconography of Peruvian cultures predating the Inca are replete with depictions of human
sacrifice. Until the last two decades of the 20th century, evidence that the pre-Inca
cultures of Peru practiced human sacrifice was limited largely to artistic and ethnohistoric
sources. In recent years, however, human skeletons showing clear signs of sacrifice, such
as throat slashing and decapitation, have since been discovered at pre-Inca archaeological
sites in Peru, providing tangible proof that human sacrifice was indeed practiced.
The north coast of Peru is an exceptional area to carry out studies of ancient
human sacrifice for two primary reasons. First, due to the arid climate of this region,
preservation is extremely good. Archaeologically excavated burials are frequently
discovered well preserved with little or no decomposition of the skeletal remains or
associated grave goods. Second, there has been an increase in research and excavation in
the area in recent decades, producing large samples of skeletal remains with good
archaeological context.
PURPOSE OF RESEARCH
2
Cut marks are a valuable source of data that permit examination of perimortem
and postmortem treatment of human skeletal remains. Through determination of cut
mark patterning and the tools used to produce cut marks on bone, it is possible to infer
specific types of human behavior. The frequency, orientation, location, and
morphological characteristics of cut marks can be used to distinguish between violent
perimortem activities such as torture, throat slitting, and decapitation, and postmortem
processing such as defleshing and dismemberment. In this research project, I have used
macroscopic and microscopic techniques to analyze cut mark morphology and patterning
on human skeletal remains excavated from M oche sites on the north coast of Peru. The
Moche were a Precolumbian desert culture who flourished on the north coast of Peru
from A.D. 100-800 and are notable for their realistic art and monumental adobe brick
pyramids. In the past, scenes of prisoner capture, sacrifice, and mutilation as depicted in
M oche iconography were believed to be part of a fictional narrative, but recent
archaeological discoveries have provided support for the argument that such events
actually took place (Alva and Donnan 1993; Bourget 1997, 1998, 2001a, 2001b; Bourget
and Millaire 2000; Castillo and Donnan 1994; Cordy-Collins 2001; Donnan and Castillo
1994; Verano 1998, 2000a, 2001a, 2001b). This project represents the first in-depth
study of the methods and tools used in perimortem and postmortem modification of
human remains from the north coast of Peru and provides detailed comparisons of
3
iconographic and skeletal evidence of trauma.
Four research issues are addressed in this dissertation: 1) the identification of cut
mark patterning within each site in my sample and differences in the treatment of human
sacrifice victims and butchered fauna; 2) the tool materials and tool types used to modify
the human and faunal bones in my sample; 3) similarities and differences in patterns of
perimortem and postmortem treatment of individuals from different sites, from different
deposits from within the same site, and from different cultures; and 4) the use of cut mark
patterning to identify and distinguish perimortem and postmortem activities associated
with human sacrifice and parallels between the physical evidence of prisoner capture,
torture, sacrifice and mutilation and iconographic representations of these activities.
SIGNIFICANCE OF PROJECT
This dissertation project contributes unique data to the growing literature on
archaeological discoveries that give strength to the belief that the themes portrayed in
Moche narrative art-the Sacrifice Ceremony in particular-were not purely
representational but rather had a basis in real events. Included in this body of literature
are Alva and Donnan's (1993) account of the excavations of the "Royal Tombs" at Sipan
in the Lambayeque Valley, where three tombs were found containing the remains of
''warrior-priests" buried with all of their ceremonial regalia and accessories, Castillo and
Donnan's (1994; Donnan and Castillo 1994) descriptions of two "priestess" tombs that
included ceremonial accouterments discovered at San Jose de Moro in the Jequetepeque
Valley, and reports of the archaeological context of the physical remains of human
sacrificial victims found at Huaca de la Luna, El Brujo and Dos Cabezas (Bourget 2001 b;
4
CordyCollins 2001; Orbegoso 1998; Verano et al. 1999, n.d.).
Recent descriptions of human sacrificial remains from M oche and Lambayeque
(A.D. 8001350) sites by Bourget et al. (1996), Bracamonte (1998), Tyson and Cordy-
Collins (1998) and Verano (1986, 1995, 1998, 1999, 2000a, 2001a, 2001b, n.d.l, n.d.2;
Verano and Tufmio n.d.; Verano et al. 1999), have included macroscopic observations on
trauma and details of the physical characteristics of the victims (i.e., age, sex, stature,
non-traumatic pathologies). However, none of these studies combines information about
the skeletal remains, archaeological context, iconography, and technology to the same
extent as this project. This dissertation both complements and expands on the physical
analyses listed above by examining the remains in much greater detail using both
macroscopic and microscopic techniques, and by comparing remains from multiple sites
and from two distinct cultures.
This dissertation provides new data on the tools and techniques used in the
perimortem and postmortem treatment of sacrificial victims by the Moche and
Lambayeque peoples. It broadens our understanding of Moche and Lambayeque ritual
behavior and further elucidates the relationship between the physical evidence and
iconographic representations of prisoner capture, torture, sacrifice and mutilation. In
addition, it provides a database and comparative sample for future studies of a similar
nature, and further demonstrates the value and utility of cut mark analysis, when
considered together with age, sex, other pathologies, skeletal completeness,
archaeological context, and cultural affiliation, in reconstructing ancient human behavior.
5
RESEARCH OVERVIEW
Chapter Two, "Literature Review," begins with a review of the iconographic
evidence of ritual death and postmortem modification in Precolumbian Peru in general,
and the physical evidence for these events on the north coast of Peru in particular. Also
included in this chapter is a survey of previous cut mark studies and a summary of the
results of that research, the latter focusing on cut mark morphology, the division of cut
marks into different classes, and the identification of tool material. These sections are
followed by a description of bone modification patterns observed on fauna! remains from
Precolumbian sites on the north coast of Peru and a discussion of cut mark patteming
diagnostic of specific activities, such as throat slitting, decapitation, defleshing and
dismemberment. This chapter concludes with the presentation of the research questions
and hypotheses addressed in this dissertation.
Chapter Three, "Methods and Materials," includes descriptions of each human
and fauna! bone collection included in my sample and provides details about the
macroscopic, microscopic, casting and thin-sectioning techniques used to analyze the cut
marks.
In Chapter Four, "Results," cut mark patteming on the human and fauna! bones in
my sample and evidence for various types of perimortem treatment and postmortem bone
modification is presented. This chapter also contains the results of my directionality
study and cross-sectional and elemental analyses. In addition, a summary of the
antemortem and perimortem trauma present on the bones in my sample is provided.
Chapter Five, "Discussion," includes a comparative analysis of cut mark and
trauma patterning within the same site, between different sites, and between cultures.
6
Also contained within this chapter is a brief review of Moche and Lambayeque weaponry
and a discussion of the inferred tool material and tool types used to modify the bones in
my data collection. This chapter concludes with a comparison of the physical evidence
for prisoner capture, torture, sacrifice and mutilation found within my sample with
depictions of these activities in Moche and Lambayeque iconography.
In Chapter Six, "Summary and Conclusion," I review my research hypotheses and
discuss to what degree the evidence answers and supports them. The chapter ends with a
listing of current investigations ofMoche and Lambayeque human sacrifice and
suggestions for future research.
7
INTRODUCTION
This chapter begins with a discussion of the iconographic and archaeological
evidence for human sacrifice in Precolumbian Peru, followed by a survey of previous cut
mark studies and a discussion of the analytical techniques used in the examination of
bone modification. The results of past cut mark research also are presented. At the end
of this chapter are the research questions and associated hypotheses explored in this
dissertation.
RITUAL DEATH AND MUTILATION IN PRECOLUMBIAN PERU:
ICONOGRAPIDC EVIDENCE
Iconographic representations of decapitation and dismemberment have a long
macabre history within Precolumbian Peruvian cultures. The earliest examples are from
the Initial Period (ea. 1500 B.C.) site ofCerro Sechin, located in the Casma Valley in
north central Peru (Samaniego et al. 1985). The megalithic wall enclosing Cerro Sechin
features over 300 granite monoliths carved in low relief. The monolithic sculptures
depict a procession of armed figures interspersed with an array of severed heads and
decapitated, dismembered, and disemboweled bodies (Tello 1956; Samaniego et al.
1985 :Figure 5). Several scholars have proposed that the stone frieze represents victorious
warriors and their mutilated victims after a violent battle; however, they are undecided as
8
to whether this battle was mythical or historical, and if real, whether it was a purely ritual
battle or a military conquest (Benson 2001 :3; Burger 1995 :79; Pozorski and Pozorski
1993:58-59).
Other Initial Period sites where iconographic representations of decapitation have
been recorded include Sechin Alto, located 2 km from Cerro Sechin (Burger 1995 :Figure
59), Chupacoto in the Callej6n de Huaylas (Thompson 1962:Figure 2), and possibly at
Shillacoto in the eastern highlands of Peru (lzumi et al. 1972:Plate 27). During the Early
Horizon and subsequent Early Intermediate period in the Peruvian highlands, portrayals
of severed heads are present in the art of the Chavin culture (900-200 B.C. ), which spread
from the eastern slopes of the Cordillera Blanca (Rowe 1962:Figure 17; Tello
1960:Figure 81), and have been documented at the sites ofKuntur Wasi (400 B.C.), in
the northern highlands near Cajamarca (Burger 1995:Figure 102), and Pucara (200 B. C.-
AD. 200), in the southern highlands near Lake Titicaca (Kauffmann Doig 1966:92-93).
On the south coast of Peru during the Early Horizon and Early Intermediate
Period, disembodied heads are one of the most dominant elements in the iconography of
the Paracas (700-1 B.C.) and Nasca (100 B.C.- A.D. 700) cultures and appear on
ceramics, textiles, and pyroengraved gourds. These severed heads have traditionally been
identified as trophy heads (Proulx 2001; Sawyer 1961; Uhle 1901). They are represented
as individual heads, multiple heads, and caches of heads (Bennett 1954:Figures 34, 67;
Lapiner 1976:Figures 489,490, 513). In some scenes, mythical beings are shown feeding
on human heads (Proulx 1971: 19). Trophy heads also frequently appear in the hands of
mythical beings and decorate their garments (Bennett 1954:Figures 56, 60; Lapiner
1976:Figure 183; Pasztory 1998:Figures 82-84). The knife used to sever the victim's
head may be shown as well (Frame 2001 :Figure 4.18c; Lapiner 1976:Figures 207, 491,
513; Proulx 1971:17; 2001:Figure 6.10). The trophy head motif is believed by some
scholars to represent human sacrifice to ensure human and plant fertility (Alien 1981;
Carmichael1994); other hypotheses propose that trophy heads represent ritUal offerings
to the gods, territorial and battlefield conquests, or enhanced social power (Browne et al.
1993; Proulx 1971, 1989, 2001).
9
During the Early Intermediate Period and Middle Horizon in the southern
highlands of Peru, trophy head iconography appears in the art of both the Tiwanaku
(A.D. 1-1000) and Huari (A.D. 600-1000) cultures. For example, the Gateway God on
the lintel of the Gateway of the Sun at Tiwanaku has trophy heads hanging from its
elbows (Moseley 1992:Figure 83).
1
A basalt sculpture of a feline at the site also features
a trophy head (Kolata 1993:Figures 5.23 and 5.24). Trophy heads are a frequent motif
onHuari textiles and ceramics (Anton 1962:Plates 107, 109, 111b; Cook 2001:Figure 7.2;
Donnan 1992:Figures 151a and 151b; Lapiner 1976:Figures 542). In addition, depictions
of severed arms and legs, which likewise may represent trophies, have been recorded on
Huari pottery (Anton 1962:Plates 109 and 110; Berrin 1997:Figure 120). Trophy heads
and body parts are not the only elements indicative of decapitation and dismemberment
present in Huari art. On an engraved gold beaker, a feline supernatural holds a long-
handled axe in one hand and a prostrate sacrificial victim by the hair in the other. In the
same hand as the axe, the deity grasps the beard or headcloth of a second victim, who is
pictured with his hands tied behind his back (Lapiner 1976:Figures 580-581 ).
On the north coast of Peru, the earliest artistic representations of ritual
decapitation, known as the Decapitation Theme, are associated with the Cupisnique
10
(1500-1 B.C.) culture of the Initial Period and Early Horizon (Cordy-Collins 1992, 2001).
The Decapitation Theme is composed of two primary characters, the supernatural
decapitator (who appears in a variety of guises) and the human victim (represented as a
severed head). This theme has been documented on numerous examples of Cupisnique
art, including bone and stone ornaments, and small stone bowls and vases (Cordy-Collins
1992). Trophy heads also are a common motif on ceramics (Cordy-Collins 2001 :Figures
2.5A-C). Seldom depicted in Cupisnique iconography is the decapitation tool; when it
does appear, it is shown as a rectangular object (Cordy-Collins 1992:Figure 2). Rarely, if
ever, found in the art of other ancient Peruvian cultures, the Cupisnique (as well as the
Nasca) are notable for their portrayal of autodecapitation (Frame 2001 :Figures 4.2, 4. 7c;
Benson 2001 :Figure 1.3). Other early examples of ritual decapitation found on the north
coast of Peru are on Recuay, Salinar, and Gallinazo (also known as Viru) ceramics from
the Early Intermediate Period (100 B.C-A.D. 600) (Kauffmann Doig 1966:50, 81; Moser
1974; Purin 1990:Figures 132 and 133).
On the north coast, scenes of ritual decapitation appear most frequently in the art
of the Moche culture (A.D. 100-800) of the Early Intermediate Period and Middle
Horizon. In Moche iconography, the Decapitation Theme is frequently portrayed as a
supernatural decapitator holding a long-handled, crescent-bladed knife, or tumi, in one
hand, and a severed human head in the other (Alva and Donnan 1993:Figures 121, 126,
230; Berrin 1997:Figure 91; Donnan 1978:Figure 106; Kutscher 1954:Figure 53,
1983:Figures 214, 223; Lapiner 1976:Figures 350, 363, 382; Larco Hoyle 2001b:Figures
135, 352, 361; Moser 1974:35-36). This motif is recurrent on Moche ceramics and metal
objects and was recently discovered on polychrome wall paintings at Huaca Cao Viejo,
an adobe brick pyramid at the site of El Brujo in the Chicama V alley (Franco et al.
1994:Lamina V), and at Huaca de la Luna, the smaller ofthe Moche Pyramids in the
11
M oche V alley (Uceda 2001 :Figure 9). Another common ritual scene shows the
decapitator holding a tumi in one hand and grasping the intended victim by the hair (de
Bock 1988:15; Donnan and McClelland 1999:Figure 471; Kutscher 1983:Figures 271,
278; Lapiner 1976:Figure 385; Larco Hoyle 2001b:Figure 346). In variations of this
event, the decapitator holds the tumi at or near the throat of the victim (Cordy-Collins
2001:Figure 2.8; Donnan 1976:Figure 107; Moser 1974:34). Blood may be shown
dripping from the tumi or the victim's throat or both (Kutscher 1983:Figures 271, 303).
While most tumis appear in Moche art as one- or three-dimensional representations on
ceramic vessels, examples made out of copper or copper alloys exist as well (Castillo
2000:Figure 39; Donnan 1978:Figures 31, 32, 107; Land 1979:Figures 193 and 194;
Larco Hoyle 2001b:Figures 135 and 171; Lapiner 1976:Figure 362; Schindler 2000:104-
105).
Depictions of severed heads are not always directly associated with supematurals
in Moche iconography. On one ceramic bottle, a human of high status wears a string of
trophy heads as a necklace (Kauffinann Doig 1966:33). Trophy heads also are featured
separately (Kutscher 1983:Figure 123). Similar to those found in Paracas and Nasca art
(Anton 1962:Plate 94; Bennett 1954:Figure 34; Lapiner 1976:Figures 492 and 493), the
Moche produced three-dimensional ceramic trophy heads (Donnan 1978:Figure 273;
Lapiner 1976:Figure 324; Verano et al. 1999:Figure 9).
In Moche art, decapitation and dismemberment are often featured within the
context of warfare and prisoner sacrifice, and indeed, according to Moser (1974:30), "the
12
main object of Moche warfare was not to kill the enemy but to take him prisoner for later
use or sacrifice... Many scholars have described and discussed what Christopher Donnan
and Donna McClelland (1999) have labeled "The Warrior Narrative" in Moche
iconography, i.e., scenes involving combat and the subsequent capture, bleeding,
parading, presentation and sacrifice of prisoners (Alva and Donnan 1993; Castillo 2000;
Donnan 1997; Hocquenghem 1987; Kutscher 1950a, 1950b, 1954; Verano 2001a,
2001 b). War captives usually are shown nude with ropes around their necks, and,
especially if seated, their hands tied behind their backs (Berrin 1997:Figures 96, 98, 1 00;
Cuesta Domingo 1980:209; Donnan 1978:Figure 46; Donnan and McClelland
1999:Figures 3.21, 4.7, 4.100; Lapiner 1976:Figures 3.17 and 3.18). Many fragments of
vessels modeled in the form of a seated prisoner were included in the mass sacrificial
burials of Plazas 3A and 3C at Huaca de la Luna (Bourget 2001b:Figures 8, 16; Verano
n.d.). On the north f ~ d e ofHuaca Cao Viejo, a brightly painted relief depicts a Moche
warrior leading a procession of nude prisoners linked together at the neck by a long rope
while several other Moche warriors follow behind (Franco et al. 1994:Figure 4.12 and
Lamina IV; Galvez and Bricefio 2001 :Figures 15, 17 -18). Deep incisions on the penises
and legs of some of the prisoners suggest torture, mutilation or ritual bloodletting ( Galvez
and Bricefio 2001: 140, 151 ). On some ceramics, naked war captives are pictured
surrounded by severed heads, arms, and legs, (Bourget 2001b:Figure 13; Donnan and
McClelland 1999:Figure 4.85; Larco Hoyle 2001a:Figure 250; Kutscher 1983:Figures
120, 124). On other Moche art objects, nude prisoners are shown being pounced on and
torn to pieces by large felines or tied to stocks and attacked by vultures (Bourget
2001b:Figure 19; Campana 1994:Figure 79; Donnan 1976:Plate 9; 1978:Figure 45;
Kutscher 1983:Figure 12; Larco Hoyle 2001a:Figure 227).
13
The final activity included in "The Warrior Narrative" is the Sacrifice Ceremony
(previously known as the Presentation Theme) (Donnan 1978:158173). The Sacrifice
Ceremony is a common artistic motif on both fmeline and low relief Moche ceramics and
is the subject of a polychrome mural at the Moche site of Pafiamarca (Bonavia 1961,
1985; Donnan 1976:Figures 104al09). The main characters in the Sacrifice Ceremony
are three warriorpriests and a priestess, all clearly identified by their elaborate clothing
and headdresses, who oversee a ritual in which bound nude prisoners have their throats
cut by supernatural attendants and their blood captured in ceremonial goblets (Donnan
1976). In 1987, archaeologists discovered chamber tombs at the site of Sipan, which
contained the remains of highstatus individuals buried with headdresses and
accoutrements matching two of the principal figures in the Sacrifice Ceremony, the
Warrior Priest and the Bird Priest (Alva and Donnan 1993). In 1991 and 1992, two elite
female burials excavated at the site of San Jose de Moro were identified by their
diagnostic headdresses and funerary goods as the Priestess (Donnan and Castillo 1994).
Another theme focusing on human sacrifice found in Moche iconography is the
Mountain Sacrifice. Mountain Sacrifice scenes are depicted most often on three
dimensional ceramic vessels molded into the shape of a mountain with multiple (usually
five) peaks (Donnan 1978:144; Zighelboim 1995). Typically, one figure is shown bent
forward over the highest peak, long hair streaming downward, while at the base of the
mountain lies a nude dead body. In some representations, the nude body is decapitated
and a severed head is pictured nearby. Standing or sitting on a platform on one side of
14
the composition is a fanged deity known as Ai Apaec. Other smaller figures, possibly
additional sacrificial victims, may be shown seated between the peaks or at the bottom of
the mountain (de Bock 1988:Figure 95; Donnan 1978:Figure 225; Larco Hoyle
2001 b:Figure 324; Moser 1974:34). Whereas Benson (1972:34) argues that two different
sacrificial victims, symbolizing duality, are depicted in the scene, other scholars (Cordy-
Collins 1979:233; Zighelboim 1995) insist that the two figures represent dual sides of the
same person-one who is simultaneously shown before and after being sacrificed.
Several experts believe that the Mountain Sacrifice scene as a whole represents human
sacrifice to ensure plentiful water resources and agricultural fertility (Bourget 1995; de
Bock 1988; Hocquenghem 1987; Zighelboim 1995).
After the collapse of the Moche culture at approximately A.D. 800, the theme of
prisoner sacrifice and mutilation continues in the iconography of the succeeding
Lambayeque (Sican) (A.D. 800-1350) and Chimu (A.D. 900-1550) cultures of the Late
Intermediate Period and is represented on ceramics, textiles and wooden objects. Three
wooden figures from the Lambayeque site ofHuaca Tacaynamo in the Moche Valley,
one of whom has holes pierced in both its upper chest and lower back, have been
identified as effigies of sacrificial victims (Jackson 2004; Verano 1986). In addition, a
group of large, painted Chimu textiles believed to be from the VirU V alley (Lapiner
1976:Figures 627-646) includes depictions of the sacrifice and mutilation of bound
captives.
The trophy head motif present in Moche art also has been observed on
Lambayeque and Chimu textiles, ceramics, and wooden and metal objects (de Lavalle
1988:143, 269; Lapiner 1976:Figure 624; Shimada 1992:16). In addition, trophy heads
15
are featured on a polychrome mural at the Early Chimu site of Chomancap, in the
Lambayeque V alley (Bonavia 1985). Effigy body parts, such as legs, forearms, and
hands, rendered by the Moche in ceramic (Anton 1962:Plate 48; Lapiner 1976:Figure
243; Purin 1990:Figures 68-74), appear again in Lambayeque and Chimu art crafted out
of ceramic or hammered gold and silver (Benson 2001 :Figures 1.5 and 1.6; Cordy-
Collins 1996:195-198; Lapiner 1976:Figure 620; Moseley 1978:Plate V; Purin
1990:Figures 196-199). These objects may have symbolized trophies (Benson 2001).
Furthermore, tumis are present in Lambayeque and Chimu art both as pictorial
representations on ceramic vessels and as three-dimensional metal objects (Bennett
1954:Figure 104; de Lavalle 1988:266; Franch 1983:Figures 688-690; Hocquenghem et
al. 1987:Figure 8; Kop Jansen 1986:Figure 266; Lapiner 1976 Figures 647, 649, 651,
655; Martinez 1986:Figures 725-727; Moseley 1978:Plates VI-VII; Pasztory 1998:Figure
109; Schindler 2000:224-227; Shimada 1992:16; von Winning 1986:Figures 269-270),
suggesting that the ritual tool the Moche used to exsanguinate, decapitate and dismember
sacrificial victims was adopted by these two cultures as well.
RITUAL DEATH AND MUTILATION ON THE NORTH COAST OF PERU:
ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
Although many claims for human sacrifice, decapitation, and dismemberment
have been made after study of skeletal remains from Precolumbian sites in Peru, many of
these claims lack strong physical evidence, such as cut marks.
2
One case where there is
substantial physical evidence to support arguments for human sacrifice and
dismemberment for the purpose of trophy-taking concern Nasca trophy heads from
16
various sites on the south coast of Peru (Baraybar 1987; Drusini and Baraybar 1991;
Verano 1995; Williams et al. 2001). In neighboring Bolivia, a group often individuals
excavated from the base of the Akapana at Tiwanaku (recently reevaluated by Blom et al.
2003) exhibit cut marks suggestive of dismemberment. Sites on the north coast of Peru
have yielded the majority of human remains with cut marks associated with human
sacrifice, decapitation, defleshing and dismemberment and they are reviewed in detail
below.
Beginning in 1995, excavations at the base of a rocky outcrop incorporated into
Plaza 3A of the Huaca de la Luna uncovered a mass sacrificial burial containing the
remains of some 70 adolescent and young adult males between the ages of approximately
15-39 years (Bourget 1997, 1998, 2001a, 2001b; Verano 1998, 2001). Stratigraphic
analysis of the deposit revealed 15 superimposed layers of human remains imbedded in
alternating strata of clay and sand, representing at least five distinct sacrificial events,
according to Bourget (1997, 2001a, 2001b). Verano, Florencia Bracamonte of the
Universidad Nacional de Trujillo and I conducted the physical analysis of the remains
and reports of our findings have been presented elsewhere (Bourget et al. 1996, Verano
1998, 2001a, 2001b). An interpretation of these men as war captives was supported by
their narrow age range, robust muscle attachments, partially healed injuries, and old
healed cranial and postcranial fractures.
3
Moreover, an imprint of a rope in the hardened
clay was discovered near the wrist of one of the victims (Bourget 2001b). Nearly 75% of
the individuals had cut marks on their cervical vertebrae, suggesting that their throats had
been slit (Verano 1998, 2001a, 2001b). Cut marks also were observed on some crania,
long bones, and bones of the hands and feet. Analysis of the osteological remains in situ
17
indicated that many of these individuals were tortured or mutilated around the time of
death as evidenced by one skeleton who had had a sharp object deeply inserted into the
arch of his left foot, another with multiple small cuts around the outer margin of the right
orbit, and several skeletons with large skull fractures resulting from blows to the head,
probably by war clubs (1998, 2001a, 200lb; see also Bourget 2001a, 2001b). Empty
muscoid fly puparia commingled with the remains, in addition to extensive sun bleaching
and weathering of multiple bones, is evidence that the bodies had been left exposed on
the surface until they were eventually covered by silt and windblown sand (Bourget
2001a; Verano 2001a, 2001b).
In 1996, limited excavations of Plaza 3C, located adjacent to Plaza 3A of the
Huaca de la Luna, yielded the incomplete and partially disarticulated remains of at least
six adolescent and young adult males (Orbegoso 1998; Verano 1998). Close proximity to
Plaza 3A, similarities in age and sex, i.e., adolescent and adult males, and cut marks on
the bones led to the interpretation that the individuals from Plaza 3C also were sacrificial
victims (Verano 1998, 200la, 200lb). Further excavations of Plaza 3C, under the
direction of John Verano and Moises Tufmio, were conducted from 1999-2001, and an
additional38 complete or mostly complete skeletons, 55 sets of partial remains, and
hundreds of isolated bones were discovered (Verano n.d.; Verano and Tufinio n.d.).
These excavations exposed two temporally distinct deposits of human remains, separated
by the floor of Plaza 3C. Similar to the Plaza 3A sacrificial victims, the individuals from
Plaza 3C exhibited a suite of old healed and perimortem injuries befitting of war captives
(Verano 2000a, 200la, 2001b, n.d.; Verano and Tufinio n.d.). In two cases, victims were
found with ropes knotted around their necks; one of the victims also had a rope binding
18
his hands behind his back. In another case, the remains of a rope were associated with a
severed foot. Rope fragments also were found near two other individuals. Sun bleaching
and weathering of some ofthe bones, along with the discovery of numerous empty fly
puparia were proof that these bodies, like those in Plaza 3A, had been exposed to the
elements for some time (Verano 2001a, n.d.; Verano and Tufmio n.d.). In contrast to
Plaza 3A, more complex postmortem treatment appears to have occurred at Plaza 3C.
Specifically, almost all bones from Plaza 3C had cut marks, whereas at Plaza 3A, cut
marks were primarily located on cervical vertebrae. Furthermore, the cut marks on the
Plaza 3C remains were concentrated around the epiphyses of long bones and at locations
of muscle attachment, suggesting that these individuals had been intentionally
dismembered and defleshed and possibly cannibalized (Verano 1998, 2001a, 2001b).
More evidence of dismemberment was found in 1998 at the site of El Brujo. On
the polychrome mural on the north side of Huaca Cao Viejo above the procession of
naked war captives mentioned earlier, is a series of Moche nobles wearing headdresses,
ear ornaments, and red tunics who are depicted holding hands (Franco et al. 1994; Galvez
and Bricetlo 2001 ). Incorporated into the position of the right foot of one of the figures
were the fragmentary remains of two bones, one human and one camelid. Each bone was
the proximal end of a right femur (V erano 1999; Verano and Anderson 1996:151 ).
Encircling the neck of the human femur were several long, discontinuous cut marks
indicative of dismemberment. Further examination of the bone revealed that the shaft
had been fractured perimortem, thus indicating that the individual's right leg had been
broken and removed from the joint close to or shortly after the time of death (V erano
1999; Galvez and Bricetlo 2001 ).
19
Two other recent discoveries at Moche sites have been interpreted as evidence for
decapitation. In the urban zone near the base of the Huaca de la Luna, two adult male
human skulls were found which had been modified into drinking vessels or bowls by
having the tops of their vaults removed, leaving behind a smooth beveled edge (V erano
1998, 2001a; Verano et al. 1999). According to Verano et al. (1999) these two human
crania represent the first archaeological examples of Moche trophy heads. Cut marks
consistent with intentional defleshing were found on both crania, indicating that the
trophy heads were made from fleshed heads, presumably those of sacrificial victims
(Verano 1998, 2001a; Verano et al. 1999). In 1994, in a room in the southwest corner of
Huaca Eat the site of Dos Cabezas in the Jequetepeque Valley, Alana CordyCollins
(2001; see also Donnan and Cock 1995 and Tyson and CordyCollins 1998) excavated a
cache of 18 skulls that she claims are the heads of decapitated victims. Mandibles and
cervical vertebrae were still in articulation with nine of the skulls and cut marks
consistent with throat slitting or decapitation were observed on the cervical vertebrae of
four individuals (Cordy-Collins 2001; Tyson and Cordy-Collins 1998). One year later,
Donnan and Cordy-Collins excavated the burial of an elderly man holding a copper tumi
in his right hand-the first discovery of its kind. Near the body they found a little
ceramic human head that had been snapped off the neck of a small jar, interpreted by
Cordy-Collins (2001) as a symbolic severed head. As Cordy-Collins (2001 :31) admits,
whether the occupant of the burial was the actual decapitator of the 18 victims whose
disembodied heads were found a short distance away can never be determined, but his
discovery certainly makes for an intriguing scenario.
20
During excavations of structures associated with the Lambayeque occupation
(c. A.D. 1100-1400) of the site ofPacatnamu in the Jequetepeque Valley, a mass burial
containing the skeletal remains of 14 adolescent and young adult males was discovered in
a defensive trench near the main entrance of the Huaca 1 Complex (V erano 1986).
Analogous to Plazas 3A and 3C at Huaca de la Luna, excavations of the Pacatnamu mass
burial revealed three temporally distinct deposits of individuals whose bodies had been
left on the surface to decompose rather than promptly buried (ibid.). Verano observed a
variety of trauma on the bones (see Verano 1986 for a full description), including cut
marks consistent with throat slitting, decapitation, and dismemberment. Two of the
individuals had had their ankles bound with rope. After considering together the physical
evidence, burial location and context, and similarities to iconographic depictions of
sacrifice found in Moche and Chimu art, Verano (1986) concluded that these individuals
were war prisoners who were ritually sacrificed and mutilated.
PREVIOUS CUT MARK STUDIES
Publications mentioning cut marks on bones are vast in number and cut marks
have been cited in the literature as evidence for a wide variety of human behaviors. Cut
marks on faunal material have been used to determine patterns of animal butchery and
meat processing techniques (Abe et al. 2002; Binford 1981; Cruz-Uribe and Klein 1994;
Frison 1971, 1978; Flannery 1967; Gifford-Gonzalez 1989; Gilbert 1969; Guilday et al.
1962; Haynes and Stanford 1984; Lyman 1987; Marshall1986; Noe-Nygaard 1989;
Parmalee 1965; Parmalee et al. 1972; Pozorski 1976; Shimada 1994; Shimada and
Shimada 1981; Stiner 1994; Wheat 1972) and they have played a major role in the debate
21
over whether Plio-Pleistocene hominids were hunters or scavengers (Binford 1981, 1985,
1988b; Bunn 1981, 1983, 1991; Bunn and Krol11986, 1988; de Heinzelin et al. 1999;
Dominguez-Rodrigo 1997, 1999; Femandez-Jalvo et al. 1999a; Marshall1986; Monahan
1999; Potts 1983, 1988; Potts and Shipman 1981; Shipman 1983, 1986, 1988; Shipman
and Rose 1983a, 1983b ). Analyses of cut marks on faunal remains also figure
prominently in tests and critiques ofBinford's (1984, 1985, 1988a) claims that even
recent hominid ancestors, i.e., Neandertals and early modem humans, were primarily
scavengers of large ungulates rather than big game hunters (Chase 1986, 1988; Grayson
and Delpech 1994; Marean 1998; Marean et al. 2000, Marean and Assefa 1999; Marean
and Kim 1998; Milo 1998; Stiner 1994).
Violence, Human Sacrifice and Cannibalism
Cut marks on human remains are frequently attributed by investigators to violent
acts (which may be ritual in nature) and warfare. Cut marks on human bones have been
cited as evidence of scalping (Alien et al. 1985; Bridges 1996; Bueschgen and Case 1996;
During and Nilsson 1991; Sciulli and Gramly 1989; Smith 1995; Stark and Brooks 1985;
Underhill 1989; Zimmerman et al. 1981; see Owsley 1994 and Owsley and Berryman
1975 for reviews of scalping at Great Plains sites), torture or mutilation (Bourget et al.
1996; Brothwell1971; Liston and Baker 1996; Luff 1996; Melbye and Fairgrieve 1990,
1994; Olson and Shipman 1994; Verano 1986, 2001a, 2001b; Simon 1992; Zimmerman
1997), the taking of trophy heads and other body parts (Andrushko et al. 2000; Drusini
and Baraybar 1991; Hemmings 1984; Owsley et al. 1977; Picketing 1985; Seeman 1988;
Shetrone 1930; Smith 1993, 1997; Verano 1995, 1998, 2001a; Verano et al. 1999; Webb
22
and Snow 1945; Willoughby 1922), autoamputation (Dillon et al. 1985), throat slitting
and decapitation (Bennike 1995; Bourget et al. 1996; Cordy-Collins 2001; Prayer 1997;
Garland 1995; Harman et al. 1981; Liston and Baker 1996; Massey and Steele 1997;
McKinley 1993; Milner et al. 1991; Molleson 1991; Murphy 2000; Nunez and Liden
1997; Pijoan and Mansilla 1990a, 1990b, 1997; Pijoan et al. 1989; Smith 1995, 1997; van
der Sanden 1996; Verano 1986, 1998, 2001a, 2001b; Wakely 1993; Wells 1982;
Zimmerman 1997), and warfare and other violent encounters (Bennike 1985; Blakely and
Mathews 1990; Brothwell1971; Floinn 1995; Haas and Creamer 1993; Hollimon and
Owsley 1994; Hutchinson 1996; Marques et al. 2000; Milner et al. 1991; Molleson 1991;
Smith 1998; Snow and Fitzpatrick 1989; Wakely 1997; Wenham 1989; Willey 1990).
Cut marks on human bones indicative of postmortem defleshing and
dismemberment are most often used as evidence in arguments for ritual or dietary
cannibalism (Cook 1991; Defleur et al. 1999; DeGusta 1997; Dockalova 1990;
Fernandez-Jalvo 1999b; Holien and Pickering 1978; Jamieson 1983; Jia 1989;
Keenleyside et al. 1997; Lambert et al. 2000; Melbye and Fairgrieve 1990, 1994; Novak
and Kollmann 2000; Nunez and Liden 1997; Patterson 1977; Pijoan and Mansilla 1990a,
1990b, 1997, 2000; Pijoan et al. 1995; Pijoan and Pastrana 1985, 1987a, 1987b, 1989;
Spennemann 1987; Ullrich 1982; Warren 1981, 1984; Villa 1992; for reviews of
cannibalism in the American Southwest, see Hurlbut 2000, Turner and Turner 1999, and
White 1992), and are one of a set of six taphonomic criteria defined by Turner and Turner
(1999; see also Turner 1983) and Villa et al. (1986b; see also Villa 1992) as minimally
required for the identification of cannibalism (see also White 1992:339). In other cases,
cut marks reflecting defleshing and dismemberment have been interpreted by various
23
researchers as evidence for the ritual execution and disposal of witches (Darling 1999;
Ogilvie and Hilton 2000), human sacrifice (Blom et al. 2003; ~ k a l o v a 1990; Green
1999; Jamieson 1983; Jelinek 1993; Lagunas et al. 1976; Massey and Steele 1997; Ojeda
Diaz 1989; Pickering 1985; Pickering and Foster 1994; Pijoan and Mansilla 1990a,
1990b, 1997; Pijoan and Pastrana 1985, 1987a, 1987b, 1989; Pijoan et al. 1989, 1995;
Serrano 1972, 1993; Storey 1992; Verano 1986, 1998, 2001a, 2001b; Warren 1981,
1984), and violent episodes or warfare (Melbye and Fairgrieve 1990, 1994; Molto et al.
1986; Ogilvie and Hilton 1993; Owsley et al. 1977; van der Sanden 1996; Walker 1990;
Willey 1990).
Postmortem Modification
Cut marks on human bones are not always the result of violent, traumatic events
such as those listed above. Alternatively, cut marks may be attributed to more mundane
and non-violent activities such as autopsy and embalmment (Molleson 1991; Start and
Robertson 1998; Valentin and d'Errico 1995), the preparation of musical instruments and
ritual objects (Agrinier 1960; Baby 1956, 1961; Cybulski 1978; Dixon 1959; Hester
1969; Hoyme and Bass 1962; Jamieson 1983; Manchester 1977; Marti 1968; Owsley et
al. 1994; Willey and Emerson 1993; Zacarias 1975), and defleshing and dismemberment
associated with mortuary treatment, including secondary burial (Bass and Phenice 1975;
Blom et al. 2003; Branigan 1982; Campillo 1980; Clarke 1979; DeGusta 2000; Feagins
1989; Haverkort and Lubell1999; Hoyme and Bass 1962; Le Mort 1989; Massey and
Steele 1997; Olsen and Shipman 1994; Puech et al. 1991; Raemsch 1993; Russell1987;
24
Schermer and Lillie 2000; Simon 1992; Smith 1997; Spence 1990; Torbenson et al. 1996;
White 1986).
The general morphology of cut marks is the same whether they were produced as
a result of violent, traumatic events or during non-violent postmortem modifications.
What distinguishes the two major categories of cut marks is their context. In order to
determine the circumstances under which cut marks were created, one must take several
factors into account including the number, location and patterning of the cut marks on the
bones, the location and positioning of the skeletal remains, the completeness of the bones
(i.e., fragmentary or whole), the age and sex of the individuals, the presence of
perimortem trauma, the mortuary traditions of the given culture, the inclusion of grave
goods, the presence of weapons, and evidence of exposure.
Modern Forensic Applications
In forensic anthropology, studies of cut marks on human bones have been used to
identify certain types of perimortem injuries, such as sharp force trauma inflicted by
knives or other edged weapons (Bonte 1972; Hyma and Rao 1991; Maples 1986; Sauer
1984, 1998; Sauer et al. 1988). By comparing the location of where a knife has cut
through a bone against the line of cut for the periosteum, i.e., by looking for post-cut
retraction of the periosteum, forensic scientists can determine whether a cut mark was
produced antemortem or postmortem (Houck 1998). As stated by Houck (1998:421), the
results could be important in cases .. where a general time orientation of trauma and order
of events is needed." The above technique is applicable only in cases where the
periosteum is preserved, such as in fresh or mummified bodies; it has no relevance to
25
skeletal material. In addition, through examination of cut mark patterning and
morphology, forensic experts have been able to reconstruct dismemberment techniques
and the classes of tools (e.g., knives, saws, and axes) used in postmortem modification of
human corpses (Andahl1978; Hyma and Rao 1991; Houck 1998; Reichs 1998; Symes
1992; Symes et al. 1998).
Other Cut Mark Research
Experimental and archaeological studies focusing on the morphology of cut marks
have been used to distinguish between tool types (Houck 1988, 1998; Olsen 1988; Olsen
and Shipman 1994; Perez and Martin 1999; Shipman and Rose 1988; Walker 1990,
Walker and Long 1977). They also have been used to investigate the direction of the
cutting motion (Bromage and Boyde 1984; Houck 1998; Olsen and Shipman 1994;
V alentin and d'Errico 1995) and the sequence of intersecting marks (Ports and Shipman
1981; Shipman 1981; Shipman and Rose 1983a), and to identify immediate versus
delayed processing (Houck 1998; Russell et al. 1985; Shipman 1988; Villa et al. 1986a).
ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES USED IN BONE MODIFICATION STUDIES
Analytical techniques that have been used to examine human modification of
bone include visual inspection with the naked eye (e.g., Shetrone 1930; Snow 1948;
Willoughby 1922), visual inspection combined with a hand lens (e.g., Bracamonte 1998;
Frayer 1997; Spence 1990; Webb and Snow 1945), and microscopic examination using a
binocular light microscope, a scanning electron microscope (SEM), or both (e.g.,
Blumenschine et al. 1996; Haverkort and Lubell1999; Jelinek 1993; Olsen and Shipman
26
1994; Pijoan and Pastrana 1987b; Perez and Martin 1999; Raemsch 1993; Russel11987;
Sauer 1988; Simon 1992; Wakely 1993; Walker 1990; White 1992). In the past two
decades, the majority of research involving the SEM and bones from archaeological
contexts has centered on identifying bone modification by hominids on Plio-Pleistocene
faunal material (Potts and Shipman 1981; Shipman 1981, 1986; Shipman and Rose
1983a, 1983b, 1984; Shipman et al. 1984) and on identifying taphonomic processes on
fossil bone (Behrensmeyer et al. 1986; Olsen and Shipman 1988; Shipman 1981;
Shipman and Rose 1983a, 1983b). While use of the SEM to examine the surface
topography of cut marks on human bones is not de rigueur, it is not uncommon for
investigators to choose at least one or two bones in their sample for SEM analysis and
include them in published reports (e.g., Bueschgen and Case 1996; Cook 1991; During
and Nilsson 1991; Houck 1998; Olsen and Shipman 1994; Sauer et al. 1988; Shipman
1987; Villa et al. 1986; Wakely 1993, 1997; Wakely and Bruce 1989; Wenham 1989;
Wenham and W akely 1989; White 1986).
SEM analysis is costly and time-consuming, and can only be applied to small
specimens, limiting its use in bone modification studies (Blumenschine et al. 1996;
Gilbert and Richards 2000). Blumenschine (1995; Blumenschine et al. 1996;
Blumenschine and Selvaggio 1988, 1991) and others (Bunn 1983; Bunn and Kroll1986,
1987; Eickhoffand Herrmann 1985; Oliver 1989; White 1992) have suggested that using
the SEM to identify cut marks is largely unnecessary. They argue that cut marks can be
adequately identified using only a hand-lens or a light microscope together with the
systematic application of published criteria learned through using control collections.
Binford (1981; Binford and Stone 1986) is highly skeptical of reliance on the SEM to
27
detect cut marks on bones and advocates use of what he terms the "configurational
approach," in which cut marks are identified on the basis of their patterns of distribution,
their similar morphology, and their associations with other types of marks, anatomical
features of the bone, and bone surface topography. Like Blumenschine and the other
scholars listed above, Binford champions the use of comparative samples of bones with
cut marks of known origin, arguing that "It is through pattern recognition and the study of
pattern context associations that we build confidence in our inferential methods" (Binford
and Stone 1986:472).
Contrary to those who assert that the SEM is not essential to cut mark studies,
other researchers (e.g., Andrews and Cook 1985; Behrensmeyer et al. 1986; Bromage and
Boyde 1984; Bueschgen and Case 1996; Cook 1986; Houck 1998; Morlan 1984; Olsen
and Shipman 1988; Potts and Shipman 1981; Potts 1987; Shipman 1981, 1983, 1988;
Shipman and Rose 1983a, 1983b, 1984; Shipman et al. 1984; Wakely 1993, 1997) are
more convinced of its importance, not only as a reliable method of distinguishing cut
marks from other bone surface features, but especially in conducting certain types of
analyses. For example, Shipman (1981, 1986) argues that the SEMis indispensable
when examining the sequence of overlapping marks. Bromage and Boyde (1984; see
also Houck 1998; Shipman and Rose 1983a; V alentin and d'Errico 1995) have shown that
determining the direction of cut marks would be impossible without the SEM. The SEM
also has been instrumental in enabling observers to distinguish the type of tool used to
produce cut marks on bones (Cook 1986, Houck 1988, 1998; Olsen 1988; Shipman 1981;
Shipman et al. 1984; Shipman and Rose 1981, 1983a, 1988; Stevens and Wakely 1993;
Walker and Long 1977; Wenham and Wakely 1989). In addition, vascular grooves and
28
excavators' marks, the two types of marks most likely to be mistaken for cut marks using
the light microscope, can be clearly distinguished from one another in the SEM (Shipman
and Rose 1984).
The advantages the SEM offers over the light microscope include superior
resolution of magnified three-dimensional features, greater depth of field, and higher
levels of magnification (Shipman 1981). Furthermore, Shipman (1981:360) discovered
that "inspection of the same specimen with a light microscope and the SEM has shown
that the latter often reveals features that are unclear or invisible under the light
microscope, even when the magnifications are the same [emphasis in the original]." As
with the binocular light microscope, the SEM also can be fitted with a camera attachment
for taking photographs. The ability of cast replicas to faithfully replicate surface features
of cut marks and other types of bone modification small enough to need 1000x
magnification or more is undisputed (Rose 1983; Wakely 1997; Schmidt 1999). When
epoxy resin replicas are prepared from the original bone surface using techniques
described by Bromage (1987), Cook (1986), Rose (1983), Schmidt (1999) and others,
size limitations imposed by the SEM chamber are circumvented and SEM analysis is
non-destructive to the original archaeological specimens. Other advantages of using cast
replicas are that they are easier to manipulate and more durable than the original
specimens and they are available for study at any time (Schmidt 1999). In sum, in studies
of bone modification, especially in cases where microscopic characteristics have been
shown to be the most reliable means of identifYing cut marks or specific features of cut
marks, the use of an SEM can maximize the quantity and quality of data extracted.
4
RESULTS OF CUT MARK RESEARCH
Cut Mark Morohology
29
Morphological characteristics of cut marks have been defined through
experimental studies and the study of archaeological and ethnoarchaeological faunal
assemblages. Cut marks on bones are typically linear incisions with fine, parallel
striations running longitudinally within the main groove (Ports and Shipman 1981;
Shipman 1981, 1988; Shipman and Rose 1983a, 1984). Internal striations are caused by
minute irregularities in the edge of the cutting tool as it passes through the bone and by
microscopic pieces of bone or tool material dislodged during the cutting process
(Shipman 1981 ). Cut marks may have V- or U -shaped cross-sections, depending on the
edge characteristics of the tool used to produce them and the number of times the tool has
traveled in the same groove (Guilday et al. 1962; Noe-Nygaard 1989; Ports and Shipman
1981; Shipman and Rose 1983a). Cut marks may occur alone or in multiples, the latter
typically as small clusters of short, parallel or subparallel incisions (Guilday et al. 1962;
Haynes and Stanford 1984; Noe-Nygaard 1989). Their orientation on the bone surface is
variable, but is most commonly oblique or perpendicular to the long axis of the bone
(Bunn and Kroll 1986). Cut marks are often discontinuous because the tool edge skips
when applied to uneven bone surface topography (Haynes and Stanford 1984; Morlan
1984}, but ifthe tool has a very sharp edge, it may slice straight through topographical
features on the bone surface (Eickhoff and Herrmann 1985). The depth of cut marks
generally varies according to bone surface topography-usually they are deeper on the
convex areas of the bone surface and shallower on the concave parts (Binford 1981;
Eickhoffand Herrmann 1985; Morlan 1984). However, depth also is directly related to
30
the intent of the actor. For example, cut marks formed during defleshing tend to be more
superficial than those formed during chopping or dismembering, which tend to be deeper
and more pronounced (Noe-Nygaard 1989). Like the depth of cut marks, cut mark width
displays much variability. According to Shipman (1983:34) cut mark width reflects "1)
the angle at which the tool is used; 2) the amount of soft tissue interposed between the
tool and the bone surface; [and] 3) the load applied to the tool."
Differential Diagnosis
Many taphonomic and experimental studies of bones have been carried out to
distinguish cut marks made by early hominids and modem humans using stone (and, in
the latter case, metal) tools from carnivore tooth scratches and rodent gnawing, as well as
from cut mark mimics resulting from natural or cultural processes (see Fisher 1995 for a
detailed summary of bone surface modifications). Tooth scratches made by carnivores
typically have a high breadth to depth ratio, lack internal striations and are rounded or U-
shaped in cross section (Bunn 1981; Cook 1986; Potts 1988). In contrast to cut marks,
which generally slice through small bony protrusions or skip over minor depressions,
carnivore tooth scratches typically follow bone surface topography. In addition, whereas
cut marks are commonly shallower at the ends than in the middle, carnivore tooth marks
tend to have a uniform depth and may terminate in pits or punctures (Binford 1981;
Eickhoff and Herrmann 1985; Haynes and Stanford 1984 ). Rodent gnawing produces a
series of closely-spaced, parallel or nearly parallel grooves that are relatively short and
broad and slightly rounded or flat-bottomed in cross section (Bunn 1981; Cook 1986;
Shipman and Rose 1983a). In contrast to blade-induced marks, rodent gnawing marks
have "a softer, more rounded and less well-defined edge" and take a more undulating
course (Shipman and Rose 1983a:85).
31
The growth of plant roots against bone surfaces results in modification of the
bone known as root etching. Root etching is characterized by multiple smooth, sinuous
U-shaped grooves with scalloped edges that form a distinct dendritic pattern. Root
etching always follows the contour of the bone surface and can be distinguished
macroscopically from cut marks with little difficulty (Bunn 1981; Cook 1986; Morlan
1984). Vascular impressions or grooves are created by firm contact between bone and
tiny blood vessels. They may be confused macroscopically with cut marks but
microscopically are very distinct. Vascular grooves typically have very smooth, shallow
channels with U-shaped cross sections. They frequently end in small foramina and often
are perforated by many tiny pores for capillaries (Morlan 1984; Saul and Saul 1984;
1992; Shipman and Rose 1984).
Like cut marks, excavators' and preparators' marks may contain microscopic
striations; however, they can be differentiated from cut marks by their whitish or lighter
color relative to the adjacent bone surface, lack of sedimentary particles adhering to their
inner surfaces, and jagged, irregular edges (Blakely and Matthews 1990; Cook 1986;
Potts 1988; Shipman 1981; White and Toth 1989). As mentioned by Shipman
(1981:366), "Preparators' marks may be very fme and only barely visible without
magnification." Other features used to identify excavators' and preparators' marks are
bridges of bone connecting the opposite sides of the groove, the crossing over of matrix
adhering to the bone surface, and the maintenance of a straight trajectory across cracks
that have displaced the original bone fragments (Potts 1988; Shipman and Rose 1983a).
32
In his study of a faunal bone assemblage from Shield Trap Cave, Montana, Oliver
(1989) observed that the natural process of rockfall can produce surface modifications of
bone that are morphologically very similar to cut marks. However, he found that the
majority of these naturally created marks "are extremely shallow and/or display very
irregular and tom groove edges" (1989:93). In addition, he observed that many of the
marks were actually compressions of the bone surface rather than true incisions, and
found that several of the rockfall marks that closely resembled cut marks did so only for
portions of their lengths; the remaining portions differed markedly in appearance from
blade induced incisions.
Sedimentary abrasion resulting from the trampling of bones on sandy or rocky
substrates is the natural process most likely to create striations that are morphologically
similar to cut marks made with stone tools. Trampling marks frequently appear as sets of
relatively shallow, subparallel grooves; however, the size, width, depth, curvature and
orientation of these striations can vary considerably, even on a single bone (Andrews and
Cook 1985; Behrensmeyer et al. 1986, 1989; Bunn 1981; Fiorillo 1989; Oliver 1989;
Olsen and Shipman 1988; Shipman 1988; Shipman and Rose 1983b ). Trampling-induced
sedimentary abrasion is best identified by certain contextual attributes. These attributes,
as complied by Fisher (1995:34), are as follows: "1) The proportion of bones in the
assemblage that have striations is high; 2) the number of striations on individual
specimens is high; and 3) the range of variability in the width and/or orientation of
striations on a specimen is considerable (Andrews and Cook 1985; Behrensmeyer et al.
1989; Fiorillo 1989; Fisher 1992; Oliver 1989; Olsen and Shipman 1998; Shipman
1988)."
33
There is no absolute morphological criterion or set of morphological criteria that
infallibly can be used to distinguish genuine cut marks made with stone or metal tools
from similar marks produced by other processes. Although few explicitly use Binford's
(1985; Binford and Stone 1986) term, many scholars advocate the "configurational"
approach as the most reliable method of identifying cut marks. That is, they believe that
the most accurate way to diagnose cut marks is by taking into account morphological
criteria (such as linearity, well-defined edges, and fine, parallel internal striations)
together with other factors such as the frequency of marked bones in the assemblage, the
number of marks per bone, the orientation and anatomical placement of the marks, the
shape of the bone surface where the marks occur, and associations with other kinds of
surface modifications such as breakage, pitting and punctures. Other important variables
to consider are the geological, environmental, archaeological and cultural contexts of the
deposit containing the osteological assemblage (Behrensmeyer et al. 1986, 1989; Binford
and Stone 1986; Blumenschine et al. 1996; Femandez-Jalvo et al. 1999a; Haynes and
Stanford 1984; Lyman 1987; Morlan 1984; Oliver 1989; Olsen and Shipman 1988; White
1992).
Classes of Tool Marks
Several experimental, ethnoarchaeological, archaeological, and forensic studies
have shown that it is possible to determine whether tool marks were made by means of
cutting (or slicing), scraping, sawing or chopping (Cook 1986; Femandez-Jalvo 1999b;
Gifford-Gonzalez 1989; Noe-Nygaard 1989; Olsen 1988; Potts 1988; Potts and Shipman
1981; Reichs 1998; Shipman 1981, 1988; Shipman and Rose 1983a; Sauer et al. 1988;
34
Stevens and Wakely 1993; Symes et al. 1998; Walker and Long 1977). Detennination of
different classes of tool marks may provide further information on the types of activities
that can be inferred to have taken place and on the manner in which certain tools were
used to modify bone.
Slicing Marks
In most reports, unless explicitly stated otherwise, the term "cut marks,' refers to
marks on bones made using a slicing motion. The same applies to this dissertation.
Slicing marks are produced when a single stroke is used to draw a tool across a bone.
Slicing marks usually have an identifiable nadir and frequently (although not always, see
discussion below) contain internal striations within the walls of the main groove. In
addition, slicing marks may follow either a straight or curving path, and they are of
variable width and depth (Potts and Shipman 1981; Shipman 1981, 1988; Shipman and
Rose 1983a, 1984; White 1992).
Scrape Marks
Scrape marks are produced when the edge of a tool is drawn across a bone more
or less perpendicular to the long axis of the tool edge (Potts 1988; Shipman 1981).
According to Shipman (1981 :369; see also Potts and Shipman 1981; Shipman and Rose
1983a), scrapes appear as a closely-spaced "series of fine parallel striations across a
broad area of bone that may lie below the general level of the bone surface but in which
there is no readily identifiable nadir." Scrape marks are linear and elongate and can be
either straight or smoothly curving; they also tend to be shallower than slicing marks
(Cook 1986; Noe-Nygaard 1989; Shipman and Rose 1983a).
Saw Marks
35
Saw marks are produced when a tool is drawn repeatedly back and forth across a
bone at a particular location and produces a series of grooves that may lie parallel or
nearly parallel to one another or cross each other at acute angles (Noe-Nygaard 1989;
Olsen 1988). Saw marks differ from slicing marks in that they are wider, are relatively
square rather than V -shaped when viewed in profile, and contain macroscopic rather than
microscopic striations within their walls (Olsen 1988; Reichs 1998).
Chop Marks
Chop marks result when a tool strikes a bone with its sharp cutting edge more or
less perpendicular to the long axis ofthe bone (Cook 1986; Potts and Shipman 1981). In
comparison to other classes of tool marks, chop marks tend to be relatively short (Cook
1986). Shipman (1981; see also Potts and Shipman 1981) states that chop marks often
contain microscopic fragments of bone that are crushed inwards at the bottom of the main
groove. She also notes that, unlike slicing marks, chop marks do not have internal
striations that run parallel to the long axis of the main groove because the tool "is not
drawn across the bone but is rather pushed into it" (Shipman 1981 :366). Based on mean
depth to width ratios, Walker and Long (1977) report that tool marks made by chopping
motions are wider and deeper than tool marks created by slicing actions. Chop marks
often, although not necessarily, are made with heavier tools (e.g., axes versus knives)
36
than those used to produce other classes of tool marks (Olsen 1988; Walker 1990; Walker
and Long 1977).
Identification of Metal Versus Stone Tools
Two experimental studies that have focused specifically on developing
morphological criteria that can be used to distinguish cut marks made by different types
of tools, (e.g., metal versus stone), are those conducted by Olsen (1988) and Walker and
Long (1977; see also Walker 1990). In comparing tool marks made with metal and stone
tools on bone artifacts excavated from Early Bronze Age and Iron Age sites in Great
Britain with experimental cut marks produced with metal (in this case, steel) and stone
tools on modem bones, Olsen (1988:343) found that, in general, "metal tools ... [leave]
more uniform patterns on the bone, often removing material more effectively, leaving
behind either no striations or striations of a more uniform depth and spacing." Olsen
(1988:349) also discovered that there was a greater likelihood of"chattermarks" when
metal rather than stone tools were used. Chattermarks are produced when too much
pressure is applied to a tool, causing it to skip over the bone's surface.
In an experimental study in which they examined cut marks made by several
obsidian and chert stone tools, a steel knife and a steel axe, Walker and Long (1977)
demonstrated that it is possible to distinguish between metal and stone tools by
examining cross-sections of the grooves left by the tool on the bone and by calculating
mean depth/width ratios of the cut marks. They found that when cut marks made using
steel axes and steel knives are viewed in cross-section, they appear as narrow, V -shaped
grooves with smooth straight sides that terminate in a distinct apex at the bottom of the
37
groove (Walker and Long 1977:608). In contrast, cut marks made using bifacially flaked
chert tools produce cross-sections that are wide and irregular in appearance with concave
sides that usually do not converge in a single apex. Walker and Long (1977) observed
that when unmodified obsidian flakes are used at low pressures, they often produce
shallow V -shaped grooves very similar to those made by steel tools. When higher
pressures are exerted, the edges of the flake tools often collapse and they create wider,
more irregular grooves like those produced by bifacially flaked stone tools. In their
examination of mean width to depth ratios of different classes of tools, Walker and Long
(1977) discovered that when the amount of pressure exerted on the tool and the angle at
which the tool is held are kept constant, cut marks made using metal tools have higher
depth-to-width ratios than those made using stone tools. In addition, they found that
stone bifaces with finely flaked edges produce narrower cut marks than stone bifaces
with coarsely flaked edges, "suggest[ing] the possibility of estimating the degree of
refinement of the edge of a bifacially flaked stone tool from the groove it produced"
(1977:609-610).
In a well-known ethnoarchaeological study, Binford (1981) compared a sample of
faunal bones butchered by modem Nunamiut Inuit in Alaska using metal tools against a
collection of faunal remains from the Mousterian site of Combe Grenal, France, that had
been processed using stone tools. He observed that metal implements usually produce
narrow ("almost hairline"), straight, and relatively long cut marks ( 1981: I 05). He also
noticed that marks made with metal tools often appear to have incised the bone at an
oblique angle, "leaving an overlapping small 'shelf of bone that remains in place"
(1981:105, Figure 4.14). In contrast, Binford found that cutting with stone tools typically
leaves groups of short, parallel marks on the bone that are wider and "more ragged" in
appearance, reflecting the thicker and more irregular cutting edges of the stone tools,
particularly those that have been retouched (1981: I 05).
38
All classes of tool marks are affected to some extent by the type of tool material
used to produce them. Shipman (1988:271; see also Potts and Shipman 1981:577 and
Shipman and Rose 1983a:64) identifies slicing marks made by stone tools by the
presence of "multiple fine, parallel striations cut into their walls and floor." Additional
diagnostic features of slicing marks produced by stone tools include shoulder effects and
barbs. Shipman and Rose (1983a, 1983b) describe shoulder effects as one or more short
marks that originate from and are made with the same stroke as the main cut mark and
either diverge from or run parallel to the main mark for some portion of its length.
Shoulder effects result from "contact between the tool's shoulder and the bone during
cutting," and are produced by asymmetrical hand pressure during cutting associated with
the tendency to slightly supinate the hand when drawing a tool across a bone (Shipman
and Rose 1983a:66; see also Bromage and Boyde 1984:366). Eickhoff and Herrmann
(1985) call these same features "splitting effects." Splitting or shoulder effects are more
commonly found at only one end of the cut mark but may appear at both ends (Eickhoff
and Herrmann 1985; Shipman and Rose 1983a). Barbs, according to Shipman and Rose
(1983a:66) are probably caused by "small inadvertent motions of the hand either in
initiating or terminating a stroke." Barbs, like shoulder effects, may occur at either the
head or tail of cut marks (ibid.).
In experimental studies, Walker and Long (1977) and Shipman and Rose (1983a)
found that due to irregularities in the cutting edge of the stone tool used, slicing marks
39
may result in two or more shallow grooves instead of a single, main groove. In a
taphonomic study using both fossil and experimental bones, Cook (1986; see also Walker
and Long 1977) observed that slicing marks made by stone tools are typically
asymmetrical in cross-section, with one rough side and one smooth side, and may retain
remnants of displaced bone along the superior edge of the deeper side of the cut. While
Gifford-Gonzalez (1989) reports that slicing marks made by metal tools may lack fine,
parallel striations within the main groove, other researchers have observed them (e.g.,
Olsen 1988; Shipman and Rose 1983a; Wakely 1993). The absence ofstriations,
therefore, is not by itself diagnostic of metal tool use. Guilday et al. (1962:63) describe
slices made with metal tools as "fine and deeply incised with a V-shaped cross-section,"
whereas slicing marks produced by stone tools are coarser in appearance with U-shaped
cross-sections. Yet, they caution that these are general distinctions and "should not be
taken too seriously on any one individual specimen" (ibid.).
In regard to the other classes of tool marks described in the preceding section,
Olsen (1988) observed that striations within scrape marks created by stone tools tend to
be wavy and of variable depth, while striations within scrape marks made by metal tools
are typically straight, shallow, and more uniform in depth. Similar results were obtained
by Stevens and Wakely (1993) when they experimentally scraped bone with flint and
metal implements. As with slicing, if too much pressure is applied while scraping, both
metal and stone tools may produce chattermarks (Olsen 1988). Saw marks created by
stone tools frequently have terraced walls and uneven bottoms, whereas saw marks made
with metal tools often have more vertical walls and flat bottoms (Noe-Nygaard 1989;
Olsen 1988; Walker and Long 1977). Walker and Long (1977:608) discovered that
40
sawing a bone with a steel knife tends to destroy only one side of the initial groove while
sawing with bifacially flaked stone tools "produces an abraded undulating surface
characterized by shallow U-shaped grooves that deface a relatively large area of bone on
either side of the cut." Finally, according to Olsen (1988:349; see also Noe-Nygaard
1989), "Chopmarks made with a stone tool tend to have a broad V -shaped profile,
sometimes with parallel striations running vertically down into the cut, while a chopmark
made with a metal tool may be quite deep and narrow, with smooth, or lightly striated
walls."
In the conclusion of her experimental study, Olson (1988:358) states, " .. .it is
generally possible to distinguish between the manufacturing traces left by stone and metal
tools." Other authors of the various studies mentioned above are similarly confident that
tool material can be determined in most cases by differences in cut mark morphology
(Cook 1986:159; Walker 1990:155; Walker and Long 1977:615). Three criteria appear
to be particularly diagnostic of particular tool materials: shoulder effects and barbs are
restricted to cut marks made with stone tools and overlapping bone shelves are exclusive
to tool marks produced with metal tools. However, since diagnostic criteria are not
present in all cut marks, most decisions regarding tool type are based on experience,
familiarity with comparative samples of cut marks of known origin, and a preponderance
of evidence toward one particular tool material over another.
Directionality
Microscopic studies of the direction in which cutting strokes were made by stone
tools have been undertaken as a means of obtaining additional evidence on butchery
41
patterns, carcass processing techniques, and handedness of early hominids (Bromage
1987; Bromage and Boyde 1984; Shipman and Rose 1983a). In their study of
experimentally produced cut marks on modern animal bones, Shipman and Rose (1983a)
attempted to identify directionality on the basis of certain microscopic features but were
unsuccessful. They found that progressive and gradual narrowing of cut marks can occur
at either end, as can the abrupt truncation of slicing marks-making these features of
little use in determining directionality. They also observed that shoulder effects and
barbs may be present at both the heads and tails of cut marks, rendering these two
features equally problematic as directional indicators (ibid.).
In an experimental study published one year after that of Shipman and Rose
(1983a), Bromage and Boyde (1984; see also Bromage 1987) had considerably more
success using a different set of microscopic features. They developed three microscopic
criteria claimed to be reliable and consistent indicators of directionality: bone smears,
oblique faulting, and oblique chipping. According to Bromage and Boyde (1984), bone
smears, which in the SEM appear as small nicks in the floors, walls and shoulders of the
main groove of the cut mark, lift up in the opposite direction of the cutting stroke.
Oblique faults are located on the surface of cut mark margins and intermittently cross the
main groove. They separate short segments of bone that are displaced in the same
direction as the cutting motion. Oblique chipping is described as "a characteristic pattern
of breakage on one or both sides (often "V" shaped) forward and away from the center of
the mark in the direction of the cutting movement" (1984:363). The authors caution,
however, that these three criteria do not occur in all cut marks and that a variety of factors
may affect the conditions under which bone smears, oblique faulting, and oblique
42
chipping occur. These include the interaction of the cutting angle, shape of cutting edge,
pressure applied, collagen fiber orientation, bone density, and tool user idiosyncrasies.
Nevertheless, when at least one of the three criteria is present, Bromage and Boyde
(1984) conclude that directionality can be accurately determined with confidence.
While no one has attempted to replicate Bromage and Boyde's (1984) experiment,
their method of determining directionality has been adopted by others, including
Femandez-Jalvo et al. (1999b ), in their report on possibly cannibalized human remains
from an Early Pleistocene deposit at Gran Dolina, Spain, Cook (1991), in her study of
marked human bones from a Late Pleistocene deposit in Gough's Cave, Somerset,
England, and Valentin and d'Errico (1995), in their examination of an autopsied or
embalmed skull from 15th century France. In addition, Houck (1998) has observed that
determination of cut mark directionality is of great use in modem forensic cases, where it
may aid in recreating stab wound trajectories and victim/assailant positioning at the time
of the assault.
Patterns of Modification of Faunal Remains
Cut marks provide direct evidence for interpreting treatment of animal remains by
humans and have aided in the reconstruction of prehistoric butchery practices and meat
processing techniques. Perhaps the most well-known and widely used method for
recording cut marks in order to reconstruct past butchery practices and carcass utilization
is that developed by Binford (1981). Through comparisons of the location and
orientation of cut marks of known origin on faunal bones from modem Nunamiut sites
with the location and orientation of cut marks on animal remains from the Mousterian site
43
of Combe Grenal, Binford (1981) was able to differentiate between three functional types
of cut marks: skinning, filleting and dismembennent. Skinning marks are found on non-
meaty, skin-covered bone surfaces (e.g., around the base of antlers or horns and on the
diaphyses of the distal tibia, metatarsals and phalanges). Filleting marks occur when
meat is stripped off of bone surfaces. They are described as longitudinal marks on meaty
bones in areas of muscle attachment (e.g., on the diaphyses of the humerus and femur,
and on the dorsal spines of thoracic and lumbar vertebrae). Dismemberment is usually
associated with disarticulation, thus dismemberment marks are found on articular
surfaces of joints and on or near epiphyses of long bones (e.g., on or around the occipital
condyles of the skull, the glenoid cavity of the scapula, and the neck of the femur).
Binford's (1981 :136-142) classification scheme is composed of 108 classes of cut marks,
each assigned an alphanumeric code according to skeletal element, location and
orientation of the cut marks on the bone, and type of butchery activity that produced the
marks.
A method of recording cut marks on bones similar to Binford's (1981) has been
developed by Lyman (1987:322-326). His method is based on a paradigmatic
classification system in which cut marks are categorized according to a set of dimensions
(e.g., skeletal element, side, location, orientation and frequency) that are then further
subdivided into different attributes or modes. For example, the dimension "Side"
contains the modes "inapplicable," "right," "left," and "indeterminate" (1987:324). Using
Lyman's (1987:305) classification scheme, over 5.7 billion different classes of marks are
possible. Both Binford's (1981) and Lyman's (1987) cut mark classification systems
work best if the butchery data is recorded on illustrative drawings.
44
Modification ofFaunal Remains from Precolumbian Sites on the North Coast of Peru
Although there is no shortage of published reports that mention or briefly describe
llama sacrifice at archaeological sites on the north coast of Peru (e.g., Alva and Donnan
1993; Andrews 1974; Castillo and Donnan 1994; Conrad 1982; Donnan 1995; Donnan
and Foote 1978; Donnan and Mackey 1978; Heyerdahl et al. 1995; Shimada and Shimada
1981, 1985; Strong and Evans 1952; Topic 1982), studies of came lid butchering practices
at Precolumbian sites in this region are very limited. Reports that include detailed
analyses of cut mark and fracture patterns on came lid bones and are particularly useful to
this project for comparative purposes are those by Shimada (1994; Shimada and Shimada
1981) on camelid remains from the Moche site of Pampa Grande in the Lambayeque
Valley, and Pozorski (1976) on camelid remains from Moche and Chimii sites in the
Moche Valley. While not using faunal material from archaeological sites on the north
coast of Peru, studies of Precolumbian butchery patterns from other regions that are
relevant to this project are those by Wing (1972) on camelid remains from the highland
site ofKotosh, and Shimada (1988) on camelid remains from sites in the Cajamarca
valley in the northern highlands of Peru.
Patterns of Modifieation of Human Remains
As with studies of cut marks on faunal remains, studies of cut marks on human
remains also have aided in the reconstruction of specific types of human behavior.
Information on morphology, frequency, location, and orientation of cut marks on human
bones has been used to infer such types of perimortem and postmortem treatment as
45
throat slitting, decapitation, defleshing, and dismemberment. Brief descriptions of each
of these activities and associated patterns of cut marks are presented below.
Throat Slitting
If the objective is to kill a victim very quickly or drain his blood, then without a
doubt, one of the most effective methods is to sever the jugular veins and carotid arteries
by slitting the throat. Deep laceration of the throat can produce horizontal cut marks on
the anterior surface of the bodies and transverse processes of cervical vertebrae (Tyson
and Cordy-Collins 1998; Verano 1998, 2001a, 2001b, n.d.). Slitting of the throat, as
opposed to decapitation, is further supported if the skull of the individual is found fully
articulated with the vertebral column (Verano 2001a). Evidence of throat slitting (as a
final objective and not as part of decapitation) is not common in the archaeological record
and to date is limited to three sites on the north coast of Peru: Huaca de la Luna in the
Moche River Valley (Bourget et al. 1996; Verano 1998, 2001a, 2001b, n.d.; Verano and
Tufinio n.d.), Dos Cabezas in the Jequetepeque River Valley (Tyson and Cordy-Collins
1998), and Pacatnamu in the Jequetepeque River Valley (Verano 1986).
5
At all three
sites listed above, throat slitting was used to dispatch human sacrifice victims.
Decapitation
Decapitation can be identified by separation of the head from the body in
association with cut marks on the base of the skull and on certain areas of the cervical
vertebrae. Decapitation marks on the skull are often located on or around the occipital
condyles, the supraoccipital, and the basiocciput (Melbye and Fairgrieve 1994; Patterson
46
1977; Pijoan et al. 1989; Olsen and Shipman 1994; Willey 1990). Decapitation also may
result in multiple cut marks on the atlas and on the dens and body of the axis vertebra
(Harman et al. 1981; Haverkort and Lubell 1999; Liston and Baker 1996; Melbye and
Fairgrieve 1994; McKinley 1993; Milner et al. 1991; Owsley et al. 1977; Pijoan and
Mansilla 1990a; Pijoan et al. 1989; Verano 1986; Wakely 1993; Zimmerman et al. 1981).
Other locations of cut marks on the cervical vertebrae consistent with decapitation are on
the laminae, pedicles, spinous processes, and articular facets of the intervertebral joints
(Frayer 1997; Melbye and Fairgrieve 1994; Owsley et al. 1977; Pijoan and Mansilla
1990a, 1997; Verano 1986, 1998, 2001a, n.d.). Although the first and second cervical
vertebrae (Cl, C2) are most commonly affected in decapitations, cut marks also have
been observed on lower cervical vertebrae (Bush and Stirland 1991; Frayer 1997; Wells
1982; Willey 1990). Cut marks (especially those that are bilateral) on the superior aspect
of the first rib and anterior and superior aspects of the clavicle, and on the first thoracic
vertebra suggest that the head was severed at the base of the neck (Smith 1993; Harman
et al. 1981; van der Sanden 1996). Occasionally, the mandible may receive cuts,
especially along the posterior border of the ascending ramus, the gonial angle, and the
inferior border of the corpus (Bennike 1985; Harman et al. 1981; Melbye and Fairgrieve
1994; Owsley et al. 1977), although Willey (1990; Willey and Emerson 1993) has argued
that cuts at these locations may be indicative of tongue removal using a technique similar
to that used in historic bison butchering whereby the tongue was removed from the
bottom of the mandible rather than through the mouth (Wheat 1972: 1 03). While the
removal of the head from the rest of the body may occur as a separate event (e.g.,
Bennike 1985; Bush and Stirland 1991; Harman et al. 1981; McKinley 1993; Owsley et
47
al. 1977; van der Sanden 1996; Verano 1986), it also may take place during the course of
defleshing and dismembering the body as a whole (e.g. Bass and Phenice 1975;
Haverkort and Lubell 1999; Olsen and Shipman 1994; Simon 1992). Motivations for
decapitation include punishment, warfare, trophy taking, human sacrifice and mortuary
treatment. In modem forensic cases, decapitation usually is interpreted as an act of
mutilation or an attempt to hinder identification of the victim.
De fleshing
Olsen and Shipman (1994:380) define evidence of defleshing as "short fine
cutmarks or broader scraping over the surfaces of bones caused when a sharp tool is used
to remove soft tissue adhering to the bone." Defleshing marks on human remains are
analogous to skinning or filleting marks on faunal bones. According to Olsen and
Shipman (1994:381), ''the difference is that defleshing marks can occur anywhere on the
bone where skin, muscles, tendons, ligaments, periosteum, or any other soft tissue
attaches, whereas filleting marks are usually concentrated at the points of origin and
insertion of muscles and tendons." If the objective is the removal oflarge pieces of flesh
from a body, defleshing marks will primarily be found in areas of muscle attachment,
e.g., the spine and body of the scapula, the ribs, the laminae and spinous processes of the
thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, the iliac bones of the pelvis, and the diaphyses oflong
bones (e.g., Defleur et al. 1999; Femandez-Jalvo et al. 1999b; Jelinek 1993; Keenleyside
et al. 1997; Lambert et al. 2000; Le Mort 1989; Pijoan and Mansilla 1997; Pijoan and
Pastrana 1987a, 1987b; Turner and Turner 1999; Villa 1992; Villa et al. 1986a, 1986b;
Villa et al. 1988; Wakely 1993; White 1992). If the objective is to clean the bones of soft
48
tissue, defleshing marks may occur wherever skin, flesh, muscles, tendons, ligaments and
periosteum is attached to the bone surface, e.g., the face and scalp region of the skull, the
body and ascending ramus of the mandible, the clavicle, and the hands and feet (e.g.,
Bass and Phenice 1975; Drusini and Baraybar 1991; Haverkort and Lubel11999;
Jamieson 1983; Massey and Steele 1997; Olsen and Shipman 1994; Patterson 1977;
Picketing 1985; Pijoan et al. 1989; Raemsch 1993; Russell1987; Simon 1992; Ullrich
1982; Verano 1998, n.d.; Verano and Tufmio n.d.; Verano et al. 1999). These two
objectives are not mutually exclusive and may occur in tandem. Defleshing marks
typically appear in clusters because repeated strokes are often necessary to completely
detach muscles or remove soft tissue from bone. On limb bones, clusters of cut marks
frequently exhibit the same pattern of orientation (Olsen and Shipman 1994).
Evidence of intentional defleshing of human remains is widespread
geographically and temporally in the archaeological record throughout North America,
including sites in Alaska (Simon 1992), the Great Plains (Bass and Phenice 1975; Olsen
and Shipman 1994), the Great Lakes region (Raemsch 1993; Torbenson et al. 1996), the
Southwestern U.S. (Lambert et al. 2000; Turner and Turner 1999; White 1992), the
Midwestern U.S. (Feagins 1989; Milner 1984; Patterson 1977), the Eastern U.S. (Hoyme
and Bass 1962; Seeman 1988; Shetrone 1930) and Canada (Jamieson 1983; Keenleyside
et al. 1997; Melbye and Fairgrieve 1994). It also has been reported in other locations
around the world, including sites in Mexico (Kelley 1978; Perez and Martin 1999;
Picketing 1985; Pijoan and Mansilla 1990b, 1997; Pijoan et al. 1995; Pijoan and Pastrana
1987a, 1987b), Peru (Drusini and Baraybar 1991; Verano 1998, 2001b, n.d.; Verano et al.
1999; Williams et al. 2001), Bolivia (Blom et al. 2003), and Europe (Cook 1991; De Laet
49
1958; Defleur et al. 1999; Doekalova 1990; Femandez-Jalvo et al. 1999b; Green 1999;
Jelinek 1993; Le Mort 1989; Russel11987; Ullrich 1982; Villa et al. 1986a; Villa et al.
1988; Warren 1984).
While the contexts and motivations associated with defleshing are variable, the
following patterns emerge. Archaeological contexts containing isolated, scattered and
disarticulated human remains with cut marks typically are interpreted as evidence of
violent treatment, usually cannibalism or human sacrifice (Dockalova 1990; Keenleyside
1997; Kelly 1978; Lambert et al. 2000; Le Mort 1989; Melbye and Fairgrieve 1994;
Patterson 1977; Picketing 1985; Turner and Turner 1999; Ullrich 1982; Verano 1998;
Warren 1984). The denial of these individuals a fonnal burial, instead dumping the
remains into a mass grave or refuse heap or leaving them strewn about a floor or
alongside a structure, also is characteristic of cannibalism and human sacrifice and
emphasizes the powerless status of the deceased (Cook 1991; Defleur et al. 1999;
Femandez-Jalvo et al. 1999b; Green 1999; Jamieson 1983; Jelinek 1993; Pijoan and
Mansilla 1997; Verano 2001b, n.d.; Villa et al. 1986a; Villa et al1988; White 1992). In
contrast, bones defleshed as part of benign mortuary practices associated with secondary
burial are commonly found within burial mounds or other formal mortuary features, often
accompanied by grave goods (Bass and Phenice 1975; Blom et al. 2003; De Laet 1958;
Hoyme and Bass 1962; Milner 1984; Olsen and Shipman 1994; Raemsch 1993; Russell
1987). Warfare-related trophy skulls with defleshing marks are found in the widest
variety of contexts, e.g., buried alone or in small caches in cemeteries or included as
grave goods (sometimes within ceramic vessels) in the burials of others (Baraybar 1987;
Seeman 1988; Shetrone 1930; Verano 1995; Webb and Snow 1945; Williams et al.
2001).
Dismemberment
50
Studies of cut marks have shown that humans are dismembered in much the same
way as nonhuman animal carcasses. In both cases, a sharp tool is used to disarticulate the
body into smaller parts by cutting through skin, tendons, and ligaments at the joints
(Olsen and Shipman 1994; Snow 1948; Turner and Turner 1999). As with butchered
faunal remains, dismemberment marks on human bones typically are found on joint
surfaces of long bones and irregular bones, i.e., on distal and proximal ends, condyles,
epicondyles, processes, and articular surfaces (Brothwell 1971; Keenleyside et al. 1997;
Olsen and Shipman 1994; Pijoan and Mansilla 1990a; Pijoan and Pastrana 1987b;
Raemsch 1993; Serrano 1972; Snow and Fitzpatrick 1989; Turner and Turner 1999; van
der Sanden 1996; Verano 1986; 1998, n.d.; Verano and Tufinio n.d.; Willey 1990). Other
frequent locations include on or around the atlanto-occipital joint, mandibular condyles
and coronoid processes, gleno-humeral joint, condylar region of the humerus, radial neck,
intervertebral joints, acetabulum of the pelvis, and femoral neck (Blom et al. 2003; Bass
and Phenice 1975; Cook 1991; Haverkort and Lubell1999; Jelinek 1993; Melbye and
Fairgrieve 1994; Molto et al. 1986; Owsley et al. 1977; Pickering 1985; Pijoan and
Pastrana 1987b; Pijoan et al. 1995; Russell1987; Simon 1992; Spence 1990;
Spennemann 1987; Villa et al. 1986b, 1988). In some cases, dismemberment is
associated with trophy taking from the bodies of war enemies (Liston and Baker 1996;
Melbye and Fairgrieve 1994; Owsley et al. 1977; Smith 1993, 1997; Verano and Tufinio
51
n.d.). According to Smith (1997:246) dismemberment trophy taking of bones of the
appendicular skeleton is suggested by "circumferential cutmarks restricted to the area
proximal to an absent limb." Dismemberment frequently, although not always, is found
in conjunction with defleshing and cut marks suggestive of the two activities may be
observed on the same bone. Many of the references cited in the defleshing section above
also mention the presence of cut marks indicative of dismemberment (e.g., Bass and
Phenice 1975; Blom et al. 2003; Cook 1991; Jamieson 1983; Jelinek 1993; Keenleyside
et al. 1997; Lambert et al. 2000; Melbye and Fairgrieve 1994; Olsen and Shipman 1994;
Perez and Martin 1999; Pickering 1985; Pijoan and Mansilla 1990a, 1990b, 1997; Pijoan
and Pastrana 1987b; Pijoan et al. 1995; Raemsch 1993; Russell1987; Simon 1992;
Turner and Turner 1999; Verano 1998, 2001b, n.d.; Verano and Tufinio n.d.; Villa et al.
1986a, Villa et al. 1988; Warren 1984; White 1992).
Like defleshing, the contexts in which dismembered remains have been recovered
and the proposed motivations for dismemberment are multiple and complex and include
cannibalism, mutilation and trophy taking associated with warfare, human sacrifice,
autoamputation and mortuary treatment in preparation for secondary burial.
6
The same
patterns emerge as in defleshing, i.e, the lack of a formal burial and frequent
disarticulation in cases of cannibalism and human sacrifice, and formal burials often
accompanied by grave goods in the case of mortuary treatment. The strongest claims of
cannibalism are those in which the human remains were found highly disarticulated and
cut marks are part of a suite of evidence which also includes perimortem breakage,
percussion damage, burning and a lack of vertebrae (Lambert et al. 2000; Turner and
Turner 1999; Villa et al. 1986a; Villa et a. 1988; White 1992). Dismemberment as a
52
result of violence on the battlefield or post-battle mutilation and trophy-taking is typically
observed within one of two contexts. Victims (and in one case, slain enemies) are either
formally buried in cemeteries (Brothwell1971; Molto et al. 1986; Owsley et al. 1977;
Scott and Fitzpatrick 1989; Smith 1993, 1997), or placed into a mass grave (Liston and
Baker 1996; Willey 1990). To date, only one report ofautoamputation has been
published: at a Classic Period Maya site in Guatemala, dismembered fingers were placed
inside cache vessels located within and above a tomb (Dillon et al. 1985). In forensic
cases, motivations for dismemberment are similar to those for decapitation and include
mutilation, prevention of victim identification, and facilitation of transport or disposal of
the body (Reichs 1998).
RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES
In this study of perimortem and postmortem treatment of Precolumbian human
remains on the north coat of Peru, the following research issues are explored:
Question 1: Do patterns of frequency, orientation and location of cut marks on the
human bones in my sample suggest that the individuals were treated in a regular and
systematic way? Do some elements of the skeleton show more evidence of perimortem
or postmortem treatment than others? Were victims of human sacrifice defleshed and
dismembered with the same tools and techniques used in butchering camelids?
Hvnothesis 1: I expect that cut mark patteming will be regular and predictable within
each site in my sample. If it is possible to distinguish ritual activities from secular
53
activities on the basis of physical evidence such as cut marks, then I expect the patterning
and morphology of cut marks on the human remains in my sample to differ from that
observed in my sample of butchered camelid bones. I also hypothesize that bone
modification of the camelid remains in my sample will be similar to that recorded by
Shimada (1988, 1994; Shimada and Shimada 1981), Pozorski (1976) and Wing (1972) at
other Precolumbian sites in Peru.
Question 2: Can macroscopic and microscopic studies of cut mark morphology,
microscopic analysis of cross-sections of cut marks, and elemental analysis identify the
tool material (i.e., metal or stone) used to produce cut marks on the human remains in my
sample? Were ceremonial metal tumis such as those depicted in Moche iconography and
found in the archaeological record actually used to sacrifice human victims or did the
Moche idealize this activity in their art and grave goods while doing the real cutting with
less sophisticated and more utilitarian stone tools?
Hypothesis 2: I expect that though the use of macroscopic, microscopic and elemental
analysis, I will be able to determine the type of tool material used to produce cut marks
on the bones in my sample. I hypothesize that metal tools were used exclusively in the
perimortem and postmortem treatment of human sacrifice victims and that stone tools
were used to process camelids and other fauna. My reasoning for the above statements is
discussed below.
54
Question 3: Are there any differences in the perimortem and postmortem treatment
between the groups of individuals recovered from above and below the floor of Plaza 3C
at Huaca de la Luna or between the sacrificial victims from Plaza 3A and Plaza 3C? Is
there continuity or change in the patterns of perimortem and postmortem treatment of
human sacrifice victims found at Moche and Lambayeque sites? Are the cut mark
patterns and morphology found in the Pacatnamu sample similar or different from those
observed on bones in the Moche sample, and if they are different, can the differences be
explained technologically?
Hypothesis 3: I expect some temporal change in the perimortem and postmortem
treatment of human sacrifice victims at Huaca de la Luna, both between individuals from
Plazas 3A and 3C and between the two deposits of sacrificial victims from Plaza 3C. I
expect to see much continuity in the perimortem and postmortem treatment of sacrificial
victims between the Moche and Lambayeque cultures. I hypothesize that any differences
between the Moche and Lambayeque human remains in my sample concerning cut mark
patterns and morphology will be attributable to advances in metallurgy. See the
discussion section below regarding the above hypotheses.
Question 4: How can macroscopic and microscopic analysis of osteological remains
inform us about the events that took place at Pacatnamu and the Moche sites chosen for
this study? Can patterns of cut marks on victims of human sacrifice be used to identify
and distinguish activities such as throat slitting, decapitation, mutilation, torture, trophy
taking, defleshing, dismemberment, cannibalism, and mortuary treatment? Are certain
55
kinds of perimortem and postmortem treatment restricted to specific areas of a given site?
Can cut mark analyses be used to distinguish between simple disarticulation of body parts
and more complex postmortem treatment such as defleshing? How does the physical
evidence of ritual activities compare with the scenes of prisoner sacrifice and mutilation
represented in Moche and later north coast iconography?
Hypothesis 4: Through in-depth macroscopic and microscopic analysis of osteological
remains and detailed recording of cut marks, it will be possible to identify and distinguish
"signature" patterns of different activities, such as throat slitting, decapitation, defleshing,
dismemberment and so forth, that preliminary analyses have indicated were occurring at
the sites included in my sample. Based on previous studies by Alva and Donnan (1993),
Donnan and Castillo (1994) and others highlighting the close resemblance of
archaeological discoveries at Sipan and San Jose de Moro to certain scenes illustrated in
Moche art, I expect to find many direct comparisons between Moche and later north coast
iconographic depictions of prisoner capture, torture, sacrifice and mutilation and the
physical evidence for these activities.
Discussion for Hypothesis 2: Moche and Lambayeque sites on the north coast are
littered with opportunistic stone tools used for daily butchery and food preparation
(V erano, personal communication 1999). In a refuse assemblage at the Moche site of
Pampa Grande, Shimada (1994) noted the presence ofunifacial and bifacial basalt flakes
associated with butchered remains of camelids. To my knowledge, no utilitarian metal
tools or tool fragments have ever been found in direct association with faunal remains.
56
Although the Moche did not use obsidian tools (Russell, personal communication 1997),
they did have access to shale, diorite, rhyolite, andesite, and basalt resources
(Chapdelaine, personal communication 1999; Shimada 1994). The Moche also made
metal objects from pure copper, silver, and gold, as well as from alloys of copper-silver,
copper-gold and copper-silver-gold, although most of these pieces were ornamental
rather than utilitarian (Donnan 1978; Lechtman 1988, 1996). In 1996, excavations in the
urban sector at the Pyramids at Moche yielded an adobe brick oven that may have been
used in metal production (Chapdelaine 1998). While neither metal nor stone tools have
ever been found in direct association with human sacrifice victims, metal tumis have been
found archaeologically in Moche burial contexts, such as the copper tumi in the left hand
of the elderly man from Dos Cabezas mentioned earlier (Cordy-Collins 2001 :Figure
2.1 0). Copper tumis were included in three burials excavated in the urban sector at the
Moche Pyramids (Donnan and Mackey 1978:154-155; Chapdelaine et al. 1997:82; Uceda
and Armas 1997: I 02), and two large tumis-one of silver, the other of gold-were found
in the tomb of the "Warrior Priest" at Sipan (Alva and Donnan 1993). Other metal tumis
have been recovered from another tomb at Sipan, a burial in the urban sector at El Brujo
(Mehaffey, personal communication 1999), and a residential compound and three craft
workshops at the Moche site ofPampa Grande (Shimada 1994). No stone tumis have
ever been found. As I discussed in my review ofMoche iconography, supernatural
deities are shown using tumis to exsanguinate and decapitate sacrificial victims.
Discussion for Hypothesis 3: Since the above-floor and subfloor deposits of Plaza 3C
are temporally separated by approximately 300 years, it is reasonable to expect some
57
differences in the way human sacrifice victims were treated before and after death as the
practice evolved over time. This same logic applies to predicted differences between the
individuals from Plazas 3A and 3C. The mass burial of Plaza 3A at Huaca de la Luna
postdates the above-floor deposit of Plaza 3C by nearly 100 years and the subfloor
deposit of Plaza 3C by approximately 400 years (see Chapter Three for details).
Regarding assumed continuity in the treatment of sacrificial victims between the M oche
and Lambayeque cultures, the two cultures followed one another in time, occupied many
of the same sites, exploited similar resources, and appear to show genetic continuity
0/erano 1987, 2000b). Moreover, ceremonial metal tumis have been discovered in
Lambayeque burials at Batan Grande and Sican (Carcedo Muro and Shimada 1985;
Shimada 1981, 1987; Shimada and Griffin 1994; Shimada et al. 1983; Shimada et al.
2000); therefore, it is not unlikely that many aspects of Lambayeque human sacrifice
were either carryovers of or slightly modified from earlier Moche customs. The
Lambayeque occupation of the north coast (A.D. 900-1375) is marked by the large-scale
production of arsenic bronze (Lechtman 1988, 1991; Shimada 1987; Shimada and Merkel
1991; Shimada et al. 1983}, thus it is possible that the Lambayeque practiced human
sacrifice using similar techniques but different metal tools than the Moche.
58
INTRODUCTION
This chapter describes the skeletal collections included in this study and the
information collected about the bones and cut marks in my sample. Also included in this
chapter are descriptions of the techniques used in the examination and documentation of
cut marks as well as the methods used in making casts and thin sections. Finally, the
scanning electron microscope and elemental analyses conducted in this study are
discussed.
SAMPLE
The human remains analyzed in this project are from Moche occupations at the
multicomponent sites ofHuaca de la Luna, El Brujo, and Dos Cabezas (Figure 1). For
comparative purposes, three additional samples are included in this study: 1) human
bones with cut marks from the Lambayeque mass burial at Pacatnamu, 2) modem human
bones with cut marks from a recent forensic case, and 3) butchered faunal (primarily
camelid) remains from Huaca de la Luna, El Brujo and Pacatnamu. The Lambayeque
mass burial at Pacatnamu is especially important for comparative analysis because it
represents the only human bones with cut marks from a non-Moche context that have
been found on the north coast of Peru up until the time of this study. Below are short
descriptions of each site and the associated bone sample included in this project.
59
Huaca de la Luna
Site Description: Huaca de la Luna is an architectural complex composed of three
platforms and four plazas, connected by a series of terraces and corridors (Figure 2). It is
located at the foot ofCerro Blanco in the Moche River Valley, approximately five
kilometers south of the modem city ofTrujillo. At its base, the complex measures 290
meters north-south and 210 meters east-west. Platform I, the largest of the three
platforms, rises about 32 meters above ground level (Uceda 2001 :47-51). Facing the
Huaca de la Luna from a distance of around 500 meters is Huaca del Sol. Before it was
partially destroyed and looted by Spaniards in 1602, Huaca de Sol measured 41 meters
high with a base of 345 by 160 meters-making it not only the largest Moche pyramid
ever built, but the largest human-made structure in the New World (Donnan and Mackey
1978:57; Uceda 2001:47). The wide plain between the two truncated mounds contains
cemeteries, water canals, and both craft and residential areas (Chapdelaine 2001:69;
Uceda 2001:47). The entire site, which covers an area of over one square kilometer, is
called the Pyramids at Moche, after its two largest monuments (Donnan and Mackey
1978:57-59). The site was inhabited prehistorically from the Early Intermediate Period
through the Late Horizon, but its fluorescence as an important political and religious
center was during the Moche occupation (Uceda et al. 1986: 18).
Scientific excavations of the Pyramids at Moche were first conducted by German
archaeologist Max Uhle (1913) in 1898-1900. Between 1910 and 1955, sporadic
excavations of the site and documentation of the polychrome murals on Huaca de la Luna
were conducted by various archaeologists and scholars including Eduard Seler (1915),
Alfred Kroeber (1930), Rafael Larco Hoyle (2001a, 2001b) and Jose Garrido (1956).
60
From 1969-1974, Harvard University and the University of California, Los Angeles,
under the direction ofMichael Moseley and Carol Mackey, carried out investigations at
the Pyramids at Moche as part of the Chan Chan-Moche Valley Project (Moseley and
Day 1982). Included in this research were excavations in 1972-1973 near the huacas and
in the urban sector (Donnan and Mackey 1978; Topic 1977, 1982), a study of the
construction phases ofHuaca de la Luna and Huaca del Sol (Hastings and Moseley
1975), and further documentation of the polychrome reliefs on Huaca de la Luna
(Mackey and Hastings 1982). Since 1991, excavations ofHuaca de la Luna and the
surrounding urban sector have been conducted by the Proyecto Arqueol6gico Huacas del
Sol y de la Luna, eo-directed by Santiago Uceda and Ricardo Morales from the National
University of La Libertad, Trujillo (Uceda et al. 1997, 1998, 2000). In 1995, the
University of Montreal, Canada and the National University of La Libertad, Trujillo
began joint excavations at the site (Uceda et al. 1996).
Plaza 3A ofHuaca de la Luna is a walled enclosure built around a natural rock
outcrop on the western flank ofCerro Blanco (Figure 3). The plaza is located in the
southeast portion of the pyramid, sandwiched between Platforms I and II. It was
excavated from 1995-1997 by Steve Bourget (1997, 1998; Bourget and Millaire 2000)
who found dozens of sacrificial victims buried around the base of the rocky outcrop.
Based on architectural building phases ofHuaca de la Luna, Platform II and Plaza 3A
have been assigned to one of the last stages of construction, indicating a date of
approximately A.D. 500-700 (Bourget 2001b:95). Bourget tried twice without success to
radiocarbon date the plaza using collagen samples from bones of the sacrificial victims
(Verano n.d.2). However, using a sample of wood taken from a post of the roof of an
elite tomb located on Platform II just above the sacrificial mass burial, Bourget
(2001a:96; see also Chapdelaine 2001:73) obtained a 2 sigma calibrated date (95%
probability) of Cal A.D. 425-690 (Beta-96035).
Plaza 3C, located adjacent to and west of Plaza 3A, was first excavated in 1996
61
by Clorinda Orbegoso (1997), an archaeology student from the Catholic University of
Peru in Lima working for the Huaca de la Luna Archaeological Project. The purpose of
Orbegoso's investigation was to find a doorway connecting Plaza 3C and Plaza 3A. Due
to the massive volume of windblown sand covering the plaza and the specific goal of her
project, Orbegoso's excavation was limited to a single test pit. Although no doorway was
discovered, she did find a small number of disarticulated and partially articulated human
skeletons (ibid.). In 1999, funding was obtained to remove the sand overburden from
Plaza 3C and it was completely excavated in 1999-2001 under the direction of John
Verano and Peruvian archaeologist, Moises Tufinio (V erano n.d.1; Verano and Tufinio
n.d. ). Verano and Tufmio obtained four AMS radiocarbon dates for Plaza 3C-two dates
for the deposit below the floor of the plaza and two dates for the deposit above the floor.
The samples of organic material used for radiocarbon dating were rope fragments and
insect remains that were directly associated with the human sacrifice victims. The 2
sigma calibrated dates (95% probability) for the subfloor deposit are Cal A.D. 50-230
(Beta-158974) and Cal A.D. 110-330 (Beta-158975). The 2 sigma calibrated dates (95%
probability) for the deposit above the floor are Cal A.D. 410-600 (Beta-146464) and Cal
A.D. 460-480 (Beta-146465) (Verano n.d.1 ). Thus, deposition of skeletal remains at
Plaza 3C occurred over several hundred years. When dates for Plaza 3A and Plaza 3C
are considered together, it is clear that the practice of human sacrifice at Huaca de la
Luna was a long tradition spanning perhaps seven centuries.
62
Sample Description-Plaza 3A: All human remains excavated from Plaza 3A are
included in my sample and consist of 62 complete and partial skeletons, 30 isolated
crania (including nine with articulated mandibles and cervical vertebrae), 211 sets of
grouped remains composed of clusters of disarticulated bones and articulated elements
such as trunks, arms, legs, hands and feet, and 2586 isolated bones.
1
Due to the
complexity of the deposit and the vast quantity of partial remains and isolated bones, it is
not possible to provide an exact number of individuals. A tally using the left tal us yields
a minimum number of individuals (MNI) count of 75 (Table 1 ). The individuals are all
adolescent and young adult males, ranging in age from around 13 to 45 years, with an
average age of approximately 25 years.
2
Many bones have robust muscle attachment
areas and the individuals appear to have been in good physical health as evidenced by the
paucity of skeletal stress indicators, such as enamel hypoplasia, porotic hyperostosis and
cribra orbitalia (Roberts and Manchester 1995). Preservation of the bones ranges from
poor to excellent, with very good preservation of most bones. Many of the bones exhibit
evidence of weathering and sun bleaching, indicating a period of exposure on the surface.
Sample Description-Plaza 3C: The human remains from Plaza 3C in my sample are
composed of 30 complete, nearly complete and partial skeletons, 42 sets of grouped
remains consisting of articulated elements and clusters of disarticulated bones, and 725
isolated bones. Since excavations of Plaza 3C were ongoing in 2001 when I completed
63
my data collection for this project, my sample does not include all bones recovered from
this provenience. It does, however, contain all human bones excavated from Plaza 3C
through the 2000 field season and three sets of grouped remains (H31, H33, H36)
excavated during the 2001 field season.
3
Individuals from both the above-floor and
subfloor deposits are represented (Table 2). Due to the complexity of the deposit and the
large quantity of partial remains and isolated bones, it is not possible to provide an exact
number of individuals. A count using the left femur yields a MNI of33 (Table 3). As is
the case for Plaza 3A, the individuals are all adolescent and young adult males. The
Plaza 3C sample ranges in age from around 14 to 40 years, with an average age of
approximately 22 years.
4
All individuals seem to have been in good physical health as
suggested by the absence of skeletal stress indicators. Preservation of the bones ranges
from poor to excellent, but in general is very good. Many of the bones exhibit
weathering and sun bleaching suggestive of surface exposure.
EIBrujo
Site Description: The El Brujo archaeological complex is located in the Chicama River
Valley, near the modem town ofMagdalena de Cao, about 60 kilometers northwest of
Trujillo. The site of El Brujo covers approximately one square kilometer and is
composed of a series of habitation areas, cemeteries and monumental architecture dating
from the Preceramic Period through the Late Horizon (Franco 2001). Included in the El
Brujo complex are two adobe brick pyramids constructed by the Moche known as Huaca
El Brujo (also known as Huaca Cortada) and Huaca Cao Viejo. Since 1990, excavations
of Huaca Cao Viejo have been directed by Regulo Franco, Cesar Galvez, and Segundo
64
Vasquez, representing a tripartite agreement among the Augusto N. Wiese Foundation,
the National Institute of Culture, La Libertad, and the National University of La Libertad,
Trujillo, respectively. Huaca Cao Viejo is approximately 30 meters tall with a 120 meter
wide base, and dates from approximately A.D. 1-700 (Franco 2001). It was built in the
same Moche north coast architectural style as Huaca de la Luna and the central pyramid
at Dos Cabezas (described below): a step-platform pyramid with a flat summit, decorated
with polychrome murals, and fronted by a large ceremonial plaza. Other recent
excavations at El Brujo have been conducted by the Moche Foodways Archaeological
Project (1998-2001) directed by George Gumerman IV ofNorthern Arizona University.
5
The focus of this project is to understand the role of food in the development and
organization of Moche society through excavation of habitation areas at El Brujo and
other Moche sites (Moche Foodways Archaeological Project 2000).
Sample Description: The El Brujo human remains included in this study are limited to
three individuals from Huaca Cao Viejo. The first is represented by a single bone-a
partial femur that was inserted into the modeled clay foot of one of the figures holding
hands in the polychrome relief on the north face of the pyramid (Figures 4 and 5). These
figures holding hands are known locally as the "Danzantes," and thus the femur fragment
(and a camelid femur fragment accompanying it) are designated with this name. Only the
proximal Y.. of the human femur is present; it terminates in a perimortem shaft fracture.
Based on the degree of robusticity and epiphyseal closure, the femur is that of an adult
male. The bone is well preserved. The second individual (Entierro 2) is a 22-26 year old
male excavated in 1994 from a tomb located within the western sector of the pyramid.
6
65
The skeleton is fully articulated and relatively complete, with the exception of the skull,
which is fractured and incomplete. Although some sun bleaching is present on the frontal
bone, preservation of the remains is very good to excellent.
7
The third individual
(Entierro 1) is a complete, articulated skeleton of an 18-22 year old male. This individual
was excavated in 2000 from a simple grave on the superior platform of the pyramid.
Preservation of all bones is excellent. Some green staining is present on the alveolar
portion of the maxilla, probably due to a copper object placed in or on the mouth at the
time of burial. No radiocarbon dates are available for any of the individuals described
above; however, grave goods, burial position or context indicate association with Moche
occupation.
Dos Cabezas
Site Description: The Moche site of Dos Cabezas is located in the Jequetepeque River
Valley near the mouth of the Jequetepeque River. It is composed of flat-topped
pyramids, palaces and domestic areas, and may be the largest Moche settlement ever built
(Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at UCLA 2002). The site was named Dos Cabezas for
the twin peaks of its central adobe brick pyramid, which rises 32 meters from the valley
floor. Dual summits were not part of the original architecture of the structure but rather
are the result of an enormous trench dug through the top of the pyramid by early Spanish
looters (Donnan 200 I). M oche occupation of Dos Cabezas lasted from approximately
A.D. 150 to 550 (Lin-Eftekhar 2001). The first scientific excavations of the site were
conducted between 1994-2001 by Christopher Donnan of the University of California,
Los Angeles, and Guillermo Cock, a Peruvian archaeologist and graduate student in
66
archaeology at UCLA. Alana Cordy-Collins from the University of San Diego was the
project human osteologist, assisted by Rose Tyson from the San Diego Museum of Man.
In 1994, Cordy-Collins (2001) excavated the remains of 18 individuals from the "Cuarto
de Ios Cnl.neos,'' a long, narrow room in the southwest corner ofHuaca E, a temple
compound northwest of the main pyramid (Figure 6). The Cuarto de Ios Cnl.neos dates to
approximately A.D. 300 (Tyson and Cordy-Collins 1998). The skulls were clustered
together in the southwest corner of the room and along the southern end of the west wall
(ibid.).
Sample Description: Human bones from Dos Cabezas included in this project are the
skulls and articulated cervical vertebrae of 17 of the 18 individuals excavated from the
Cuarto de Ios Craneos (Table 4).
8
More specifically, the sample consists ot: 10 crania,
five partial crania or cralrial fragments, 10 mandibles, five partial mandibles, and 37
cervical vertebrae. The individuals range in age from young adult to older adult (Tyson
and Cordy-Collins 1998). The sex ofthe individuals, as originally determined by Tyson
and Cordy-Collins (1998), is as follows: six males, six females, one probable female, and
five of indeterminate sex. However, when I conducted my own sex determination of the
remains, I counted seven males, two probable males, three probable females, two
individuals of ambiguous sex, and three individuals of indeterminate sex (Table 5) (see
Chapter Four for further discussion).
9
Bones of four individuals show evidence of sun
bleaching (Tyson and Cordy-Collins 1998). Preservation of the remains was good to
very good; however, due to the close proximity of the original burial site to the Pacific
Ocean, many of the bones were encrusted with salt crystals, that, unfortunately,
67
rehydrated in the lab. As a result, the bones became moist and fragile, making inspection
for cut marks, sexing, and photography very difficult and, in a few cases, rendering
negative casting impossible.
Pacatnamu
Site Description: The site of Pacatnamu is situated on a high bluff above the mouth of
the Jequetepeque River. Covering approximately one square kilometer, it consists of
over fifty truncated adobe brick pyramids and associated courtyards and room complexes,
in addition to defensive walls, cemeteries and mortuary buildings (Donnan and Cock
1986). Originally constructed and inhabited by the Moche from approximately A.D. 600-
1050, the site was later occupied by Lambayeque peoples from around A.D. 1100-1370
(Donnan 1986). Pacatnamu was first excavated in 1937-1939 by German archaeologist
Heinrich Ubbelohde-During (1959, 1967), who continued his excavations in 1952-1953
and 1962-1963. A general site map and maps of some of the major architectural
structures were produced by Wolfgang and Gisela Hecker (1977, 1982, 1985) during
Ubbelohde-During's expedition in the early 1960s. Richard Keatinge (1977, 1982)
carried out an extensive surface survey of the site in 1974. From 1983-1987, excavations
at Pacatnamu were conducted by the Museum of Cultural History at UCLA, under the
direction of Christopher Donnan and Guillermo Cock (1986, 1997). It was during the
Pacatnamu Project in the 1980s that archaeologists found a mass burial of sacrificial
victims in a defensive trench near the main entrance of the Huaca 1 Complex (Figure 7).
Using a combined sample of bone collagen from two of the individuals, the mass burial
has a 2 sigma calibrated date (95% probability) ofCal A.D. 915-1280 (Beta-10740),
corresponding to the Lambayeque occupation of the site 01 erano and DeNiro
1993 :382).
10
68
Sample Description: Human bones from Pacatnamu included in my sample belong to the
14 individuals excavated from the Lambayeque mass burial (Table 6). To quote
Verano's (1986:132) original analysis of the remains, "The individuals are all adolescent
and young adult males, ranging in age from about 15 to 35 years, with an average age of
approximately 21 years. All appear to have been in good physical health, and many show
strongly developed muscle markings and robust skeletal morphology."
11
Twelve of the
articulated skeletons are nearly or partially complete; the remaining two (Individuals 6
and 12) are largely incomplete and disarticulated. Sun bleaching and weather cracking
are present on the mandible of Individual 7 and on the ribs of Individual 8 indicating a
period of surface exposure. Preservation is excellent for all bones. Based on the fact that
the sacrificial victims had been deposited into the trench on three separate occasions,
Verano (1986) divided them into three groups of four, eight, and two individuals,
respectively. These same groups are used in this project.
Forensic Case
Sample Description: Three modem human bones with cut marks from a 2002 forensic
case from Jefferson Parish, Louisiana, are included in my sample for comparative
purposes. The cut marks on the bones are especially of interest to this project because
they definitely were made with a metal tool. The bones consist of the third cervical
vertebra, the left first metacarpal, and a proximal hand phalanx of a 45 year old female
victim of a serial killer. Bone preservation is very good to excellent. The cervical
vertebra and metacarpal are complete. Only the proximal end of the proximal hand
phalanx is present; the rest is missing as a result of a perimortem fracture that occurred
during dismemberment of the victim. In October 2003, this case was closed. The
victim's killer pleaded guilty to this murder and two others and was sentenced to life in
prison. No further details are provided here in deference to the victim's family.
Faunal Remains
69
Sample Description: Three hundred seventy-eight faunal bones are included in my
comparative sample: 348 from Huaca de la Luna, 26 from El Brujo, and four from
Pacatnamu. All faunal remains from Huaca de la Luna are isolated camelid bones that
were included in the fill of Plaza 3C. Whether these bones represent occupational refuse
or ritual feasting is unclear, and the exact nature of their association with the human
remains in Plaza 3C is unknown (Verano n.d.1). Of the faunal remains from El Brujo, 19
were included in the contents of a Moche elite tomb (Tomb 2) excavated in 1998 from
the southwest corner of the superior platform ofHuaca Cao Viejo and one of the bones-
a proximal fragment of a camelid right femur, was found (along with the human right
femur fragment mentioned above) inserted into the foot of one of the "Danzantes." The
remaining six bones, i.e., three camelid, two sea mammal, and one bird bone, represent
food refuse from rooms in Moche domestic structures (Complejos 3.1 and 3.4) from the
habitation area of El Brujo, excavated in 2000 by the Moche Foodways Archaeological
Project. Three of the four faunal bones in my sample from Pacatnamu are surface finds
collected by Verano from wall clearing excavations around Huaca 20 and Huaca 28. The
70
fourth bone, a camelid calcaneus, also is a surface fmd collected by Verano; further
information about its provenience is unavailable. Of the total number of faunal bones in
my sample, approximately 94% (357/378) are camelid; the other 6% (21/378) are sea
mammal (3/378), bird (1/378), and unidentified faunal (17/378).
DATA COLLECTION
Data regarding provenience, date of excavation, field code, age, sex, bone element
and side, completeness, dental and skeletal trauma, weather cracking and sun bleaching
for the 18,214 human bones in my sample were first recorded on paper and later entered
into a Microsoft Access 2000 database (Table 7).
12
My recording system was
mode led after those used by Buikstra and Ubelaker ( 1994) and White ( 1992: 116). The
majority of information listed above was previously recorded by Verano himself or by
Verano and members of his physical anthropology team (composed primarily of
undergraduate and graduate students, including myself) for the human remains from
Huaca de la Luna, El Brujo, Pacatnamu, and the modem forensic case, and by Cordy-
Collins and Tyson for the human remains from Dos Cabezas. I verified (or, in some
cases, modified) all prior information when I personally examined the material during the
course of this project. In cases where the above data had not been previously recorded, I
did so myself following procedures described in Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994). All data
concerning species, bone element and side, completeness, trauma, weather cracking and
sun bleaching for the 382 faunal bones in my sample were recorded by me using Pacheco
Torres et al. (1986) as a reference, and with assistance in Peru from zooarchaeologists
Tom Wake (UCLA), Kendall Campbell (then from Northern Arizona University), and
Jean Hudson (University of Wisconsin). All fauna! data listed above, plus provenience
infonnation, also were initially documented by hand then subsequently entered into the
database.
71
Following methods used and justified by Cruz-Uribe and Klein (1994:42) in their
study of bone surface modification, only macroscopic cut marks on the human and fauna!
bones were recorded in this project.
13

14
Therefore, all analyses and interpretations found
within this dissertation are based entirely on 5, 776 cut marks that were easily detectable
with the naked eye.
15
My cut mark recording system was modeled after those used by
Binford (1981), Jelinek (1993), Lyman (1987), and Perez and Martin (1999). Cut marks
were recorded in tenns of number, location on the bone, length (in millimeters),
orientation relative to each other and to the long axis of the bone, microscopic
morphology at 20X magnification, inferred activity, and anatomical structure(s) affected
(e.g., joint, muscle, ligament) (Table 8). Cut mark lengths were measured using
Mitutoyo Digimatic calipers. Although measurements taken with calipers are not as
accurate as those obtained using an ocular micrometer (Shipman and Rose 1983a:92),
none of the microscopes available to me during this project had such a device.
Nevertheless, I found that caliper measurements were adequate for detecting cut mark
length patterns and establishing length ranges. Microscopic morphology included data on
shape, relative width, relative depth, wall morphology, presence of internal striae,
chattennarks and bone overhang, and any weather cracking or other damage affecting the
cut mark. In this project, chattermarks are defined as a series of short grooves or "nicks"
found immediately above or below (but not within) cut marks that are the result of too
much pressure being applied to the tool, causing it to skip across the bone surface
72
between intentional cutting strokes. The term "bone overhang" is my own and it refers to
a small, thin flap of bone that overlaps the groove. This is the same feature that Binford
(1981: 1 05) calls a bone "shelf." I prefer the descriptor "overhang" to "shelf' because I
think it is more accurate. As noted in Chapter Two, this feature is unique to cut marks
made with metal tools. Other types of surface modification, such as scrapes, rodent
gnawing marks, modem tool marks and sand abrasion, observed on the human and faunal
bones in my sample were briefly recorded in my notes.
Analysis of the human and faunal bones in my sample was carried out from 1999-
2002. The majority of bones included in this project were examined in Peru, in
laboratories in Trujillo and in the nearby seaside town ofHuanchaco. Exceptions are 16
human and four camelid bones from Pacatnamu that were exported from Peru by Verano
in the late 1980s, and all faunal bones from Tomb 2 at Huaca Cao Viejo that Verano
exported on my behalf in 1999. Analysis of these specimens was conducted at Tulane
University. With the exceptions listed above, all data collection, drawings,
macrophotography, and negative casting were carried out in Peru. All positive casting,
thin sectioning, microphotography, SEM analysis, and elemental analysis was done in
New Orleans.
CUT MARK EXAMINATION TECHNIQUES
The morphological criteria that I used to identify cut marks and cut mark mimics
are based on descriptions published by Binford (1981), Morlan (1984), Shipman (1981),
and Shipman and Rose (1983a). All human and camelid bones in my sample were
inspected for cut marks with my naked eye and with a 1 OX hand lens under direct
73
incandescent light. For microscopic analysis of the cut marks, I used a National
400TBL 30X stereomicroscope and a Bausch and Lomb 40X stereomicroscope while
in Peru, and in the United States, I used an Olympus SZ40 40X stereomicroscope
located in the Center for Archaeology on the Tulane University Uptown campus. During
microscopic analysis, magnifications of 6. 7X to 40X were used, but for the majority of
the cut marks, I found a magnification of 20X to be the most useful. Cut marks were
examined in cross section using an Olympus BX40 polarizing light microscope, also
located in the Tulane Center for Archaeology.
To differentiate between cut marks produced by metal tools from those made by
stone tools, I referred to studies by Binford (1981), Guilday et al. (1962), Olsen (1988),
Shipman and Rose (1983a), Wakely (1993), Walker (1990), and Walker and Long
(1977). To identify throat slitting in my sample, I followed criteria and descriptions
provided by Verano (1998, n.d.1; Verano and Tufinio n.d.). Decapitation was identified
following criteria and descriptions provided by Clarke (1979), Harman et al. (1981),
Haverkort and Lubell (1999), Melbye and Fairgrieve (1994), Owsley et al. (1977), Pijoan
and Mansilla (1997), Verano (1998, n.d.l), and Wakely (1993). Defleshing and
dismemberment was identified following criteria and descriptions provided by Bunn and
Kroll (1986), Cook (1991), Haverkort and Lubell (1999), Jamieson (1983), Jelinek
(1993), Keenleyside et al. (1997), Massey and Steele (1997), Melbye and Fairgrieve
(1994); Molto et al. (1986), Olsen and Shipman (1994), Owsley et al. (1977), Pijoan and
Mansilla (1997), Simon (1992), and Villa et al. (1988). For cut marks on the faunal
remains in my sample, I primarily relied on descriptions and illustrations provided in
Table 4.04 and Figures 4.06-4.39 in Binford (1981) to identify skinning, filleting and
dismembennent, and, to a lesser extent, on descriptions and illustrations of those same
activities by Guilday et al. (1962), (1989) and Pozorski (1976).
CUT MARK DOCUMENTATION
74
Cut marks on bones were documented using line drawings, digital photographs,
and color slides. For the majority of drawings, standard templates of each skeletal
element were used. When a template of a particular aspect of a bone was not available,
or in the case of all faunal bones, drawings were done freehand. Although not to scale,
the anatomical location, orientation, and length of the cut marks were represented on the
drawings as accurately as possible. Cut marks were mapped on to drawings in pencil.
Particularly illustrative drawings were traced in black ink. In cases of complete or partial
skeletons, a standard template of a whole skeleton was used in addition to individual
bone drawings to document the location of the cut marks. With a few rare exceptions of
bones I sketched myself, all original drawings and all inking were done by Peruvian
artists Carlos Ayesta, project draftsman for the Huaca de la Luna Archaeological Project,
and Gustavo Perez, a staff artist for the National University of La Libertad, Trujillo
Museum of Archaeology and History.
All bones with cut marks were recorded digitally using an Olympus 1.4
megapixel digital camera with macro lens attachment. For specimens that were
particularly well preserved and illustrative, photographs were taken with a Nikon N-70
35mm camera and a Nikon Micro-Nikkor 60mm lens (or, in a few cases, a Nikon
105mm micro lens), using Kodak Elitechrome or Fuji Fujichrome ISO 100 color slide
film. An aperture setting offl6 or f22, spot-metering, and manual focus were found to
75
be the most effective. A small number of photos also were taken with Kodak T-Max
ISO 100 black and white film. Bones that were photographed were placed on a black
velvet backdrop. Due to the low shutter speeds required, a tripod was necessary for all
photos. Most photographs were taken indoors. In Peru, artificial lighting was provided
by two swing-arm lamps fitted with 100 watt incandescent light bulbs. In the United
States, artificial lighting was provided by two clamp-base lamps containing photo-
specific 500 watt light bulbs. In an attempt to capture the natural color of the bones, a
blue filter was attached to the camera lens for color slides. For some cut marks, cut mark
cross sections and other selected features, photomicrographs were taken using an
Olympus 35mm camera made specifically for use with the Olympus SZ40
stereomicroscope and Olympus BX40 polarizing light microscope.
CASTING METHODS
The production of three-dimensional replicas of cut marks and other surface
features on the bones in my sample was vital to this project for several reasons. First,
casts are considerably more durable than real bones and thus are less subject to damage
and loss of information. Second, casts provide detailed copies of original specimens that
are available for study at any time. Third, unlike heavy, bulky bones, casts are light and
compact and therefore much more easily transported, and, because they are not items of
cultural patrimony, there are no problems with their export. Fourth, casts are easy to
manipulate when conducting microscopic analysis. Fifth and finally, casts allow
destructive activities such as thin sectioning and SEM analysis without harming the
original bones. Below are detailed descriptions of the methods used in this project to
create negative and positive casts.
Negative Casts
76
Before any negative casting material was applied to the bones, they were carefully
cleaned of dust and debris with water or pressurized air. Negative casts were made using
Imprint 11, a hydrophilic vinyl polysiloxane dental impression material manufactured
by 3M. Imprint 11 wash material is available in both low and regular viscosity. Both
viscosities produce negative casts of excellent quality. I found that the low viscosity
wash material was better for casting fragile areas because it was less likely to damage the
bone surface, but that the regular viscosity seemed to produce casts that were slightly
superior in quality. Nearly all negative casts in my sample were produced using regular
viscosity wash material. The impression material consisted of a base and a hardener,
which were extruded from a dual-chamber cartridge with a dispenser resembling a caulk
gun into a plastic mixing tip and then on to the specimen. The impression material was
allowed at least five minutes to completely set before the negative casts were peeled off
the bones.
Casting of cut marks was not random, nor were casts made of all cut marks. Cut
marks occurring on extremely fragile or weathered bones were not cast because these
bones were unable to withstand the casting process without sustaining major damage to
the original cut mark, the bone surface, or both. Cut marks that were filled with
irremovable debris, damaged, or in extremely porous areas also were excluded from
casting because the casts would have been of poor quality and little value to this project.
77
In a few cases, cut marks were filled with polyvinyl acetate, a stabilizing substance that is
occasionally applied to particularly fragile bones or features on bones in order to preserve
them. Polyvinyl acetate is detrimental to cut mark analysis because it fills up the cut
mark grooves and obscures cut mark morphology. In cases where the bone was judged
strong enough to withstand casting, the polyvinyl acetate coating was dissolved with
acetone applied with a soft brush, and negative casts were then made.
Cut marks were chosen for negative casting based on the bone on which they
were found, their location on the bone, and their appearance. In general, negative casts
were made of all bones with cut marks in my sample, unless for some reason (see above)
the bone or the cut mark( s) were unsuitable. In cases of skeletons (complete or partial)
and articulated skeletal elements, whenever possible, I cast at least one of each type and
subtype ofbone with cut marks.
16
If multiple cut marks or groups of cut marks were
present on a single bone, multiple casts frequently were made as well, especially if the
cuts occurred in functionally distinct surfaces (e.g., shaft vs. articular surface), and
indicated different activities (e.g., defleshing vs. dismembering). Casts also were made
of particularly diagnostic or unusual cut marks and, in a few select cases, of other notable
features such as scrapes, rodent gnawing, sand abrasion and modem tool marks. Except
for bones that would not have withstood multiple casting, a minimum of two casts were
produced of each selected cut mark or group of cut marks. Duplicate negative casts were
made for several reasons. First, air bubbles in the casting material would occasionally
occur, obscuring the cut mark(s). Duplicate casts helped to ensure that at least one cast of
a given area would be useable for analysis. In other cases, tiny pockets or specks of
debris within the cut marks that resisted removal by pressurized air, water, or gentle
78
cleaning with a toothbrush, were extracted by the casting material. The duplicate cast
was thus more representative of the actual cut mark morphology than the original
negative cast. The production of duplicate casts also was a good idea because negative
casts are soft and can tear during the creation of positive casts. Moreover, every time a
positive cast is made, a small amount of fine detail is lost on the negative. Ideally, each
negative cast should be used to produce no more than two or three positive casts (Perez,
personal communication 1999). Duplicate casts ensure that all fine detail is preserved.
A total of 669 original negative casts and 509 duplicate negative casts were made
(Table 9). Thirty original casts and 14 duplicate casts were later removed from my
sample for various reasons, most often because of air bubbles or tiny weather cracks
crossing the cut mark at midpoint. Negative casts (i.e., originals and any duplicate casts)
were stored in individual ziplock plastic bags labeled with the cast number, site, field
code, bone element and side, and location on the bone where the cast was made. Cast
numbers were recorded in my notes below their corresponding cut mark or group of cut
marks.
17
To identify duplicate casts, I added letters to the cast numbers, e.g., 2A, 3A, 4A,
and so forth. I taped sheets of tracing paper on top of my line drawings of individual
bones. I then traced the cut marks I had cast, drew circles around the casting areas, and
labeled each circle by cast number. In this way I was able to document where exactly on
each bone and of which particular cut marks negative casts were made without obscuring
my original drawings. Based on personal experience and on advice given to me by Tim
White (personal communication 1999), I learned that all macroscopic photographs should
be taken before making any negative casts because of the inherent risks involved in
casting, e.g., the casting material may leave shiny areas on the bones, tiny bits of casting
79
material may be left behind in the cut marks themselves or in adjacent porous areas of the
bone where they are impossible to remove without damage, or the casting material may
exfoliate the bone surface and damage the cut mark{s).
Positive Casts
To ensure that my positive casts were of high quality, all selected negative casts
were cleaned of any dust and debris with water or pressurized air. For some negative
casts that had bone debris sticking to them, a soft toothbrush was used in addition to
water, with special care taken to avoid damaging the cut mark impressions. To turn the
negative casts into molds, walls were built around the edges of the casts using 3M
Express m STD Firmer Set Putty made from vinyl polysiloxane impression material. In
case the positive casting material overflowed the molds, each mold was placed inside
small, shallow plastic cups. Most often, I used Buehler disposable 2" diameter cold
mounting cups, normally used for making ceramic thin sections. I preferred these cups
because the epoxy resin did not permanently adhere to them and they could be reused.
Molds that were too large to fit into plastic cups were placed into clean and empty tuna
fish or cat food cans. Since the negative casts were not themselves labeled, the cups or
cans containing the molds were placed on top of the labeled plastic bags to avoid
confusion and mix-ups.
Positive casts were made using Four-to-One Super Hard Epoxy Resin and
Hardener, a low viscosity epoxy resin manufactured by Tap Plastics, Inc. Four parts
epoxy resin and one part hardener were mixed together manually in a plastic drinking cup
with a wooden tongue depressor. In order to make the cut marks easier to see when thin
80
sectioning and conducting microscopic analysis, several drops of Liquitex unbleached
titanium medium viscosity acrylic paint were stirred into the mixture, which was then
poured into the molds.
18
The positive casts were allowed to cure between 24-48 hours
before they were extracted from the molds. A total of 423 original positive casts and 11
duplicate positive casts were produced (Table 1 0). The positive casts, negative molds
and any unused negative casts were stored together in the labeled ziplock plastic bags.
THIN SECTIONING TECHNIQUE
Analysis of cross sections of cut marks was conducted to obtain maximum width
and depth measurements and more detailed information on cut mark morphology and tool
type. Cross sections of the cut marks were obtained by thin sectioning positive casts.
First, a black Sharpie marker was used to mark the ends and the middle of the chosen
cut mark to use as guides when sawing the cast. Then, a Hillquist SF-8 trim saw was
used to section the cut mark at its midpoint. To make sure that the morphology of the
cross section was accurate, care was taken to make sure that the cut mark was held
perpendicular to the saw blade and on a parallel plane with the floor. The sectioned cast
was then placed face down on to a petrographic glass slide. If the cast did not lie flush
with the surface of the slide (required for proper mounting), additional sawing of the cast
was done to obtain a level surface. Afterward, the sectioned cast was inspected under the
Olympus SZ40 stereomicroscope and any sawing debris was removed with water or
pressurized air. The glass slide was cleaned with rubbing alcohol and the cast was
permanently mounted on to the slide using a small drop or two ofUV-154 (ultraviolet)
adhesive. Under exposure to direct sunlight, UV -154 cures in 90 seconds. The black
81
Sharpie marker was used to make a small tick mark on the slide above the location of
the cross section to facilitate locating the cross section under the microscope. A thin
section of the cast was then produced using a Buehler Petro-Thin Thin Sectioning
System. Periodically during this step, the slide was removed from the thin sectioning
machine, cleaned with rubbing alcohol, and examined under the Olympus BX40
polarizing light microscope at 40X magnification to monitor the thickness of the section.
Once the desired thickness had been achieved, the slide was placed in an Ultramet 2003
ultrasonic cleaner filled with distilled water for 8-12 minutes to remove any sawing
debris, then allowed to air dry. To keep track of which thin sections were made from
which positive casts, each slide was assigned and labeled with an alphanumeric code and
this infonnation was entered into the database. Completed thin sections were stored on
trays in a slide cabinet in the Tulane Center for Archaeology.
A total of305 thin sections were made, 17 of which were duplicates (Table 11).
Not all positive casts were thin sectioned. Positive casts were chosen for thin sectioning
based on three criteria: provenience, bone group (i.e., cranial vault, face, mandible,
clavicles, scapulae, ribs, cervical vertebrae, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, ossa
coxae, arm, carpals, metacarpals, hand phalanges, leg, tarsals, metatarsals, and foot
phalanges), and hypothesized activity. For each bone group from the same individual, if
a single activity was represented, the highest quality cast was chosen for thin sectioning.
If more than one activity was represented on the same bone or within the same bone
group, then multiple casts (i.e., one per activity) were selected. When more than one cut
mark was present on a selected cast, I picked the best example to cross section. The
selection of a cut mark for cross sectioning was based on its depth, length, and the
82
absence of air bubbles or weather cracks in the vicinity of its midpoint. Intersecting cuts
and multiple cuts sharing a single groove were excluded from consideration. Whenever
possible, I chose relatively deep cuts to cross section because I found that they not only
provided the most information on wall and floor morphology, but that they were easier to
distinguish from air bubbles and other surface topography under the microscope. Length
also was a selection factor because the trim saw blade is 1.67 mm wide; therefore, the cut
mark had to be at least triple that amount in length in order to produce a useable cross
section. In addition to the cut marks selected for cross sectioning using the criteria
described above, I also cross sectioned cut marks of unusual or ambiguous shape, and
other bone surface features such as scrapes, modem tool marks, rodent tooth marks, and
sand abrasion.
In order to obtain maximum width and depth measurements of the cut marks in
cross section, digital images of the cross sections at 40X magnification and 1000 dpi
resolution were recorded on to the hard drive of a Macintosh PowerPC computer using
Image-Pro Plus 3.0.1 software and a Sony video camera mounted on to the
Olympus BX40 microscope. Since some clarity was lost during the recording process,
the cross section images were enhanced using sharpen filters available through Image-Pro
Plus and Adobe Photoshop 4.0.1. Maximum width and depth in millimeters then
were taken of each cross section using the manual measurement feature in Image-Pro
Plus.
19
A total of271 maximum width and 272 maximum depth measurements were
recorded.
20
Thirty-five cross sections were not measured or their measurements were
discarded for various reasons, including air bubbles and cast duplication. All
83
measurements were saved into a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet file. Statistical analysis
of the metric data was conducted using SPSS 11.5.
SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE ANALYSIS
Fifty-seven positive casts were selected for more detailed analysis using the SEM.
Of the 57 casts, 36 were casts of cervical vertebrae chosen expressly for studying
directionality of the cutting stroke(s) used in decapitating or slitting the throats of the
sacrificial victims?
1
Directionality was assessed following methods described by
Bromage and Boyde (1984). The remaining 21 casts were selected based on the unique
or diagnostic morphology of the cut marks or other features (e.g., sand abrasion, rodent
tooth marks) represented. Positive casts that were too large to fit into the SEM chamber
were cut down to size with the trim saw. The trim saw also was used to cut small notches
into the superior edge of the cervical vertebrae casts to ensure that their orientation within
the SEM chamber could be determined at all times and assessments of directionality of
cutting stroke(s) were accurate. I found that making all casts as small as possible by
removing all unnecessary portions with the trim saw not only minimized the period of
time and amount of gold needed to sputter-coat the samples, but also increased the
number of casts that could be analyzed per session because small casts require less time
for the SEM chamber to reach total vacuum status. Once the positive casts had been
properly prepared, they were mounted on to 1.2 or 2.5 centimeters diameter aluminum
stubs with colloidal silver adhesive and sputter-coated with a thin layer (approximately
12-15 nanometers) of gold. A black marker was used to label the underside of each stub
with its positive cast number. Mounted specimens were kept clean and dust-free in
specially-designed plastic storage boxes made by S.P.I. Supplies.
84
All SEM analysis was carried out in the Coordinated Instrumentation Facility
Organic Laboratory in Percival Stem Hall on the Tulane University Uptown campus.
The SEM used in this project was a JEOL JSM-820 manufactured in 1988. Casts were
examined using an accelerating voltage of20kV and at magnifications ranging between
15X-2000X, although magnifications of between 15X-250X were found to be the most
effective. Degree of tilt varied from 0 to 45 and orientation varied from 0 to 360.
Micrographs of important features were taken with Polaroid Polapan Type 55 black
and white film, using the integral camera system on the SEM.
ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS
A sample of 14 isolated bones (eight human and six faunal), from Plaza 3C at
Huaca de la Luna were exported from Peru for elemental analysis using a micro X-ray
fluorescence spectrometer.2
2
These particular bones were chosen because they each had
relatively deep cut marks filled with debris. The purpose of elemental analysis was to
determine if the cut marks contained any debris whose composition could be used to
identify the tool(s) that produced them. The method ofX-ray fluorescence (XRF)
analysis was well suited for this task because it is non-destructive, does not require time-
consuming sample preparation and is able to determine the concentrations of nearly all
elements of the periodic table (Moens, V on Bohlen and V andenabeele 2000). Out of the
14 bones available, two bones--one human cervical vertebra fragment and one camelid
astragalus fragment-were selected and given to Dr. Robert Dotson, director of the
85
Coordinated Instrwnentation Facility Organic Laboratory at Tulane. Dr. Dotson took the
bones to the annual Pittsburgh Conference on Analytical Chemistry and Applied
Spectroscopy (commonly known as Pittcon) held March 21, 2002 at the Emest N. Morial
Convention Center in New Orleans. The bones were placed into an Eagle II micro X-ray
fluorescence spectrometer manufactured by EDAX, Inc. The bones were examined using
an accelerating voltage of 40kV and a 300J,lm spot beam. The specimens were not
analyzed under vacuum conditions because a vacuum pump was not available.
86
CHAPTERFOUR: RESULTS
INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the results of my analysis of cut marks on the human and fauna!
bones in my sample are presented. In addition, the results of microscopic studies of cut
mark cross section metrics and directionality are evaluated and the elemental analysis of
two bone samples is discussed. This chapter concludes with a brief summary of the types
and prevalence of trauma observed within each collection of skeletal remains.
CUT MARK PATTERNING AND PERIMORTEM TREATMENT
Huaca de la Luna-Piaza 3A
Cut marks on the skeletal remains from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna were
observed primarily on the cervical vertebrae but also were found on the skull, ribs, left
clavicle, scapulae, humeri, radii, ulnae, metacarpals, hand phalanges, right os coxae,
femora, tibiae, fibulae, and foot phalanges. The number of bones with cut marks per
element is presented in Table 12. Table 13 identifies and summarizes all regions with cut
marks on each bone. Tables 12 and 13 are closely modeled after Tables 1 and 2,
respectively, in Melbye and Fairgrieve (1994). Due to the complexity of the Plaza 3A
mass burial and the post-excavation mixing of bones of various individuals, my findings
regarding cut mark patterning and perimortem treatment
are discussed in general tenns by bone rather than on an individual by individual basis.
However, when it is possible to identifY specific individuals, I have done so.
Skull Vault
87
Nine individuals exhibit cut marks on the cranial vault. Cuts are located on the
frontal, parietal, and occipital bones, with the frontal bone the most commonly affected.
Typically, cut marks are limited to a single vault bone of each individual; however, two
individuals, Individual IV and HG96-53, have cuts on two or more vault bones. Due to
the intact nature of most of the skulls, it was impossible to examine the majority of
cranial cut marks under the microscope. In such cases, a 1 OX hand lens was used.
A total of35 cut marks are found on the frontal bones of five individuals,
Individuals 11 and IV, Craneos IX and XXV and HG96-53. Nearly two-thirds (23/35) of
the cuts are located on the frontal squama; others are found on the left superciliary arch
and around the lateral margin of the right orbit (Figures 8-11). The number of cut marks
on each frontal varies from one to seventeen. Length of all cuts ranges from 0.8 mm to
35.5 mm, with the shortest cut marks found around right orbit (0.8 mm to 1.9 mm) and
the longest present on the frontal squama (2.3 mm to 35.5 mm). Most cuts on the frontal
squama have a general anteroposterior orientation and lie more or less parallel to one
another. Three of the four cut marks on the left superciliary arch lie parallel to one
another; the fourth is oriented at an oblique angle to the others. Three-quarters ( 6/8) of
the cut marks around the lateral margin of the right orbit lie parallel to one another, and
intersect in two cases. Relative width of all cuts on the frontal varies from very narrow to
wide, with 26 of35 cut marks (74.2%) classified as narrow. Relative depth ranges from
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very shallow to deep, with most cut marks classified as either semi-shallow (10/35 or
28.5%) or moderately deep (12/35 or 342%). All cuts are V-shaped with straight, sheer
walls. Approximately 14% (5/35) of all cuts have internal striae within the main groove
and no bone overhangs are present. None of the cut marks contain weather cracks or
have suffered damage, although two were salt encrusted at one time. Only one case of
chattermarks was recorded. Shallow scrapes are present on the frontal bones of
Individual XXV and H096-53.
The left parietals of three individuals, Craneos X and XIV and H096-53, exhibit
two, one and three cut marks, respectively, and two cuts are found on the right parietal of
Individual IV. Cut marks on the left parietal are located near bregma and oriented
anteroposteriorly above and parallel to the left temporal line, and above and
perpendicular to the temporal suture, the latter two locations in the area of the temporalis
attachment (Figures 11 and 12). The two cuts on the right parietal are positioned near
lambda, parallel to the sagittal suture (Figures 9 and 13). The cut marks range in length
from 5.7 mm to 23.2 mm, with 75% (6/8) measuring over 10 mm. Two cuts are
discontinuous. Five cut marks lie more or less parallel to one another and two intersect.
Seven of eight cut marks (87.5%) are classified as narrow. The cut on the left parietal of
Craneo XIV is relatively wide. Relative depth ranges from shallow to deep, with half
( 4/8) of all cut marks classified as moderately deep. All cuts are V -shaped, and all
observable walls are straight. The shallowness of one cut mark on Craneo X prevented
analysis of its walls. Four cut marks contain internal striae. None of the cuts exhibit
bone overhangs and none are affected by weather cracks or damage. No chattermarks
were observed.
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Two, eight and four cut marks, respectively, are present on the occipital bones of
Individuals IV, XX and XXI. All cuts are located on the occipital squama, near lambda
and above and below the external occipital protruberance (Figures 9, 13-15). Length of
the cut marks ranges from 2.4 mm to 12.8 mm. One cut on the occipital of Individual
XX is discontinuous; however, it is possible that other seemingly discrete cut marks on
this bone may have been produced by the same cutting strokes. All cut marks except one
are oriented roughly anteroposteriorly. One cut on the occipital of Individual XXI is
oriented more or less horizontally. When clustered together, the cut marks lie parallel to
one another. Relative width varies from narrow to wide, with the majority of cuts
classified as either narrow (6/14 or 42.8%) or wide (6114 or 42.8%). Nine of 14 cut
marks (64.2%) are relatively deep; the five remaining are either semi-shallow or
moderately deep. All but two cut marks are V -shaped, and all but three have straight
walls (see explanation of exceptions below). Three cuts contain internal striae within the
main groove and one exhibits bone overhang. All four cuts on the occipital of Individual
XXI are traversed by weather cracks; no other cut marks are affected by weathering.
Two cut marks exhibit damage, one case in which may be perimortem. No chattermarks
are present. Adjacent and perpendicular to the lower two groups of cut marks on the
occipital of Individual XX are two clusters of deep scoring (Figure 14). These scars are
distinguished from the more delicate cuts in that they are wider, deeper, and crescent-
shaped with uneven floors. More force was applied to create these marks and they appear
to have been produced with a different, duller tool than was used to make the other cut
marks.
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When assessing cut mark morphology, three cut marks stand out from all others
found on the occipital bone-the roughly vertical cut marks on the occipital squama of
Individual XXI (Figure 15). By far, these cut marks are the widest and deepest of any
marks observed on any cranial vault bone and appear as chop marks rather than fine
slices. Two of the chop marks are relatively U-shaped, most likely due to increased
pressure placed on the cutting tool, resulting in the mashing down of the sides of the main
groove. Their walls are relatively coarse with irregularly chipped edges. In addition, the
groove of one of the chop marks is not linear but rather zig-zags. The third chop mark is
linear and V -shaped; sections of its walls are straight but other portions are coarse. It is
clear that these three chop marks were produced using considerably more force than the
fourth cut mark present on the occipital of Individual XXI. Thus, similar to the scoring
on the occipital of Individual XX described above, they may have been made with a
different tool.
The cut marks on the frontal squama and left superciliary arch of the frontal, the
left and right parietals, and the occipital (excluding the chop marks described above)
indicate laceration of the scalp, which in the case of cuts on the frontal bone, may have
included flaying of the forehead. Scalping as a possible motivation can be discarded for
two reasons. First, this practice is unknown in Andean South America and second, the
vast majority of cuts are oriented more or less anteroposteriorly rather than
circumferentially, as is typical for scalp removal (Hamperll967). The cut marks on the
frontal and right malar (see below) around the lateral margin of the right orbit suggest
facial disfigurement.
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In addition to the cut marks on the frontal, parietal and occipital bones discussed
above, a total of eighteen cut marks are present on six cranial vault bone fragments (H96-
157, H96-180, H96-201 and H96-215) (Figure 16).
1
Five fragments have between one
and three cuts per bone; the sixth has eight. Five of eighteen cut marks (27. 7%) could not
be measured due to damage or, in the case of the cut on vault fragment H96-215,
discontinuity. Length of the remaining 13 cut marks ranges from 2.8 mm to 9.5 mm.
One of the cut marks on H96-215 is actually composed of two small parallel cuts lying
very close to one another. Orientation of the cut marks relative to one another is quite
variable; they lie perpendicular, parallel and at oblique angles to one another, as well as
intersect. Relative width of the cuts varies from narrow to wide with most cut marks
classified as either narrow (7118 or 38.8%) or wide (6/18 or 33.3%). The cut mark on
vault fragment H96-201 was too damaged to assess width. Relative depth ranges from
shallow to deep, with most cuts classified as either shallow (6/18 or 33.3%) or semi-
shallow (8/18 or 44.4% ). Depth could not be assessed for one cut. Thirteen of eighteen
cut marks (72.2%) are V-shaped, three relatively shallow cuts are U-shaped and two
other shallow cuts are of indeterminate shape. Approximately 39% (7/18) of the cut
marks have straight walls, and half (9/18) have one straight wall and one coarse wall.
Eight of eighteen cuts ( 44.4%) contain internal striae within the main groove and four
have bone overhangs. One cut mark on H96-180 has been affected by surface weathering
and four cut marks are damaged, three perimortem. Chattermarks are present near one of
the cuts on H96-215. Shallow scraped areas were observed on skull vault fragments
H96-157 and H96-215. The cut marks on five of the fragments (H96-157, H96-180 and
H96-20 1) may represent scarring resulting from perimortem blows to the head with a
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sharp bladed weapon. These marks are relatively wide and shallow, possess one straight
wall and one coarse wall, and tend to have coarse floors as well. Shape in cross section is
variable. The cuts on skull vault fragment H96-215 are very similar in appearance to the
cut marks on the frontal, parietal and occipital bones discussed earlier and most likely
represent laceration of the scalp.
Facial Bones
Three horizontal, parallel cut marks are present on the right malar of Craneo IX,
around the lateral margin of the right orbit (Figure 10). They are a continuation of the cut
marks present on the right frontal immediately superior. The cuts measure (superior to
inferior) 0.8 mm, 1.2 mm and 0.5 mm in length, respectively. All three cut marks are
relatively wide. Two of the cuts are relatively semi-shallow in depth; the third is
moderately deep. The cut marks are V -shaped with straight, smooth walls. They lack
internal striae and bone overhangs. None of the cuts are affected by weather cracks or
are damaged. No chattermarks were observed. As mentioned previously, the motivation
behind these cut marks and those on the frontal around the right orbit of Craneo IX was
most likely disfigurement.
Cervical Vertebrae
The majority of cut marks present on the bones of sacrificial victims from Plaza
3A are located on the cervical vertebrae. As illustrated by Figure 17, upper (CI-C4)
vertebrae are much more likely to have cut marks than lower (C5-C7) vertebrae and C3 is
the vertebra most commonly affected.
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The atlas vertebrae of three individuals, including HG96-61, present a total of
nine cut marks. The cuts are located on the inferior aspect of the anterior arch (3/9 or
33.3%), the anterior aspect of the lateral mass (3/9 or 33.3%), the left (1/9 or 11.1%) and
right (1/9 or 11.1 %) transverse processes, and the anterior margin of the right inferior
articular facet (1/9 or 11.1%) (Figures 18-20). The number of cut marks on each bone
varies from two to four. The cut marks range in length from 1.6 mm to 8.6 mm, with
seven of nine cuts measuring between 1-5 mm long. The length of one cut could not be
determined due to damage. One of the cut marks on the inferior aspect of the posterior
arch is discontinuous. When occurring in clusters, the cuts lie parallel to one another.
Relative width of the cut marks ranges from narrow to wide, with most cut marks ( 4/9 or
44.4%) classified as narrow. Relative depth varies from semi-shallow to very deep, with
all but two cuts classified as either moderately deep or deep. All cut marks are V -shaped,
with straight, sheer walls. One cut contains internal striae within the main groove. Three
cut marks have bone overhangs. None of the cuts are affected by weather cracks;
however, three cuts are damaged. No chattermarks are present.
Twenty-eight axis vertebrae exhibit a total of one hundred forty cut marks.
Individuals with axis vertebrae with cuts include Individuals I, IV, XVIII, XXI, XXII,
XXIII, XXVII and XXX, Craneo (with associated cervical vertebrae) XVIIIa, HG96-22,
HG96-53, HG96-77 and HG96-104, and H96-1 and H96-167. Forty-five percent
(63/140) of the cut marks are located on the anterior aspect of the vertebral body. Other
cuts are present on the anterior aspect of the dens (4/140 or 2.8%), the anterior (311140 or
22.1%), lateral (5/140 or 3.5%) and inferior (3/140 or 2.1%) aspects of the left transverse
process, the anterior aspect of the right transverse process (30/140 or 21.4%), and the
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posterior aspect of the right lamina and right superior articular facet (4/140 or 2.8%)
(Figures 20-23). As seen in Figure 24, the number of cut marks on each axis varies from
one to twenty-four, with a mode of one cut per bone. Length of the cut marks ranges
from 0.7 mm to 23.4 mm, with the majority (91/140 or 65%) measuring between 1-6 mm.
Approximately 20% (19/140) of the cut marks were too damaged to measure. Eight cuts
are discontinuous, often due to the passage of the knife across porous areas of bone. A
little over 60% ( 40/63) of the cut marks located on the anterior body specifically, or on
the anterior aspect of the bone in general (79/128) are oriented more or less horizontally;
in both cases, the remaining cuts are obliquely oriented relative to the superior-inferior
axis of the bone. Approximately 81% (98/121) of clustered cut marks lie roughly parallel
to one another. Other grouped cut marks either intersect or lie at oblique angles to one
another. Relative width ranges from narrow to very wide, with 98 of 140 cuts (70%)
classified as narrow. In four cases, relative width varies within the cut mark itself, e.g.,
narrow in one portion of the groove and wide in another. Relative depth ranges from
shallow to very deep, with semi-shallow having the highest frequency (48/140 or 34.2%).
In six cases, relative depth varies within the groove. All but eight cut marks are V-
shaped. One cut is U-shaped (although it is extremely damaged and its shape may have
been subsequently altered), and the shape of seven could not be determined due to
various factors including porosities, weather cracking, and damage. One hundred nine of
one hundred forty cut marks (77 .8%) have straight, sheer walls, as exemplified by Figure
25. Three cut marks have relatively coarse walls, a feature attributable to the blade
passing through a particularly porous area. Wall morphology was not possible to assess
for 20% (28/140) of the cut marks, mostly due to damage. Thirty cuts (21.4%) contain
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internal striae within the main groove, and nearly as many (24/140 or 17.1%) have bone
overhangs. About 16% (231140) of the cut marks are affected by weather cracks and
almost 38% (53/140) have suffered damage. Two cases ofchattermarks were observed.
Semi-shallow scrapes are present on the axis vertebra ofHG96-53.
Fifty-three middle and lower cervical vertebrae (i.e., C3-C7, and including three
cervical vertebrae whose exact position was not possible to determine) present a total of
192 cut marks. Individuals with C3-C7 vertebrae exhibiting cuts include Individuals I, II,
IV, VI, XVIII, XX, XXV a, XXVII, XIX and 3, Craneo (associated with cervical
vertebrae) XVIIIa, and HG96-1, HG96-5, HG96-10, HG96-18, HG96-22, HG96-49,
HG96-71, HG96-89, HG96-98, HG96-102 and HG96-104, and H96-24, H96-165 and
H96-167.
2
Cut marks are present on the anterior (100/192 or 52%) and inferior (11192 or
.5%) aspects of the vertebral body, the left and right lateral margins of the superior aspect
of the body (31/192 or 16.1% ), the anterior aspect of the left superior articular facet
(4/192 or 2%), the anterior and lateral aspects of the right superior articular facet (6/192
or 3.1%), the anterior and lateral aspects of the left (20/192 or 10.4%) and right (211192
or 10.9%) transverse processes, and the lateral and inferior aspects of the right inferior
articular facet (9/192 or 4.6%) (Figures 21 and 26-31 ). As illustrated in Figure 32, the
number of cut marks on each C3-C7 vertebra varies from one to twelve, with a mode of
three cuts per bone. The cut marks range in length from 0.6 mm to 11.3 mm, with nearly
half(881192) measuring between 1-4 mm. Forty-five cut marks (23.4%) could not be
measured, primarily due to damage. Less than 4% (7 /192) of all cuts are discontinuous.
One of the cut marks on the anterior body of C7 of HG96-1 0 is actually two fine parallel
cuts lying in very close proximity to each another. In contrast to the orientation patterns
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of cut marks on the axis vertebra described above, over two-thirds ( 67/1 00) of cut marks
located on the anterior body of C3-C7 vertebrae are oriented at oblique angles relative to
the superior-inferior axis of the bone; only 33% (33/100) are oriented horizontally. On
the anterior aspect of the bone in general, the cuts are divided equally between a
horizontal (79/159 or 49.6%) and an oblique (79/159 or 49.6%) orientation. One cut
mark was too damaged for orientation to be determined. Orientation of grouped cut
marks relative to one another is variable; the cuts lie parallel to one another, are oriented
at oblique angles, and intersect. In six cases, the knife passed completely through the
bone, frequently leaving behind flat floors and no walls (Figure 27), thus preventing the
assessment of at least one morphological criterion. Relative width varies from narrow to
wide, with most cut marks classified as narrow (113/192 or 58.8%). The relative width
of 26 cuts was not possible to assess, due to damage, weathering or perimortem bone
removal (described above). Relative depth ranges from shallow to extremely deep. Cut
marks classified as moderately deep ( 611192 or 31.7%) occur with the highest frequency,
followed by semi-shallow (50/192 or 26%) and deep (46/192 or 23.9%). Assessment of
the relative depth of 14 cuts was prevented by damage or perimortem bone removal. One
hundred eighty-four of one hundred ninety-two cut marks (95.8%) are V-shaped and one
is of indeterminate shape. The shape of seven cut marks was impossible to determine, in
four cases due to damage and in three cases because of perimortem bone removal.
Nearly 80% (1531192) ofthe cuts have straight walls, as illustrated by Figure 33. One cut
mark has coarse walls that can be attributed to weather cracks and irremovable debris
with in the main groove. Wall morphology was not possible to assess for about 20%
(381192) of the cut marks, primarily due to weathering and damage. Forty cuts (20.8%)
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contain internal striae within the main groove and forty-five (23.4%) have bone
overhangs. About 17% (33/192) of the cut marks are affected by weather cracks, several
to an extreme degree. Fifty of one hundred ninety-two cuts (26%) have suffered damage,
including four which are essentially destroyed. Three cases of chattermarks are present.
Shallow scrapes were observed on a cervical vertebra (position indeterminate) of
HG96-10.
In summary, 61 individuals have cut marks on cervical vertebrae (C1-C7). Forty-
five individuals had their throats slit, as indicated by cuts restricted to the anterior aspect
of the body, dens and transverse processes of the axis, and the anterior surface of the
body, transverse processes and, in a few cases, the superior articular facets of cervical
vertebrae C3-C7. Nine individuals were decapitated, as suggested by the cut marks on
the inferior aspect of anterior arch, the anterior aspect of the right transverse process, and
anterior margin of the right inferior articular facet of the atlas, by cut marks on the
inferior body, the lateral and inferior aspects of the left transverse process and the
posterior surface of the right superior articular facet and right lamina of the axis, and by
cuts on the inferior body, the lateral aspect of the transverse processes, the anterior and
lateral surfaces of the superior articular facets and the lateral and inferior aspects of the
right inferior articular facet of cervical vertebrae C3-C7. Further markers of decapitation
are the absence of an articulated skull, the absence of cervical vertebrae superior to those
with cut marks, the lack of postcrania inferior to the cervical vertebrae, and cervical
vertebrae missing portions of bone perimortem, especially the left and right lateral
margins of the superior aspect of the body, due to the passage of the knife completely
through the element. Seven individuals had their throats slit followed by decapitation as
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suggested by cervical vertebrae with cut marks characteristic of both activities, i.e.,
horizontal cut marks on the anterior body in addition to cuts on other aspects and regions
of the bone. Table 14lists, by type ofperimortem treatment, all individuals with
assigned field codes who have cervical vertebrae with cut marks.
A total of fifty-three cut marks were observed on six left and right ribs belonging
to at least four individuals. Cuts are restricted to the first rib and ribs three through ten;
no second, eleventh or twelfth ribs have cut marks. In general, right ribs (5/6 or 83.3%)
are more affected than left ribs (116 or 16.7%).
One individual has two cut marks on his left fust rib and another individual has
eight cut marks on his right first rib. The cuts on the left first rib are located on the
superior surface of the bone, across the tubercle (Figure 34). The cut marks on the right
first rib are found on the superior aspect of the shaft, just anterior of the tubercle (Figure
35). The length of seven of nine cuts varies from 1.7 mm to 9.6 mm with five of seven
cuts measuring between 1-4 mm. The length of two cut marks could not be determined,
in the fust case because the cut was too shallow and thus extremely difficult to see, and in
the second case, due to damage. Two of the cut marks on the right first rib are
discontinuous. All cuts lie more or less parallel to one another. Relative width ranges
from narrow to wide, with half (511 0) classified as narrow. Relative depth varies from
shallow to very deep, with the category of shallow occurring most
frequently ( 4/10 or 40% ). All cut marks are V -shaped. The shallowness of four cuts
prevented assessment of their wall morphology; the remaining six cut marks have
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straight, sheer walls. None of the cuts have internal striae within the main groove or bone
overhangs. One cut mark is affected by weather cracks and four are damaged.
Chattermarks are present near one of the cuts on the right first rib. The cut marks on the
left first rib are consistent with removal of the head at the base of the neck, while those
on the right first rib may represent decapitation or slashing of the lower throat.
Unfortunately, the left first rib was an isolated fmd and the right first rib was not found in
association with any cervical or thoracic vertebrae, thus no hypothesis can be made with
confidence.
Two individuals have cut marks on ribs three through ten. Eleven cuts are present
on a right rib (3-1 0, exact position indeterminate) shaft fragment of one individual, and
Individual 3 has fourteen, sixteen, and two cut marks on his right seventh, eighth and
tenth ribs, respectively (Figure 36). The cut marks on the rib shaft fragment are located
on the external aspect, on both the vertebral and sternal portions of the bone. All cuts on
the ribs of Individual 3 are restricted to the external aspect of the sternal half of the shaft.
The cut marks range in length from 1.1 mm to 12.5 mm, with approximately 56% (24/43)
measuring between 1-6 mm. Eleven cuts were too weathered or damaged to measure.
Four cut marks are discontinuous. All cut marks are oriented at oblique angles to the
superior-inferior axis of the bone and all but four lie parallel to one another. The
remaining four cuts are oriented at oblique angles to one another. Relative width varies
from very narrow to wide, with 38 of 43 cuts (88.3%) classified as narrow. Relative
depth ranges from extremely shallow to deep, with the classification of shallow (22/43 or
51.1%) occurring with the most frequency. Forty of 43 cuts are V -shaped. One
relatively shallow cut mark on the right eighth rib oflndividual3 is U-shaped and the
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shallowness of two cut marks prevented the determination of their shape. Wall
morphology of nine cuts could not be assessed due to shallow depth or damage or both.
Of the remaining cut 32 of 43 (74.4%) have relatively straight walls and two have
coarse walls, the latter two cases attributable to their weathered state. Six cuts have
internal striae, and none have bone overhangs. Almost 40% (17/43) of the cut marks are
affected by weather cracks and about 26% (11143) are damaged. Chattermarks are
present near one of the cuts on the right eighth rib oflndividua13. Shallow scrapes were
observed on the right rib shaft fragment. All cut marks on the four ribs discussed above
are suggestive of defleshing, specifically the removal of the external intercostal, external
abdominal oblique and serratus anterior muscles on the anterior surface of the thorax.
Clavicle
A total of eight cut marks were observed on two left clavicles. Five cuts are
located on the superior aspect of the sternal Y4 of the shaft of one left and three
are present on the posterior and posterior-superior aspects of the acromial Y. of the shaft
of the left clavicle ofHG96-1 (Figures 37 and 38). The cut marks range in length from
2.3 mm to 7.0 mm, with five of eight cuts measuring between 2-4 mm. The cut marks on
both clavicles are oriented at oblique angles to the long axis of the bone. On the first
clavicle, two cuts intersect while three others lie parallel to one another. On the clavicle
ofHG96-l, all cut marks are oriented roughly parallel to one another. On both bones,
relative cut mark width varies from narrow to wide and relative depth ranges from
shallow to deep. All cuts are V -shaped with straight, sheer walls. Two cut marks on the
first clavicle contain internal striae within the main groove. None of the cuts have bone
overhangs and no signs of either weather cracks or damage are present. One case of
chattermarks was observed. The cut marks on the superior aspect of the first clavicle
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may be the result of slashing of the lower throat or detachment of the head at the base of
the neck. Unfortunately, only minimal provenience information is available for this
bone; thus, its association with other bones (specifically, a skull and cervical vertebrae) is
unknown. The cut marks on the posterior and posterior-superior aspects of the clavicle of
HG96-1 also may reflect slashing of the lower throat or removal of the head at the base of
the neck. As supporting evidence for decapitation, this individual is missing the skull and
cut marks were observed on the lateral aspect of two lower cervical vertebrae (C5-C6).
In addition, the left clavicle ofHG96-1 exhibits a perimortem shaft fracture, which may
have occurred during the decapitation process. An alternative explanation is that the cuts
on the clavicle ofHG96-1 are the product of defleshing, specifically the detachment of
the trapezius muscle.
Scapula
The left scapulae of Individual Ill, HG96-l and HG96-44 and one right scapula of
a fourth individual have cut marks. The spines of all four bones exhibit cuts (Figures 39
and 40). Additional cuts are present on the posterior aspect on the superior border,
infraspinous fossa and inferior border of the left scapula of HG96-1 (Figure 39). The
number of cut marks on each bone ranges from two to eight. Length of the cuts ranges
from 1.6 mm to 11.5 mm, with over half (8/15) of all cuts measuring between 1-6 mm.
The cut marks on the spines are oriented at oblique angles to the long axis of the bone.
The cut marks elsewhere on the left scapula ofHG96-1 are oriented either at oblique
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angles or perpendicular to the long axis of the bone. The two cuts on the left scapula of
HG96-44 intersect; cut marks on the other scapulae lie parallel to one another. The
intersection of the two cuts on the left scapula ofHG96-44 prevented an accurate
assessment of their relative width and, for one of the cut marks, depth. For all other cut
marks, relative width is either narrow (7/15 or 46.6%) or wide (5/15 or 33.3%), with the
exception of one cut on the left scapula ofHG96-1 which varies internally from wide to
narrow. Relative depth of the cut marks varies from semi-shallow to deep, with the
majority classified as either moderately deep (6/15 or 40%) or deep (5/15 or 33.3%). All
cuts are V -shaped with straight walls. Three cuts contain internal striae and four have
bone overlaps (Figure 40). Three cut marks each are affected by weather cracks or
damaged. No chattermarks are present. Individual lll and HG96-1 are largely complete,
articulated skeletons and HG96-44 is an articulated partial skeleton, including the trunk,
humeri, left ulna and lower limbs. Provenience information about the right scapula is
incomplete. Therefore, the cut marks on the spines of at least the left scapulae are most
likely associated with detachment of the trapezius and deltoid muscles during the
defleshing process, rather than an attempt at freeing the scapula from the thorax or
humerus. However, all three individuals with cut marked left scapulae lack skulls, and
one of the attachment sites of the trapezius is the occipital bone. Thus, it is possible that
some, if not all of the cuts on the spines located within the trapezius attachment area
could be a by-product of decapitation. The cut marks on the superior border, infraspinous
fossa and inferior angle of the left scapula ofHG96-l are consistent with defleshing,
including the removal of the supraspinatus, infraspinatus and teres major muscles,
respectively.
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Humerus
A total of 43 cut marks are present on the left humerus of one individual, the right
humerus of two other individuals, and the left and right humeri ofHG96-1. Cuts on the
left humerus are located on the medial and posterior surfaces of the proximal Y4 of the
shaft, the anterior, medial and lateral aspects of the distal Y2 of the shaft and the lateral
aspect of the lateral epicondyle and at midshaft. Cut marks on the right humerus are
found up and down the medial and lateral aspects of the shaft and on the posterior surface
of the distal Y3 of the shaft (Figures 41-46). The number of cuts on each bone varies from
three to twenty. Length of the cut marks ranges from 1.3 mm to 7.9 mm, with the
majority (13/43 or 30.2%) of cuts measuring between 2-3 mm. One of the cut marks on
the left humerus ofHG96-1 is actually composed of three fine cuts lying very close
together. Around two-thirds (27/43) of the cut marks are oriented at oblique angles
relative to the long axis of the bone. Twelve of forty-three cuts are oriented more or less
perpendicular to the long axis of the bone, while four cut marks, all on the lateral
epicondyle of the left humerus of HG96-l, are oriented parallel. Orientation of the cut
marks relative to one another varies; they lie parallel and at oblique angles to one another
as well as intersect. Relative width of the cuts ranges from narrow to wide; narrow
occurring with the highest frequency (30/43 or 69.7%). One cut mark varies internally
from wide to narrow. Relative depth of the cut marks varies from shallow to deep, with
most cuts classified as either shallow (13/43 or 30.2%) or semi-shallow (15/43 or 34.8%).
All but three cut marks are V-shaped. Two relatively shallow cut marks are U-shaped
and the shape of one cut is obscured by weather cracks. Nearly 70% (30/43) of the cut
marks have straight walls. One cut has relatively coarse walls, which may be the result of
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weather alterations and salt encrustation. Another cut mark has one straight wall and one
coarse wall. Data on wall morphology are not available for 11 cut marks, primarily due
to weathering and their shallow depth. Eight of 43 cuts (18.6%) contain internal striae
and none have bone overhangs. None of the cut marks have suffered damage, however,
about 37% (16/43) are affected by weathering. No chattermarks (with the possible
exceptions below) are present.
Three parallel cut marks found on one of the right humeri deserve further
discussion (Figure 46). They are located on the medial surface of the proximal Y2 of the
shaft. The morphology of these cuts is somewhat atypical-although V -shaped in cross
section, they have the appearance of chop marks or gashes rather than slices. In addition
to being the widest and deepest of all cut marks found on the humeri, they are directly
associated with an impact scar. Given the above description, it is possible that these cuts
are not really cut marks at all, but are instead chattermarks resulting from a perimortem
blow with a sharp-edged weapon to the inside of an upraised right arm. Defleshing is the
most likely explanation of the cut marks on the shafts of the other humeri, including the
detachment of the triceps, deltoid and brachialis muscles. The cuts on the lateral
epicondyle are suggestive of defleshing involving the removal of the brachioradialis and
extensor carpi radialis longus muscles.
Radius
Thirteen cut marks are present on the left radius and five cut marks are present on
the right radius ofHG96-1. On both radii, cuts are located on the middle Y3 of the shaft
on the anterior and anterior-lateral aspects (14/18 or 77.7%). Additional cut marks on the
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right radius are present on the anterior-lateral aspect of the proximal Y4 of the shaft
(Figures 47-48). Length of the cut marks ranges from 1.5 mm to 4.8 mm, with half
measuring between 2-3 mm. All but three cut marks are oriented at oblique angles to the
long axis of the bone; the three remaining (all located on the right radius) are oriented
perpendicular to the long axis of the bone. Orientation of cut marks relative to one
another is variable: the cuts lie parallel and at oblique angles to one another, as well as
intersect. Relative width ranges from narrow to wide, with 11 of 18 cut marks ( 61.1%)
classified as narrow. Relative depth varies from shallow to deep, with the classification
of moderately deep occurring most frequently (10118 or 55.5%). All cut marks are V-
shaped and, with one exception, have straight, sheer walls. The wall morphology of one
cut mark on the left radius could not be determined due to its intersection with another
cut and its shallow depth. One cut mark contains internal striae within its main groove
and one has a bone overhang. Four cuts are affected by weather cracks. No cuts are
damaged. Three cases of chattermarks were observed. All cut marks are consistent with
defleshing. The cuts on the proximal portion of the radius may indicate removal of the
supinator muscle, while the cut marks clustered around midshaft may be associated with
detaching the pronator teres and radial head of the flexor digitorum superficialis muscles.
Moreover, cut marks around midshaft on the left radius are aligned with cuts around
midshaft of the left ulna ofHG96-1, indicating that single cutting strokes were marking
both bones of the forearm (Figure 47).
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The left and right ulnae ofHG96-1 and the right ulna of two other individuals
have cut marks. Nine cuts on the left ulna ofHG96-1 are located on the middle Y3 of the
shaft on the anterior-medial aspect. Cut marks on the right ulnae are present on the
anterior and medial aspects of the shaft, in the area of the flexor digitorum profundus
attachment and on the posterior-lateral aspect ofthe distal Y4 of the shaft (Figures 47, 49
and 50). The number of cuts on each right ulna ranges from seven to ten. Length of all
cut marks varies from 1.0 mm to 9.1 mm, with all but three measuring between 1-5 mm
long. One cut on a right ulna is discontinuous. All cut marks are oriented either
perpendicular or at oblique angles to the long axis of the bone. Nearly 80% (23/29) of
clustered cuts lie parallel to one another; four are oriented at oblique angles to one
another and two intersect. Half(17/34) of the cuts are relatively narrow in width; the
remainder are either moderately wide (9/34 or 26.4%) or wide (4/34 or 11.7%). The
relative width of four cut marks could not be assessed due to weathering. Relative depth
ranges from shallow to deep, with the majority of cuts classified as either shallow (11/34
or 32.3%) or semi-shallow (12/34 or 35.2%). All but four cut marks are V-shaped.
Weather cracks have adversely altered the shape of three cut marks and one is too
shallow for shape to be accurately determined. Twenty-three of34 cut marks (67.6%)
have straight walls and three cuts have coarse walls, the latter of which can be attributed
to weathering. Wall morphology of the remaining eight cut marks was not possible to
assess due to a combination of weather cracks and shallow depth. Approximately 12%
(4/34) of the cuts contain internal striae and none have bone overhangs. Twenty-two cut
marks are affected, often severely, by weather cracks, which in about 45% (10/22) of the
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cases, prevented the collection of data on at least one morphological criterion. In
addition to being weathered, two cuts are damaged. Three cases of chattermarks are
present. Shallow scrapes were observed near midshaft of the right ulna ofHG96-l and
on the proximal shaft of another right ulna. All cut marks are consistent with defleshing.
With one exception, the cuts are located in the area of attachment of the flexor digitorum
profundus muscle. The cut mark on the posterior-lateral aspect of the distal Y.. of the
shaft of one of the right ulnae suggests removal of the extensor muscles. As mentioned
previously, cut marks on the anterior-medial surface of the middle Y3 of the left ulna of
HG96-l correspond to those around midshaft on the left radius, indicating that the two
bones were defleshed simultaneously (Figure 47).
Hand Bones
Cut marks on bones of the hand were observed on the ftrst right metacarpal of one
individual and the second and third right metacarpals of another individual. Five cuts are
present on the palmar aspect of the proximal of the shaft of the fust metacarpal (Figure
51). The second and third metacarpals each have one cut mark on their dorsal-medial
aspects, on the border between the distal shaft and the distal epiphysis. The cut marks on
the frrst and second metacarpals range in length from 1.9 mm to 6.2 mm, with all but one
measuring between 1-4 mm. Postmortem damage suffered by the cut mark on the third
metacarpal prevented the collection of all morphological data except orientation and
shape. It is oriented perpendicular to the long axis of the bone and V -shaped in cross
section. The cut marks on the fust and second metacarpals are oriented either
perpendicular or at oblique angles to the long axis of the bone. Orientation of the cuts
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relative to one another is variable; they lie parallel to one another, at oblique angles, and
intersect. All cut marks are relatively narrow in width. Relative depth varies from semi-
shallow to deep. One of the cuts on the right first metacarpal is moderately deep on both
ends but semi-shallow in the middle. A V -shaped cut mark on the dorsal-medial aspect
of the shaft of the second metacarpal passes across extremely porous bone, preventing
any further morphological observations. Of the remaining five cuts on the first and
second metacarpals, all are V -shaped with straight, sheer walls. Three of the cut marks
contain internal striae within the main groove; none have bone overhangs. Three cuts are
affected by weather cracks, one of which also is damaged on one end. No chattermarks
were found. The cut marks on the first metacarpal are most likely the result of
mutilation. The cuts on the second and third metacarpals are suggestive of either
mutilation or removal of the index and middle fmgers at the metacarpophalangeal joints.
The dismemberment hypothesis is strengthened by the absence of the phalanges.
In addition to metacarpals discussed above, other hand bones with cut marks
include the left second through fifth proximal hand phalanges of a single individual. The
cuts are primarily located on the distal % of the shaft, on both palmar and dorsal aspects
(Figure 52). In addition, all four bones have at least one cut on or immediately proximal
to the distal articular facet on the dorsal aspect, palmar aspect, or both. The number of
cut marks present on each bone varies from four to twenty-three, with the fifth proximal
hand phalanx exhibiting the most cuts. The length of the cut marks varies from 0. 7 mm
to 5.1 mm, with approximately 85% (44/52) measuring between 1-4 mm long. Forty-
seven of fifty-two cuts (90.3%) are oriented at oblique angles to the long axis of the bone;
the remaining five cut marks are oriented perpendicular. Orientation of grouped cuts
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relative to one another includes lying parallel to one another, at oblique angles and
intersecting. Almost 87% ( 45/52) of the cut marks are relatively narrow in width; the rest
are either moderately wide or wide. Relative depth ranges from semi-shallow to deep,
with most cuts classified as either semi-shallow (20/52 or 38.4%) or moderately deep
(16/52 or 28.8%). Two cut marks become progressively shallower from one end to the
other. All cuts are V-shaped and approximately 67% (35/52) have straight walls. One
relatively shallow cut mark on the dorsal midsha:ft of the fifth proximal hand phalanx has
coarse walls. Wall morphology could not be determined for 16 cuts because they were
filled with irremovable debris, too shallow, weather cracked or damaged. Fourteen of
fifty-two cut marks (26.9%) contain internal striae. Only a single cut mark on the palmar
aspect of the distal shaft of the third proximal hand phalanx has a bone overhang. Eight
cut marks (15.3%) are affected by weather cracks and nearly 20% (10/52) are damaged to
some extent. Eight cuts have chattermarks nearby. Areas of fine, shallow scrapes were
observed on all four phalanges. The cut marks on the distal shafts of the phalanges on the
palmar aspect may be the result of defleshing including the severing of the flexor
digitorum superficialis and flexor digitorum profundus muscle tendons and removal of
the lumbrical muscles and digital fibrous sheaths. Cut marks on the distal shaft on the
dorsal aspect may reflect severing of the extensor digitorum muscle tendon.
Alternatively, repeated cuts on the palmar and dorsal shafts could be the result of
mutilation of the fingers. Removal of the distal portions of the fmgers at the proximal
interphalangeal joints is strongly supported by cut marks on or directly adjacent to the
distal articular facets of each bone. This hypothesis is strengthened by the absence of all
middle and distal hand phalanges.
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Os Coxae
Cut marks on the ossa coxae are limited to four cuts on the right os coxae of
HG96-60. Three parallel cut marks, measuring 9.1 mm, 10.0 mm and 11.7 mm in length,
respectively, are located on the lateral aspect of the iliac blade, perpendicular to the long
axis of the bone (Figure 53). The fourth cut runs obliquely 9.1 mm across the superior
margin of the ischial tuberosity on the medial aspect. All cut marks are relatively narrow
and moderately deep. They are V -shaped with straight, sheer walls. Internal striae are
present in the three cuts on the iliac blade, but absent in the cut across the ischial
tuberosity. The two most superior cut marks on the iliac blade have bone overhangs.
None of the cuts are damaged; however, the one across the ischial tuberosity is
weathered. No chattermarks were observed. All four cut marks on the os coxae are
indicative of defleshing. The cuts on the iliac blade are consistent with the removal of
the gluteal muscles. The cut mark on the ischial tuberosity suggests detachment of the
sacrotuberous ligament.
Femur
Both left and right femora ofHG96-1, the right femur ofHG96-60, two additional
left femora and a third right femur have cut marks. Cut marks on the left femur are
located on the proximal Y-1 of the shaft on the anterior aspect, on the lateral and posterior
shaft, and on the distal ~ o the shaft on the posterior-medial and posterior-lateral aspects
Cuts on the right femur are present on the anterior shaft, on the medial aspect of the distal
Y-1 of the shaft, on the lateral aspect on the proximal Yl of the shaft, and on the lateral and
posterior-lateral aspects of the distal Y-1 ofthe shaft (Figures 54-60). The number of cut
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marks present on each bone ranges from one to twenty, with four of six femora exhibiting
more than ten. Length of the cut marks varies from 1.1 mm to 10.4 mm, with the
majority of cuts (31/65 or 47.6%) measuring between 2-4 mm long. Three cut marks are
discontinuous. The cuts are oriented either at oblique angles (38/65 or 58.4%) or more or
less perpendicular (27/65 or 41.5%) to the long axis of the bone. Cut marks occurring in
clusters are oriented parallel or at oblique angles to one another, as well as intersect.
Relative width ranges from narrow to wide, with narrow ( 42/65 or 64.6%) the most
frequently recorded category. The width of two cut marks was not possible to determine
due to weathering. Relative depth varies from extremely shallow to very deep, with 41 of
65 cuts (63%) classified as either shallow or semi-shallow. Weather cracks prevented an
accurate assessment of depth for two cuts. Two relatively shallow cut marks are U-
shaped, all others are V-shaped. Nearly 70% (45/65) of the cuts have straight walls, two
have coarse walls (which may be due to weather cracks), and one has one straight wall
and one coarse wall (see below). Wall morphology could not be determined for 17 cut
marks (26.1%) due to their shallow depth, weather cracks or both. About 12% (8/65) of
the cuts contain internal striae within the main groove, and one has a bone overhang.
Thirty-seven of65 cut marks (56.9%) are affected by weather cracks, three of which also
suffered salt encrustation. One cut is damaged. Three cases of chattermarks are present.
Shallow scrapes were observed on four of six femora. A cut mark on one of the left
femora merits further discussion. It is located on the lateral aspect, just distal to midshaft
and is the only cut mark present on the bone (Figure 60). This cut is the deepest and
widest of all cut marks found on the femora (and on all marked long bones in general),
and appears to be a chop mark and not a slice. The cut is V -shaped and has a straight,
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sheer superior wall; however, its inferior wall is relatively coarse. Two small impact
scars are associated with the mark, one of which is located immediately superior. Given
the evidence presented above, it is probable that this chop mark is the product of a
perimortem blow with a sharp-bladed weapon, rather than the result of defleshing.
Defleshing does appear to be the most likely motivation for the cut marks on the other
five femora, including the detachment of the quadriceps and hamstrings muscles, as well
as the adductor longus and brevis muscles.
Cut marks were observed on two tibiae. A right tibia has two cut marks on the
distal Yz of the shaft on the anterior aspect, and one cut on the proximal Y4 of the shaft on
the posterior aspect (Figure 61). In addition, eight cut marks are present on a tibial shaft
fragment (aspect and side indeterminate) (Figure 62). All cuts range in length from 1.0
mm to 7.4 mm, with over 70% (8111) measuring between 1-4 mm long. Eight of eleven
cut marks are oriented at oblique angles to the long axis of the bone; three are
perpendicular. Grouped cut marks either lie parallel (7110 or 70%) or are oriented at
oblique angles (311 0 or 30%) to one another. Relative width varies from narrow to wide,
with most cuts classified as either narrow (5/11 or 45.5%) or moderately wide (4/11 or
36.3%). Relative depth ranges from shallow to deep, with five of eleven cuts (45.4%)
classified as moderately deep. All cut marks are V -shaped with straight, sheer walls.
Three cuts contain internal striae; none have bone overhangs. All cut marks on the right
tibia and two cuts on the tibial shaft fragment are greatly affected by weather cracks.
None of the cut marks are damaged and no chattermarks are present. Areas of fine,
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shallow scrapes were observed on the right tibia. The cuts on the distal shaft of the right
tibia suggest defleshing, including severing of the flexor digitorum longus and tibialis
anterior muscles, while the cut mark on the proximal shaft indicates detachment of the
popliteus and gastrocnemius muscles. The cuts on the tibial shaft fragment also may
represent defleshing. In this case, the specific muscle or muscles removed are unknown
since the exact location of the marks on the bone is impossible to determine.
Alternatively, the cut marks on both tibiae could be the result of mutilation.
Fibula
Five left fibulae, including those ofHG96-44 and HG96-60, and the right fibula
ofHG96-60 exhibit a total of twenty-one cut marks. All cuts are located on the shaft,
primarily on the anterior and lateral surfaces, but also on the posterior aspect (Figures 63-
66). The number of cut marks found on each bone is two, three or five. The cuts are 1.8
mm to 5.6 mm long, with one-third (7/21) measuring between 2-3 mm in length. Three
cut marks were too damaged to accurately measure. The cuts are oriented either
perpendicular (9/21 or 42.8%) or at oblique angles (12/21 or 57.1%) to the long axis of
the bone. Nearly all (14/15 or 93.3%) clustered cut marks lie parallel to one another.
Relative width ranges from narrow to very wide, with 11 of21 (52.3%) cuts classified as
narrow. Relative depth varies from semi-shallow to extremely deep, with the
classifications of semi-shallow (7/21 or 33.3%) and moderately deep (8/21 or 38%)
occurring with the most frequency. All cut marks are V -shaped and, with four
exceptions, have straight, sheer walls. Wall morphology of four cuts could not be
assessed due to damage, or, in one case, weather cracks. One-third (7/21) of the cut
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marks contain internal striae within the main groove; none have bone overhangs. Four
cuts are affected by weather cracks and five others are damaged. No chattermarks were
found. Shallow scrapes are present on the left fibula of one individual and the right
fibula ofHG96-60. The purpose of all cut marks on both left and right fibulae seems to
be defleshing, including severing of the peroneus longus, peroneus brevis and soleus
muscles. Mutilation is another possible explanation.
Foot Bones
Cut marks on the foot are limited to the left first, fourth and fifth proximal foot
phalanges of Individual XV (Figure 67). The cuts are located on the dorsal aspect of the
proximal Yz of the shaft and on the plantar aspect of the distal Yz of the shaft of the first
proximal foot phalanx, and on the medial surface of the distal Y4 of the shaft of the fourth
and fifth proximal foot phalanges. In addition, the fifth proximal foot phalanx has cut
marks on the dorsal-lateral and lateral-plantar aspects ofthe distal2/3 of the shaft. Seven,
two and seventeen cut marks are present on each bone, respectively. Length of the cuts
varies from 1.1 mm to 10.8 mm, with nearly all (21/26 or 80.7%) measuring between 1-
4.5 mm long. The length of four cut marks could not be determined, primarily due to
damage. The cuts are oriented parallel, perpendicular and at oblique angles to the long
axis of the bone. The orientation of grouped cut marks is variable with cuts lying parallel
and at oblique angles to one another, as well as intersecting. Relative width ranges from
narrow to wide, with approximately 80% (21/26) of the cut marks are classified as
narrow. In addition, one cut is narrow on both ends, but moderately wide in the middle.
Relative depth of the cut marks varies from very shallow to deep, with the category of
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moderately deep (12/26) recorded most frequently. All but one cut is V-shaped; the
exception was too damaged to assess its shape. With three exceptions, the cut marks
have straight, sheer walls. Wall morphology could not be determined for two cuts due to
damage and for one because of its extremely shallow depth. Approximately 23% ( 6/26)
of the cut marks contain internal striae within the main groove and two have bone
overhangs. No cuts are affected by weather cracks; however, over one-third (9/26) have
suffered damage. Four cases of chattermarks are present; one on the first proximal foot
phalanx and three on the fifth proximal foot phalanx. Since Individual XV is missing all
foot phalanges except for the three proximal phalanges described above, it is possible that
these cuts were produced during removal of the toes; however, none of the cuts are
located on the distal articular surfaces. Almost all cut marks are located on the plantar
aspect of the bones; thus, they could be interpreted as evidence of defleshing, with special
attention paid to the flexor muscles on the underside of the foot. This hypothesis is
somewhat weakened by the fact that all of the left tarsals and metatarsals of this
individual are present, and none have cut marks. An alternative explanation, and perhaps
the more likely scenario, is that the cuts reflect mutilation of the toes.
Huaa de la Luna-Piaza 3C
Human remains from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna exhibit cut marks on nearly
every element of the skeleton. The only exceptions are some of the smaller and interior
bones of the skull, the hyoid, the coccyx, two carpals (trapezoid and pisiform), one tarsal
(intermediate cuneiform), and some hand and foot phalanges. The most affected
elements are the left fibula (73.7%) and left femur (69.6%), respectively. Table 15
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presents the number ofbones with cut marks per element; Table 16 is a summary of all
regions on each bone where cut marks are present.
3
To facilitate comparison with the
Plaza 3A remains, cut mark patterning and perimortem treatment observed on the Plaza
3C sample are discussed in general by bone rather than by individual, although specific
individuals are mentioned whenever possible in each section.
Skull Vault
Nine individuals have cut marks on the cranial vault. Cuts are found on the
frontal, left and right parietal, left and right temporal and occipital bones, with the frontal
bone the most frequently affected. Five of nine individuals (55.5%) have cut marks on
two or more vault elements. As was the case for nearly all of the affected Plaza 3A
skulls, the majority of Plaza 3C skulls with cut marks on the cranial vault are largely
intact. Where microscopic analysis of the cuts was not possible, a 1 OX hand lens was
used instead.
A total of seventy-two cut marks are present on the frontal bones of seven
individuals including HG99-5, HG99-6, E12, E13, EIS and E18. About 56% (40172) of
the cuts are found on the frontal squama; other cuts are located on the left and right
superciliary arches, around glabella, on the superior and lateral margins of the left orbit,
and in the areas of attachment of the left and right temporalis muscles (Figures 68-70, 7 4
and 75). The number of cut marks on each frontal varies from three to twenty-six, with
all bones except one having fewer than twelve. Length of the cuts ranges from 1.6 mm to
29.9 mm, with over two-thirds (49172) measuring between 1-8 mm long. Twelve cut
marks could not be measured either because they were damaged or so fine that their ends
117
were too difficult to discern. Five cuts are discontinuous. All cut marks located in the
attachment areas for the temporalis muscles are oriented more or less superior-inferiorly
while all cuts on the margins of the left orbit have a roughly anteroposterior orientation.
Cut marks on the frontal squama and elsewhere on the frontal bone have variable
orientation: they are oriented anteroposteriorly or mediolaterally or lie at oblique angles
relative to the coronal suture. Cuts occurring in clusters lie parallel or at oblique angles
to one another, or, in the case of two cut marks on the frontal squama ofHG99-5,
intersect. Relative width of the cuts ranges from very narrow to wide, with most cut
marks categorized as narrow (45172 or 62.5%), and one that varies internally from narrow
to wide. Relative depth ranges from extremely shallow to deep, with the classification of
semi-shallow (33172 or 45.8%) occurring most frequently. All cut marks except two are
V-shaped; two shallow cuts on the frontal squama ofHG99-5 are of indeterminate shape.
Forty of seventy-two cut marks (54.7%) have straight, sheer walls. Wall morphology of
the remaining 33 cuts could not be assessed for various reasons including shallow depth,
main grooves altered by intersecting cuts, damage and the limitations of a 1 OX hand lens.
Approximately 44% (32172) of the cut marks contain internal striae within the main
groove, four of which also have bone overhangs. One cut mark on the frontal ofE12 is
affected by weather cracks and 11 of72 cuts (15.2%) have suffered damage.
Chattermarks are present near six cut marks. Shallow scrapes were observed on the
frontal of five individuals. The cuts on the frontal squamae ofHG99-5, HG99-6, E18 and
an isolated partial cranium may represent laceration of the scalp. Cut marks in the
glabellar region, on the superciliary arches, and directly adjacent to the superciliary
arches in the attachment areas for the left and right temporalis muscles (present on the
frontal bones El2, E15 and EIS) suggest mutilation including
flaying of the forehead. Torture is the most likely explanation of cut marks on the
superior and lateral margins of the left orbits ofE12 and El3, especially in the case of
E 13 where cuts do not appear anywhere else on the frontal.
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The left parietals ofHG99-6 and H27 SK2 have six cut marks and one cut
respectively, and the right parietals ofHG99-5, HG99-6 and E18 exhibit three, six and
four cuts, respectively. All cut marks on the left parietal ofHG99-6 are positioned on the
lateral aspect superior and posterior to the area of the temporalis attachment. The cut on
the left parietal ofH27 SK2 is located on the posterior aspect near the lambdoid suture
(Figure 71 ). Cut marks on the right parietal are located on the lateral aspect near the
posterior portion of the parietal-temporal suture and superior and posterior to the area of
the temporalis attachment area, and on the posterior aspect adjacent to the sagittal suture
(Figures 73 and 75). The cut marks vary in length from 1.5 mm to 10.1 mm, with
only five of twenty cuts measuring more than 5 mm. Twenty percent (4/20) of the cut
marks were too damaged to measure. One cut on the right parietal ofHG99-6 is
discontinuous. Grouped cut marks are oriented parallel or at oblique angles to one
and two on the right parietal ofHG99-5 intersect. All but two cuts are relatively
narrow. One cut mark is moderately wide and the cut on the left parietal of H27 SK2
varies internally from narrow to moderately wide. Half of all cut marks (1 0/20) are
relatively shallow in depth. The remaining cuts are classified as either semi-shallow
(6/20 or 30%) or moderately deep (4/20 or 20%). The relatively shallow cut mark on the
left parietal of H27 SK2 is of indeterminate shape; all other cuts are V -shaped. All
observable cut mark walls (9/20 or 45%) are straight. Analysis of wall morphology was
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not possible for 11 cuts, due to the limitations of the 1 OX hand lens or the modification of
the main groove by an intersecting cut. Two cut marks on the right parietal ofHG99-6
contain internal striae and one on the right parietal of E 18 has a bone overhang. One cut
mark is affected by weather cracks and five others have suffered damage. No
chattermarks were observed. Shallow scrapes are present on the right parietal of
HG99-6. All cut marks on both left and right parietals may be the result oflaceration of
the scalp.
The left and right temporal bones ofHG99-5, EIS and E18 present a total of34
cut marks. Both left and right temporals of all three individuals exhibit cuts on the
zygomatic process. Additional cut marks are found on the mastoid process of the left
temporal ofE18 and on the temporal squama of the right temporal ofHG99-5 (Figures
68, 74 and 75). The number of cuts per bone ranges from two to eleven. Length of the
cuts ranges from 0.6 mm to 8.3 mm, with all but three cut marks measuring less than 5
mm. Clustered cuts are oriented either parallel or at oblique angles to one another.
Relative width varies from narrow to wide, with around 56% ( 19/34) of the cut marks
classified as narrow. Relative depth varies from very shallow to deep, with the category
of moderately deep (16/34 or 47%) recorded the most frequently. One shallow cut mark
on the zygomatic arch of the right temporal ofHG99-5 is U-shaped; all other cuts are V-
shaped. All observable walls (27/34 or 79.4%) are straight and sheer. Wall morphology
could not be accurately assessed for seven cut marks because they were too shallow.
About 24% (8/34) of the cuts contain internal striae within the main groove. Seven of
thirty-four cut marks (20.5%) exhibit bone overhangs. Two cuts are affected by weather
cracks and three others are damaged. One case of chattermarks was recorded. Shallow
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scrapes are present on all temporal bones except those ofE15. Cut marks located on the
temporal squama and along the zygomatic process may be the result of defleshing,
including the severing of the temporalis and masseter muscles and ligaments associated
with the temporomandibular joint. Removal of the jaw was an unlikely objective for two
reasons. First, all three individuals' mandibles are present, and, at least in the case of
E15, were found articulated. Second, there are no cut marks on the mandibular condyles
or coronoid processes, or (with one exception) in the area of attachment of the masseter
muscle. (The right ramus ofHG99-5 has a small cut near its base). The cut marks on the
mastoid process of the left temporal of E 18 are consistent with the detachment of the
sternocleidomastoid muscle which may have occurred as the skull was defleshed or
detached from the body. The bones of E 18 had been disturbed in antiquity and the atlas
and axis vertebrae were not recovered, thus the exact activity that produced the cuts on
the mastoid process is unknown.
A total of20 cut marks are found on the occipital bones ofHG99-5, HG99-6, H17
SK1 and H27 SK2. All cuts are located on the occipital squama, near lambda, adjacent to
the lambdoid suture and either on or above the superior nuchal line (Figures 71 and 73).
The number of cuts on the occipital of each individual listed above is two, eleven, one
and six, respectively. The cuts vary from 2.2 mm to 11.7 mm in length. Three cut marks
were too damaged to measure. One cut mark on the occipital of H27 SK2 is
discontinuous. Three-quarters (15/20) of all cut marks have an anteroposterior
orientation. Cuts occurring in groups are oriented more or less parallel to one another.
Eighty percent (16/20) of the cut marks are relatively narrow; two each are classified as
moderately wide and wide. Relative depth of the cuts ranges from shallow to deep, with
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the category of moderately deep having the highest frequency (7/20 or 35%). With one
exception, all cut marks are V-shaped and all observable walls (14/20 or 70%) are
straight and sheer. One of the cut marks on the occipital ofH27 SK2 is U-shaped, and
six cuts were too shallow for wall morphology to be accurately assessed. One-fourth
(5/20) of the cut marks contain internal striae within the main groove; none have bone
overhangs. None of the cuts are affected by weathering but 25% (5/20) are damaged.
Chattermarks are visible immediately adjacent to one of the cut marks on HG99-6.
Shallow scrapes are present on the occipitals ofHG99-5, HG99-6 and H27 SK2. All cuts
suggest laceration of the scalp.
In addition to the cut marks on the cranial bones discussed above, a total of
twenty cuts are present on five skull vault fragments, four of which came from the skull
ofHG99-6. The remaining skull vault fragment is an isolated bone. Three fragments
have four cut marks each; the other two fragments have one and seven cuts, respectively.
Sixty percent (12/20) of the cut marks were too damaged to measure. The length of the
remaining eight cuts ranges widely from 1.4 mm to 13.8 mm. Four cut marks on HG99-6
vault fragments are actually each composed of two or more cuts sharing the same groove.
Orientation of the cut marks relative to one another is variable; they lie perpendicular,
parallel and at oblique angles to one another, as well as intersect. The cut marks are
either relatively narrow ( 16/20 or 80%) or wide ( 4/20 or 20%) and their relative depth
varies from shallow to deep, with most cuts recorded as shallow (11120 or 55%). All cuts
are V-shaped and three-quarters (15/20) of the cut marks have straight walls. Wall
morphology was not possible to accurately determine for five cuts due to shallow depth
and damage. Eight of twenty cut marks ( 40%) have internal striae; none have bone
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overhangs. None of the cuts are affected by weathering, but 60% (12/20) are damaged.
No chattermarks are present. All cut marks are consistent with de fleshing.
Facial Bones
Ten individuals have cut marks on facial bones. Cuts are found on the nasals,
malars and maxillae, with the left maxilla affected the most frequently. Half of the
individuals have cut marks on three or more facial elements (if each side of each bone is
counted separately) and one individual, E18, exhibits cuts on every bone.
A total of28 cut marks are present on the left and right nasal bones ofHG99-5,
El3, E18 and H17 SKl. The total number of cut marks present on the nasals of each
individual is four each for E13 and H17 SK1, five for E18 and fifteen for HG99-5. While
most cuts are restricted to one side or the other, six cut marks traverse both nasal bones
(Figures 68, 70,74-76 and 80). The cuts measure 0.7 mm to 6.2 mm in length. Damage
prevented the measurement of three cut marks. One cut on the right nasal ofHG99-5 is
discontinuous. Twenty-two of twenty-eight cut marks (78.5%) are oriented at oblique
angles relative to the long axis of the bone; the six remaining are oriented roughly
perpendicular. All clustered cuts are oriented more or less parallel to one another. The
cuts range in relative width from narrow to wide, with the classification of narrow
occurring the most frequently (13/28 or 46.4%). The width of two cut marks on the right
nasal ofHG99-5 varies internally. Relative depth of the cuts varies from shallow to deep,
with the majority categorized as semi-shallow (9/28 or 32.1 %) or moderately deep (1 0/28
or 35.7%). Twenty-four of twenty-eight cut marks (85.7%) are V-shaped. Four cuts are
of indeterminate shape, which in three cases can be attributed to their shallow depth.
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Half of all cut marks have straight walls and four cuts, two of which are shallow, have
relatively coarse walls. Wall morphology was not possible to assess for 10 cut marks,
due to shallow depth, debris filling the groove and the limitations of the 10X hand lens.
Eight of the cuts contain internal striae within the main groove and none have bone
overhangs. None of the cut marks are affected by weather cracks; however, three have
suffered damage. Chattermarks were observed on the right nasal of E 13. Shallow
scrapes are present on the nasal bones ofHG99-5 and E13.
Cut marks are found on the left and right malar bones of E 18 and an isolated
partial cranium. Cuts also occur on the right malar ofHG99-3, HG99-5, E15 and H17
SKI. Approximately 70% (38/54) of all cut marks are located around the lateral margin
of the orbit. Other cuts on bones of both sides are found on the frontal process and near
the zygomaticofacial foramen and as well as on the right malar in the area of attachment
of the masseter muscle (Figures 69, 70, 74, 75 and 80). The number of cut marks on each
malar ranges from two to thirteen. The cuts vary in length from 0.8 mm to 19.6 mm, with
approximately 80% (44/54) of all cut marks measuring between 0.8-6 mm long. The
length of three cuts is unknown due to damage. Six cut marks are discontinuous: two on
the right malar ofHG99-5, three on the left malar ofE18 and one on the left malar of the
isolated partial cranium. Two cuts, one on the left malar ofE18 and one on the right
malar ofHG99-5, are actually each composed of two parallel, shallow cuts lying in very
close proximity. The majority of cut marks occurring in groups are oriented parallel to
one another (41152 or 78.8%); two cuts intersect and the rest are oriented at oblique
angles to one another. Over half (30/54) of the cut marks are relatively narrow in width;
the remainder are moderately wide (11/54 or 20.3%) or wide (13/54 or 24%). Relative
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depth ranges from extremely shallow to e e p ~ with the classifications of semi-shallow
(17/54 or 31.4%) and moderately deep (19/54 or 35.1%) having the highest frequencies.
All cut marks are V-shaped and nearly 60% of the walls are straight and sheer. The walls
of one shallow cut are coarse. Wall morphology was not possible to accurately assess for
21 of 54 cut marks (38.8%) because they were filled with irremovable debris, too shallow
or damaged. Approximately one-fourth (14/54) of the cuts have internal striae and two
exhibit bone overhangs. Four cut marks are affected by weather cracks and six others
have suffered damage. No chattermarks were observed. Shallow scrapes occur on the
left malar ofE18 and the isolated partial cranium and on the right malar ofHG99-5. In
addition, shallow scrapes, but no cut marks, are present on the left malar ofHG99-5.
A total of forty-nine cut marks are found on the maxillae of nine individuals,
including the left maxilla ofHG99-5, El2, El3 and H27 SK2, the right maxilla ofE15,
and both left and right maxillae ofHG99-6, El8, H17 SKI and an isolated partial
cranium.
4
On both left and right bones, cuts are located on the frontal (16/49 or 32.6%),
alveolar (28/49 or 57.1%) and zygomatic (5/49 or 10.2%) processes (Figures 68-70,74-
75, and 77-80). The number of cut marks per bone ranges from one to eight, with a mode
of three. The length of six cuts was not possible to determine; all other cuts are 1.3 mm
to 6.3 mm long. Five cut marks, four of which are located on the frontal process of the
left maxilla ofH17 SK1, are discontinuous. Grouped cut marks are oriented parallel and
at oblique angles to one another, as well as intersect. Relative width of the cuts varies
from very narrow to wide with slightly over two-thirds (33/49) of the cut marks classified
as narrow. Relative depth ranges from shallow to deep, with the category of moderately
deep recorded most often (24/49 or 48.9%). All cut marks are V-shaped and 38 of 49
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cuts (77 .5%) have straight walls. Two shallow cuts on the left maxilla of E 13 are
relatively coarse. Wall morphology could not be accurately assessed for nine cut marks
for several reasons including alteration of the groove by intersecting cuts and damage.
Almost one"quarter (12/49) of the cuts contain internal striae within the main groove and
two have bone overhangs. Two cut marks are affected by weather cracks and three others
are damaged. Four cases of chattermarks were recorded. Shallow scrapes are present on
the left maxilla ofE13.
A strong argument can be made that all cut marks on the facial bones are
representative of mutilation. Cuts on the nasal bones and on the frontal processes of the
maxillae suggest multiple lacerations of the nose or the removal of the nose altogether.
Cut marks on the malar bones and the zygomatic process of the left maxilla indicate slash
wounds around the eyes and flaying of the cheeks, and those on the alveolar processes of
the maxillae appear to mark the removal of the upper lip. Table 17 presents a summary
of the types of mutilation likely suffered by each of the 10 affected individuals.
Mandible
Entierro 5, HG99-5, HG99-6, H99"6, E12, El5, EIS, H17 SK3, H25 and H33 all
have cut marks on the mandible. Cuts are located on the left and right lateral aspects of
the body and ramus, the inferior surface of the body, and the posterior and inferior
aspects of the right ramus (Figures 68-70, 74, and 81"85). One to eleven cut marks are
present on each mandible. Length of the cut marks varies from 0.9 mm to 14.8 mm, with
almost three-quarters (46/63) measuring between 0.5-4 mm long. One cut was too
damaged to measure. Three cut marks are discontinuous, one is actually composed of
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multiple cuts sharing a single main groove, and another is really two parallel cuts lying in
very close proximity to one another. Clustered cut marks are oriented parallel or at
oblique angles to one another, as well as intersect. Relative width ranges from extremely
narrow to wide, with 65% ( 41163) of the cut marks classified as narrow. Two cuts were
too damaged for width to be determined. Relative depth varies from extremely shallow
to deep, with most cuts categorized as semi-shallow (26/63 or 36.5%) or moderately deep
(25/63 or 39.6%). Fifty-one of sixty-three cut marks (80.9"/o) are V-shaped. Ten cuts are
U-shaped and two are of indeterminate shape, which in ten of twelve cases can be
attributed to their shallow depth. Around 57% (36/63) of the cut marks have straight
walls. Two cuts have relatively coarse walls, which in one case is due to irremovable
debris filling the groove. Wall morphology was not possible to accurately assess for 25
of63 cut marks (39.6%), in all except three cases due to their shallow depth.
Approximately one-quarter (16/63) of the cuts have internal striae and three have bone
overhangs. Six cut marks are affected by weather cracks and three others are damaged.
No chattermarks were observed. Shallow scrapes are present on five mandibles. The
roughly horizontal cuts on the left alveolar portion of the mandible ofHG99-5 and the
right alveolar portion of the mandible ofHG99-6 suggest the removal of the lower lip.
Similarly oriented cut marks present on the alveolar processes of the maxillae ofHG99-5
and HG99-6 suggest that these two individuals may have had both lips excised. Cut
marks around the mandibular symphysis and at the base of the right body and ramus of
H99-6 may signify mutilation or defleshing of the jaw. Cuts located at the base of the
body and rami and on the inferior aspect of the mandible, as exhibited by Entierro 5,
HG99-5, HG99-6, El2, El5, E18 and H25, may be the result of cutting strokes across the
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throat that also nicked the jaw. Another possibility is that the cuts are associated with
tongue removal. Cut marks on the right side of the mandibular body and posterior aspect
of the right ramus of H17 SK3 and the inferior aspect of the mandible of H33 are
consistent with decapitation.
Cervical Vertebrae
A total of 180 cut marks were observed on 30 cervical vertebrae. As shown in
Figure 86, the third cervical vertebra is the most commonly affected ( 6/23 or 26% ),
closely followed by the fourth (6/25 or 24%) and seventh (6/28 or 21.4%) cervical
vertebrae, respectively. In addition, upper (C1-C4) vertebrae are more likely to have cut
marks than lower (C5-C7) vertebrae.
One individual, H36, has cut marks on the atlas vertebra. Two parallel cuts are
located on the inferior aspect of the posterior arch (Figure 87). The cut marks measure
1.1 mm and 2.9 mm in length, respectively. Both cuts are relatively narrow. The more
medial of the two cut marks is relatively semi-shallow in depth while the more lateral cut
is moderately deep. Both cut marks are V -shaped with straight, sheer walls and neither
has internal striae within the main groove. The more medial cut has a bone overhang and
chattermarks nearby; the more lateral cut mark has weather cracks at one end.
Twenty-seven, four, five and thirteen cut marks, respectively, are present on the
axis vertebrae ofHG99-1, E2, E3 and H36. Over one-third (18/49) ofthe cuts are located
on the anterior aspect of the vertebral body. Other cut marks are found on the posterior
and posterior-lateral aspects of the dens (6/49 or 12.2%), the anterior and anterior-lateral
surfaces of the left transverse process (13/49 or 26.5%), the anterior, anterior-lateral
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(10/49 or 20.4%) and posterior-lateral (1/49 or 2%) aspects of the right transverse
process, and the posterior surface of the left lamina (2/49 or 4%) (Figures 88-91). The
cuts vary in length from 1.2 mm to 10.52 mm, with nearly 70% (34/49) of the cut marks
measuring less than 5 mm. Four cut marks could not be measured, primarily due to
damage. Four cuts on the axis vertebra of HG99-1 are discontinuous. Half (9/18) of the
cut marks located on the anterior body specifically, and 65% (26/40) on the anterior (or
anterior-lateral) aspect of the bone in general are oriented horizontally. In both cases, the
remaining cuts are obliquely oriented relative to the superior-inferior axis of the bone.
Nearly 65% (27/42) of the cut marks occurring in groups are oriented more or less
parallel to one another; the rest either intersect or are oriented at oblique angles to one
another. Relative width of the cut marks ranges from narrow to wide, with 34 of 49 cuts
(69.3%) classified as narrow. The width of one cut on the inferior aspect of the axis of
HG99-l varies internally from wide to narrow. Five cuts were too damaged for width to
be assessed. Relative depth varies from extremely shallow to very deep, with the
category of deep recorded the most frequently (15/49 or 30.6%). For two cuts, relative
depth varies within the groove, in one case ranging from deep to shallow. Depth could
not be determined for three cut marks due to damage or weather cracks. Forty-four of 49
cuts (89.7%) are V-shaped. The shape of five cuts could not be evaluated due to their
shallow depth, irremovable debris filling the groove, or the application of polyvinyl
acetate. Nearly 70% of the cuts have straight walls. Three shallow cut marks have
relatively coarse walls, which in two cases can be attributed to the application of
polyvinyl acetate. Wall morphology was not possible to assess for 12 cut marks due to a
variety of factors including shallow depth, irremovable debris within the groove and
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damage. Approximately 20% (10/49) of the cuts have internal striae and three cut marks,
two of which are located on the anterior body of the axis ofE3, have bone overhangs.
Twenty cut marks (40.8%) are affected by weather cracks, damaged or both. In three
cases, the damage is perimortem. Chattermarks were observed near approximately 18%
(9/49) of the cut marks.
Twenty-five middle and lower cervical vertebrae (C3-C7, and including two
isolated cervical vertebrae of indeterminate position) exhibit a total of one hundred
twenty-nine cut marks. Individuals with affected C3-C7 vertebrae include Entierro 3,
HG99-l, HG99-5, HG99-7, E2, E4, E5, E10, H9 SKI, H30 SKI, H33 and H36. Cuts are
found with the greatest frequency on the anterior body (28/129 or 21.7%) and anterior
and lateral aspects of the right superior articular facet (30/129 or 23.2%). Other cut
marks are located on the anterior aspect of the left lateral margin of the superior aspect of
the body (3/129 or 2.3%), the anterior, lateral and posterior surfaces of the left superior
articular facet (211129 or 16.2%), the anterior, anterior-inferior and lateral aspects of the
left inferior articular facet (8/129 or 6.2%), the lateral surface of the right inferior
articular facet (11129 or 0.7%) and left transverse process (41129 or 3.1 %), the anterior
and lateral aspects of the right transverse process (10/129 or 7.7%), the lateral and
posterior surfaces of the left (111129 or 8.5%) and right (5/129 or 3.8%) lamina, and the
posterior and inferior aspects of the spinous process (11/129 or 8.5%) (Figures 89, 92-95
and 97). Each vertebra has one to seventeen cut marks, with a mode of three cuts per
bone as illustrated in Figure 96. Length of the cut marks ranges from 0. 7 mm to 9.5 mm
with almost 63% measuring between 0.5-4 mm long. About 14% (18/129) of the cuts
could not be measured, primarily because they were too damaged. Eight cut marks are
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discontinuous and in at least eight other cases, seemingly discrete cuts may have been
produced by the same cutting stroke. The majority (15/28) of the cuts on the anterior
body (15/28 or 53.5%) and on the anterior aspect in general (39/67) are oriented
horizontally; the rest are obliquely oriented relative to the superior-inferior axis of the
bone. Orientation of clustered cut marks relative to one another is variable; they lie
parallel to one another, are oriented at oblique angles and intersect. The cut marks range
in relative width from narrow to very wide, with about 64% (83/129) classified as
narrow. The width of four cuts varies internally. Assessment of the relative width of 10
cuts was not possible, mostly due to damage. Relative depth ranges from shallow to
extremely deep, with the category of moderately deep recorded most frequently (50/129
or 38.7% ). The depth of six cut marks varies internally. Damage or irremovable debris
prevented detennination of the relative depth of five cuts. Around 96% (123/129) of the
cut marks are V -shaped. Shape could not be evaluated for five cuts-three were too
shallow and two were too damaged. Nearly 70% (90/129) of the cut marks have straight
walls. Four cuts have one straight wall and one coarse wall and seven cut marks have
relatively coarse walls, which in two cases each can be attributed to debris filling the
groove. Wall morphology could not be assessed for approximately 22% (28/129) of the
cut marks for a variety of reasons including shallow depth, weather cracks, damage and
irremovable debris. Twenty-two of one hundred twenty-nine cuts (17%) contain internal
striae within the main groove and twenty-one cut marks exhibit bone overhangs. Over
30% (411129) of the cuts are affected by weather cracks, some to an extreme degree and
about 20% (26/129) of the cut marks have suffered damage. Chattennarks are present
near four cut marks. Shallow scrapes were observed on the anterior body of C3 of
HG99-5.
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In summary, 14 individuals present cut marks on their cervical vertebrae. Eight
of fourteen individuals have two or more affected vertebrae, including H36 who exhibits
cuts on Cl-C6. Six individuals, including HG99-5, E2, E3, E4 and ES had their throats
slit, as suggested by cut marks restricted to the anterior aspect of the body and left and
right transverse processes of the axis and the anterior surface of the body, left lateral
margin of the superior aspect of the body, left and right superior articular facets, left and
right transverse processes and left inferior articular facet ofC3-C7. Additional cuts on
the lateral surface of the left superior articular facet and left transverse process of C4 of
HG99-5 and on the anterior-lateral aspect of the right transverse process and lateral
aspect of the right inferior articular facet of C6 of E4 signal that some cutting strokes
across the throat extended to the side of the neck. The skulls and vertebral columns of
HG99-5, E2, E3, E4 and ES were found articulated, strengthening the argument that these
individuals' throats were slashed, but that their heads were not removed. The sixth
individual with a slit throat is represented by two isolated cervical vertebrae of
indeterminate position, each with cut marks confined to the anterior aspect. HG99-7,
ElO, H9 SKl and H30 SKl were decapitated as indicated by cuts found on the lateral or
posterior surfaces of the left and right superior articular facets, left and right transverse
processes, left lamina, left inferior articular facet and spinous process. As supporting
evidence for the above interpretation, both HG99-7 and E 10 were missing the skull and at
least one cervical vertebra (Cl in the case ofHG99-7 and Cl-C6 ofElO). No skull is
associated with either H9 SKl or H30 SKl, and their cervical vertebrae are limited to
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C4-C7 and C7, respectively. There is convincing evidence that both H33 and H36
suffered deep lacerations to the throat in addition to being decapitated. H33 is composed
only of a skull and articulated C1-C3 and dismembered left and right feet. Semi-shallow
cuts on the anterior body of C3 may be the result of throat slitting while deeper cuts on
the anterior surface of the body, the left lateral margin of the superior aspect of the body
and the anterior-inferior aspect of the left inferior articular facet of this vertebra are
consistent with decapitatation. In addition, the inferior portion of the vertebral arch and
both transverse processes of C3 were fractured perimortem and bone peeling is evident
on the posterior aspect of the right lamina (Figures 97 -98). The skeleton of H36 is more
or less complete from the waist down. Above the waist, however, only the skull and
articulated C1-C6 are present. Cuts on the anterior body and right transverse process of
the axis vertebra are suggestive of throat slitting. Cut marks characteristic of decapitation
are found on the inferior surface of the posterior arch of the atlas, the lateral and posterior
aspects of the dens, right transverse process and left lamina of the axis, and the lateral and
posterior surfaces of the left and right superior articular facets, left and right laminae and
spinous process of C3-C6. The considerable depth of many of the cuts on the posterior
and lateral aspects of the dens of the axis is particularly notable (Figures 90 and 91 ).
Finally, it is likely that Entierro 3 and HG99-1 also had their throats slit and heads
removed. In the case ofEntierro 3, cut marks occur on the anterior aspect ofC3 and C4
as well as on the lateral aspect of the right transverse process of C3 and the posterior
surface of the spinous process of C7. Cuts on the cervical vertebrae of HG99-l are
located on both the anterior and lateral surfaces ofC2 and C3. Futhermore, the skeletons
of Entierro 3 and HG99-l were found missing a skull and at least one upper cervical
vertebra (i.e., C 1, C2).
Thoracic Vertebrae
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A total of 335 cut marks are found on 70 thoracic vertebrae associated with at
least 21 individuals, including Entierro 3, Entierro 4, Entierro 5, HG99-l, HG99-2,
HG99-3, HG99-5, E2, E4, E9, E10, El4, EIS, EIS, Hl7 SK3 and H30 SKI. The number
of thoracic vertebrae with cuts per individual ranges from one to eleven (the latter being
El4). Nearly one-third (105/335) of the cuts are located on the posterior and posterior-
inferior aspects of the left transverse process. Other cut marks are found on the anterior
aspect of the left and right superior articular facets, the anterior and inferior aspects of the
left transverse process, the anterior, posterior and inferior aspects of the right transverse
process, the lateral aspect of the right pedicle, adjacent to or bisecting the rib facet, the
posterior aspect of the left and right laminae, and on the left and right lateral aspects as
well as across the midline of the spinous process (Figures 99-104 ). The number of cuts
on each vertebra ranges from one to fifteen, with approximately 83% (58/70) of the bones
exhibiting seven or fewer cut marks. The cuts vary in length from 0.6 mm to 15.6 mm.
Length could not be determined for about 15% (51/335) of the cut marks due to various
factors, including visibility difficulties, curvature of the groove and damage. Nineteen of
three hundred thirty-five cuts are discontinuous, four are actually composed of multiple
cuts sharing the same groove, and in two cases, what appear to be single cut marks to the
naked eye are really two parallel cuts lying very close together. The majority of cut
marks (206/335 or 61.4%) have a more or less vertical orientation. Approximately 55%
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(184/335) of the clustered cuts lie parallel to one another; the remaining grouped cut
marks lie at oblique angles to one another or intersect. Relative width of the cut marks
varies from extremely narrow to very wide, with nearly 63% (211/335) classified as
narrow. In six cases, width varies within the cut mark itself. Relative width could not be
accurately determined for 32 cuts, primarily due to grooves altered by intersecting cuts
and damage. Relative depth ranges from very shallow to extremely deep, with 40%
(134/335) of the cut marks classified as moderately deep. In three cases, depth varies
internally. Relative depth could not be assessed for 28 cut marks for several reasons
including alteration of the groove by intersecting cuts and damage. Three hundred
eighteen of335 cuts (94.9%) are V-shaped. Four cut marks are U-shaped, which can be
attributed in all cases to their relatively shallow depth. The evaluation of cut mark shape
for approximately 4% (13/335) of the cuts was not possible, primarily due to damage.
One hundred ninety of three hundred thirty-five cut marks (56.7%) have straight, sheer
walls; seven have one straight wall and one coarse wall. Twenty-three cuts have
relatively coarse walls, in four cases the result of weathering or damage. Wall
morphology could not be assessed for over one-third (115/3 3 5) of all cut marks for a
variety of factors including shallow depth, irremovable debris filling the groove and
damage. Eight percent (27/335) of the cut marks contain internal striae within the main
groove and approximately 7% (23/335) have bone overhangs. Twenty-two cut marks are
affected by weather cracks (some extremely so), sixty-four have suffered damage, and
three are both weathered and damaged. Chattermarks occur only on the spinous process
of the tenth thoracic vertebra of E 10. Four vertebrae have shallow scrapes. On the
thoracic vertebrae of 17 individuals, including Entierro 3, Entierro 5, HG99-1, HG99-2,
135
HG99-3, HG99-5, E2, E4, E9, E10, E15, E18 and H17 SK3, cut marks are limited to the
spinous process and posterior aspect of the left and right transverse processes and
laminae. These cuts are consistent with defleshing, including the removal of the
thoracolumbar fascia and the muscles of the back, specifically the trapezius, rhomboid,
latissimus dorsi, serratus posterior and erector spinae muscles. Defleshing as the primary
motive is also supported by the vertical orientation of the majority of the cut marks, the
absence of cuts on the superior or inferior articular facets and the fact that in 11 cases, the
vertebral columns of the individuals were found in proper articulation. Disarticulation of
the thorax is suggested by cut marks on the anterior and inferior aspects of the left and
right superior articular facets, transverse processes and laminae of thoracic vertebrae of
four individuals, including Entierro 4, E14 and H30 SKI. In the case ofE14, the absence
of the ribs and multiple thoracic vertebrae with cut marks bisecting the rib facets provide
additional evidence for the disarticulation. Roughly vertical cuts on the posterior aspect
of the right transverse process and right lamina of the thoracic vertebrae of three of the
four individuals listed above (e.g., Entierro 4 and El4) indicate that severing of the back
muscles may have accompanied disarticulation of the vertebral column.
Lumbar Vertebrae
Thirty-two lumbar vertebrae of thirteen individuals, including Entierro 3, Entierro
4, Entierro 5, Entierro 6, HG99-1, HG99-2, HG99-3, E4, ElO, E14, E15 and El8 present
a total of 108 cut marks. Ten of thirteen individuals have more than one and as many as
four vertebrae with cuts. Cut marks are most frequently located on the posterior aspect of
the left transverse process (30/108 or 27.7%) and right lamina (20/108 or 18.5%).
136
Elsewhere, cut marks are present on the anterior and lateral aspect of the left transverse
process, the anterior and posterior aspects of the right transverse process, the lateral
aspect of the right pedicle, the posterior aspect of the left lamina, and the left and right
lateral aspects of the spinous process (Figures 105-107). Each vertebra has one to ten
cuts, with a mode of two. Length of the cut marks ranges from 1.0 mm to 10.7 mm with
75% measuring less than 5 mm long. Seven cuts could not be measured, primarily due to
damage. One cut mark is really two cuts sharing a common groove and three cut marks
are each actually two cut marks lying in very close proximity. Over three-fourths
(83/108) of the cut marks are oriented vertically. Cuts occurring in groups are oriented
parallel (72/85 or 84.7%) or at oblique angles to one another (13/85 or 15.2%). The cut
marks vary in relative width from very narrow to wide, with 79 of 108 (73 .1%) classified
as narrow. Relative width could not be determined for four cut marks, mostly due to
damage. Relative depth ranges from extremely shallow to deep, with slightly over half
(55//108) categorized as moderately deep. Two cuts were too damaged to assess depth.
All but six cut marks are V-shaped. One shallow cut is U-shaped and three other shallow
cuts are of indeterminate shape. Two cut marks were too damaged for shape to be
determined. Sixty-nine of one hundred eight cuts (63.8%) have straight walls, one cut
has one straight wall and one coarse wall and three relatively deep cut marks on a
transverse process fragment of a lumbar vertebra of E 10 have relatively coarse walls.
Wall morphology could not be accurately determined for one-third (36/108) of the cuts
for various reasons including shallow depth, multiple cuts in the same groove,
irremovable debris, and damage. Ten cut marks contain internal striae and eleven others
have bone overhangs. Nine cut marks each are affected by weather cracks or damaged
137
and two others are both weathered and damaged. Chattermarks are present on two
lumbar vertebrae and shallow scrapes were observed on three others. Cut marks found
on the lateral aspect of the pedicle and anterior and lateral aspects of the transverse
processes may be associated with evisceration, but more likely are the result of
defleshing, specifically the detachment of the psoas major muscle, while those located on
the spinous process and on the posterior surface of the transverse processes and laminae
indicate removal of the erector spinae, multifidus and lumbar intertranversarii muscles.
Cuts are restricted to the anterior aspect of the vertebrae of Entierro 4 and Entierro 6.
Seven individuals, including Entierro 3, HG99-2, HG99-3, E4, ElO and E15, have cuts
on the posterior aspect alone, and Entierro 5, HG99-1, E14 and E18 exhibit cut marks on
the anterior, lateral and posterior surfaces of the vertebrae. The lack of horizontal
orientation of the cut marks and the fact that nearly all of lumbar vertebrae with cuts were
found in anatomical position make disarticulation of the lower vertebral column
improbable in most, if not all, cases.
In addition to the cut marks described above, 13 cuts are found on six transverse
process fragments from thoracic or lumbar vertebrae ofEntierro 3, ElO and E18. In four
cases, the cut marks are located on the posterior aspect; in the remaining two cases,
aspect cannot be determined. Four of six transverse processes have one cut, one has four
cut marks and another has five. The cut marks are 1.2 mm to 5.8 mm long, with one too
damaged to measure. The cuts on the two transverse processes with multiple cut marks
are all oriented roughly parallel to each other. Ten of thirteen cut marks are relatively
narrow in width; the three remaining are relatively wide. Relative depth varies from
semi-shallow to deep, with nearly half ( 6/13 or 46.1%) of the cuts classified as semi-
138
shallow. All cut marks are V -shaped and all except one have straight, sheer walls. Wall
morphology could not be determined for one cut due to weather cracks. None of the cut
marks contain internal striae. One cut has a bone overhang. One cut mark is weathered
and another is damaged. No chattermarks are present. All cuts are consistent with
de fleshing.
A total of502 cut marks were observed on 129left and right ribs belonging to at
least 24 individuals. In general, left ribs (67/129 or 51.9%) are more affected than right
ribs (52/129 or 40.3%) or ribs of indeterminate side (10/129 or 7.8%).
Two left and three right ftrst ribs exhibit cut marks. Three cuts are visible on an
extra left fust rib associated with E7 and one cut mark is present on the left ftrst rib ofE9.
Three cut marks are found on the right ftrst rib ofH9 SKI and two isolated right ftrst ribs
have two cuts each. All cut marks on the left ftrst ribs are located on the superior aspect
of the shaft (Figure 1 08). Cuts on the right ftrst ribs occur on the superior aspect of the
shaft and the inferior aspect of the neck (Figure 1 09). Length of the cut marks ranges
from 1.1 mm to 8.3 mm. Two cut marks on one of the isolated right first ribs could not
be measured due to postmortem damage. All cuts are oriented at oblique angles relative
to the long axis of the bone and all except one of the grouped cut marks lie parallel to one
another. The exception is oriented at an oblique angle to the other two cuts in its cluster.
Eight of the cut marks are relatively narrow in width, two are moderately wide and one is
wide. Relative depth varies from shallow to deep with most cuts categorized as either
shallow (5/11 or 45.4%) or moderately deep (4/11 or 36.3%). All cut marks are V-
139
shaped and eight have straight walls. Wall morphology could not be assessed for three
cut marks due to irremovable debris within the groove or damage. Two cuts contain
internal striae and the cut mark on the left first rib ofE9 has a bone overhang. None of
the cuts are affected by weather cracks, however, three have suffered damage. No
chattermarks were observed. The cut marks on the superior aspect of the shaft of the left
first rib associated with E7, the left first rib ofE9, the right first rib ofH9 SKI, and one
of the isolated right first ribs and on the inferior surface of the neck of the other isolated
right first rib are all suggestive of removal of the head at the base of the neck. In the case
ofE9, the absence of the skull and cervical vertebrae provides additional evidence for
decapitation as the most likely objective. An alternative explanation of the cuts on the
left first rib associated with E7 and the left first rib of E9 is slashing of the base of the
throat.
Two and six cut marks, respectively, are present on the left second ribs ofHG99-5
and E7, and 13 are found on the right second rib ofHG99-2. On the left second rib, the
cut marks are located on the superior aspect of the stemal Y3 and vertebral Y2 of the shaft
(Figure 110). Cuts on the right second rib occur on the superior surface of the sternal Y4
of the shaft. The cut marks vary in length from 0.9 mm to 9.0 mm, with about 71%
(15/21) measuring less than 5 mm. The more sternal cut on the left second rib ofHG99-5
is discontinuous. All cut marks are obliquely oriented relative to the long axis of the
bone. Clustered cuts lie parallel or at oblique angles to one another as well as intersect.
All cut marks are relatively narrow in width and relative depth ranges from very shallow
to moderately deep with semi -shallow the most frequently recorded category (9/21 or
42.8%). All cuts are V-shaped and four have straight walls. The walls of two of the cut
140
marks on the left second rib of E7 are relatively coarse. The remaining 1 5 cuts were too
shallow to accurately evaluate wall morphology. Two cut marks on the right second rib
ofHG99-2 contain internal striae within the main groove. None of the cuts have bone
overhangs. None of the cut marks are affected by weather cracks or damaged. One case
of chattermarks on the right second rib ofHG99-2 was recorded and shallow scrapes are
present on the left second rib ofHG99-5.
Three hundred ninety-seven cut marks are found one hundred three ribs three
through ten of at least twenty-two individuals including Entierro 3, HG99-1, HG99-2,
HG99-3, HG99-4, HG99-5, El, E2, E4, E7, E8, E9, ElO, El2, E18 and H17 SK3.
Overall, cuts more frequently occur on left ribs (53/103) than right ribs (40/103) or ribs of
indeterminate side (10/103). Each individual has one to twelve ribs with cut marks, with
a mode of one cut marked rib per person. About 82% (308/376) of the cut marks on the
left and right ribs, as well as all 21 cuts on ribs of indeterminate side are located on the
external surface of the shaft. Additional cut marks on left ribs are found on the superior
and superior-external aspect of the sternal Y2 of the shaft and the inferior aspect below the
tubercle. Other cuts on right ribs occur on the internal aspect of the vertebral Y4 of the
shaft, the internal and external surfaces of the neck and across the tubercle (Figures 111-
116). One to seventeen cut marks are found on each rib, with approximately two-thirds
(68/103) of the ribs exhibiting fewer than five. Length of the cut marks ranges from 0.7
mm to 17.8 mm, with over two-thirds (266/397) measuring between 0.5-5 mm. About
10% (40/397) of the cuts could not be measured for various reasons including damage
and some cuts being so fine and shallow that it was not possible to determine their
extremes. Six cut marks are discontinuous, seven are actually composed of multiple cuts
141
sharing a common groove, and seven more are each really two cut marks lying in very
close proximity. The majority of cuts on the external surface of the shaft and neck are
oriented at oblique angles relative to the long axis of the bone. Nearly all cut marks on
the internal aspect of the neck and vertebral Y4 of the shaft are vertically oriented. The
orientation of grouped cuts is variable: they lie parallel or at oblique angles to one
another, as well as intersect. Relative width of the cut marks ranges from extremely
narrow to extremely wide, with most (246/397 or 61.9%) categorized as narrow. The
width of three cuts varies internally. Factors such as including alteration of the groove by
intersecting cuts, multiple cut marks sharing the same groove, extreme weathering and
damage made determination of relative width impossible for 8% (32/297) of the cuts.
Relative depth ranges from extremely shallow to very deep, with the classifications of
shallow (102/397 or 25.6%) and semi-shallow (123/397 or 30.9%) recorded most
frequently. Four cuts have variable depth. Ten cut marks were too weathered or too
damaged for relative depth to be accurately assessed. Over 90% (363/397) of the cuts are
V-shaped. Fifteen cut marks are U-shaped, which in eleven cases can be attributed to
their shallow depth. The shape of 19 cuts could not be determined due to shallow depth
or damage. About 46% (1811397) of the cut marks have straight, sheer walls, two cuts
have one straight wall and one coarse wall and eighteen (eleven of which are shallow)
have relatively coarse walls. Wall morphology of nearly half (196/397) of the cut marks
could not be evaluated for several reasons, including shallow depth, modification of the
groove by intersecting cuts, multiple cut marks in a common groove, weather cracks and
damage. Forty-eight of three hundred ninety-seven cuts (12%) contain internal striae and
thirty-five (8.8%) have bone overhangs. Around seven percent (26/397) of the cuts are
142
affected, in some cases severely, by weather cracks and another 9% (34/397) of the cut
marks have suffered damage. Two cut marks are affected by both weather cracks and
damaged. Eight cases of chattermarks were observed. Shallow scrapes are present on
twenty-one of the ribs described above and an additional five ribs exhibit scrapes but no
cut marks.
Seven individuals, HG99-1, HG99-2, HG99-3, HG99-4, HG99-5, E2 and E4,
exhibit a total of seventy-three cut marks on ten left and eight right eleventh and twelfth
ribs. In general, the cut marks are located on the external aspect of the shaft, and over
two-thirds of all cuts occur on the vertebral Yz of the shaft (Figures 117 -120). The
number of cuts per rib varies from one to eleven, with a mode of four. The cut marks
vary in length from 0.9 mm to 18.0 mm, with nearly 70% (51173) measuring less than 5
mm. Multiple cuts share the same groove in three cases, and in two other cases, single
cut marks are actually composed of two cuts located in extremely close proximity to each
another. Sixty-five of seventy-three cut marks (89%) are obliquely oriented relative to
the long axis of the bone; the remaining eight are oriented perpendicular. Almost 90%
( 61168) of cut marks occurring in clusters are oriented parallel to one another; others lie
at oblique angles to one another or intersect. Relative width varies from narrow to very
wide, with the classification of narrow recorded most often (35/73 or 47.9%). The width
of two cuts varies internally and the width of three other cut marks could not be
determined due to irremovable debris, the alteration of the main groove by intersecting
cuts or multiple cuts in the same groove. Relative depth ranges from very shallow to
extremely deep, with moderately deep the most frequently applied category (24/73 or
32.8%). The depth of two cuts varies internally. All except three cut marks are V-
143
shaped; shape could not be determined for three cuts because they were either too
shallow or filled with irremovable debris. Forty-two of sixty-nine cut marks (57.5%)
have straight, sheer walls, as illustrated by Figure 121. Seven cut marks have relatively
coarse walls. In four cases, the coarseness of the walls can be attributed to one of the
following factors: irremovable debris within the groove, modification of the groove by
interesting cuts, bone porosity, or weather cracks. Assessment of wall morphology was
prohibited for nearly one-third (24173) of the cut marks for various reasons including
shallow depth, irremovable debris and multiple cuts sharing the same groove. Four cut
marks have internal striae and eight cuts have bone overhangs. Seven cut marks are
affected by weather cracks and ten others have suffered damage. One case of
chattermarks, on the left twelfth rib ofHG99-3, was observed. Shallow scrapes occur on
the left twelfth rib ofHG99-2 and the left eleventh rib ofE4.
The vast majority of cuts on ribs two through twelve are consistent with
defleshing of the rib cage. Cut marks on the superior aspect of the sternal Y2 of the
second rib and superior-external and external surfaces of the sternal Y2 of the shaft of ribs
three through twelve suggest detachment of muscles of the chest and abdomen, namely
the pectoralis, external intercostal, serratus anterior, rectus abdominis, external oblique
and transversus abdominis muscles. Cuts on the superior surface of the vertebral Y2 of the
second rib and external aspect of the vertebral Y2 of the shaft of ribs three through twelve
indicate slashing of the thoracolumbar fascia and the removal of back muscles,
specifically the trapezius, latissimus dorsi, external intercostal, subcostal, serratus
posterior, erector spinae, and levatores costarum muscles. Cut marks exclusively located
on the external surface of the vertebral Y2 of the shaft of ribs two through twelve suggest
144
that the flesh was stripped from the backs ofHG99-3, El, E2, E4, E7, E8, E12, E18 and
H17 SK3. This conclusion is further supported by the fact that the thoracic region of
seven of these individuals was found articulated. The thorax of E 18 was found partially
disarticulated. The presence of cut marks on both sterna! and vertebral portions of the
ribs and the articulated status of the thorax provides convincing evidence of defleshing of
both ventral and dorsal aspects of the trunk ofHG99-l, HG99-2, HG99-4, HG99-5 and
E9. In addition, cuts consistent with defleshing of the rib cage are found on nine
disarticulated ribs; however, due to the fragmentary nature of the bones and their isolated
context, the specific muscles affected are uncertain. In contrast to the pattern of
defleshing described above, a strong argument can be made for the disarticulation of the
thoracic region or prying open of the chest cavity ofEntierro 3 and ElO. All cut marks
on ribs of Entierro 3 are located on the internal surface of the bone, either on the neck or
vertebral Y.. of the shaft and several cuts on the ribs of E 10 traverse the tubercle (Figures
114 and 115). Furthermore, the ribs of both individuals are represented by fragments and
exhibit perimortem fractures of the neck or shaft just anterior of the tubercle (Figures
114, 115 and 122). Cut marks on the external surface of the vertebral Y2 of the shaft of
the ribs ofEIO suggest that the back of this individual may have been defleshed as well.
An isolated left rib with cuts on the inferior aspect below the tubercle and a perimortem
shaft fracture hints that another individual may have received perimortem treatment
similar to that accorded to Entierro 3 and E 10 (Figure 116).
145
Sternum
E7 has three roughly parallel cut marks on the anterior aspect of the distal end of
the sternal body (Figure 123). The middle cut mark is 2.39 mm long; damage prevented
measurement of the other two cuts. The cut marks are oriented more or less parallel to
the long axis of the bone. All three cuts are relatively narrow in width but range in depth
from semi-shallow to very deep. The cut marks are V -shaped and the most medial cut
has straight, sheer walls. Wall morphology of the other two cuts could not be determined
due to the porous nature of the bone. The middle cut mark contains fme internal striae
and the most lateral cut has a bone overhang. None of the cut marks are affected by
weather cracks, however, both medial and lateral cut marks have suffered postmortem
damage. No chattermarks were present. These three longitudinal slices suggest slashing
of the chest as a form of mutilation or removal of the left pectoralis major muscle during
defleshing.
Clavicle
A total of 103 cut marks are present on 13 left and five right clavicles of 15
individuals. Bones with cuts include both clavicles ofHG99-l, HG99-5 and E7, the left
clavicle ofEntierro 5, Entierro 6, HG99-3, HG99-6, E2, E13 and H24 SKI, three isolated
left clavicles, and the right clavicle ofHG99-4 and E9. On both left and right clavicles,
cut marks are located along the shaft on all aspects of the bone (Figures 124-129). The
number of cuts on each clavicle varies from one to seventeen; however, all except three
bones have eight or fewer cuts. The cut marks range in length from 0.9 mm to 8.8 mm
with over three-quarters (8011 03) measuring less than 5 mm. Approximately 10%
146
(111103) ofthe cuts were too damaged to measure. Two cut marks are discontinuous and
one of the cut marks on the left clavicle ofHG99-1 is actually two cuts sharing a single
groove. The cut marks are either oriented at oblique angles or perpendicular to the long
axis of the bone. About 78% (68/87) of cuts occurring in groups are oriented parallel to
one another; the rest are oriented at oblique angles to one another or intersect. The cut
marks range in relative width from narrow to wide, with the categories of narrow ( 481103
or 46.6%) and wide (39/103 or 37.8%) recorded most frequently. The width of four cuts
could not be determined due to damage. Relative depth varies from extremely shallow to
very deep, with the majority of cut marks classified as moderately deep (3111 03 or 30%)
and deep (35/103 or 33.9%). One cut was too damaged for depth to be assessed. Ninety-
seven of one hundred three cut marks are V -shaped. Five cut marks are U-shaped, which
in four cases can be attributed to their shallow depth. Damage prevented determination
of shape for one cut. Sixty-five cut marks have straight, sheer walls and three have one
straight and one coarse wall. Four shallow cut marks have relatively coarse walls, which
in three cases also can be attributed to damage. Wall morphology could not be assessed
for 300/o (31/103) of the cuts for various reasons including shallow depth, weather cracks
and damage. Seventeen cut marks contain internal striae and four have bone overhangs.
About 21% (22/1 03) of the cuts are affected by weather cracks, damaged or both. Three
cases of chattermarks were observed and shallow scrapes are present on five clavicles.
Cut marks on the clavicles ofEntierro 5, HG99-4, E2, E7, E9, E13 and the three isolated
left clavicles may be the product of defleshing, including the detachment of the trapezius,
deltoid, pectoralis major and subclavius muscles and clavipectoral fascia, but more likely
are the result of the removal of the arm at the shoulder joint. The latter hypothesis is
I47
strengthened by the fact that, in many cases (e.g., Entierro 5, HG99-4, E2, E7, E9 and
E13), the associated ann, or at least the humerus, was missing.
5
In addition, the right and
left scapula ofE9 and EI3, respectively and both scapulae ofE7 also are missing.
Dismemberment also is the most probable interpretation for the cut marks on the left
clavicle ofH24 SKI, but here the opposite situation as that just described occurs, i.e,
rather than missing an ann, only the articulated left clavicle, scapula and ann bones of
this individual are represented. The cut marks located on the superior surface on the
sternal Y2 of the shaft of the left clavicle ofEntierro 6 may indicate decapitation or the
removal of the left scapula. As supporting evidence, neither the skull nor the left scapula
of this individual was recovered at the time of excavation. It is important to note that
only the sterna! portions of both clavicles ofE7, the left clavicle ofEntierro 6, one of the
isolated left clavicles and the right clavicle of E9 are present and all exhibit perimortem
shaft fractures at or near midshaft. In addition, only the acromial portions of the left
clavicle ofH24 SKI and one of the isolated left clavicles are present and they, too,
exhibit perimortem fractures at or near midshaft (Figures I26 and 129). While possible,
it is not clear in any case if the cut marks and shaft fractures may be the product of the
same activity. Defleshing involving the detachment of the trapezius, deltoid and
pectoralis major muscles is the most logical motivation for the cut marks on the clavicles
ofHG99-I, HG99-3, HG99-5 and HG99-6. All bones of the shoulder are present and
were found in anatomical position in each case, thus dismemberment was not the
intended result. However, cuts on the left and right clavicles ofHG99-I in the
attachment area of the trapezius muscle, which also attaches to the superior nuchal line of
the occipital among other locations, may be associated with decapitation. As stated
148
earlier, HG99-1 was missing the skull and atlas vertebra and cut marks located on C2 and
C3 are consistent with removal of the head. Decapitation is not a possible explanation for
the cuts in the area of attachment of the trapezius muscle on the clavicles ofHG99-3 and
HG99-5 because, in both cases, the skull is present and was found in anatomical position.
Scapula
Ten left and ten right scapulae of fourteen individuals have a total of two hundred
thirty-eight cut marks. Individuals with both scapulae affected are HG99-l, HG99-3,
HG99-4, HG99-5, E2 and E6. Cuts are found on the left scapula only ofEntierro 5, E4,
H24 SKI and H27 SKI and the right scapula only ofHG99-2, HG99-6, E13 and H25.
On both left and right scapulae, over one-third (82/238) of all cut marks occur on the
posterior aspect on the infraspinous fossa; others are located on the anterior aspect on the
subscapular fossa, the anterior and posterior surfaces of the axillary border, the lateral
aspect of the acromion, and the posterior aspect on the supraspinous fossa and spine
(Figures 130-137). Additional cuts on the left scapula are found on the posterior aspect
on the medial border. Other cut marks on the right scapula are located on the posterior
.
aspect on the superior angle and superior border (Figure 137). Each scapula has three to
38 cuts with a mode of five cuts per bone. Length of the cut marks varies from 0.6 mm to
35.1 mm, with over three-quarters (182/238) measuring less than 7 mm. Approximately
8% (18/238) of the cut marks could not be measured, primarily due to damage or
difficulties in discerning their ends. Ten cuts are discontinuous and two on the spine of
the left scapula ofH27 SKI are actually each composed of multiple cuts sharing the same
groove. Most cut marks are oriented at oblique angles to the long axis of the bone. The
149
majority of grouped cuts are oriented parallel to one another; others are oriented at
oblique angles or intersect. Relative width ranges from extremely narrow to wide, with
over 70% (169/238) of all cut marks classified as narrow. One cut on the left scapula of
HG99-4 varies internally in width from narrow to moderately wide. The width of seven
cuts could not be assessed, primarily due to damage. Relative depth varies from
extremely shallow to very deep, with the category of semi-shallow (83/238 or 34.8%)
recorded most often. The depth of three cut marks varies internally, in two cases from
extremely shallow to moderately deep. Damage prevented the determination of relative
depth for three cuts. With the exception of 10 cuts, all cut marks are V -shaped. Five cut
marks are U-shaped, which in three cases can be attributed shallow depth. Two other
shallow cuts are of indeterminate shape and three were too damaged for shape to be
evaluated. Over half(124/238) of the cut marks have straight, sheer walls and seven cuts
have one straight wall and one coarse wall. Eighteen cut marks have relatively coarse
walls, which in twelve cases can be attributed to shallow depth, debris within the main
groove or damage. Wall morphology was not possible to accurately determine for 89 of
238 (37.3%) cut marks due to shallow depth, the alteration of the groove by intersecting
cuts, irremovable debris or damage. Over one-quarter ( 63/23 8) of all cuts have internal
striae within the main groove and nearly 17% ( 40/238) exhibit bone overhangs. Seven
cut marks are affected by weather cracks, fifteen others have suffered damage and one is
both weathered and damaged. Chattermarks were noted on five scapulae and shallow
scrapes were observed on eleven scapulae. The cut marks on the acromion, subscapular
fossa, axillary border, supraspinous fossa, spine and infraspinous fossa of the left and
right scapulae ofHG99-l, HG99-3 and HG99-5, the left scapula ofE4 and the right
150
scapulae ofHG99-2, HG99-6, E2 and E13 are most likely the product of defleshing,
including severing of the subscapularis, long head of the triceps, trapezius, deltoid,
supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres major and teres minor muscles. In each case, the
associated arm is present and was found in proper articulation at the time of excavation.
A minimum of 30 cuts on the infraspinous fossa of the left scapula of HG99-5 suggests
that the flesh on this area of the bone was particularly difficult to detach or that it was
removed with considerable intensity (Figure 131 ). For the same reasons discussed earlier
regarding cuts in the attachment area for the trapezius muscle on the left and right
clavicles of HG99-l, cut marks in the area of attachment of the trapezius on the left and
right scapulae of this individual may have occurred during decapitation. Cut marks on
the subscapular fossa, axillary border, spine and infraspinous fossa on the left scapulae of
Entierro 5, E2 and H24 SK1 and the left and right scapulae ofHG99-4 indicate
detachment of the arm at the shoulder joint. As supporting evidence for this conclusion,
the left humeri of Enterro 5 and E2 were missing and only the proximal epiphyses of the
humeri ofHG99-4 were found. In addition, only the articulated left shoulder girdle and
arm ofH24 SK1 is present. In the case ofE6, which is composed of a flexed cluster of
arms (including the shoulder blades) and legs with all elements properly articulated, a
convincing argument for both defleshing and detachment of the arms at the shoulder joint
can be made given the presence of cut marks on the subscapular fossa, acromion, superior
border, supraspinous fossa, spine, infraspinous fossa, and medial and axillary borders of
the left and right scapulae. The cut marks on the anterior aspect on the subscapular fossa
of the right scapula ofH25 and the spine of the left scapula ofH27 SK1 may be the result
of either defleshing or dismembennent. Since both bones belong to collections of
disarticulated elements, a more exact diagnosis is not possible.
Humerus
151
Seventeen individuals present a total of two hundred forty-four cut marks on ten
left and thirteen right humeri. Bones with cuts include both humeri ofEntierro 6,
HG99-1, HG99-3, HG99-5, HG99-9 and E6, the left humerus ofE12, E18 and H24 SKI,
an isolated left humerus, and the right humerus ofEntierro 3, Entierro 5, HG99-2, HG99-
6, ElO, E13 and H25. Cut marks on both left and right humeri are located along the shaft
on all aspects and on the medial and lateral supracondylar ridges. Other cuts on the left
humerus are found on the posterior-medial aspect of the surgical neck and the posterior
aspect of the lateral epicondyle. Additional cut marks on the right humerus occur on the
anterior surface of the lesser tubercle, the lateral aspect of the greater tubercle, and the
anterior, medial and posterior aspects of the medial epicondyle (Figures 138-147). The
number of cut marks on each humerus varies from one to forty, with a mode of five cuts
per bone. The cut marks range in length from 0.6 mm to 22.5 mm, with nearly 80%
(195/244) measuring between 0.5-6 mm. Fourteen cuts could not be measured because
they were damaged or so fine and shallow that it was extremely difficult to see their
extremes. Seven cut marks are discontinuous, five are actually composed of multiple
cuts in the same groove and another three are each really two cuts in lying very close
proximity. Almost 70% (170/244) of the cut marks are oriented at oblique angles to the
long axis of the bone; the remaining cuts have a perpendicular (66/244 or 27%) or
parallel (8/244 or 3.2%) orientation. Approximately two-thirds (138/208) of cut marks
152
occurring in clusters are oriented more or less parallel to one another; others are oriented
at oblique angles to one another or intersect. The cuts vary in relative width from
extremely narrow to very wide, with the category of narrow recorded most often
(182/244 or 74.5%). The width of three cut marks varies internally, in two cases from
narrow to wide. The relative width of five cuts was not possible to evaluate for various
reasons including damage. Relative depth ranges from extremely shallow to deep, with
the classifications of shallow (76/244 or 31.1 %) and semi-shallow (94/244 or 38.5%)
applied most frequently. Three cuts have variable depth and one was too damaged for
relative depth to be determined. Two hundred thirty-three of two hundred forty-four cut
marks are V-shaped. Three cuts are U-shaped, which in two cases can be attributed to
shallow depth or multiple cuts sharing a common groove. Six shallow cut marks are of
indeterminate shape and the shape of two others could not be accurately assessed because
one is debris filled and the other is too damaged. Around 40% of the cuts have straight,
sheer walls and one cut has one straight wall and one coarse wall. Ten cuts (of which
four are shallow) have relatively coarse walls. Wall morphology could not be evaluated
for over half(137/244) of the cut marks, primarily due to shallow depth, but also due to
multiple cuts sharing the same groove, the alteration of the groove by intersecting cuts,
irremovable debris and damage. Around 14% (35/244) of the cut marks contain internal
striae and six have bone overhangs. Six cuts are affected by weather cracks and eleven
others have suffered damage. Ten cases of chattermarks were recorded and shallow
scrapes occur on thirteen humeri. Cuts on the surgical neck of the left humerus of E6 and
the proximal shafts of both left and right humeri of Entierro 6, the left humerus of E 18
and the right humeri ofEntierro 3, Entierro 5, HG99-9 and ElO are consistent with
153
detachment of the humerus at the shoulder. In some cases (e.g., Entierro 3, Entierro 6
and E6), the cut marks occur within the joint capsule; other supporting evidence for
dismemberment comes from the fact that, with the exception of E6, in each of the above
cases, the humerus was not in anatomical position and the clavicle and scapula were
missing.
6
Cut marks on the shaft and lateral epicondyle of the humerus such as those
present on the left and right humeri ofHG99-l, HG99-3 and HG99-5 and the right
humerus ofHG99-2 suggest defleshing of the upper arm, including the severing of the
deltoid, biceps, triceps, teres minor and brachialis muscles as well as the common tendon
of the extensor muscles. In the case ofHG99-2, the right humerus was found articulated
with the right scapula, and in the other cases, all bones of the arm were present and in
anatomical position. Cut marks on the distal shaft and medial and lateral epicondyles of
the humerus such as those found on the left and right humeri ofE6, the left humeri of
Entierro 6, E12 and H24 SKI and the right humeri ofEntierro 3, HG99-6, ElO and El3
also indicate defleshing, specifically the removal of the triceps, brachialis, brachioradialis
and pronator teres muscles, in addition to the common tendons of the flexor and extensor
muscles. As supporting evidence for this conclusion, in all cases, the radius and ulna
were present and, in most cases, the arm was properly articulated. The cuts on the distal
shafts of the left and right humeri ofHG99-9, the left humerus ofE18 and the right
humeri of Entierro 6 and HG99-2 indicate disarticulation of the forearm. The fact that, in
each case, one or both forearm bones were missing at the time of excavation provides
credence to this argument. Cut marks on the shafts of an isolated left humerus and the
right humerus ofH25 may be the result of either defleshing or dismemberment. Their
isolated context prevents a more specific interpretation.
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Radius
Eight left and ten right radii of fourteen individuals have a total of one hundred
three cut marks. Both radii ofEntierro 6, HG99-l, HG99-3 and HG99-5 exhibit cuts, as
do the left radius ofEntierro 4, E8, H6 and H24 SKI and the right radius ofE2, E6, ElO
and E 13. Two isolated right radii also have cuts. Cut marks on both left and right radii
are located on the anterior aspect of the neck, the anterior, lateral and posterior aspects of
the shaft and the posterior aspect of the styloid process. Additional cuts on the left radius
occur on the anterior surface of the head and posterior aspect of the neck. Other cuts on
the right radius are found on the posterior aspect of the head and the lateral and posterior-
lateral surfaces of the neck (Figures 148-156). Each radius exhibits one to eleven cut
marks with a mode of four cuts per bone. Length varies from 1.0 mm to 20.4 mm, with
approximately 80% (83/1 03) of all cuts measuring less than 5 mm. Six cut marks were
too damaged to measure. Three cuts are discontinuous and one cut mark on the right
radius ofE13 is actually composed of multiple cuts sharing the same groove. Three-
quarters (78/103) of the cut marks are obliquely oriented to the long axis of the bone. Of
the remaining cuts, twenty-six are oriented perpendicular and two are oriented parallel to
the long axis of the bone. Nearly 70% (58/84) of grouped cut marks are oriented parallel
to one another; over one-quarter (22/84) are oriented at oblique angles to one another and
four intersect. The cut marks range in relative width from very narrow to very wide, with
slightly over two-thirds (69/103) categorized as narrow. The width of two cuts varies
internally and one was so affected by weather cracks that its relative width could not be
accurately determined. Relative depth of the cut marks varies from extremely shallow to
deep, with most.classified as semi-shallow (30/103 or 32%). Three cuts have variable
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depth and the relative depth of four others could not be assessed. Ninety-one of 103 cut
marks (88.3%) are V-shaped. The remaining 12 shallow cuts are either U-shaped (5/12)
or of indeterminate shape (7/12). About 64% (66/103) of the cut marks have straight,
sheer walls. Two cuts have one straight and one coarse wall, which in both cases can be
attributed to the alteration of the main groove by an intersecting cut, and two shallow cuts
have relatively coarse walls. Shallow depth and weather cracks prevented the evaluation
of wall morphology for nearly one-third (33/I03) of the cut marks. Fifteen cuts contain
internal striae within the main groove and one on the left radius ofH24 SKI has a bone
overhang. Twenty-three percent (241103) of the cut marks are affected (in many cases,
severely) by weather cracks, damaged, or in one case, both. Chattermarks were noted on
an isolated right radius and shallow scrapes are present on eight radii. In addition,
shallow scrapes but no cut marks, are found on the right radius of Entierro 3 and the left
radius of E6. Most, if not all cut marks on the head, neck and shaft of the radius suggest
defleshing of the forearm, including the severing of the supinator, flexor digitorum
superficialis, flexor pollicis longus, pronator teres, pronator quadratus, abductor pollicis
longus, extensor pollicis brevis and brachioradialis muscles. In several cases (e.g.,
HG99-l, HG99-3, HG99-5, E2, E6, E8, EI3 and H24 SKI), dismemberment as the
primary motivation could be easily ruled out because the affected radius was found
articulated with the humerus and ulna (and wrist bones in every case except H24 SKI). It
should be noted that several cut marks on the posterior shaft of the left radius ofHG99-3
align with cuts on the posterior shaft of the left ulna. The same can be said for multiple
cut marks on the posterior shafts of the right radius and ulna of this individual (Figures
155 and 156). Thus, some cuts on each radius-ulna pair ofHG99-3 were produced by
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single strokes crossing both bones. Although cut marks on the distal shafts of the right
radii of Entierro 6 and E 10 are consistent with defleshing, they may be in fact associated
with the removal of the right ulna and the right hand, respectively, neither of which were
recovered at the time of excavation. The cut marks on the styloid processes of the left
and right radii ofEntierro 6 make a convincing argument for removal of the hands at the
wrist. Both hands of this individual were missing.
Thirteen individuals exhibit a total of one hundred forty-seven cut marks on seven
left and seven right ulnae. Both left and right ulnae ofHG99-3 have cuts. An isolated
left ulna has cut marks, as does the left ulna ofEntierro 6, E18, H9 SK2, H24 SK1 and
H25. Cuts also are present on the right ulna ofEntierro 3, HG99-1, HG99-4, HG99-5, E2
and E6. Cut marks are found on both left and right ulnae along the shaft on the anterior,
medial and posterior aspects and on the posterior surface in the area of attachment for the
anconeus muscle. Additional cuts on the left ulna are located on the lateral aspect of the
shaft; other cuts on the right ulna occur on the anterior and medial surfaces of the
coronoid process (Figures 155-162). Sixty-five cut marks are present on the left ulna of
E 18 alone-the most cut marks found on any bone in my entire sample. The other
fourteen ulnae exhibit between one and thirty-three cut marks, with fewer than six cuts
the norm. The cut marks range in length from 0.4 mm to 14.2 mm, with about 80%
(1181147) measuring between 0.5-4 mm long. One cut on the left ulna ofHG99-3 could
not be measured due to the intersection of one extreme by another cut mark. Seven cut
marks are discontinuous, three are actually composed of multiple cuts sharing the same
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groove, and four others are each really two cuts lying in extremely close proximity to
each another. The cut marks are oriented either at oblique angles (92/147 or 62.5%) or
perpendicular (55/147 or 37.4%) to the long axis of the bone. Nearly 70% (90/130) of
cuts occurring in clusters are oriented parallel to one another; the rest are oriented at
oblique angles to one another or intersect. Relative width of the cuts varies from narrow
to wide, with over two-thirds (1001147) categorized as narrow. The cut mark on the right
ulna of Entierro 3 varies in width from narrow to wide. Relative width was not possible
to determine for eight cuts due to a variety of factors including alteration of the groove by
intersecting cuts and damage. The cut marks range in relative depth from extremely
shallow to deep, with the classification of semi-shallow recorded the most frequently
(60/147 or 40.8%). The depth of two cut marks varies internally. Relative depth was not
possible to accurately determine for one cut because the groove had been altered by the
intersection of another cut. One hundred thirty of one hundred forty-seven cut marks are
V-shaped. Twelve cuts are U-shaped, which in all but three cases can be attributed to
shallow depth. Five other shallow cuts are of indeterminate shape. Approximately 43%
(63/147) of the cut marks have straight, sheer walls. One cut has one straight wall and
one coarse wall and five shallow cut marks have relatively coarse walls. Wall
morphology was not possible to assess for 53% (781147) of the cut marks for several
reasons including shallow depth, multiple cuts sharing a common groove and grooves
altered by intersecting cuts. Fifteen cut marks have internal striae and eight others
exhibit bone overhangs. Three cuts each are affected by weather cracks or have suffered
damage and one cut is both weathered and damaged. Six cases of chattermarks are
present and ten ulnae exhibit shallow scrapes. In addition, shallow scrapes, but no cut
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marks, are present on the left ulna ofHG99-1 and E6, the right ulna ofE10 and an
isolated right ulna. All cut marks on the 14 affected ulnae suggest defleshing, including
detachment of the flexor digitorum superficialis, flexor digitorus profundus, brachialis,
pronator teres, pronator quadratus, anconeus, flexor carpi ulnaris, extensor carpi ulnaris
and extensor pollicis longus muscles. As I discussed above, several cuts on the posterior
shafts of the left and right ulnae ofHG99-3 appear contiguous with cut marks on the left
and right radii, respectively (Figures 155 and 156). With few exceptions, cut marks
present on the ulna cannot be the result of dismemberment because (as mentioned
previously) the humerus and radius (and in several cases, the hand bones) are present and
typically were found in anatomical position (e.g., Entierro 3, HG99-l, HG99-3, HG99-5,
E2, E6 and H24 SKI). It is possible that cut marks on the proximal shafts of the right
ulna ofHG99-4 and the left ulna ofE18 are associated with disarticulation of the upper
limb. In the case ofHG99-4, only the proximal epiphysis of the right humerus and the
distal epiphysis of the right radius are present-the distal epiphysis of the right humerus
and the shaft of both bones were not recovered. Some of the cuts on the left ulna ofE18
may be associated with the removal of the left radius, which was not present at the time
of excavation. However, the remains of this individual had been disturbed by subsequent
interments, thus this hypothesis lacks a firm basis.
Hand Bones
Bones of the hand with cut marks include carpals, metacarpals, and proximal and
middle hand phalanges of both left and right hands of at least nine individuals. On carpal
bones, a total of thirty cuts are found on one left and three right scaphoids, one left and
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one right lunate, one left hamate, one left and one right capitate, one left triquetral and
two left trapeziums belonging to E6, H13 and two other individuals as well as to an extra
left and right hand associated with E7. Locations where cut marks occur include the
radial articular surface and tubercle of the scaphoid, the radial articular surface of the
lunate, the hamulus of the hamate, the head of the capitate, and the tubercle of the
trapezium, as well as on the dorsal aspect of the triquetra! (Figures 163-167). Each carpal
exhibits one to five cuts that measure in length from 1.2 mm to 6.2 mm. Three cut marks
could not be measured, in two cases due to damage and in the third case due to the
discontinuity and curvature of the cut. Grouped cut marks are oriented either parallel
(16/22 or 72.7%) or at oblique angles (6/22 or 27.2%) to one another. On one right
scaphoid, the knife passed completely through radial articular surface, leaving behind a
flat floor and no walls, thus preventing the assessment of all morphological criteria. The
cuts vary in relative width from narrow to wide, with narrow (18/30 or 60%) the most
frequent classification. The relative width of five cut marks could not be determined due
to various factors including damage and irremovable debris within the main groove.
Relative depth ranges from shallow to deep, with half (15/30) of the cut marks
categorized as moderately deep. One cut was too damaged for depth to be assessed. A
shallow cut mark on an isolated right scaphoid is of indeterminate shape; all others are V-
shaped. Seventeen of thirty cuts (56.6%) have straight walls and two have coarse walls.
Wall morphology could not be accurately determined for 11 cut marks because they were
debris filled, too shallow or damaged. Four cuts contain internal striae within the main
groove and three others have bone overhangs. None of the cuts are affected by weather
cracks; seven have suffered damage. No chattermarks are present. The cut marks on the
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palmar aspect of the hamulus of the left hamate and the tubercle of the left trapezium of
E6 are most likely the result of defleshing of the palm of the hand. Both hands of E6
were found in proper articulation. In contrast, removal of the hand at the wrist is strongly
suggested by the cut marks on the left scaphoid, lunate, capitate and triquetra! and right
lunate, capitate and triquetra! belonging to the extra left and right hands associated with
E7, on the left trapezium of the isolated left hand ofH13, and on an isolated right
scaphoid. Detachment of the hand at the wrist probably produced the cuts on the other
two right scaphoids, but since they, too, are isolated bones, defleshing cannot be ruled
out.
Nine left and ten right metacarpals of four individuals, HG99-1, HG99-6, E6 and
HIS, exhibit a total of sixty-eight cut marks. The flrst through flfth metacarpals of both
left and right hands are affected. Cuts on both left and right metacarpals are located on
the palmar and dorsal aspects of the shaft, the palmar-medial aspect on the border
between the distal shaft and distal articular surface, and the lateral and dorsal aspects of
the distal articular surface. Additional cut marks on right metacarpals are found on the
palmar and medial aspects of the distal articular surface (Figures 168-171, 176, 179 and
181 ). Each metacarpal has one to thirteen cuts, with all but two bones exhibiting six cuts
or fewer. The cut marks range in length from 0.8 mm to 9.6 mm, with nearly 70%
(47/68) measuring less than 4 mm. Six cut marks could not be measured, primarily due
to damage. Nine of sixty-eight cuts (13.2%) are discontinuous. One cut mark on the
right fust metacarpal ofH18 is actually composed of multiple cuts sharing a common
groove. Almost three-quarters (50/68) of the cut marks are obliquely oriented relative to
the long axis of the bone; the remainder are oriented either parallel or perpendicular. Cut
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marks occurring in clusters are primarily oriented parallel to one another ( 46/57 or
80.7%); the rest either lie at oblique angles to one another or intersect. The cuts vary in
relative width from extremely narrow to very wide, with the classification of narrow
occurring with the highest frequency (29/68 or 42.6%). The width of three cut marks
varies within the groove itself and wall morphology could not be assessed for two cuts
because they were damaged or filled with debris. Relative depth ranges from extremely
shallow to deep with the category of moderately deep recorded most often (25/68 or
36.7%). The depth of seven cuts varies internally. All but five cut marks are V-shaped;
two of the five exceptions are U-shaped and three are of indeterminate shape. Two of the
U-shaped cuts and one cut of indeterminate shape are relatively shallow. Approximately
60% ( 41168) of the cut marks have straight walls. Eight cuts have relatively coarse walls,
which in two cases can be attributed to postmortem damage. Wall morphology could not
be accurately assessed for 19 of68 cuts (27.9%), primarily due to shallow depth or
damage. One-quarter (17 /68) of all cut marks contain internal striae and less than 10%
(6/68) have bone overhangs. None of the cuts are affected by weather cracks but eight
have suffered damage. Chattermarks were observed on the left first and second
metacarpals and the right second metacarpal of E6 and shallow scrapes are present on the
right fifth metacarpal ofHG99-6. The cut marks on the distal shafts and distal articular
surfaces of the left first, third, fourth and fifth metacarpals and right first metacarpal of
HG99-1 and the right first, second, third and fifth metacarpals ofH18 are consistent with
removal of the fingers at the metacarpophalangeal joints. This interpretation is further
strengthened by the absence of all hand phalanges of both individuals. Some fingers may
have proven particularly difficult to detach, as suggested by numerous cuts on certain
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bones of each individual, such as the left first metacarpal ofHG99-1 and the right fifth
metacarpal ofH18. Alternatively, these individuals may have had their hands mutilated
in addition to having fingers removed. The cut marks on the dorsal aspect of the left
fourth and fifth metacarpal and right fifth metacarpal ofHG99-6 indicate severing of the
extensor muscles of the fingers as the result of mutilation or defleshing. Both hands of
E6 appear to have been defleshed. More specifically, defleshing involving the severing
of the flexor muscle tendons and the removal of the abductor muscles of the left hand and
right thumb is suggested by the cut marks on the palmar aspect of the left and right first
metacarpals and left second and fifth metacarpals. Severing of the extensor muscle
tendons and detachment of the dorsal interossei muscles of the right hand is indicated by
the cut marks on the dorsal surface of the right second through fourth metacarpals.
Mutilation of the hands of this individual must also be considered.
HG99-6 and E6 together present totals of 54 cut marks on proximal hand
phalanges and 4 7 cuts on middle hand phalanges. All proximal phalanges except for the
third proximal phalanx and all middle phalanges on both left and right hands ofHG99-6
are affected. Cuts are found on both left and right first proximal phalanges, the right fifth
proximal phalanx and all middle hand phalanges of E6. On both left and right proximal
and middle phalanges, cut marks are located on various aspects of the shaft, the border
between the distal shaft and the distal articular surface, and the distal articular surface
(Figures 171-178, 180 and 181 ). The number of cut marks on each phalanx varies from
one to ten. Length ranges from 0.6 mm to 5.5 mm. Seven cuts on proximal phalanges
could not be measured, primarily due to damage. Two cut marks on the distal articular
surface of the right second middle phalanx ofHG99-6 were produced by a single cutting
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stroke. One cut mark on the left fourth proximal phalanx of HG99-6 is actually two cuts
in very close proximity and another cut mark on the right fifth middle phalanx ofHG99-6
is composed of multiple cuts sharing a single groove. Most cuts (48/101 or 47.5%) are
obliquely oriented relative to the long axis of the bone; the remaining cuts are oriented
parallel or perpendicular. Sixty-eight percent ( 49/72) of grouped cut marks are oriented
parallel to one another; others are oriented at oblique angles to one another or intersect.
The cuts range in relative width from narrow to very wide, with over half categorized as
narrow (54/101 or 53.4%). Two cut marks vary internally, i.e., narrow at one end and
wide at the other. The width of eight cuts could not be determined because they were
damaged, or in one case, had multiple cuts in the same groove. Relative depth ranges
from extremely shallow to deep, with the classifications of moderately deep (3 7/101 or
36.6%) and semi-shallow (28/101 or 27.7%) occurring with the most frequency. The
depth of five cut marks could not be assessed due to damage or irremovable debris in the
groove. All but seven cut marks are V -shaped. Three cuts are U-shaped and four are of
indeterminate shape, which in all except one case, can be attributed to their relatively
shallow depth. Over half(52/101) of all cut marks have straight, sheer walls, four cuts
have one straight and one coarse wall, and eight have relatively coarse walls. Wall
morphology was not possible to analyze for approximately 37% (37/101) of the cut
marks, in most cases, due to shallow depth or damage. Nine of one hundred one cuts
have internal striae within the main groove and fourteen have bone overhangs. None of
the cut marks are affected by weather cracks but 16 have suffered damage. Six cases of
chattermarks are present and shallow scrapes were observed on the right second proximal
phalanx ofHG99-6. With the exception of the more distal cuts on the left and right first
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proximal phalanges, cut marks on the palmar and dorsal aspects of the proximal hand
phalanges ofHG99-6 are consistent with severing of the extensor, flexor and adductor
muscle tendons, and removal of the digital fibrous sheaths. The cut mark on the palmar
aspect at midshaft on the right flfth proximal phalanx of E6 may have been produced by
the severing of the flexor digitorum profundus tendon or it may indicate mutilation. The
cuts on the distal V.. of the shaft and distal articular surfaces of the left and right first
proximal phalanges ofHG99-6 and E6 and all cut marks on the middle phalanges of
these two individuals strongly point to removal of the thumb and fingers at the
interphalangeal joints. The absence of all distal phalanges of both individuals further
supports the above interpretation.
Os Coxae
Sixteen left and sixteen right ossa coxae of twenty-three individuals have a total
of four hundred cut marks. Bones with cuts include both left and right ossa coxae of
Entierro 3, Entierro 4, Entierro 6, HG99-l, HG99-2, Ell, El4, El5 and H27 SKI, the left
ossa coxae ofEntierro 5, HG99-3, E13, El8, H20 and H30 SK2, and the right ossa coxae
ofHG99-5, E7, EIO, Hl7 SK3 and H30 SKI. An isolated left and two isolated right ossa
coxae (including one found in association with Entierro 4) also exhibit cut marks. On the
medial aspect of both left and right ossa coxae, cuts are located on the iliac crest, iliac
fossa, and across or immediately superior to the ischial tuberosity. On the lateral aspect
of both left and right ossa coxae, cut marks are present on the iliac crest, iliac blade,
posterior inferior iliac spine, iliopubic ramus, ischiopubic ramus, body of the pubis,
around the rim of the acetabulum, on the posterior margin of the obturator foramen, and
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across or immediately superior to the ischial tuberosity. Additional cuts occur on the left
os coxae on the medial aspect on the iliopubic ramus and on the lateral aspect on the
anterior superior iliac spine, obturator crest and anterior and inferior margins of the
obturator foramen. Other cut marks on the right os coxae are found on the medial aspect
on the anterior inferior iliac spine, arcuate line, iliopubic eminence and body of the
ischium, and on the lateral aspect on the anterior inferior iliac spine and ischial spine
(Figures 182-190 and 206). Each os coxae has one to thirty-four cut marks, with a mode
of twelve cuts per bone. The cut marks vary in length from 0.9 mm to 30.6 mm, with
over three-quarters (3111400) measuring less than 10 mm. Ten percent (40/400) of the
cuts could not be measured, primarily due to damage. Twenty-one cut marks are
discontinuous, seven are actually composed of two or more cuts sharing the same groove
and six others are each really two cuts lying in very close proximity. Cuts occurring in
clusters lie parallel to or at oblique angles to one another as well as intersect. Relative
width varies from extremely narrow to wide, with over 70% (287 /400) of the cut marks
classified as narrow. The width of four cuts varies internally, in three cases from narrow
to wide. The relative width of8% (32/400) of the cut marks was not possible to assess
for various reasons including the alteration of the groove by intersecting cuts, weather
cracks and damage. The cut marks range in relative depth from shallow to very deep,
with the categorizes of semi-shallow (133/400 or 33.2%) and moderately deep (126/400
or 31.5%) recorded most frequently. Five cuts have variable depth. The relative depth of
24 cut marks could not be evaluated, primarily due to damage. Three hundred seventy-
two of 400 cuts (93%) are V-shaped. Ten cut marks (eight of which are shallow) are U-
shaped, and shape could not be determined for eighteen cuts for a variety of reasons
166
including shallow depth, weather cracks, damage and multiple cuts sharing a common
groove. Approximately 48% (190/400) of the cut marks have straight, sheer walls. Ten
cuts have relatively coarse walls, which in seven cases can be attributed to shallow depth
or damage. Wall morphology was not possible to assess for nearly half (198/400) of the
cut marks due to several factors including shallow depth, multiple cuts sharing the same
groove, alteration of the groove by intersecting cuts, weather cracks and damage. Around
11% ( 4S/400) of the cuts contain internal striae and 22 of 400 ( S .S%) have bone
overhangs. Twenty-seven percent (108/400) of the cut marks are affected (in some cases,
severely) by weather cracks, have suffered damage, or both. Six cases of chattermarks,
four of which occur on the right os coxae of EIS, were recorded. Shallow scrapes were
observed on eight ossa coxae. Detleshing of the abdomen, including severing of the
transversus abdominis, quadratus lumborum, psoas minor and iliacus muscles and
sacrotuberous ligament is suggested by cut marks on the medial aspect of the left and
right ossa coxae ofEntierro 3, Entierro 4, Entierro 6 and Ell, the left ossa coxae of
HG99-l, El4, EIS, H30 SK2 and an isolated left os coxae, and the right ossa coxae of
EIO, EIS, H17 SK3 and an isolated right os coxae. Evisceration of the bowels may have
produced some of these cuts as well. Alternatively, cut marks in the area of attachment
of the iliacus and psoas minor muscles and sacrotuberous ligament on the medial surface
of the ossa coxae of several individuals, including Entierro 4, Entierro 6, HG99-l, ElO,
El4, EIS, H17 SK3, H30 SK2 and the isolated left and right ossa coxae may be
associated with removal of the lower limb at the hip. Given the articulated state of the
pelvic girdles ofEntierro 3 and HG99-2, detleshing, specifically the detachment of the
external oblique muscle, is the most likely explanation for cut marks on the lateral aspect
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on the anterior iliac crest of the left os coxae ofEntierro 3 and right os coxae ofHG99-2.
Defleshing or disarticulation of the pelvic region could have produced the cuts in the area
of attachment of the external oblique muscles on the left and right ossa coxae of Entierro
6, the left os coxae ofEntierro 5 and the right os coxae ofH30 SKI. The fact that the
ossa coxae of these three individuals were found disarticulated supports the latter
hypothesis. Cut marks on the lateral aspect of the iliac crest, iliac blade, iliopubic ramus,
ischiopubic ramus and body of the pubis of the left and right ossa coxae of Entierro 3 and
Ell, the left ossa coxae ofHG99-l, HG99-3, E13 and EIS and the right ossa coxae of
HG99-5 and ElO are consistent with defleshing of the pelvic area. Given that in each
case the associated femur (or entire lower limb) was present and in anatomical position at
the time of excavation strengthens this interpretation. Cut marks on the lateral aspect of
the left and right ossa coxae ofEntierro 4, Entierro 6, El4, EIS and H27 SKI, the left
ossa coxae ofEntierro 5, HG99-2 and H20, the right os coxae associated with Entierro 4
and the right ossa coxae of HG99-1, H17 SK3 and H30 SKI may represent detachment of
the lower limb at the hip joint, including severing of the gluteus maximus, medius and
minimus, piriformis, sartorius, rectus femoris, superior gemellus, adductor magnus,
longus and brevis, obturator externus, gracilis, quadratus femoris and pectineus muscles,
tensor fasciae latae and inguinal, sacrospinous, sacrotuberous and pubofemoral ligaments.
In the cases ofEntierro 5, Entierro 6 (right), H27 SKI (left) and H30 SKI, the associated
femur was present but disarticulated; in all other cases, the associated femur (or the entire
lower limb) was missing. It is possible that the cuts on the lateral aspect of the iliopubic
ramus of the left ossa coxae ofEntierro 6, E13, El4 and H20, the right os coxae ofH30
SKI and the isolated right os coxae associated with Entierro 4 are not associated with
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detachment of the lower limb at the hip joint as is suggested above, but instead represent
removal or mutilation of the genitals. The right os coxae of E7 presents an unusual
situation (Figure 206). All five cut marks on this bone are located around the rim of the
acetabulum. In addition, numerous cuts are present on the neck, greater trochanter and
proximal Y4 of the shaft of the right femur (discussed below). However, the right os
coxae and femur were found properly articulated; therefore, if dismemberment was the
intended result, this goal was not achieved despite a considerable amount of effort.
Sacrum
A total of 31 cut marks are present on the sacra of Entierro 6, HG99-4, E7 and
E 10. The cuts are located on the dorsal wall, near sacral foramina, in the area of
attachment of the gluteus maximus muscle, and on the right sacral cornu (Figures 191-
193). The number of cuts on each sacrum is fourteen, two, three and twelve,
respectively. The cut marks measure 1.6 mm to 20.8 mm in length, with only two
measuring greater than 9 mm. Two of the cuts on the sacrum of E 10 are discontinuous.
One of the cut marks on the sacrum of Entierro 6 is actually two cuts sharing the same
groove, which prevented evaluation of its relative width and wall morphology. Relative
to the long axis of the bone, the cuts are almost equally split between a parallel (16/31 or
51.6%) and an oblique (5/31 or 48.3%) orientation. The majority of grouped cut marks
are oriented parallel to one another (25/30 or 83.3%); others are oriented either at oblique
angles to one another or intersect. Relative width of the cuts ranges from narrow to wide
with 22 of 31 (70.9%) classified as relatively narrow. Relative depth varies from shallow
to very deep, with the classification of deep recorded most frequently (18/31 or 58%).
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All cut marks are V-shaped and 19 of31 cut marks (61.2%) have straight walls. Three
relatively deep cuts on the sacrum of E 10 have relatively coarse walls. Wall morphology
could not be assessed for nine cuts, in four cases due to their shallow depth. None of the
cut marks have internal striae but nearly half (15/31) exhibit bone overhangs. Two cuts
are affected by weather cracks but none are damaged. Chattermarks were observed on
the sacrum ofEntierro 6. Fine, shallow scrapes are visible on the sacrum ofEIO. The
cut marks on the sacra of Entierro 6 and H 099-4 are indicative of severing of the erector
spinae muscles. This conclusion is based on the fact that the cuts on the sacrum of
Entierro 6 are more or less vertical and that the axial skeleton of HG99-4 was found in
anatomical position. The cut marks on the sacrum ofE7 in the area of attachment for the
right gluteus maximus muscle may be associated with partial removal of the right lower
limb at the hip, as mentioned in the os coxae section above. The majority of the cut
marks on the sacrum of E 10 are most likely the result of detaching the erector spinae
muscles. However, the cuts located on the area of attachment for the left gluteus
maximus muscle may have occurred during the dismemberment of the left side of the
lower body, as the left os coxae and entire lower left extremity ofEIO were missing.
Femur
Twenty-two left and 19 right femora of 31 individuals exhibit a total of 629 cut
marks. Individuals with cuts on both left and right femora are Entierro 3, HG99-3,
HG99-4, HG99-5, HG99-6, E2, E4, E6, Ell, El3, Hll SK5 and H24 SK2.
7
Additional
cut marks are found on the left femora ofEntierro 5, HG99-l, H99-6, El2, E18, H8, H17
SKI, H22, H25 and H27 SKI and on an isolated left femur. Cuts also are present on the
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right femora ofEntierro 6, E7, E10, H6, H17 SK2, H30 SK1 and H30 SK2. Cut marks
on both left and right femora are located on the anterior, medial and posterior aspects of
the neck, the posterior surface of the greater and lesser trochanters, and on all aspects of
the entire shaft. Other cuts on the left femur are found on the superior and anterior
surfaces of the greater trochanter. Additional cut marks on the right femur occur on the
anterior and posterior aspect of the rim of the head and on the superior surface of the
neck (Figures 194-212). The number of cuts on each bone varies widely from one to
forty-three with a mode often. The cut marks range in length from 0.8 mm to 60.7 mm,
with over 80% (512/629) measuring between 0.5-10 mm. Forty-nine cut marks are
discontinuous and nine are actually composed of multiple cuts in the same groove. Seven
cut marks are each in reality two cuts in very close proximity. Cut marks located on the
shaft and trochanters are most frequently oriented at oblique angles to the long axis of the
bone (399/533 or 74.8%); others have a perpendicular or parallel orientation. Cuts
occurring in clusters are often lie parallel to one another; others are oriented at oblique
angles to one another or intersect. The cut marks range in relative width from extremely
narrow to wide, with about three-quarters (475/629) categorized as narrow. Ten cuts
have variable internal width. Relative width could not be determined for 23 cut marks
due to factors such as the alteration of the groove by multiple or intersecting cuts,
irremovable debris and damage. Relative depth varies from extremely shallow to deep,
with the classifications of shallow (275/629 or 43.7%) and semi-shallow (207 /629 or
32.9%) recorded most frequently. Eighteen cuts have variable depth. Relative depth
could not be evaluated for 12 cut marks, primarily due to damage. Five hundred ninety
of629 cut marks (93.7%) are V-shaped. Twenty cuts are U-shaped, which can be
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attributed to their shallow depth in all except two cases. Shallow depth, multiple cuts
sharing the same groove and damage prevented the determination of the shape of 19 cuts.
Approximately 62% (388/629) of the cut marks have straight, sheer walls and two have
one straight wall and one coarse wall. Twenty-seven cuts, of which nineteen are shallow,
have relatively coarse walls. Wall morphology was not possible to assess for around one-
third (212/629) of the cut marks for a variety of reasons including shallow depth,
alteration of the groove by multiple or intersecting cuts, irremovable debris, weather
cracks and damage. Ninety-nine of six hundred twenty-nine cut marks (15.7%) contain
internal striae within the main groove and nineteen have bone overhangs. Nine percent
(57/629) of the cuts are affected, some considerably, by weather cracks, about 4%
(27/629) of the cut marks have suffered damage, and an additional5.5% (35/629) of the
cuts are both weathered and damaged. Seventeen cases of chattermarks were found and
thirty femora exhibit fme, shallow scrapes. Defleshing of the gluteal region and thigh,
including the severing of the quadriceps and hamstring muscles, best explains the cut
marks on the greater and lesser trochanters and shafts of the left and right femora of
Entierro 03, HG99-3, HG99-4, HG99-5, HG99-6, E2, E4, Ell and El3, the left femora of
HG99-1 and El2, and the right femora ofElO, Hll SK5 and Hl7 SK2. Similarly, cut
marks on the distal shafts of the left and right femora of E 13 and H24 SK2, the left
femora ofEntierro 3, HG99-l and El8 and the right femur ofE6 indicate defleshing of
the lower thigh. Defleshing, as opposed to dismemberment, most likely produced the cut
marks on each bone listed above based on the articulated state of each affected femur
with the associated os coxae, bones of the leg or both. Cuts on the left femora of H99-6,
H8, Hll SKS and H27 SKI and the right femora ofH6 and H30 SK2, as well as on the
I72
proximal Y2 of the anterior and medial surfaces of the shaft and the lateral aspect of the
distal Y2 of the shaft of the right femur of Entierro 6, the distal Y2 of the shafts of the left
femora of HI7 SKI, H22 and H25 and the distal Y2 of the shaft of the right femur of H30
SKI also are consistent with removal of the thigh muscles; however, in all cases, the
femora were found disarticulated at the time of excavation, thus this interpretation lacks a
firm basis and some cuts may be the result of dismemberment. Cuts on the neck, greater
and lesser trochanters and proximal Y4 of the shaft such as those present on the left and
right femora ofE6, the left femora ofEntierro 5 and HI7 SKI, the isolated left femur,
and the right femora ofEntierro 6, H22, H24 SK2, H25 and H30 SKI most likely
represent detachment of the lower limb at the hip, including the severing of the gluteus
maximus, medius and minimus, psoas major, iliacus, quadratus femoris and quadriceps
muscles and pubofemoral, iliofemoral and ischiofemoral ligaments. This argument is
strengthened by the presence of corroborative cut marks on the left os coxae of Entierro 5
and right os coxae ofEntierro 6 and H30 SKI. Additional convincing evidence is
provided by the fact that E6 is a cluster of arms and legs (as mentioned previously), H22
consists of an articulated left leg and H24 SK2 is composed of articulated left and right
legs. The remaining femora listed above are disarticulated bones. Cuts located on the
neck, greater and lesser trochanters and proximal shaft of the right femur of E7 and on
the neck and proximal shaft of the left femur ofE18 may signify attempts to remove the
lower limb at the hip. However, in both cases, the affected femur was found in proper
articulation with the associated os coxae; therefore, the procedure was not completed.
Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the distal Y4 of the shaft of the right femur of E7
suggest removal of the right leg at the knee. The fact that the right patella of this
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individual was missing and that the right tibia and fibula (as well as bones of the lower
left leg and foot) were observed inserted into the chest cavity lends strong support to this
conclusion.
Patella
Three roughly horizontal cut marks cross the posterior apex of the right patella of
H31 (Figure 213). The two more superior cut marks are 17.4 mm and 10.2 mm in length,
respectively. A horizontal section of bone removed perimortem prevented the
measurement of the most inferior cut as well as the assessment of its relative width and
shape in cross section. The upper two cut marks intersect and the middle and inferior
cuts lie parallel to one another. The more superior cuts are relatively narrow and deep;
the most inferior cut is moderately deep. The upper two cut marks are V -shaped with
straight walls. The inferior wall of the lowest cut is straight as well. All of the cut marks
lack internal striae within the main groove and the middle cut has a bone overhang. None
of the cut marks are affected by weather cracks; however, as stated above, the most
inferior cut has suffered perimortem damage. No chattermarks are present. The three cut
marks are located within the attachment area of the patellar ligament and considering
their considerable depth and the perimortem removal of a strip of bone between the two
more inferior cuts, the cut marks are most likely the result of the removal of the right leg
at the knee joint. Nevertheless, as H31 is a small collection of bones composed only of a
left os coxae, two patellae and the proximal epiphysis of a camelid tibia, it was not
possible to examine the right femur and tibia of this individual for corroborating evidence
to support a diagnosis of disarticulation and thus mutilation also must be considered.
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Twenty-five individuals present a total of one hundred seventy-two cut marks on
fifteen left and seventeen right tibiae. Bones with cuts include both left and right tibiae
ofEntierro 3, HG99-3, E2, E4, E7, E13 and H24 SK2, the left tibiae ofH99-3, E6, El8,
H6, H7, H22, H25 and H27 SK2 and the right tibiae ofEntierro 6, HG99-l, E8, Ell, Hll
SKS, Hl2, H17 SKI, Hl7 SK2, Hl7 SK3 and H29. On both left and right tibiae, cut
marks are located across or adjacent to the popliteal line on the posterior aspect and on
the anterior and posterior surfaces of the entire shaft, the posterior-medial aspect of the
distallh of the shaft and the medial malleolus. Additional cuts on the left tibia are found
on the medial surface of the distal Y4 of the shaft and the lateral aspect of the proximal Y4
of the shaft. Other cut marks on the right tibia occur on the medial aspect of the proximal
Y4 ofthe shaft and the lateral surface of the middle Yl of the shaft (Figures 214-224 and
226). Each tibia has one to nineteen cuts, with 75% (24/32) of all bones exhibiting six or
fewer. Length of the cut marks varies from 0. 7 mm to 16.2 mm, with slightly over three-
quarters (1311172) of measuring less than 7 mm. About 8% (14/172) of the cut marks
could not be measured, primarily due to damage. Eight cuts are discontinuous, two are
each actually composed of two or more cuts sharing the same groove and five others are
each actually two cuts lying in very close proximity. Cut marks on the shaft are oriented
either perpendicular or at oblique angles to the long axis of the bone. Grouped cuts are
oriented both parallel and at oblique angles to one another as well as intersect. The cut
marks range in relative width from narrow to wide, with almost 69% ( 118/172) classified
as narrow. Three cuts vary internally in width from narrow to wide. Relative width was
not possible to determine for eight cut marks for several reasons including alteration of
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the groove by intersecting cuts and damage. The cut marks range in relative depth from
extremely shallow to very deep, with the categories of shallow ( 40/172 or 23.2%) and
semi-shallow (64/172 or 37.2%) recorded most often. Six cuts have variable depth and
two cuts were too damaged for relative depth to be evaluated. One hundred fifty-eight of
one hundred seventy-two cut marks are V-shaped. Five cuts are U-shaped, which in four
cases can be attributed to their shallow depth. The shape of 10 cut marks could not be
determined due to shallow depth, extreme weathering or damage. Around 48% (83/172)
of the cut marks have straight, sheer walls, as illustrated by Figure 225. One cut has one
straight wall and one coarse wall and twelve cuts, half of which are shallow, have
relatively coarse walls. Wall morphology was not possible to assess for approximately
44% (76/172) of the cut marks due to a variety of factors such as shallow depth, multiple
cuts sharing the same groove, alteration of the groove by intersecting cuts, irremovable
debris, weather cracks and damage. Twenty-nine of one hundred seventy-two cut marks
(16.8%) contain internal striae and three exhibit bone overhangs. About 9% (16/172) of
the cut marks are affected by weather cracks, some to an extreme degree, and nearly the
same number (15/172) have suffered damage. Seven cases of chattermarks were
recorded and shallow scrapes were observed on fourteen tibiae. In addition, the left tibia
ofHG99-l presents scrapes but no cuts. The cut marks on the proximal Y4 of the shafts of
the left and right tibiae of Entierro 3 suggest intentional dislocation of the leg at the knee.
This hypothesis is supported by the hyperflexed position of both legs at the knee in situ.
Based on the articulated state of the affected bones at the time of excavation, cuts on the
shafts of the left and right tibiae ofHG99-3, E2, E4 and H24, the left tibiae ofE6 and
E18 and the right tibiae ofE8, Ell, and H11 SKS, H17 SK2 indicate defleshing of the
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shin and calf including the severing of the tibialis anterior, extensor hallucis longus,
tibialis posterior, popliteus, soleus, gastrocnemius, flexor hallucis longus and flexor
digitorum longus muscles. On the posterior aspect of the distal shafts of the left tibia and
fibula ofEntierro 3, on the anterior and posterior surfaces at midshaft of the left and right
tibiae and fibulae ofHG99-3 and E4 and on the anterior aspect of the proximal shafts of
the right tibia and fibula ofH12, clusters of cut marks are located at the same level on
each tibia-fibula pair (Figure 226). Therefore, for each individual, it may be concluded
that some cutting strokes across the leg marked both bones at the same time. Defleshing
also is the most likely explanation for the cut marks on the proximal Y2 of the shaft of the
left tibia ofH27 SK2 and the right tibiae ofEntierro 6, HG99-1 and H17 SKI, and on the
distal ~ o the shaft of the left tibiae ofH7 and H25 and the right tibiae ofE7, El3, Hl2,
H17 SK3 and H29. In all cases, the cuts are located well away from the knee or ankle
joint capsules and thus probably are not the product of disarticulation. Cut marks on the
proximal Y4 of the shaft of the left and right tibiae ofE13, the left tibiae ofH99-3 and
H22 and the right tibiae ofH12 and H29 are consistent with defleshing; however, they
may be the result of removal of the leg at the knee joint. As support for the latter
hypothesis, H12 is composed only of an articulated right leg and foot and all other
affected tibiae listed above were either disarticulated (E13 and H22) or isolated (H99-3
and H29). The presence of a cut mark just below the fibular facet on the posterior aspect
of the proximal Y4 of the shaft of the left tibia of E7 in conjunction with the placement of
both legs and the left foot in the thoracic region of this individual make a convincing
argument for removal of the left leg at the knee. Cut marks on the distal Y4 of the shaft
and medial malleolus such as those observed on the left and right tibiae of Entierro 3 and
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the left tibiae of H6 and H27 SK2 indicate detachment of the foot at the ankle. This
argument is strengthened by the fact that, in all cases, the associated foot was missing at
the time of excavation.
Fibula
A total of 412 cut marks are found on 22left and 18 right fibulae of29
individuals. As stated earlier, the left fibula is the bone most frequently exhibiting cut
marks in the Plaza 3C sample. Both left and right fibulae ofEntierro 3, HG99-l,
HG99-3, HG99-4, E2, E4, E6, E7, E8, El3 and H24 SK2 have cuts, as do the left fibulae
ofEntierro 5, Entierro 6, HG99-6, H6, Hl7 SK3, H22 and H25 and the right fibulae of
HG99-5, Ell, El8, Hl2, Hl7 SKI and Hl7 SK2. Four isolated left fibulae (including
one associated with Entierro 5) and one isolated right fibula also have cut marks. On
both left and right fibulae, cuts are located on the anterior, lateral and posterior surfaces
of the neck and all aspects of the entire shaft. Other cut marks on the left fibula are found
on the posterior aspect of the styloid process, and various aspects of the lateral malleolus.
Additional cut marks on the right fibula occur on the anterior and lateral surfaces of the
head (Figures 226-236). Each fibula exhibits one to forty-two cut marks, with 70%
(28/40) of all bones having ten or fewer. The cut marks range in length from 0.4 mm to
31.7 mm, with about 84% (345/412) measuring less than 5 mm long. Thirteen cut marks
are discontinuous and three are actually composed of multiple cuts in the same groove.
The cuts are oriented either perpendicular (1711412 or 41.5%) or at oblique angles
(2411412 or 58.4%) to the long axis of the bone. The majority of clustered cut marks are
oriented parallel to one another; others are oriented at oblique angles to one another or
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intersect. Relative width of the cuts varies from very narrow to very wide, with most
categorized as narrow (218/412 or 52.9%). Three cuts have variable width and relative
width was not possible to determine for fifteen cut marks for several reasons including
multiple cuts in sharing a single groove, glue filling the groove and damage. The cuts
range in relative depth from extremely shallow to deep, with the classifications of semi-
shallow (1011412 or 24.5%) and moderately deep (1311412 or 31.7%) recorded most
frequently. Three cuts have variable depth and the relative depth of sixteen cut marks
could not be assessed, primarily due to damage. Three hundred sixty-two of four
hundred twelve cut marks (87.8%) are V-shaped. Six percent (25/412) of the cuts are U-
shaped, which in thirteen cases can be attributed to shallow depth and in one case to
irremovable debris in the groove. Shallow depth, multiple cuts in the same groove and
damage prevented the evaluation of shape for the remaining 25 cuts. Two hundred
twenty-six of four hundred twelve cut marks (54.8%) have straight, sheer walls and two
each have one straight and one coarse wall. Around 6% (24/412) of the cut marks, 13 of
which are relatively shallow, have relatively coarse walls. Wall morphology was not
possible to determine for 160 cut marks (38.8%) due to a variety of factors including
shallow depth, alteration of the groove by multiple or intersecting cuts, weather cracks
and damage. Fifty-four cut marks (13.1 %) contain internal striae within the main groove
and nine have bone overhangs. About five percent of the cuts are affected, some to a
considerable degree, by weather cracks, another six percent (25/412) have suffered
damage, and five cuts are both weathered and damaged. Twenty-one cases of
chattermarks were observed and twenty-three fibulae exhibit shallow scrapes. It can be
argued that the cut marks on the styloid process, neck and proximal shaft of the left fibula
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and the proximal shaft of the right fibula of Entierro 3 probably are associated with
intentional dislocation of the knee joint. As stated earlier, the knees of this individual
were found in hyperflexion and corroborative cuts are present on the proximal Y4 of the
shafts of the left and right tibiae. Given the articulated condition of the affected bones,
cut marks on the head, neck and shaft of the fibula such as those found on the left and
right fibulae ofHG99-3, HG99-4, E2, E4, E6, E8 and H24 SK2, the left fibulae of
HG99-1 and HG99-6 and the right fibulae ofHG99-5, Ell, EIS and H17 SK2 indicate
defleshing of the leg, including detachment of the peroneus longus, brevis and tertius,
extensor digitorum longus, extensor hallucis longus, soleus, gastrocnemius, tibialis
posterior and flexor hallucis longus muscles. As previously discussed, on certain regions
of the shaft, groups of cut marks on the fibulae ofHG99-3, E4 and H12 align with
clustered cuts on the shafts of the tibiae of these three individuals. Like the cut mark on
the posterior aspect of the proximal Y4 of the shaft of the left tibia of E7 mentioned above,
cut marks on the neck and proximal of the posterior surface of the shaft of the left
fibula of E7 were most likely produced during removal of the left leg at the knee. The
cuts on the styloid process of the left fibula ofEntierro 6 and the head and neck of the
right fibula ofHG99-1 also may signify detachment of the leg at the knee. The skeleton
ofEntierro 6 was found completely disarticulated and the right femur ofHG99-1 was
missing. Cut marks found on the head, neck and proximal shaft, specifically those
present on the left fibulae ofEntierro 5, H17 SK3 and H22, the left fibula associated with
Entierro 5, an isolated left fibula, the right fibulae ofHG99-l, Hl2, Hl7 SKI and the
isolated right fibula may be the result of defleshing or disarticulation of the leg. In each
case, the affected fibula was found disarticulated or isolated, so it is not possible to make
180
a specific diagnosis. Cut marks located on the distal shaft or the lateral malleolus such as
those found on the left and right fibulae ofEntierro 3, E7 and El3, the left fibulae of
Entierro 6, H6 H17 SK3, H25, three isolated left fibulae and the right fibula ofHG99-l
suggest detachment of the foot at the ankle as the primary motivation, although in some
cases general defleshing may have occurred as well. As support for the dismemberment
hypothesis, the left foot ofE7 was located around midshaft of the left tibia and fibula (in
addition to having been thrust into the chest), the right foot ofE7 and both feet of
Entierro 3 and El3 were not present at the time of excavation, and although the left talus
of H6 was in anatomical position, the rest of the left foot of this individual was missing.
Furthermore, cuts on the left distal fibula of Entierro 3 are located on the same aspect and
at the same level as cuts on the left distal tibia. In addition, both the right fibula of
Entierro 6 and the right foot ofHG99-l were disarticulated and the other fibulae with cut
marks listed above were found in isolation.
Foot Bones
Bones of the foot with cut marks include both left and right tarsals and
metatarsals, as well as a proximal foot phalanx of fifteen individuals. On tarsal bones, a
total of seventy-five cuts were observed on four left and three right calcanei, five left and
five right tali, one left and one right cuboid, two left naviculars, two left medial
cuneiforms and one left lateral cuneiform of twelve individuals, including H99-2 SKl,
E6, E7, E9, El5, H2, Hll SK7, Hl5, Hl9 and H33. On both left and right calcanei, cut
marks are found on the dorsal aspect around the margins of the posterior talar articular
surface. On the left calcaneus, cuts also are located on the posterior aspect of the
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calcaneal tuber, on the medial aspect, and in the area of attachment for the plantar
calcaneocuboid ligament. On the right calcaneus, additional cut marks are present on the
dorsal-lateral aspect, near the margin of the cuboid articular surface, and on the plantar
aspect, near the margin of the middle talar articular surface and in the area of attachment
for the long plantar ligament (Figures 238, 242, 247and 248). On both left and right tali,
cuts are located on the dorsal aspect of the lateral body, lateral tubercle and trochlea, and
on the lateral aspect of the lateral malleolar surface. Other cut marks on the left tal us
occur on the dorsal aspect of the head and neck, while additional cuts on the right tal us
are present on the medial aspect of the head and medial malleolar surface (Figures 244-
248). Cut marks are found on both dorsal and plantar surfaces of the cuboid and medial
cuneiform, and on the dorsal aspect of the navicular and lateral cuneiform (Figures 239,
240 and 247). As many as ten cut marks are present on each tarsal, however, 75%
(18/24) of the bones have one to four cuts. The cut marks range in length from 1.1 mm to
18.4 mm. Four cuts were too damaged to measure. Five cut marks are discontinuous and
four on the right talus ofH33 were probably produced by two slicing motions. The
majority of grouped cuts are oriented parallel to one another; others lie at oblique angles
or intersect. Relative width of the cut marks varies from extremely narrow to wide, with
most categorized either as narrow (42/75 or 56%) or moderately wide (23/75 or 30.6%).
In two cases, width varies internally, including one cut on the right talus ofH33 that is
narrow at both extremes and wide in the middle. One cut mark on the left talus ofH33
was too damaged for relative width to be evaluated. Relative depth rangers from very
shallow to extremely deep, with the classifications of semi-shallow (22/75 or 29.3%) and
deep (27/75 or 36%) assigned the most frequently. On the right talus ofH11, the knife
182
entered the bone so deeply and with such force that a small area of cortex immediately
adjacent to the cut was removed. The depth of one cut on the right talus ofH32 varies
internally from moderately deep to semi-shallow. With two exceptions, all cut marks are
V-shaped. Two cuts are U-shaped which may be attributed in one case to its shallow
depth and, in the other, to the alteration of the groove by an intersecting cut. Thirty-eight
of seventy-five cut marks (50.6%) have straight, sheer walls, four have one straight wall
and one coarse wall, and three have coarse walls. In two cases, the coarseness of the
walls may be attributed to damage or debris within the groove. Nearly 15% (11/75) of
the cut marks exhibit internal striae and 16% (12/75) have bone overhangs. Five cuts are
affected (two extremely) by weather cracks and eleven are damaged. Two additional cuts
are both weathered and damaged. No chattermarks were found. All cut marks on the
dorsal surface of the calcaneus, on all aspects of the talus, and on the dorsal margin of the
talar articular facet of the navicular are consistent with detachment of the foot at the
ankle. Therefore, 10 of the 12 individuals with cut marks on tarsal bones (e.g., E7, E9,
El5, H2, H11 SK7, H15, H19 and H33) had one foot, or in the case ofH33, both feet,
removed. In all 10 cases, the affected foot or feet were found isolated or otherwise
disarticulated. Defleshing of the foot is the most logical explanation for the cut marks
located on the dorsal-lateral and plantar aspect of the calcaneus, the dorsal and plantar
aspects of the cuboid, navicular and cuneiforms of the left and right feet ofE6. This
hypothesis is strengthened by the fact that both feet of this individual were found in
proper articulation. The cut marks on the medial aspect of the left calcaneus ofH99-2
SKI, the dorsal aspect of the medial cuneiform ofH19, and on the calcaneal tuber of the
left calcaneus ofH33 may represent either defleshing or mutilation.
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Five left and four right metatarsals of four individuals, including HG99-1, E6, and
H19, exhibit a total of twenty-one cut marks. All left metatarsals except the fourth are
affected as are the right first and fifth metatarsals. Cuts on the first metatarsal are located
on various aspects of the shaft and on the distal articular surface, while cut marks on the
second, third and fifth metatarsals are found on the dorsal or plantar aspects of the distal
Y2 of the shaft and on the border between the distal shaft and distal articular surface
(Figures 237, 239, 241, 243 and 247). With the exception of the right first metatarsal of
E6, all bones have three or fewer cuts. Length of the cut marks varies from 0.9 mm to
11.7 mm with almost half (16/21) measuring between 0.5-4 mm. One cut mark on the
right first metatarsal ofE6 is discontinuous. Two cuts are each actually composed of two
cuts sharing a single groove. The cut marks are oriented either parallel (11/21 or 52.3%)
or at oblique angles (10/21 or 47.6%) to the long axis of the bone. All cut marks
occurring in clusters are oriented parallel to one another. The cuts range in relative width
from narrow to wide, with nearly 50% (1 0/21) of the cuts classified as narrow.
Assessment of relative width could not be determined for five cut marks for several
factors including multiple cuts in the same groove and irremovable debris. Relative
depth varies from extremely shallow to deep, with 12 of21 cut marks (57.1%)
categorized as moderately deep. Approximately 76% of the cuts are V-shaped; five are
of indeterminate shape. Thirteen cut marks have straight walls and one cut has one
straight wall and one coarse wall. Wall morphology for the remaining seven cut marks
could not be determined, because they were either filled with debris, too shallow, or had
more than one cut sharing the same groove. Two cut marks have internal striae within
the main groove. None of the cuts have bone overhangs nor are any affected by weather
184
cracks or damaged. Chattermarks are present above one of the cuts on the left fifth
metatarsal of E6. A series of fine shallow scrapes was observed on the medial aspect of
an isolated left third metatarsal. The cut marks on the distal articular surface of the right
first metatarsal ofHG99-l and on the distal Y4 of the shaft and border between the distal
shaft and distal articular surface of the left third and fifth and right fifth metatarsals of E6
and the left first and second metatarsals ofH19 all suggest the removal of toes. In all
cases, the absence of all respective foot phalanges provides further evidence to support
dismemberment. The cut marks on the distal Y2 of the shaft of the right fifth metatarsal of
HG99-1 and an isolated left third metatarsal, and on the proximal Yz of the shaft of the
right first metatarsal ofE6 and the left first metatarsal ofH19 may be the result of
defleshing or mutilation.
Three cut marks are present on a proximal fragment of an isolated first proximal
foot phalanx. The roughly parallel cuts, which measure 3.0 mm, 1.5 mm and 1.5 mm,
respectively, are located on the dorsal aspect of the proximal Y4 of the shaft and are
oriented parallel to the long axis of the bone. The cut marks are all relatively narrow, but
vary in depth from shallow to deep. Two of the cuts are V -shaped and one is of
indeterminate shape. Two of the cut marks have relatively coarse walls; the third has
straight walls. None of the cuts have internal striae or bone overhangs. None of the cut
marks are affected by weather cracks or is damaged. No chattermarks were observed.
The cuts most likely are the result of dismemberment or mutilation. However, since the
disarticulated phalanx was found in isolation, it is difficult to ascribe a particular activity
with any certainty.
El Brujo-"Danzantes"
185
S: 64-67/ E: 105-108 Capa B, Nivel7
The right proximal femur fragment found inserted into the "Danzantes" mural has
32 cut marks. About half(18/32) of the cuts curve around the posterior aspect of the
femoral head and neck while the remainder are located on the anterior, medial and lateral
aspects of the proximal end of the shaft (Figures 249 and 250). Length of the cut marks
ranges from 0.6 mm to 14.9 mm, with cuts on the femoral head and neck generally longer
than those on the proximal shaft. One cut on the proximal shaft is actually two very fine,
parallel cut marks lying in very close proximity. Most cuts on the proximal shaft are
oriented roughly perpendicular to the long axis of the bone and oriented parallel or at
slightly oblique angles to one another. Cut marks on the femoral neck and head curve
around the bone in a superior-inferior direction and lie parallel and at oblique angles to
one another as well as intersect. Twenty-eight of thirty-two cuts (87.5%) are relatively
narrow, three are moderately wide and one was too damaged for width to be assessed.
Relative depth of the cut marks ranges from very shallow to deep, with the classifications
of shallow (9/32 or 28.1 %) or semi-shallow (12/32 or 37.5%) recorded most frequently.
Depth could not be determined for one cut due to damage. All cut marks are V -shaped,
and all observable walls (26/32 or 81.2%) are straight and sheer as illustrated by Figure
251. Six cuts were either too shallow or damaged for wall morphology to be evaluated.
Around 41% (13/32) of the cut marks exhibit internal striae within the main groove.
None of the cuts have bone overhangs. None of the cuts are affected by weather cracks;
however, about 19% (6/32) have suffered damage. Three cases of chattermarks were
observed. Several areas of shallow scrapes are present on the bone. The location of the
cut marks within the joint capsule on the femoral head and neck are clearly indicative of
186
the removal of the right lower limb at the hip joint. The cuts on the proximal end of the
shaft are more typical of defleshing but perhaps the motive was to detach the quadriceps
muscles of the thigh in order to gain better access to the hip joint.
El Brujo-Entierro 2 (1994) S: 19.10 I E: 25 Capa B, Nivel1
Entierro 2 has cut marks on the axis and third cervical vertebra. The 17 cuts
present on the axis are located on the posterior dens, anterior body, the anterior, lateral
and inferior aspects of the left and right transverse processes, the inferior surface of the
right inferior articular facet and the posterior-inferior aspect of the spinous process
(Figures 252-254). The four cuts on the anterior body extend horizontally across the
bone and are oriented parallel to one another. Orientation of the other cut marks is
variable, with cuts either oriented parallel or at oblique angles to one another. The cut
marks range in length from 2.0 mm to 9.1 mm. Relative width of the cuts varies from
shallow to wide, with most classified as either narrow (9/17 or 52.9%) or moderately
wide (6/17 or 35.2%). Relative depth of the cuts ranges from shallow to very deep, with
the categories of moderately deep (7/17 or 41.1%) and deep (8/17 or 4 7%) recorded most
frequently. With one exception, all cut marks are V-shaped. The most superior cut on
the anterior body is U-shaped which can be attributed to multiple cuts sharing a single
groove. All cut marks have relatively straight walls and four contain internal striae. One
cut on the left transverse process has a bone overhang. None of the cuts are affected by
weather cracks. Four cut marks are damaged, in two cases due to perimortem breakage
sustained during the decapitation process. No chattermarks are present.
187
On the third cervical vertebra, the left and right lateral margins of the superior
aspect of the body are cut (Figure 252). In both cases, the knife passed completely
through the bone, resulting in the removal of the tops of the lateral margins, leaving only
flat, triangular-shaped floors behind. Both floors are extremely porous; however, the
edges of the cuts are very crisp.
The cut marks on the axis and third cervical vertebra of Entierro 2 are suggestive
of decapitation; however, based on the multiple parallel cuts on the anterior body of the
second cervical vertebra, this individual may have had his throat slit first before losing
his head. What sets this individual apart from the others in my sample is that, although
he is clearly a victim of human sacrifice, he was given a formal tomb burial and his
severed head was present with the rest of the body. According to Verano (2000b ), this
implies that either the person cutting off this individual's head stopped before the head
was fully detached, or that the severed head was retained after removal, thus allowing the
corpse to be interred as a whole. The placement and morphology of the cut marks on the
cervical vertebrae support both of the hypotheses proposed above. The fact that, out of
all the sacrificial victims yet discovered, this individual alone was provided with a tomb
burial and that care was taken to make sure the interred remains were complete is
puzzling. At the very least, it suggests that his status while alive warranted special
treatment in death.
El Brujo-Entierro 1 (2000} Y: 60.35-62.15/ R: 267-268 Capa C, Nivel2
Cut marks on Entierro 1 are limited to three bones of the left foot: the calcaneus,
talus and medial cuneiform. A total of 18 cut marks are present. Five roughly parallel
188
cuts measuring from 1.8 mm to 5.1 mm in length extend horizontally from the medial
margin on to the posterior aspect of the calcaneal tuber of the left calcaneus. Twelve cut
marks are located on the lateral and medial margins of the trochlea and the dorsal and
medial aspects of the body of the left talus (Figure 255). The length of the cuts varies
from 1.8 mm to 8.1 mm, with 50% (6/12) measuring between 2-4 mm. The cut marks are
variable in their orientation and three on the talar body intersect with one another. One
5.0 mm long cut was found on the dorsal aspect of the left medial cuneiform. Nearly all
cut marks are relatively narrow (14/18 or 77.7%); the remaining four are either
moderately wide or wide. Relative depth of the cuts ranges from shallow to deep, with
11 of 18 cuts ( 61.1%) categorized as moderately deep. With one exception, all cut marks
are V -shaped. Shape could not be determined for one cut on the tal us. Sixteen of
eighteen cut marks have straight, sheer walls. One cut on the posterior body of the talus
has one straight wall and one coarse wall and one on the calcaneus was too shallow for
wall morphology to be assessed. Nearly 45% (8/18) of the cut marks contain internal
striae within the main groove and three have bone overhangs. None of the cuts are
affected by weather cracks or damaged. No chattermarks were observed. The location of
the cut marks on the three bones suggests partial removal of the left foot at the ankle,
including severing the Achilles tendon at its distal insertion. The dismemberment was
not complete because the foot was found in articulation with the left tibia and fibula. The
reason why the foot was not fully detached from the body is unknown.
189
Dos Cabezas-Cuarto de Ios Cnineos
Six of seventeen individuals (3 5.2%) from the Cuarto de Ios Craneos in Huaca E
at Dos Cabezas have bones with cut marks. Cuts are found primarily on the cervical
vertebrae, but also are present on the left malar and mandible. Six individuals, E-15-4,
E-15-5, E-15-9, E-15-10, E-15-13 and E-15-16, exhibit a total of twenty-one cut marks
on cervical vertebrae.
8
Two individuals, E-15-5 and E-15-13, have cuts on multiple
vertebrae; the other four each have cuts on only one vertebra. No atlas has cut marks and
lower cervical vertebrae (C4-C7) are affected most often. On any given vertebra, the cut
marks are restricted to a single region: the anterior body, the posterior aspect of the left
transverse process, the left lamina or the spinous process (Figures 256-258). The number
of cut marks on each vertebra varies from one to four, with a mode of one cut per bone.
The cut marks range in length from 0.8 mm to 10.4 mm, with two-thirds (14/21)
measuring less than 6 mm. Five cuts could not be measured for various reasons,
including discontinuity and shallow depth. Two cut marks on the left lamina of C4 of
E-15-4 are discontinuous and two on the anterior body of C7 of E-15-16 are actually
composed of multiple cuts sharing the same groove. Cuts located on the anterior body
are oriented either horizontally or at a slightly oblique angle relative to the superior-
inferior axis of the bone. Cut marks occurring in groups are typically oriented parallel to
one another. Relative width of the cuts varies from narrow to wide, with approximately
57% (12/21) classified as narrow. Relative depth ranges from shallow to deep, with most
cuts categorized as either semi-shallow (6/21 or 28.5%) or deep (7/21 or 33.3%).
Seventeen of21 cut marks (80.9%) are V-shaped. The shape of two cuts could not be
determined due to irremovable debris filling the groove or damage. Approximately 38%
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(8/21) of the cut marks have straight walls. Wall morphology for the remaining cuts
could not be assessed, primarily due to irremovable debris. None of the cut marks
contain internal striae, however, three have bone overhangs. None of the cut marks are
affected by weather cracks but four are damaged. One case of chattermarks was
recorded. Shallow scrapes were observed on C4 ofE-15-4.
Eleven cut marks are present on the left malar of E-15-16, around the lateral and
inferior margins of the left orbit (Figure 259). Length of the cuts varies from 1.8 mm to
4.4 mm. One cut mark is actually two cuts sharing a common groove. Two cuts
intersect; the others are oriented more or less parallel to one another. Relative width of
the cut marks varies from narrow to wide, with the categories of narrow (3/11 or 27.2%),
moderately wide (3/11 or 27.2%) and wide (4/11 or 36.3%) having roughly the same
frequency. The width of one cut mark could not be determined due to alteration of the
groove by an intersecting cut. Relative depth ranges from semi-shallow to deep, with
most cuts classified as either semi-shallow (5/11 or 45.4%) or moderately deep (5/11 or
45.4%). Eight of eleven cut marks (72.7%) are V-shaped. The shape of three cuts could
not be evaluated due to multiple cuts sharing the same groove, alteration of the groove by
intersecting cut or shallow depth. Slightly over half ( 6111) of the cut marks have straight,
sheer walls. Four cuts have relatively coarse walls, which can be attributed to multiple
cuts within a single groove, alteration of the groove by intersecting cuts or bone porosity.
Irremovable debris prevented the assessment of wall morphology in one case. None of
the cut marks contain internal striae or have bone overhangs. Two cuts are affected by
weather cracks; none are damaged. No chattermarks are present; however, a large
scraped area was observed above the most superior cut mark.
191
Four vertical cuts are present on the mandible ofE-15-13, on the base of the left
body, adjacent to the ramus (Figure 260). The cut marks are oriented parallel to one
another and measure from 1.2 mm to 4.0 mm in length. The most anterior cut is
relatively wide and deep. The other three cuts are relatively narrow and either shallow or
moderately deep. Three cut marks are relatively wide; the fourth is relatively narrow.
Three of four cuts are V -shaped; the fourth is of indeterminate shape. Three cut marks
have straight, sheer walls; the shallowest cut has relatively coarse walls. Half (2/ 4) of the
cut marks have internal striae; none have bone overhangs. None of the cuts are affected
by weather cracks or damaged. One case of chattermarks was observed.
The location of the cut marks on the cervical vertebrae, combined with the fact
that all skulls and articulated vertebrae excavated from the Cuarto de Ios Craneos were
found in isolation, strongly suggests that the individuals deposited in this room were
decapitated. The cuts on the left malar ofE-15-16 indicate facial mutilation. While the
cut marks on the body of the mandible ofE-15-13 may reflect defleshing, it is more
likely that the mandible was cut incidentally during decapitation. The latter hypothesis is
strengthened by the fact that this individual has cut marks on the posterior aspect of
second, third, sixth and seventh cervical vertebrae.
The results of my analysis of the human remains from the Cuarto de Ios Craneos
differs from that ofTyson and Cordy-Collins (1998) in terms of the number of bones and
individuals with cut marks (Table 18). In addition, Tyson and Cordy-Collins (1998)
classified two of the individuals with cut marks as female (E-15-9 and E-15-10). In my
own sex estimations of the Cuarto de Ios Craneos material, I classified E-15-9 and
E-15-10 as of probable male sex and as of ambiguous sex, respectively; however, I
192
believe it more likely that both individuals are adolescent males.
9
The skulls of
adolescent males are known to have more gracile features than adult males, and, without
the more accurate features of the pelvis to corroborate sex estimation, they may be
mistakenly assigned female sex (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994: 16). Moreover, in Andean
South America, female sacrifice victims were traditionally strangled to death with cloth
or cord ligatures, not killed with a knife (Uhle 1903; Verano 2001). In contrast, male
sacrificial victims were typically dispatched by having their throats slit or by
decapitation, and the remains of adolescent males with cut marks are not uncommon in
the archaeological record.
Pacatnamu-Lambayegue Mass Burial
Twelve of fourteen individuals (85.7%) from the Lambayeque mass burial at
Pacatnamu have bones with cut marks. Cuts are found on the left malar, second, third
and sixth cervical vertebrae, first thoracic vertebra, manubrium, clavicles, left first rib,
ulnae, left scaphoid and left trapezium. As mentioned in Chapter Three, the human
remains were deposited into the trench on three separate occasions; therefore, in my
descriptions below, following Verano's (1986) original report, I have divided the sample
into Groups I, 11 and Ill.
GROUP 1: Individuals 1-4
In Group I, cut marks are present on the left malar, left and right ulnae, left
scaphoid, and left trapezium.
193
Individual 1
On the left scaphoid of Individual 1, nine cuts are located on or around the medial
margin of the radial articular surface (Figure 261 ). Length of the cut marks ranges from
1.5 mm to 8.4 mm. Two cuts intersect, the rest are oriented roughly parallel to one
another. Relative width of the cut marks is either narrow (4/9 or 44.4%) or wide (4/9 or
44.4%). One cut was too damaged for width to be determined. Relative depth ranges
from very shallow to deep with the categories of shallow (3/9 or 33.3%) and deep (3/9 or
33.3%) recorded most frequently. All cut marks are V-shaped and all observable walls
are straight. Three cuts were too shallow or damaged for wall morphology to be
assessed. Two-thirds (6/9) of the cut marks contain internal striae within the main
groove. None of the cuts have bone overhangs or are affected by weather cracks. Two
cuts have suffered damage due to perimortem removal of the cortex. No chattermarks are
present, but shallow scraping was observed adjacent to one of the cut marks. The
location of the cuts and the perimortem damage to the cortex are consistent with
disarticulation of the left forearm at the wrist joint, including the severing of the
radiocarpal ligaments and muscles of the thumb. The fact that the styloid process of the
left ulna was broken off perimortem supports the above hypothesis.
Individual 2
At least 23 cut marks are present on the medial aspect of the distal quarter of the
shaft of the right ulna of Individual 2, in the area of attachment of the pronator quadratus
muscle (Figure 262).
10
Nearly all of the cut marks intersect one another, altering the
original grooves. Therefore, only seven cut marks could be measured and no
194
observations regarding relative width and depth of any of the cuts were possible. The
cuts for which measurements were possible range from 1.4 mm to 2.9 mm in length. All
cut marks are V-shaped with straight walls. All cuts contain internal striae; however, in
many, if not all cases, this may be an artifact of multiple cuts sharing the same groove.
None of the cut marks have bone overhangs or are affected by weather cracks. Almost
70% (16/23) of the cuts have suffered damage as a result of a perimortem comminuted
fracture of the distal shaft. No chattermarks were observed but areas of shallow scrapes
are present on the shaft. In addition to the cut marks discussed above, the styloid process
of the ulna has been partially cut away with a single cut that passed completely through
the bone. The location and abundance of cut marks on the ulna and its broken distal shaft
suggest disarticulation of the right forearm at the wrist. However, all bones of the right
forearm and hand were found in proper articulation (see Verano 1986:Figure 5), and no
cut marks were observed on the right radius or any right wrist bones; therefore, for
whatever reason, the disarticulation process was halted before completion.
Individual 3
Individual 3 exhibits cut marks on the left ulna, left scaphoid and left trapezium.
11
Five cut marks are present on the anterior and lateral aspects of the head of the left ulna
(Figure 263). Three cuts measure 4.0 mm, 8.1 mm and 8.2 mm, respectively. Two cut
marks suffered perimortem damage preventing their measurement and the evaluation of
all criteria except orientation, relative depth and shape. One cut mark is actually
composed of two cuts sharing the same groove. All cut marks are oriented at slightly
oblique angles to the long axis of the bone and lie either parallel or at oblique angles to
195
one another. Relative width of the cuts is either moderately wide or wide. The relative
depth of one cut mark is semi-shallow, the rest are either moderately deep or deep.
Eighty percent (4/5) of the cuts are V-shaped; one is U-shaped. All observable walls are
straight. Two cut marks contain internal striae within the main groove. None of the cuts
have bone overhangs or are affected by weather cracks. All of the cut marks have
suffered perimortem damage. In addition, the styloid process was fractured off
perimortem. No chattermarks are present.
The left scaphoid has seven cut marks on and near the radial articular surface and
across the tubercle. Six cuts are present on the left trapezium on the tubercle and
between the articular facets for the scaphoid and the first metacarpal (Figures 264 and
265). The cuts range in length from 1.1 mm to 9.1 mm. Orientation is variable: the cut
marks lie parallel or at oblique angles to one another or intersect. Seven of thirteen cuts
(53.8%) are relatively narrow in width; the six remaining are either moderately wide or
wide. Relative depth ranges from shallow to extremely deep, the latter referring to an cut
mark across the tubercle of the left scaphoid. One cut is of variable depth. All cut marks
except one are V -shaped. The cut on the tubercle of the left trapezium was too damaged
to accurately determine shape. Nearly all cut marks on the left scaphoid have straight,
sheer walls. The shallowness of one cut prevented the assessment of wall morphology.
Except for one cut mark with straight walls, the cuts on the left trapezium have relatively
coarse walls which can be attributed to bone porosity and irremovable debris within the
grooves. One cut, located on the left scaphoid, contains internal striae within the main
groove. None of the cut marks have bone overhangs or are affected by weather cracks.
The cut across the tubercle of the left scaphoid has suffered damage during perimortem
196
removal of the cortex. No chattermarks were recorded. Individual3 follows the pattern
set by Individuals 1 and 2 in that the location of the cut marks, the fractured styloid
process of the ulna, and the perimortem removal of bone cortex all strongly suggest
disarticulation of the left forearm at the wrist joint.
Individual 4
The skull of Individual 4 has one large cut mark on the left malar (Figure 266). It
is oriented at an oblique angle on the bone and measures 8.0 mm in length. Due to the
location of the cut mark on the intact skull, it was not possible to examine it underneath
the microscope; therefore, all morphological observations were made using a 1 OX hand
lens. Based on morphological criteria described by Shipman (1981) and Walker and
Long (1977), this particular tool mark is a chop mark. In comparison to other cut marks
in the Pacatnamu sample, it is unusually wide and deep. It is V -shaped with straight
walls and lacks internal striae and bone overhangs. In addition, SEM analysis of the
mark showed some evidence of crushing along the walls of the main groove (Figure 267).
The chop mark is not affected by weather cracks or damaged. No chattermarks are
present. The morphology of the chop mark suggests that it was made using considerable
force. Moreover, it may have been produced with a different, and perhaps heavier, tool
than was used to cut the other bones in Group I. Whether the chop mark represents a
violent altercation or mutilation is unknown.
A pattern of disarticulation of the left forearm is evident among the individuals of
Group I. Individuals 1 and 3 both have cut marks on the left ulna or left wrist bones and
197
the left ulnae of Individuals 1, 2 and 3 exhibit perimortem fractures of the styloid process.
In addition, every individual in Group I is missing the left radius (see Verano
1986:Figures 5 and 6). Therefore, in all four cases, the ultimate motivation for the
disarticulation of the left forearm seems to be trophy taking. The profusion of cut marks
on and the comminuted fracture of the distal shaft of the right ulna of Individual 2 are an
anomaly and their existence is puzzling given the presence of the right radius. Individual
4 differs slightly in two ways from the other three individuals in Group I. First, other
than the missing left radius, no other evidence for disarticulation and trophy taking such
as cut marks or perimortem damage was present on the left ulna or left hand of Individual
4. Second, as Verano (1986:128) states, ''the hand bones [of Individuals 1, 2 and 3] were
found in proper anatomical position, indicating that the radius had been removed without
completely severing the hand," whereas ''the bones of the left hand [oflndividual4] were
found lying halfway up the forearm, as though the hand had been either partially or
completely severed."
GROUP 11-Individuals 5-12
In Group 11, cut marks were observed on the sixth cervical vertebra, first thoracic
vertebra, left and right clavicles, manubrium, and left first rib. In addition, three
individuals have bisected manubria.
12
Individual 5
One cut mark is located near the left clavicular notch on the anterior aspect of the
manubrium oflndividual5 (see Verano 1986:Figure 21, left photo, upper left).
13
Due to
198
postmortem damage, no observations were possible. Adjacent to this cut mark, the
cutting tool sliced completely through the bone, removing a portion of the left clavicular
notch and the entire left first costal notch.
Individual 6
Individual 6 has a bisected manubrium resulting in the partial removal of the
jugular notch and the complete removal of the left clavicular notch and left first costal
notch (see Verano 1986:Figure 21, left photo, upper right). No other cut marks are
present on this skeleton.
Individual 7
Like Individuals 5 and 6, the manubrium of Individual 7 has been bisected,
divesting the bone of part of the jugular notch and the entire left clavicular notch and left
first costal notch (see Verano 1986:Figure 21, left photo, lower left). In addition, this
individual has cut marks on the left first rib and first thoracic vertebra. Two parallel cuts
are present on the superior aspect of the neck of the left first rib. The cut marks measure
5.9 mm and 5.8 mm in length, respectively. The more anterior cut is discontinuous.
Both cut marks are relatively narrow and moderately deep. They are V -shaped with
straight, sheer walls. The cuts lack internal striae and bone overhangs and neither
exhibits weather cracks or damage. No chattermarks were observed.
Nine cut marks are present on the anterior body and anterior, anterior-superior
and posterior-superior aspects of the left transverse process of the first thoracic vertebra.
The cuts range in length from 2.1 mm to 6.0 mm. Three cut marks were too damaged to
199
measure. One cut is discontinuous. It is possible that cut marks on the posterior-superior
aspect of the left transverse process were made with the same cutting strokes as cuts on
the left first rib. Grouped cut marks lie more or less parallel to one another. Two-thirds
(6/9) of the cuts are relatively narrow in width; the rest are either moderately wide or
wide. Relative depth ranges from shallow to deep, with the classification of moderately
deep (5/9 or 55.5%) recorded most frequently. The two parts of the discontinuous cut
mark are shallow and moderately deep, respectively. All cuts are V-shaped with straight
walls, and four of nine cuts (44.4%) contain internal striae within the main groove. No
bone overhangs were observed. Chattermarks are visible above two cut marks. The cut
marks on the left first rib and first thoracic vertebra are consistent with attempted
decapitation at the base ofthe neck. However, the head oflndividual7 was not
completely severed from the body because the skull and cervical vertebrae were found in
proper anatomical position (see Verano 1986:Figure 15).
Individual 8
Cut marks were observed on the sixth cervical vertebra and left clavicle of
Individual 8. One discontinuous cut is present on the anterior body and anterior aspect of
the right transverse process of the sixth cervical vertebra (Figure 268). Measurement of
the cut mark was not possible. Both portions of the cut are relatively narrow in width.
The cut mark segment on the anterior body ranges in relative depth from deep to shallow
to moderately deep; the segment on the right transverse process is relatively deep. As a
whole, the cut mark is V -shaped with straight walls and contains internal striae. A small
bone overhang is present on the cut mark segment on the right transverse process. The
cut is not affected by weather cracks or damaged. No chattermarks are present. The
location of the cut mark is indicative of slashing of the throat at the base of the neck.
200
Two cut marks are present on the superior aspect of the sternal end of the left
clavicle (Figure 269). The cuts are oriented more or less perpendicular to the long axis of
the bone and lie roughly parallel to one another. The medial cut mark is 7.5 mm long; the
lateral cut mark measures 2.0 mm in length. The medial cut is moderately wide and
relatively deep in comparison to the relatively narrow and semi-shallow lateral cut. Both
cut marks are V -shaped. The walls of the medial cut are somewhat coarse for a portion
of their length which can be attributed to perimortem damage. The walls of the lateral
cut are straight and sheer. The medial cut mark contains internal striae within the main
groove; the lateral cut does not. Neither cut mark exhibits bone overhangs or is affected
by weather cracks. No chattermarks were observed.
Individual 9
Cut marks are present on the left and right clavicles, the manubrium and the left
first rib oflndividual9.
14
Fourcuts are located on the anterior aspect of the stemal end
of the left clavicle, and seven are found on the superior aspect of the stemal end of the
right clavicle (Figures 270 and 271). The cut marks on both clavicles are very similar in
terms of location to those on the left clavicle of Individual 8. The cuts on the left
clavicle of Individual 9 are oriented perpendicular to the long axis of the bone whereas
those on the right clavicle are oriented at a slightly oblique angle to the bone's long axis.
On each bone, the cut marks are oriented roughly parallel to one another. Length of the
cuts ranges from 0.8 mm to 7.7 mm. Three cut marks could not be measured due to
201
discontinuity or damage. One cut on the right clavicle is discontinuous and another on
the same bone is actually two parallel cuts lying in very close proximity to each other.
Three cut marks (one on the right clavicle and two on the left) are actually composed of
two cuts sharing the same groove. Relative width of the cut marks varies from narrow to
wide, with the category of narrow ( 6111 or 54.5%) recorded most often. Relative depth
ranges from very shallow to very deep, with the discontinuous cut having variable depth.
In general, the cut marks on the left clavicle are wider and deeper than those on the right,
suggesting that the cuts on the left clavicle were produced with more force. All cut
marks are V -shaped and eight have straight, sheer walls. Wall morphology for three cuts
could not be evaluated because of shallow depth or alteration of the main groove by
multiple cuts. Four of eleven cut marks (36.3%)-two each on the left and right
clavicles-contain internal striae. Three cuts on the left clavicle have bone overhangs.
None of the cut marks are affected by weather cracks, however, three on the right clavicle
are damaged. No chattermarks are present.
Three cut marks are located on the anterior aspect of the superior portion of the
manubrium, at midline and adjacent to the left clavicular notch (Figure 272). The cuts
measure (medial to lateral) 7.7 mm, 5.4 mm and 8.1 mm in length. All three cut marks
are characterized by multiple cuts sharing the same groove. Relative width of the cuts
varies from narrow to wide and relative depth ranges from semi-shallow to deep. The
two lateral cut marks are V -shaped; the medial cut is of indeterminate shape. The medial
and lateral cuts have straight walls; wall morphology of the middle cut mark was not
possible to determine due to alteration of the groove by multiple cuts. All three cuts
contain internal striae within the main groove and bone overhangs are present on the
medial and lateral cuts. None of the cut marks are affected by weather cracks or
damaged. No chattermarks were recorded.
202
Two parallel cut marks are visible on the superior aspect of the shaft of the left
flrst rib, on the medial edge of the angle (Figure 273). The cuts are oriented roughly
perpendicular to the long axis of the bone and measure 1.5 mm and 2.0 mm in length,
respectively. Both cut marks are relatively wide and deep. They are V-shaped with
straight, sheer walls. Both lack internal striae and bone overhangs. Neither cut is
affected by weather cracks or damaged. Chattermarks were observed near the more
anterior cut.
Individual I 0
No cut marks were found on the bones of Individual 10. However, this individual
was decapitated as evidenced by the absence of the skull and upper two cervical vertebrae
and by fractures of the third and fourth cervical vertebrae (see Verano 1986:137 and
Figure 16).
Individual 11
Individual II has two parallel cut marks on the superior aspect of the shaft of the
left flrst rib, on the medial edge of the angle (Figure 274). The cuts are oriented more or
less perpendicular to the long axis of the bone. The location and orientation of the cuts is
nearly identical to that of cuts on the left flrst rib of Individual 9. Length of the cut marks
is 2.9 mm and 2.4 mm, respectively. Both cuts are relatively wide. The anterior cut mark
is relatively deep while the posterior cut mark is moderately deep. Both cuts are V-
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shaped with straight walls and contain internal striae within the main groove. In addition,
a microscopic bony protrusion is present within the main groove of the posterior cut
mark. The anterior cut has a bone overhang. Neither cut mark is affected by weather
cracks or damaged. No chattermarks were recorded.
Individual12
No cut marks are present on the bones oflndividual12.
GROUP Ill: Individuals 13-14
In Group Ill, cut marks were observed on the second and third cervical vertebrae
and both individuals in this group have bisected manubria.
15
Individual 13
A total of nine cut marks are present on the axis oflndividual13. Four cuts are
located on the anterior body. The other five are found on the inferior aspect-two on the
left inferior articular facet and three on or near the right inferior articular facet (Figure
275). In addition, six cut marks are located on the anterior body (one of which continues
on to the right transverse process) and anterior aspect of the right superior articular facet
of the third cervical vertebra (Figure 276). Forty percent (6/15) of all cuts could not be
measured due to perimortem damage; the remainder vary in length from 2.8 mm to 7.6
mm. The most superior cut on the anterior body of the axis is discontinuous and one on
the third cervical vertebra is actually composed of multiple cuts sharing the same groove.
On both vertebrae, cut marks on the anterior body are oriented more or less horizontally
204
relative to the superior-inferior axis of the bone. Clustered cut marks are oriented parallel
or at oblique angles to one another or intersect. Eleven of fifteen cuts (73.3%) are
relatively narrow in width and two are relatively wide. The discontinuous mark varies in
width from narrow to wide. One cut mark was too damaged for width to be assessed.
Relative depth ranges from semi-shallow to very deep, with the category of moderately
deep (7/15 or 46.6%) recorded most frequently. All cut marks are V-shaped and 80%
(12/15) have straight walls (Figure 277). The discontinuous cut has relatively coarse
walls which can be attributed to damage. Two cut marks were too damaged for wall
morphology to be evaluated. Four of fifteen cuts (one on the axis and three on C3)
contain internal striae within the main groove. Four cuts on the axis have bone
overhangs. None of the cut marks are affected by weather cracks; however, over half
(8/15) have suffered perimortem damage. No chattermarks are present. The number,
location and orientation of the cut marks on the axis and third cervical vertebra together
with the presence ofperimortem fractures ofboth bones and the placement of the skull
near the right knee strongly indicate that Individual 13 was decapitated (see Verano
1986:Figure 18). In addition, similar to the affected individuals in Group 11, the
manubrium of Individual 13 is bisected and missing its left clavicular notch and left first
costal notch (see Verano 1986:Figure 21, left photo, lower right).
Individual 14
Individual 14 has a bisected manubrium. Only a fragment of this bone remains
(see Verano 1986:Figure 21, left photo, bottom middle). No other cut marks are present
on this skeleton.
205
The pattern of cut marks visible in Groups 11 and Ill differs markedly from that
observed in Group I. None of the members of Groups 11 and Ill are missing their left
radius. Instead, perimortem treatment of these individuals, as suggested by cut mark
patteming and fracture location, focuses on decapitation and the opening of the chest
cavity. The above observations repeat those made by Verano (1986:133) in his report.
As mentioned earlier, the heads of two victims (Individuals 10 and 13) were completely
removed and an attempt was made to decapitate a third (Individual 7). Moreover, since
the skull and atlas oflndividual 6 are absent, it is possible that this person was also
decapitated. However, the lack of cut marks on the remaining cervical vertebrae and the
advanced state of disarticulation of the skeleton renders this hypothesis largely
conjectural.
With the exception oflndividual12, all members of Groups 11 and Ill show
evidence of having had their chest cavity opened. There appears to have been two
different ways of accessing the thoracic region. Using the first method, described in
detail by Verano (1986: 130, see also Figure 22), "an incision was made at the jugular
notch and extended downward and laterally, cutting through the spongy bone of the
manubrium and avoiding the denser bone of the clavicle. The incision was then
continued down the left side of the anterior aspect of the chest, severing the costal
cartilages." Victims with bisected manubria, such as Individuals 5, 6, 7, 13 and 14
appear to have been treated in this manner. The single cut mark on the anterior aspect of
the manubrium oflndividual5, medial to the area of missing bone, may represent a false
start. Furthermore, as stated by Verano (1986:130), the forces created by the subsequent
prying open of the chest would have overstressed the vertebral articulations of the ribs,
206
resulting in multiple fractures at the neck, and indeed, all of the individuals listed above
exhibit such fractures.
The second method used in opening the chests of Individuals 8, 9, 10 and 11 is
more difficult to reconstruct, but did not involve bisecting the manubrium. Using this
alternative technique, multiple longitudinal cuts were made on the sternal end of the
clavicle in the area of attachment for the sternocleidomastoid muscle (as seen in
Individuals 8 and 9), which probably extended down the anterior chest wall through the
costal cartilages. In the case oflndividual9, the three longitudinal cut marks located
below the jugular notch on the anterior manubrium may represent false starts. Similar to
the five individuals described in the preceding paragraph, the prying open of Individual
11 's chest resulted in multiple cervical fractures of the ribs. In contrast, the rib cages of
Individuals 9 and 10 were forced open in such a manner that multiple midshaft or sternal
end fractures of the ribs occurred. The insertion of the knife that produced the cut marks
on the internal angle of the left first ribs of Individuals 9 and 11 would have punctured
the suprapleural membrane and caused the left lung of each individual to collapse.
The bisection ofthe left side of the manubrium oflndividuals 5, 6, 7, 13 and 14
and the preponderance of cut marks on the left side of the skeletons of Individuals 8, 9
and 11 suggests that the primary motivation for opening the chest of victims in Groups 11
and Ill may have been to excise the heart, which is located left of midline. Heart removal
as part of the ritual of human sacrifice was common among the Maya (and later, the
Aztecs) ofMesoamerica (Cook 1946; Robicsek and Hates 1984). Based on the evidence
given above, the Lambayeque also may have performed this act. Thus, the cut marks on
the internal angles of the left first ribs of Individuals 9 and 11 may have occurred when
the knife jerked upward and nicked the internal aspect of the bone as the heart was cut
out. Alternatively, these particular cuts may not be associated with heart removal but
instead may represent slashing of the throat at the base of the neck.
Forensic Case
207
A total of nine cut marks are present on the three bones from the modem forensic
case included as a comparative sample. Two nearly horizontal, intersecting cut marks are
present on the third cervical vertebra (Figure 278). They are located on the posterior
aspect of the bone, on the left lamina below the left superior articular facet. The superior
cut measures 4.3 mm. The length of the inferior cut mark was not possible to determine.
Both cuts are relatively narrow in width. The superior cut mark is moderately deep while
the inferior cut is semi-shallow. In Figure 279, it is clear that the right half of the
superior cut mark actually consists of two short, roughly parallel cuts that converge and
briefly share the same groove before diverging again (Figure 278). Since this feature is
not visible with the naked eye, I did not adjust the total number of cuts on this bone in my
database.
There are six parallel cut marks on the distal articular surface of the left first
metacarpal (Figure 280). Their length ranges from 2.5 mm to 4.2 mm. Relative width of
the cuts varies from narrow to wide and their relative depth ranges from semi-shallow to
deep.
The left third proximal hand phalanx has one 8.0 mm long cut mark on the dorso-
lateral aspect of the proximal shaft (Figure 281). The cut is oriented at an oblique angle
to the long axis of the bone and is relatively wide and deep.
208
On all three bones, the cut marks are V -shaped and lack internal striae and bone
overhangs. Two-thirds (6/9) of the cuts have straight, sheer walls (Figures 279 and 282).
Three cuts (two on the left first metacarpal and one on the left third proximal hand
phalanx) each have one straight wall and one coarse wall. This asymmetry of wall
morphology can be attributed to bone porosity at the location of the cut marks. None of
the cuts are affected by weather cracks or damaged. No chattermarks are present.
The cut marks on the third cervical vertebra are characteristic of decapitation and
are evidence that the victim's neck was cut from behind, severing the splenius capitus
and semispinalis capitis muscles, along with the superior portion of the trapezius muscle.
The cuts on the two finger bones, especially the six within the joint capsule on the left
first metacarpal, indicate detachment of the fmgers. In this case, the motive behind
removing the victim's head and fmgers was to prevent positive identification of her body.
Faunal Remains
Approximately 21% or 81 of 3 78 faunal bones from Huaca de la Luna, El Brujo
and Pacatnamu included in my comparative sample exhibit a total of 505 cut marks. In
the discussion that follows, the faunal remains are treated as a single data set divided into
two groups based on whether the cut marks are located on the axial or appendicular
skeleton.
Two hundred twenty-three cut marks are present on forty-two axial fauna! bones.
Elements with cuts include one skull vault fragment, one atlas vertebra, one upper
cervical vertebra, one thoracic vertebra, six lumbar vertebrae, nine untyped lower
vertebrae and vertebral fragments, one sacral segment, seventeen ribs, two scapulae and
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three ossa coxae. Cut marks on the skull vault fragment are present on the internal
surface of the bone. Cuts on the atlas vertebra are located on the ventral arch, near the
articular facets for the occipital condyles (Figure 283). On the upper cervical vertebra,
cut marks are found on the dorsal aspect of the left superior articular facet and the dorso-
lateral aspect of the right superior articular facet (Figure 284 ). Cuts on the thoracic,
lumbar and untyped vertebrae and vertebral fragments occur on the ventral and ventral-
lateral surfaces of the body, the ventral, lateral and dorsal aspects of the left superior and
inferior articular facets and right transverse process, the ventral and lateral surfaces of the
right superior articular facet, the ventral and dorsal aspects of the right inferior articular
facet, the lateral, dorsal and inferior surfaces of the left transverse process, the lateral and
dorsal aspects of the left and right laminae, the lateral aspect of the right pedicle and the
dorsal aspect of the spinous process (Figures 285-288). The sacral segment has a cut
mark on the ventral surface of the body. Cuts on the ribs are located on the head, neck
and tubercle as well as on the ventral and dorsal surfaces of the shaft (Figures 289-293).
The scapulae exhibit cut marks on the ventral aspect of the axillary border and dorsal
aspect of the infraspinous fossa (Figure 294). Cuts on the ossa coxae are present on the
ventral surface of the ilium and iliopubic ramus and near the rim of the acetabulum
(Figures 295 and 296). The number of cuts per axial element ranges from one to 48 (the
latter found on a camelid lumbar vertebra from Pacatnamu), with a mode of one. Around
83% (35/42) of all axial bones exhibit seven or fewer cuts. The cut marks vary in length
from 0.8 mm to 43.5 mm, with the two longest (26.0 mm and 43.5 mm, respectively)
occurring on a sea lion scapula from Tomb 2 (1998), El Brujo. Nearly three-quarters
(166/223) of all cuts measure less than 5 mm long. The length of21 cut marks could not
210
be determined, primarily due to damage or shallow depth making it extremely difficult to
see their extremes. Six cut marks are discontinuous, four are each actually two cuts
sharing the same groove, and three others are each really two parallel cuts lying in very
close proximity. Clustered cut marks are most frequently oriented parallel to one another
(146/189 or 77.2%); the remaining grouped cuts are oriented at oblique angles to one
another or intersect. Relative width of the cuts varies from very narrow to wide, with the
classification of narrow (122/223 or 54.7%) assigned most often. One cut mark ranges in
width from narrow to wide. The relative width of 10 cut marks could not be determined
for reasons including damage and alteration of the main groove by multiple or
intersecting cuts. The cut marks range in relative depth from extremely shallow to
extremely deep, with the categories of moderately deep ( 65/223 or 29.1%) and deep
(59/223 or 26.4%) recorded most frequently. Nine cut marks have variable depth and the
depth of one could not be assessed due to multiple cuts sharing the same groove. Two
hundred eight of223 cuts (93.2%) are V-shaped and six are U-shaped. The nine
remaining cut marks are of indeterminate shape, which in all cases can be attributed to
their shallow depth or to the alteration of the groove by intersecting cuts. About 83%
(184/223) of the cut marks have straight, sheer walls, as illustrated by Figure 297. Five
cuts have one straight wall and one coarse wall and nine cut marks, six of which are
shallow, have relatively coarse walls. Wall morphology was not possible to evaluate for
about 11% (25/223) of the cut marks due to a variety of factors including shallow depth,
irremovable debris, alteration of the groove by intersecting cuts, extreme weathering and
damage. Approximately one-quarter (56/223) of the cut marks contain internal striae
within the main groove and 14 exhibit bone overhangs. Seventeen cuts are affected by
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weather cracks and eighteen others have suffered damage, in two cases, perimortem. An
additional five cut marks are both affected by weather cracks (in one case to an extreme
degree) and damaged (in one case, perimortem). Five cases of chattermarks were
observed and five axial bones have shallow scrapes.
Two hundred eighty-two cut marks on the appendicular skeleton are present on
thirty-nine elements, including seven humeri, six radius-ulnae, seven femora, three tibiae,
eight indeterminate long bone fragments, two astragali, four calcanei and two other tarsal
bones (a cuboid and fibulare). Cut marks on the humerus are located on the anterior and
posterior aspects of the entire shaft, the medial surface of the distal Y-1 of the shaft, the
lateral aspect of the proximal Y2 of the shaft, the anterior, medial and inferior surfaces of
the medial condyle and the anterior, lateral, posterior and inferior aspects of the lateral
condyle (Figures 298-300). On the radius-ulnae, cuts are found on all aspects of the
proximal shaft, most frequently on the radial tuberosities, in addition to the lateral aspect
of the lateral condyle (Figures 301-303). Cut marks on the femur occur on the anterior
surface of the head, the medial aspect of the neck and lesser trochanter, and all aspects of
the proximal shaft (Figures 304-306). On the tibia, cuts are present on the anterior aspect
on the tibial crest and on the posterior surface of the proximal Y,. of the shaft (Figures 307
and 308). Cut marks on the calcanei occur on the anterior aspect, near the margin of the
cuboid articular surface, on the distal portion of the bone and proximal to the articular
surface for the lateral malleolus, the lateral aspect of the body and lateral margin of the
articular surface for the lateral malleolus, and the posterior aspect of the body and
calcaneal tuber (Figures 309-312). On the astragalus, cuts are found on the anterior
aspect, on the medial margin of the distal trochlea and between the proximal and distal
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trochleae, the posterior aspect on the calcaneal articular surface, and on the medial aspect
(Figure 313). On other tarsal bones, cut marks are present on the anterior aspect of the
cuboid and on various aspects of the fibulare (Figures 314 and 315). The number of cuts
on each appendicular element varies from one to forty-seven, with a mode of one. Nearly
72% (28/39) of all bones have six cuts or fewer. The three most affected bones are a left
humerus from Complejo 3.4, El Brujo (43 cut marks) and a left humerus and right
astragalus from Tomb 2 (1998), El Brujo (40 cuts and 47 cuts, respectively). Length of
the cut marks ranges from 0.3 mm to 20.1 mm, with three-quarters (213/282) measuring
less than 7 mm. The length of31 cut marks (10.9%) could not be determined, primarily
due to difficulty in discerning the ends of the cut or damage (in several cases,
perimortem). Twelve cut marks are discontinuous, eight are each actually composed of
two or more cuts sharing the same groove, and another three are each really two parallel
cuts lying in very close proximity. Cuts located on the shafts oflong bones are typically
oriented perpendicular (87 /152 or 52.7%) or at oblique angles ( 611152 or 40.1%) to the
long axis of the bone. Cut marks occurring in groups are most often oriented parallel to
one another (168/229 or 73.3%); the others are oriented at oblique angles to one another
or intersect. The cuts range in relative width from narrow to very wide, with the category
of narrow (123/282 or 43.6%) recorded most frequently. Six cut marks have variable
width. The relative width of 13 cut marks was not possible to assess for several reasons
including multiple cuts sharing the same groove or damage. Relative depth varies from
extremely shallow to very deep, with the classification of semi-shallow (85/282 or
30.1 %) assigned most often. Eight cut marks have variable depth and the relative depth
of six could not be determined due to damage or alteration of the groove by multiple or
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intersecting cuts. Nearly 85% (239/282) of the cut marks are V-shaped. The remaining
cuts are either U-shaped (19/282 or 6.7%) or of indeterminate shape (24/282 or 8.5%),
which in all but two cases can be attributed to shallow depth. Almost three-quarters
(2111282) of the cut marks have straight walls, as illustrated by Figures 316 and 317.
Five cuts have one straight wall and one coarse wall. Forty cut marks, twenty-nine of
which are shallow, have relatively coarse walls. Wall morphology was could not be
evaluated for approximately 9% (26/282) of the cuts due to several reasons including
damage and alteration of the groove by multiple or intersecting cuts. One hundred
twenty-four of two hundred eighty-two cut marks (43.9%) contain internal striae and
twelve have bone overhangs. Twelve cuts are affected (one extremely) by weather
cracks, another forty have suffered damage, in twelve cases, perimortem. Three other cut
marks are both weathered and damaged (in one case, perimortem). Eighteen cases of
chattermarks are present and nine appendicular bones exhibit shallow scrapes. Although
in general, cut marks on faunal appendicular bones are relatively homogeneous in their
morphology, cuts on the shaft of a left humerus excavated from Complejo 3.4, El Brujo
differ somewhat from the others (Figure 300). Nearly all37 cuts on the shaft are
relatively wide and shallow with coarse walls. In addition, many are U-shaped and
appear as shallow chop marks or dents rather than slits. Several marks are associated
with bone surface spalling. These morphological differences may either represent
variations in force and applied pressure (i.e., chopping vs. slicing) or reflect the use of a
different tool.
Table 19 presents a summary of the regions on each faunal element with cut
marks and compares the locations and orientations of these cuts with those described by
214
Binford (1981 :Table 4.4, Figures 4.6-4.39) in his inventory of skinning and butchery (i.e.,
filleting and dismemberment) marks. Using Binford' s inventory and, to a lesser extent,
descriptions of butchering marks by Guilday et al. (1962), Noe-Nygaard (1989) and
Pozorski (1976) as a guide, the following hypotheses can be proposed regarding the
activities that produced the cut marks on the fauna! remains in my sample. Cuts on the
skull vault fragment indicate food preparation. All cut marks on the tibia and long bone
shaft fragments as well as cuts on the spinous process of the lumbar vertebrae, the ventral
aspect of the vertebral Y2 of the rib shaft, the dorsal surface of the rib shaft, the
infraspinous fossa of the scapula, all aspects of the shaft of the femur, the medial aspect
of the lesser trochanter of the femur, and the anterior surface of the calcaneus, just
proximal to the lateral malleolus articular surface are consistent with filleting (i.e., the
fauna! equivalent of defleshing). With some exceptions, cut marks on the anterior, lateral
and posterior aspects of the shaft of the humerus and the anterior and posterior surfaces
of the shaft of the radius-ulna also suggest filleting. All cuts on the atlas, sacral segment,
ossa coxae, astragali, cuboid and fibulare are most likely the result of dismemberment.
Dismemberment also is the most logical explanation for cut marks on the pedicle and
superior and inferior articular facets of the vertebrae and vertebral fragments, the ventral
surface of the head, the dorsal aspect of the neck, and the ventral and dorsal surfaces of
the tubercle of the ribs, the ventral aspect of the axillary border of the scapula, the
anterior, medial and posterior surfaces of the distal Y4 of the shaft and all aspects of the
medial and lateral condyles of the humerus, the anterior, the anterior margin of the radial
tuberosities and the lateral aspect of the lateral condyle of the radius-ulna, the ball and
around the margin of the head and the medial aspect of the neck of the femur, and the
215
anterior surface of the distal process and near the cuboidal articular surface, on and near
the lateral malleolus articular surface, and the lateral and posterior aspects of the body of
the calcaneus. Cuts on the bodies, transverse processes and laminae of the vertebrae and
vertebral fragments and the posterior surface of the calcaneal tuber of the calcaneus may
be the result of either filleting or dismemberment depending on the orientation of the cut
marks, i.e., longitudinal cuts are typically associated with filleting whereas transverse
cuts are more likely produced during dismemberment.
Although the faunal bones in my sample come from multiple contexts at three
different sites, as a group, cut mark patterning in terms of location and frequency (as well
as fracture patterns, discussed in more detail below) strongly resembles that observed on
camelid bones from the Moche site ofPampa Grande (Shimada 1994:Figure 8.5). Based
on Pozorski's (1976:451-452) written description, the morphology of cut marks on
butchered came lid remains from M oche and Chimu sites in the M oche V alley is similar
to the morphology of the cuts on the faunal bones in my data set. However, in terms of
cut mark locations, the Pampa Grande camelid bones compare more closely. Several cut
mark locations in my sample also correspond with those observed by Wing (1972:330)
on camelid remains from the Initial Period site of Kotosh in the Huallaga V alley.
METRIC AND DIRECTIONALITY STUDIES AND ELEMENTAL ANALYSIS
Cross Section Analysis Results
As stated in Chapter 1bree, cross sections of cut marks were made to confirm my
diagnoses of cut mark shape and gain more detailed information on cut mark morphology
that would assist me in determining tool type. Examples of cross section profiles of cut
216
marks on bones from each data collection are pictured in Figure 318. Cross-sectional
analysis also was conducted to obtain maximum width and depth measurements at
midpoint and a depth/width ratio (see below) that could be manipulated statistically to
compare different samples. The depth/width ratio is the depth of the cut mark at its
deepest point divided by the width of the cut mark. The lower the depth/width ratio, the
shallower the cut in relation to its width. The data set was divided into groups and
skeletal subsets and statistical tests were carried out involving various combinations of
these groups and skeletal subsets. The groups consist of the nine proveniences of human
remains and three proveniences of faunal remains. The human proveniences are El
Brujo, Dos Cabezas, Plaza 3A at Huaca de la Luna, above the floor of Plaza 3C at Huaca
de la Luna, below the floor of Plaza 3C at Huaca de la Luna, Pacatnamu Group I,
Pacatnamu Group II and Patcatnamu Group Ill. The faunal proveniences are El Brujo,
above and below the floor of Plaza 3C at Huaca de la Luna, and Pacatnamu. The skeletal
subsets consist of two categories: "axial/appendicular" composed of axial and
appendicular skeletal remains, and "long bone" consisting of upper long bones, lower
long bones, and non-long bones.
16
In every case, the mean width, mean depth, and mean
depth/width ratio were compared in separate statistical analyses. Whenever sample size
was sufficiently large (i.e., n 2:: 6), analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests were conducted.
In cases where small sample size precluded ANOV A tests (i.e., n < 6), a comparison of
means test was performed. In the paragraphs below, results are not statistically
significant unless explicitly stated otherwise.
The ANOV A test of the entire data set included cut marks on human and faunal
bones from the seven groups with sample sizes of n 2:: 6, i.e., El Brujo, Plaza 3A and
217
Plaza 3C (above- and below-floor samples combined) at Huaca de la Luna, Pacatnamu
(Group 11 only), El Brujo faunal and Plaza 3C faunal. The groups were not further
divided into skeletal subsets. There are no significant differences in cut mark mean width
between the different groups; however, cuts on remains from Plaza 3A are the widest,
while the narrowest cuts are those present on bones deposited below the floor of Plaza 3C
(Tables 20 and 21 ). As seen in Figure 319, the mean widths for the other groups are all
very similar and cluster roughly midway between the two extremes. Cut marks on
human remains from below the floor of Plaza 3C are significantly (p = 0.007) shallower
than cuts on faunal bones from El Brujo (Figure 320). Cuts on human remains from
Plaza 3A and below and above the floor of Plaza 3C and on faunal remains from Plaza
3C have significantly (p < 0.001) smaller mean depth/width ratios than cuts on faunal
bones from El Brujo (Figure 321 ). No other significant differences in mean depth or
mean depth/width ratios were observed.
In order to compare cut marks on human bones from the two different cultures
represented (i.e., Moche and Lambayeque) both with each other and with cuts on faunal
bones, the cut marks were divided into three new groups labeled "Moche" (i.e., cuts on
human bones from El Brujo, Dos Cabezas and Plazas 3A and 3C at Huaca de la Luna),
"Lambayeque" (i.e., cuts on human remains from Groups I-III at Pacatnamu) and
"Faunal" (i.e., cut marks on faunal bones from El Brujo, Plaza 3C and Pacatnamu). The
ANOV A test revealed that cuts on both Moche human bones and faunal bones are
narrower than cuts on Lambayeque human bones; however, this difference is not
significant (Tables 22 and 23 and Figure 322). Cut marks on Moche human remains are
significantly (p < 0.001) shallower than those on both Lambayeque human remains and
218
faunal bones (Figure 323). In addition, cut marks on Moche human bones have a
significantly (p < 0.001) smaller mean depth/width ratio than that of cuts on faunal
remains (Figure 324). In subsequent comparisons, the Moche and Lambayeque groups
were combined into a single "Human" group and the cut marks within each of the two
groups, "Human" and "Faunal," were divided into axial/appendicular and long bone
skeletal subsets. Within the human and faunal groups, cut marks on axial bones do not
differ significantly from those on appendicular bones with respect to mean width, mean
depth or mean depth/width ratio (Tables 24-27). In both cases, cut marks on axial
elements are narrower and shallower than those on appendicular elements. Within the
human group, the axial mean depth/width ratio is smaller than the appendicular mean
depth/width ratio, but within the faunal group, the axial mean depth/width ratio is larger
than the appendicular mean depth/width ratio. When cut marks on human axial remains
are compared with those on faunal axial remains, cuts on human axial remains are wider
and shallower than those on faunal axial remains but the differences are not significant
(Tables 28 and 29). However, the mean depth/width ratio of cut marks on human axial
bones was significantly smaller than that of cuts on faunal axial bones (p = 0.006). There
is no significant difference in mean width between cuts on human appendicular bones
and those on faunal appendicular bones; however, cut marks on human appendicular
remains are significantly (p < 0.003) shallower than those on faunal appendicular remains
(Tables 30 and 31 ). In addition, the mean depth/width ratio of cuts on human
appendicular remains is significantly (p = 0.004) smaller than that of cuts on faunal
appendicular remains. Within the human and faunal bone samples, cut marks on upper
long bones, lower long bones and non-long bones do not differ significantly from one
219
another in terms of mean width, mean depth or mean depth/width ratio (Tables 32-35).
Within the human remains sample, cut marks on upper long bones are narrower,
shallower and have a smaller mean depth/width ratio than those on both lower long bones
and non-long bones (Figures 325-327). Within the fauna! remains sample, cuts on upper
long bones are deeper and wider than those on both lower long bones and non-long bones
and have a smaller mean depth/width ratio (Figures 328-330). When cuts on human
bones are compared with those on fauna! bones, cuts located on human upper long bones
are significantly narrower (p = 0.011) and shallower (p < 0.001) than those found on
fauna! upper long bones (Tables 36 and 37). Cut marks on human upper long bones also
have a significantly (p = 0.013) smaller mean depth/width ratio. Cuts on human lower
long bones are wider and shallower than those on faunallower long bones but the
differences are not significant. However, cut marks on human lower long bones have a
significantly (p = 0.01) smaller mean depth/width ratio than that of cuts on faunallower
long bones (Tables 38 and 39). The mean widths of cuts on human and fauna! non-long
bones are nearly identical. Cut marks on human non-long bones are shallower than those
on fauna! non-long bones, but the difference is not significant (Tables 40 and 41 ). Cut
marks on human non-long bones have a significantly (p = 0.003) smaller mean
depth/width ratio that that of cuts on fauna! non-long bones.
In a comparison between cut marks on human bones from Huaca de la Luna (i.e.,
Plazas 3A and 3C) and those on human remains from other Moche sites (i.e., El Brujo
and Dos Cabezas ), no significant differences in mean width, mean depth or mean
depth/width ratio between the two groups are present (Tables 42 and 43). A comparison
of means test revealed that cuts on axial elements from Huaca de la Luna are narrower
220
and deeper and have a larger mean depth/width ratio than those on axial bones from other
Moche sites (Table 44). On the other hand, cuts on appendicular bones from Huaca de la
Luna are wider and deeper and have a smaller mean depth/width ratio than those on
appendicular elements from other Moche sites. Since cut marks on upper long bones
were not present in the sample from other Moche sites, no comparisons could be made
with cuts on upper long bones from Huaca de la Luna (Table 45). A comparison of
means test showed that cut marks on lower long bones from Huaca de la Luna are wider
and deeper and have a smaller mean depth/width ratio than those on lower long bones
from other Moche sites. In contrast, cuts on non-long bones from Huaca de la Luna are
narrower and deeper and have a larger mean depth/width ratio than those on non-long
bones from other Moche sites.
A comparison of cut marks on human remains from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna
with those on human bones from Plaza 3C (above-floor and subfloor samples combined),
revealed that cuts on Plaza 3A bones are significantly (p = 0.037) wider than those on
elements from Plaza 3C (Tables 46 and 47). Cuts on Plaza 3A bones also are deeper and
have a smaller mean depth/width ratio than those on Plaza 3C elements. Within each
sample, cut marks on axial remains do not differ significantly from those on appendicular
elements with respect to mean width, mean depth or mean depth/width ratio (Tables 48-
51 ). Within the Plaza 3A sample, cut marks on axial bones are wider, shallower and have
a smaller mean depth/width ratio than those on appendicular remains (Table 48). Within
the Plaza 3C sample, cuts on axial elements are narrower, shallower and have a smaller
mean depth/width ratio than those on appendicular bones (Table 50). Compared to each
other, cuts on Plaza 3A axial remains are significantly (p = 0.020) wider than those on
221
Plaza 3C axial elements (Tables 52 and 53). Plaza 3A axial cuts also are deeper and have
a smaller mean depth/width ratio than Plaza 3C axial cut marks. Cuts on Plaza 3A
appendicular bones are wider, deeper and have a smaller mean depth/width ratio than
those on appendicular remains from Plaza 3C (Tables 54 and 55). Within each sample,
cuts on upper long bones are narrower, shallower and have a smaller mean depth/width
ratio than those on either lower long bones or non-long bones (Tables 56-59 and Figures
331-336). In comparison to each other, cut marks on Plaza 3A upper long bones are
wider, deeper and have a smaller mean depth/width ratio than those on Plaza 3C upper
long bones (Tables 60 and 61). Cut marks on lower long bones from Plaza 3A are
narrower, deeper and have a larger mean depth/width ratio than those on Plaza 3C lower
long bones (Tables 62 and 63). Cuts on Plaza 3A non-long bones are significantly (p =
0.026) wider than those on non-long bones from Plaza 3C. In addition, cuts on Plaza 3A
non-long bones are deeper and have a smaller mean depth/width ratio (Tables 64 and 65).
In a comparison of cut marks on human remains deposited above the floor of
Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna compared with those on human bones deposited below the
floor, cuts on above-floor Plaza 3C elements are significantly wider (p = 0.049) and
deeper (p = 0.031) than those on remains deposited below the floor (Tables 66 and 67).
In addition, the mean depth/width ratio is larger for cuts on bones found above the floor.
Within the subfloor bone sample, cut marks on axial remains are significantly (p = 0.041)
narrower than those on appendicular elements (Tables 70 and 71 ). Cuts on axial bones
also are shallower and have a larger mean depth/width ratio than those on appendicular
remains. Within the above-floor bone sample, cut marks on axial elements are narrower,
shallower and have a smaller mean depth/width ratio than those on appendicular bones
222
(Tables 68 and 69). When the two samples are compared with each other, cut marks on
axial elements deposited above the floor are significantly (p = 0.023) wider than those on
axial bones found below the floor (Tables 72 and 73). Moreoever, cuts on axial bones
deposited above the floor are deeper and have a smaller mean depth/width ratio than
those on axial remains found below the floor. Cut marks on appendicular elements found
above the floor are wider, deeper and have a larger mean depth/width ratio than those on
elements deposited below the floor (Tables 74 and 75). Within the subfloor Plaza 3C
sample, cuts on lower long bones are significantly (p = 0.035) wider than those on non-
long bones (Tables 78 and 79 and Figure 340). In addition, cut marks on lower long
bones are deeper and have a smaller mean depth/width ratio than either upper long bones
or non-long bones (Figures 341 and 342). Within the above-floor Plaza 3C sample, cuts
on upper long bones are narrower, shallower and have a smaller mean depth/width ratio
than either lower long bones or non-long bones (Tables 76 and 77 and Figures 337-339).
Cut marks on both upper and lower long bones deposited above the floor are wider and
deeper than those on upper and lower long bones found below the floor (Tables 80-83).
Cut marks on non-long bones found above the floor are significantly wider (p = 0.017)
and deeper (p = 0.030) than those on non-long bones deposited below the floor (Tables
84 and 85). Mean depth/width ratios of cuts on upper long bones and non-long bones
found above the floor are smaller than those of cut marks on subfloor upper long bones
and non-long bones, respectively. Conversely, cuts on above-floor lower long bones
have a greater mean depth/width ratio than those of subfloor lower long bones.
223
The Utility of the SEM in Cut Mark Analyses
I agree with White (1992:109) who states that a scanning electron microscope is
generally unnecessary to identify cut marks on bones. I found that my naked eye, a 1 OX
hand lens or a light microscope were adequate in distinguishing cut marks from other
forms of surface modification. In addition, the SEM was expensive to operate and very
time-consuming, both in terms of cast preparation and time spent actually using the
instrument. Nevertheless, the SEM was extremely useful in confirming my cut mark
identifications and was excellent in illuminating the differences among cut marks,
scrapes, rodent gnawing and sand abrasion (Figure 343). Furthermore, it enabled me to
examine various morphological criteria in minute detail, and in some cases, revealed
features that were not visible under the light microscope. I also found micrographs taken
with the SEM to be far superior to those taken with the stereomicroscope in terms of
depth of field and clarity of detail, especially regarding cut mark shape and wall
morphology. Moreover, my directionality study, an important component of my
research, would not have been possible without the SEM. In summary, the drawbacks of
using the SEM were outweighed by its utility and the enhanced quality of data it
provided.
Directionality Study Results
Thirty-six positive casts of cervical vertebrae, each exhibiting one to eleven cut
marks, were chosen for directionality analysis using the SEM. A total of 105 cut marks
representing 32 individuals from Plazas 3A and 3C at Huaca de la Luna, El Brujo, Dos
Cabezas, Pacatnamu and the modem forensic case were analyzed (Table 86).
224
Approximately 86% (93/105) of the cuts examined were located on the anterior aspect of
the bone (e.g., the dens, body, left and right superior articular facets and left and right
transverse processes); the other 12 cut marks were located on the right lateral or posterior
surfaces of the bone (e.g., the left and right superior articular facets, right transverse
process, left lamina and spinous process). Two of the three criteria identified by
Bromage and Boyde (1984) as indicative of directionality were observed: oblique faults
and bone smears (Figures 344 and 345). None of the cut marks exhibited oblique
chipping. Typically, only one criterion was present in each cut; however, in four cases
(three from Plaza 3A and one from above the floor of Plaza 3C), both bone smears and
oblique faults were observed in the same cut. Fifty-nine percent (62/105) of the cut
marks lacked directionality criteria. Bone smears occurred more frequently than oblique
faults both in terms of total counts and within each sample. Within the samples from
Plaza 3A, above the floor of Plaza 3C, Dos Cabezas and Pacatnamu, more cutting strokes
proceeded across the bone from left to right than traversed the bone from right to left.
17
For the remaining three samples, i.e., below the floor of Plaza 3C, El Brujo and the
modem forensic case, direction of the cutting strokes could not be determined due to the
absence of directionality criteria.
Of the 32 individuals for whom directionality of cutting strokes was evaluated, 25
individuals from Plaza 3A, above the floor of Plaza 3C, El Brujo and Pacatnamu had cut
marks on the anterior aspect of cervical vertebrae consistent with slashing of the throat
As a whole, individuals whose throats were cut from left to right outnumbered those
whose throats were cut from right to left or from both directions (Table 87). Within each
sample, 12 individuals from Plaza 3A exhibited left to right throat slitting while only one
225
individual each had his throat slit from right to left or from both directions.
Directionality within the above-floor Plaza 3C sample was more or less evenly
distributed with two individuals each having their throats slit from right to left or from
both directions and the throat of one individual cut from left to right. The individual
from Pacatnamu (Group II) had his throat cut from left to right. Directionality of throat
slitting could not be determined in five cases (four individuals from Plaza 3A and one
individual from El Brujo ).
Seven of the thirty-two individuals for whom directionality of cutting strokes was
analyzed were decapitated. One individual from Pacatnamu with cuts on the anterior
surface of a cervical vertebra and two individuals (one from above the floor of Plaza 3C
and one from Dos Cabezas) with cut marks on the posterior aspect of cervical vertebrae
were cut from left to right. One individual from above the floor of Plaza 3C with cut
marks on the lateral aspect of a cervical vertebra was cut from both left to right and right
to left. Directionality could not be determined for the remaining three individuals (one
individual from Dos Cabezas, one individual from below the floor of Plaza 3C and the
modem forensic case).
Elemental Analysis Results
As I mentioned in the previous chapter, in an attempt to determine the type of tool
or tools used to produce the cut marks on the human and faunal remains in my data set,
two bone samples-a human cervical vertebra fragment and a camelid astragalus
fragment, both from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna-were submitted for elemental analysis
using a micro X-ray fluorescence spectrometer. For each sample, one cut mark, as well
226
as the bone background were analyzed, the latter serving as a control. The resulting
X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrum for the human sample is shown in Figure 346; the
XRF spectrum for the faunal sample is shown in Figure 34 7. On each graph, the dark
gray lines represent the bone itself and the light gray lines represent the contents of the
cut mark. When the two graphs are compared, the overall similarity of the human and
faunal samples in terms of the types of elements present and relative density of each
element is remarkable. Each graph shows two strong peaks for calcium (Ca) and iron
(Fe ).
18
Both the bones and the cut marks contained high levels of calcium; however, high
levels of iron were detected only within the cut marks. As a primary component of bone,
the high concentration of calcium in the bones and within the cuts was expected;
however, the high concentration of iron and its restriction to the cut marks came as a
surprise and is of great interest to this project. The high iron content within the cuts may
be explained in three alternative ways: 1) it may reflect the chemical makeup of the soil
and sand matrix in which the bones were found, i.e., the burial matrix contained
particularly high levels of ferrous clay, small amounts of which remain deep within the
cuts; 2) it may indicate the presence of blood residue within the cut marks, or 3) it may
represent oxidizing residue (i.e., rust) from the copper-alloy tools used to produce the
cuts. The latter hypothesis is very unlikely because if it were true, then concentrations of
both iron and copper should be present in the XRF spectrum (Lechtman, personal
communication 2002). If copper were present, we would expect to see a peak around
8.00 on the horizontal axis, which clearly does not occur in either sample. Moreover,
none of the other metals that the Moche commonly used in the manufacture of copper-
alloy tools, i.e., silver (which would peak around 2.9 on the horizontal axis), gold (which
227
would peak between 9.6-11.5) or arsenic (which would peak between 10-11), were
detected either.
19
Therefore, the high density of iron within the cuts on the human and
faunal bones may be attributed to either the burial matrix or to blood residue. The results
of the elemental analysis described here do not negate the possibility that metal tools
were used to produce the cut marks, only that in these two cases, no metal residue was
present. This study represents the first application of the XRF technique to examine
bones with cut marks from prehistoric sites in Peru.
2
Further elemental analysis of both
a larger bone sample and a soil sample is clearly warranted before any stronger
conclusions can be made.
TRAUMA ANALYSIS
In order to present a more complete biological profile of the individuals in my
sample, I present below a brief discussion of the types of trauma (aside from cut marks)
observed within each collection of skeletal remains. Antemortem and perimortem trauma
are important to study because they reveal clues about the lifestyle of a particular group
and the occupations of its members as well as the physical condition of individuals
around the time of their death. In addition, the distribution of traumatic injuries provides
information about patterns and the level of violence experienced by a given population.
By "antemortem trauma" I refer to trauma that occurred before the time of death that has
completely healed or shows signs of healing, i.e., periosteal reaction and primary callus
formation. The term "perimortem trauma" refers to trauma that occurred at or close to
the time of death and is characterized by the absence of healing (Merbs 1989; Sauer
1998).
228
The summaries of injuries present on the skeletal remains from Plazas 3A and 3C
at Huaca de la Luna, the individuals from El Brujo, and the individuals from the
Lambayeque mass burial at Pacatnamu provided here are based largely on the notes,
manuscripts and published reports of other researchers (Bracamonte 1998; Verano 1986,
1999, 2000a, 200la, 200lb, n.d.l; Verano, Anderson and Lombardi n.d.; Verano and
Tufinio n.d. ), supplemented by my own observations of trauma made during the course of
this project, including the discovery of some injuries that had been previously
unrecorded.2
1
Trauma analyses of the skeletal remains from the Cuarto de Ios Craneos at
Dos Cabezas, the three bones from the modem forensic case and all fauna! bones in my
comparative sample are based entirely on my own observations.
In his examination of antemortem and perimortem injuries present on individuals
from Plazas 3A and 3C at Huaca de la Luna and the Lambayeque mass burial at
Pacatnamu, Verano (1986, 2000a, 2001a, 2001b) concludes that the presence of healed
injuries, especially healed fractures of the skull and ribs, indicates that each group of
individuals had a prior history of violent encounters. More specifically, these individuals
most likely were warriors who frequently engaged in hand-to-hand combat. He also
states that the high frequency of perimortem trauma suggests violent treatment of the
captives shortly before the time of death. Furthermore, in reference to the individuals
from Huaca de la Luna, Verano believes that the presence of wounds "in the process of
healing at the time of death suggests that a significant period of time (weeks to perhaps a
month or more) elapsed between the time an individual was captured and the moment of
death" or that "captives may have been brought to the Huaca de la Luna from some
distant location" (Verano 200lb:120). My own trauma analyses of the osteological
material support Verano's interpretations.
Huaca de la Luna-Piaza 3A
229
Evidence of antemortem and perimortem trauma among the individuals from
Plaza 3A is extensive. A variety of antemortem trauma is present and includes both
healed injuries and wounds still in the process of healing. These injuries include
fractures of the skull, orbit, nose, cheek, jaw, vertebral column, ribs, shoulder, arm,
forearm, wrist, hand, fingers, pelvis, knee, leg, ankle and toes (Figures 14-16, 38 and
348-353). Of the sixteen individuals with antemortem depressed skull fractures resulting
from blows to the head, five individuals sustained multiple skull fractures, with the
frontal bone affected most frequently (13/16 or 81.2%). Four of five healed or healing
injuries involving the shaft of the ulna (and, in the case of Individual I, the shaft of the
radius as well) are parry fractures, so-named because this type of fracture often results
from using the forearm to deflect or "parry" blows (Roberts and Manchester 1995)
(Figure 353). Osteomyelitis of the tibial plateau and proximal shaft of the left tibia of
H96-176 with a cloaca and small sequestrum may be the result of a penetrating injury to
the knee. In addition, antemortem blows to the legs are suggested by ossifying
subperiosteal hematomas near midshaft of the right femur and right tibia oflndividual2,
and by areas of active or healed periostitis on the shafts of tibiae and fibulae of other
individuals.
At least nine individuals have skull fractures resulting from perimortem blows to
the head with a blunt object or a weapon with sharp projections (Figures 14-16 and
230
354).
22
In four cases (Individuals II and XXX and HG96-49 and HG96-102), multiple
semi-circular or rectangular impact scars are visible on the margin of the fractured area of
the skull, suggesting that the weapon used to inflict the blows had multiple points (Figure
354). Typically, large portions of the skull vault are damaged. Other perimortem trauma
to cranial elements includes blows to the nose and jaw, the latter suggested by one
individual (Individual XX) with tooth crown breakage of the maxillary dentition.
Perimortem trauma to the postcranial skeleton includes fractures of the vertebral column,
ribs, shoulder, arm, fingers, pelvis, leg, ankle and toes (Figures 355-361). Two radii and
two ulnae have parry fractures, one of the ulnae (H96-162) having shattered into three
pieces near midshaft (Figure 361). In addition to fractures, other perimortem injuries
observed on the human skeletal remains from Plaza 3A are wounds from pointed
weapons or tools. Individual XI may have sustained a stab wound to the left flank, as
indicated by damage to the left side of the body of the second lumbar vertebra (Figure
362). Individual XV had a pointed object forcibly inserted into the left foot, most likely
as a form of torture, as suggested by gouging wounds to the left cuboid and the proximal
ends of the left third and fourth metatarsals (Figure 363). HG96-1 was stabbed in the
chest, as evinced by a penetrating wound to the body of the sternum (Figure 364). Other
small, circular pushed-in defects and broken-in lesions that may be puncture wounds or,
in some cases, bite marks, are present on two ribs, an os coxae, various hand bones and a
toe bone (Figure 365). If any of the defects are bite marks, whether they are the product
of human agents is unknown.
231
Huaca de la Luna-Piaza 3C
There is considerable evidence of both antemortem and perimortem trauma
among the individuals from Plaza 3C. As is the case in Plaza 3A, antemortem trauma
among Plaza 3C individuals consists of both wounds in the process of healing and healed
injuries and includes fractures of the skull, nose, ribs, shoulder, forearm, fingers, ankle
and toes (Figures 366-369). Of the four individuals with healed depression fractures of
the skull, one individual has multiple fractures and the frontal and left parietal are
affected most often (each 2/3 or 66.6% ). One of two injuries to the forearm is a healing
parry fracture of the left ulna (Figure 369). In addition, five individuals may have
sustained blows to the legs, as suggested by active or healed periostitis and swollen areas
on the shafts ofthe femur, tibia, and fibula (Figures 370 and 371).
Perimortem trauma includes fractures of the skull, face, nose, jaw, vertebral
column, ribs, clavicle, wrist, leg and big toe (Figures 97, 98, 113, 114, 116, 122, 126,
129, 372 and 373). Evidence ofperimortem injury to the skull vault is limited to an
isolated occipital bone fragment. As previously discussed, the fractures ofC3 ofH33
most likely occurred during decapitation. Also mentioned earlier, eight clavicles with cut
marks have perimortem fractures about midshaft and, in every case, approximately half
of the bone was missing. The right clavicle ofE1 also exhibits a perimortem fracture, in
this case of the stemal Y3 of the shaft. Moreover, the acromial% of the bone was not
recovered (Figure 374). All perimortem trauma to the ribs consists of fractures of the
neck or proximal shaft. In addition to the three individuals with fractured ribs mentioned
previously, several ribs of at least ten other individuals also have neck or proximal shaft
fractures (Figures 375 and 376). This fracture pattern resembles that observed on the ribs
232
of several individuals from the Lambayeque mass burial at Pacatnamu (described earlier)
and thus similarly may be the result of overstressing the vertebral articulations of the ribs
during the forcible opening of the chest cavity. Penetrating wounds found on the bodies
of five vertebrae (Cl, Tl, T4, T9 and Ll) and the right fourth rib ofHG99-3 suggest that
this individual was stabbed repeatedly in the neck, chest and abdomen (Figure 3 77).
El Brujc.-"Danzantes," Entierro 2 (1994) and Entierro 1 (2000)
As noted in Chapter Three, the "Danzantes" human femur sustained a perimortem
shaft fracture, leaving behind only the proximal Y4 of the bone (Figure 249). Some
peeling around the margins of the break is visible on the posterior aspect of the bone.
Trauma observed on the skeletal remains of Entierro 2 includes perimortem fractures of
the right inferior articular facet of C2, perimortem fractures of the inferior portions of the
right transverse processes ofC2 and C3, and possible perimortem fractures of both left
and right transverse processes ofC4 (Figures 252-254). All of these injuries are most
likely associated with the removal of the head of this individual. Excluding cut marks,
there is no evidence of trauma on the bones of Entierro 1.
Dos Cabezas-Cuarto de Ios Craneos
Other than cut marks, evidence of trauma is present on the remains of only one
individual from the Cuarto de Ios Craneos at Dos Cabezas. E-15-16 has perimortem
fractures of the right transverse process and inferior body ofC7 (Figure 378).
23
These
injuries almost certainly occurred during the decapitation process.
233
Pacatnamu-Lambayeque Mass Burial
Evidence of both antemortem and perimortem trauma among the Pacatnamu
individuals is substantial. All evidence of antemortem trauma is found on the remains of
individuals in Groups I and 11 and includes healed fractures of the skull, nose, ribs and a
toe (Figure 379; see also Verano 1986:Figure 23). Among the members of both groups,
only one individual exhibits an old depressed skull fracture, in this case, of the right
parietal. In addition to the antemortem trauma listed above, one individual may have
suffered a blow to the elbow, as suggested by healing periostitis on the medial condyle of
the humerus, and two individuals may have suffered antemortem blows to the legs as
indicated by healed periostitis on the femur and tibia. Moreover, two individuals have
pronounced osteoarthritis of the hip joints that, as Verano (1986:132) proposes, may be
the result of old injuries.
Perimortem trauma observed on the bones of the individuals in Group I includes
fractures of the skull, nose, ribs, forearm and the fifth finger as well as penetrating
wounds to the vertebral column, ribs, sternum, scapulae, and pelvis as a result of being
stabbed repeatedly in the chest and abdomen (Figures 262 and 380-387; see also Verano
1986:Figures 9 and 10). As previously mentioned, three of four left ulnae exhibit
perimortem fractures of the styloid process (Figure 388). This trauma pattern, unique to
Group I, strongly suggests the forcible removal of the left radius, which was missing
from all four individuals. Other perimortem trauma that supports this hypothesis is
damage to the head of the left ulna and the tubercle of the left scaphoid of Individual 3
(Figures 263 and 264). Also discussed earlier, the shattered distal right ulna of Individual
2 may be associated with the attempted but unsuccessful removal of the right radius, as
both bones of the right forearm were found in proper articulation at the time of
excavation (Figure 262).
234
The pattern of perimortem injuries present on the skeletal remains of individuals
in Group 11 is similar in some ways to that observed on individuals of Group I. Like
Group I, Group 11 individuals exhibit fractures of the skull, nose and ribs (Figures 274
and 392; see also Verano 1986:Figure 17). Although perimortem injury to the forearm is
found in Groups I and 11, in the latter group, it is represented by a parry fracture, with
both the left radius and ulna of Individual 8 fractured at midshaft. Additional perimortem
trauma observed in Group 11 but not in Group I are fractures of the face, vertebral
column, scapula, arm, forearm and a toe as well as oblique bisection of the manubrium
(Figures 390-394). The fractures of the transverse and spinous processes sustained by C3
and C4 of Individual 10 are consistent with decapitation.
Similar to Group 11, Group Ill features perimortem fractures of the face, nose,
vertebral column (specifically, the lower spine), ribs and scapula. As noted by Verano
(1986:129-130), a pattern of opening of the chest cavity, with the possible intent of
removing the heart, distinguishes Groups 11 and Ill from Group I. In three individuals of
Group II and in both individuals of Group Ill, this activity is represented by the oblique
bisection of the manubrium accompanied by neck fractures of the ribs (see Verano
1986:Figures 21 and 22). Evidence for decapitation also is found in both groups,
indicated by perimortem fractures of cervical vertebrae in the case of Group II and by
both perimortem fractures of and cut marks on cervical vertebrae in the case of Group Ill
(Figure 275). Perimortem injuries unique to Group Ill include a fractured pelvis and
235
intentional dislocation of the shoulders and hips, the latter two injuries lacking physical
evidence but observed by Verano (1986:Figure 20).
Forensic Case
As previously mentioned in Chapter 1bree, the only evidence of trauma on the
three bones selected for analysis from the modem forensic case is a perimortem shaft
fracture of the left third proximal hand phalanx sustained during removal of the fingers.
(Figure 281).
24
Faunal Remains
Approximately 39% or 146 of the 378 faunal bones in my comparative sample
have perimortem trauma consisting of fractures of the mandible, vertebral column, ribs,
scapula, pelvis, foreleg and hind leg (Figures 283-286, 288-294, 298-301, 303-308 and
395). Associated cortical peeling and impact scars are present on several elements
(Figures 300, 303 and 306). Three-quarters (52/69) of the perimortem injuries found on
long bones are spiral fractures (Figures 298, 301, 303-306, 308 and 395). All fractures
are consistent with either dismemberment, or, in the case of long bones, access to the
marrow cavity. Many fractures are in the same locations as those recorded by Shimada
(1994:Figure 8.5) on butchered camelid bones from Pampa Grande. No antemortem
trauma, penetrating injuries or bite marks were observed.
236
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
INTRODUCTION
This chapter begins with comparisons of cut mark and trauma patteming between
the skeletal collections in my sample. Next, a short description of the tools and weaponry
available to the Moche and Lambayeque is provided, followed by a discussion of the
probable tool material and tool types used to modify the bones included in my project.
Finally, a comparative analysis of the physical evidence for and iconographic
representations of prisoner capture, torture, sacrifice and mutilation is presented.
COMPARATIVEANALYSISOFCUTMARKANPTRAUMAPATTERNING
Huaca de la Luna Plaza 3C Below the Floor Versus Plaza 3C Above the Floor
The subfloor deposit of Plaza 3C at Huaca de la Luna is temporally distinct from
the above-floor deposit and contains about half the number of human bones.
Nevertheless, the sacrificial victims in each deposit are remarkably similar to each other
in terms of cut mark patteming and types of perimortem and postmortem treatment.
There are also some interesting differences between the two groups. Frequencies of
bones with cut marks are approximately 20% (308/1542) for the subfloor sample and
approximately 12% (362/2914) for the above-floor sample. As shown in Table 88, cut
marks are present on more elements of the skeleton above the floor than below the floor,
especially on ribs and bones of the hand. In bones deposited below the floor, they occur
most frequently on the left and right ossa coxae (each with 80% affected), whereas in
bones found above the floor, the most affected element is the right fibula (68.7%).
237
In each sample, over 90% of all sacrificial victims represented by articulated or
semi-articulated skeletons (i.e., 12 of 13 subfloor individuals and 16 of 17 above-floor
individuals) exhibit cut marks. As illustrated by the drawings in Figures 395-406, most
Plaza 3C skeletons have cuts on many different bones, and on multiple parts of the body.
Rarely are cut marks limited to a particular element or region. The number of cuts per
individual is highly variable in both samples, ranging from 28 on the skeleton ofE12 to
343 on the skeleton ofEntierro 3 in the subfloor deposit, and from a single cut onES to
288 on HG99-5 in the above-floor sample. In general, however, sacrificial victims found
below the floor exhibit a greater number of cut marks per skeleton.
Within both Plaza 3C deposits, the cut marks reflect a wide variety of perimortem
treatment, including slitting of the throat, decapitation (sometimes in addition to throat
slitting), laceration of the scalp, facial mutilation involving the eyes, nose, cheeks and
lips, mutilation of the hands and feet, and apparent mutilation of the genitals.
Postmortem treatment of sacrificed victims includes defleshing of the trunk, arms and
legs, partial removal of the lower limb at the hip, disarticulation of the thorax and pelvis,
and removal of the arms, hands, fmgers, legs, feet and toes. In both deposits, rarely did
an individual receive a single form ofperi- or postmortem treatment (e.g., only throat
slitting or only defleshing); indeed, most sacrificial victims were subjected to a variety of
treatments. As an extreme example of the latter, cut marks on the bones ofEntierro 3
from the subfloor deposit suggest throat slitting, decapitation, defleshing of the trunk,
right arm and both legs, disarticulation of the thorax and removal of the right arm and
238
both feet. Figure 407 compares the types of perimortem and postmortem treatment found
in each deposit. As a group, subfloor individuals received more complex treatment than
above-floor individuals. While in general, there is more indication of facial mutilation
among subfloor individuals, evidence for the excision of both upper and lower lips (as
opposed to the upper lip only) is limited to above-floor remains. Probable genital
mutilation and evidence of disarticulation of the thorax and pelvis is found exclusively
below the floor, while defleshing or possible mutilation of the hands and feet is restricted
to above the floor.
Based on cut mark patterning in both samples, the primary objectives at Plaza 3C
were to slash victims, throats and systematically deflesh their bodies. In both samples,
cut marks suggestive of defleshing are found on all parts of the skeleton, especially on
bones of the arms and legs. In addition, defleshing marks occur with high frequency on
the pelvis in the subfloor sample and on the scapulae and ribs in the above-floor sample.
In the subfloor deposit, defleshing marks on both upper and lower limbs are located more
often on the proximal and distal thirds of long bone shafts than at midshaft. Above the
floor, defleshing marks on upper limbs are located more often on proximal and distal
thirds of long bone shafts than at midshaft but are found more or less equally on
proximal, middle and distal thirds of long bone shafts of lower limbs. Although the
majority of cut marks on Plaza 3C bones are in areas of muscle attachment, a small
number are found on or around the joint surfaces, suggesting the removal of body parts.
However, dismemberment in both groups is highly selective and shows no discernable
pattern. A focus on defleshing rather than dismemberment is supported by the fact that
many skeletons were found largely articulated.
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Antemortem injuries were found almost exclusively in sacrificial victims above
the floor. Only two individuals below the floor have healed wounds (swelling of the
midshaft of a fibula and an infection of the distal end of a foot phalanx). Fourteen
individuals above the floor display both healing and healed injuries, including cranial and
postcranial fractures and unremodeled periostitis on the shafts of long bones. The data
suggest that the latter group suffered more injuries in battle. In contrast, the frequency of
perimortem trauma is higher in sacrificial victims found below the floor of Plaza 3C than
the above-floor sample. In the subfloor deposit, over half(7/13) of the individuals
represented by articulated or semi-articulated skeletons and 12 others represented by
groups of disarticulated bones or isolated elements have perimortem injuries. In the
above-floor sample, approximately 35% (6/17) of the sacrificial victims represented by
articulated or semi-articulated skeletons and an additional nine represented by groups of
disarticulated bones or isolated elements have perimortem wounds. Both samples contain
individuals with tooth enamel breakage suggestive of blows to the mouth. In addition,
several sacrificial victims in each group have fractures of the necks and proximal shafts
of ribs that may represent forcible opening of the chest cavity. Fractures of the clavicle at
midshaft, as seen in both groups, may represent blows to the shoulder or damage
resulting from postmortem disarticulation of the upper limbs. There are a few differences
between the two samples in the types of perimortem trauma present. For example, none
of the subfloor sacrificial victims exhibit stab wounds, whereas one individual from the
above-floor deposit was stabbed repeatedly in the chest area with a pointed object. In
addition, perimortem fractures of lower limb bones were found only in individuals
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located in the subfloor deposit while midfacial injuries and a wrist fracture were observed
only in sacrificial victims above the floor.
Huaca de la Luna Plaza 3C Versus Plaza 3A
The contextual similarities between Plaza 3C and Plaza 3A at Huaca de la Luna
are numerous. The plazas adjoin each other and are located within a secluded sector of
the pyramid. The human skeletal remains in both Plaza 3C and 3A are composed of
complete skeletons, partial skeletons, isolated body parts such as skulls, limbs, hands and
feet, and isolated bones. Included with the sacrificial victims in Plazas 3C and 3A were
broken clay vessels in the form of seated nude male prisoners with ropes around their
necks. Verano (n.d.2) states that, "given their direct association with the skeletal
remains ... the [prisoner effigies] clearly played some role in the sacrifice rituals, and their
intentional breakage seems to have been an integral part of the process." The two plazas
differ in that the clay vessels found in Plaza 3C are fired and the prisoners' hands are
shown bound behind their backs, whereas the vessels found in Plaza 3A are unfired and
the prisoners' hands are usually resting on their knees (Bourget 2001a, 2001b; Verano
n.d.2). In addition, Verano (n.d.2) notes that ''the distribution of vessel fragments [in
Plaza 3C] indicates that they were broken prior to being deposited," in contrast to Plaza
3A, where the vessels "appear to have been placed with the victims and broken in situ."
In both sites, other cultural materials, such as fragments of domestic ceramics and food
refuse, also were found (Bourget 1997; Verano n.d.2).
The sacrificial victims of Plazas 3C and 3A share a common demographic profile.
All are adolescent and adult males between the ages of approximately 15-40 years (with
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most individuals estimated age at death to be early to mid-twenties) who, based on the
high prevalence of healed and healing injuries, had a prior history of violent encounters.
The primary differences between the Plaza 3C and Plaza 3A sacrificial victims are in cut
mark frequencies and patterning. Fifteen percent (670/4456) of the Plaza 3C remains
display cut marks compared to only about 1.5% (151/11352) of the human bones in Plaza
3A. As shown in Table 89, compared to the great variety of bones with cuts found in the
Plaza 3C sample, relatively few bones have cut marks in the Plaza 3A collection. Among
Plaza 3C bones, the most affected element is the left fibula (73.3%), whereas among
Plaza 3A remains, cut marks occur most frequently on the axis vertebra (43.7%).
Whereas nearly 95% (28/30) of sacrificial victims represented by articulated and semi-
articulated skeletons from Plaza 3C show cut marks, only about 44% (27/62) of
sacrificial victims from Plaza 3A do. In contrast to Plaza 3C, where most skeletons .have
cut marks on all major bones, Plaza 3A skeletons typically have cuts only on cervical
vertebrae. Only one skeleton from Plaza 3A, HG96-l, matches the pattern seen in Plaza
3C (Figure 408). Similar to the Plaza 3C skeletons, HG96-1 has multiple cut marks on
the midshafts of upper and lower long bones, suggesting that it was defleshed in a manner
similar to victims in Plaza 3C.
Most types ofperimortem activities represented by cut marks on Plaza 3C bones
are also represented by cuts on Plaza 3A bones including slitting of the throat,
decapitation (in a few cases, in addition to throat slitting), laceration of the scalp, facial
mutilation involving the right eye and mutilation of the hands and left foot. Unlike in
Plaza 3C, however, evidence of postmortem treatment is uncommon in Plaza 3A.
Bundles of arms and legs, such as E6 from Plaza 3C, are not present in Plaza 3A. Other
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than the cut marks suggestive of defleshing on the skeleton of HG96-l, cuts consistent
with defleshing are rare and are found primarily on isolated bones. Cut marks on two
isolated metacarpals represent the only evidence of dismemberment. Figure 409
compares the different types of perimortem and postmortem treatment found in Plaza 3C
and Plaza 3A.
1
Overall, peri- and postmortem treatment of the Plaza 3C individuals was
complex whereas most individuals from Plaza 3A simply had their throats slit.
The dissimilarities in treatment between the two groups may signify different
motives and different circumstances under which the sacrifices took place. Based on
stratigraphic data and radiocarbon dates, Plaza 3C represents a slow, cumulative deposit
of sacrificial victims over hundreds of years. Verano (n.d.2) states that ''the sub-floor
remains were incorporated into the sand and adobe fill that was used to raise the level of
the plaza during its construction," while ''the above-floor remains ... were [either] covered
with adobe fragments or simply left to be buried by accumulating windblown sand." The
extensive postmortem processing of the remains suggests that Plaza 3C was not a primary
sacrificial site, but rather a repository for the remains of victims sacrificed in some other
location 01 erano n.d.2). In contrast, there is strong evidence that Plaza 3A is a primary
sacrificial site, ''where bodies were cast (or placed) around the rocky outcrop following
their death" 0ferano n.d.2). Bourget (1998; 2001a; 2001b; Bourget and Millaire 2000)
believes that the sacrificial remains deposited in Plaza 3A are directly associated with an
El Nifio event. The fact that the skeletons were found in alternating layers of hardened
clay and windblown sand suggests that the victims were sacrificed both during and after
episodes of torrential rainfall. Verano (n.d.2) reports that although "evidence of
occasional rainfall that deposited thin layers of silt" were observed in Plaza 3C, "none of
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the skeletons were directly associated with these layers," thus, the sacrifice ritual and the
El Nifio phenomenon cannot be linked in this case. These differences suggest that
sacrificial practices in the two plazas may reflect different motives or rituals, although
both involved the sacrifice of male captives.
In terms of skeletal trauma other than cut marks, individuals from Plaza 3C and
Plaza 3A have a number of antemortem and perimortem injuries in common. There are
some notable differences, however, between the two groups. Antemortem injuries
present in both plazas include healing or healed fractures of the skull, nose, ribs, scapula,
hands and feet. Antemortem parry fractures of the forearm and healing or healed leg
injuries also were observed in both groups. A greater variety of antemortem trauma was
found on Plaza 3A bones than on Plaza 3C bones. Types of injuries seen only in Plaza
3A are healed fractures of the face, lower jaw, vertebral column, upper arm, pelvis, knee
and fingers. Types of perimortem trauma observed in both Plaza 3C and Plaza 3A
samples include stab wounds to the torso, tooth crown breakage and fractures of the nose,
vertebral column, clavicle, leg and toes. The two groups differ in that perimortem
fractures of the scapula, arm, forearm, fmgers, pelvis, femur and ankle are found only on
Plaza 3A remains. In addition, only the Plaza 3A sample contains bones with possible
bite marks. Unlike in Plaza 3C, the pattern of forcible opening of the chest is absent in
Plaza 3A. There are no rib fractures of the neck or proximal shaft, only midshaft or distal
shaft fractures of the ribs. A pattern unique to Plaza 3A is massive skull fractures
resulting from blows with blunt objects.
Whereas some perimortem trauma such as bone fractures and stab wounds
suffered by the individuals from Plaza 3C and Plaza 3A may have resulted from hand-to-
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hand combat on the battlefield, other trauma, such as mutilation of the face, genitals,
hands and feet suggest physical mistreatment of the sacrificial victims after their capture.
Certain types of mistreatment present in both samples may have administered especially
for their display aspect. For example, scalp lacerations are notorious for bleeding
profusely, and multiple small wounds near the eye would have produced considerable
pain and blood loss as well. Both the acts themselves and the resulting bloody scenes
presumably would have terrorized and intimidated not only the victims but also any
captive witnesses.
The method used to dispatch individuals in Plaza 3C and Plaza 3A is very similar.
Approximately 39% (11/28) of Plaza 3C individuals with two or more consecutive
cervical vertebrae present have cut marks as do about 53% (41/78) of such individuals
from Plaza 3A. Of these groups, 81.8% (9111) from Plaza 3C and 85.3% (35/41) from
Plaza 3A present cuts diagnostic of throat slitting. In both groups, upper cervical
vertebrae (C1-C4) are much more likely to have cut marks than lower cervical vertebrae
(C5-C7) and C3 is the vertebra most commonly affected. Cuts on the anterior surface of
C3 (or higher) would only have been possible if the head was fully extended. Therefore,
many, if not most sacrificial victims deposited in Plaza 3C and Plaza 3A were killed by
having their throats slit high up on the neck and the cause of death in both contexts
presumably was exsanguination. In both plazas, sacrificial victims with multiple cuts on
cervical vertebrae are the norm. Any one of these cut marks would have been fatal. Why
were so many cuts necessary? One explanation is that multiple wounds to the front of the
throat would have resulted in the loss of a greater volume of blood and thus enhanced and
prolonged the spectacle. Another explanation is that the person doing the cutting had
245
difficulty slicing through the major structures (i.e., trachea, esophagus, pharynx) and
muscles of the throat. Snell's (1995:791) Clinical Anatomy for Medical Students notes
that "extension of the cervical part of the vertebral column and extension of the head at
the atlanto-occipital joint cause the carotid sheath with its contained large blood vessels
to slide posteriorly beneath the [protective] sternocleidomastoid muscle." Therefore, to
effectively sever major blood vessels with the head and neck fully extended may have
required multiple passes of the knife.
Huaca de la Luna Versus Other Moche Sites
The bones in my sample from El Brujo and Dos Cabezas share the same
demographic profile as those from Huaca de la Luna. In addition, at all three Moche
sites, cut marks are commonly found on cervical vertebrae. These similarities and others,
as well as the differences that set apart the El Brujo and Dos Cabezas material from the
Huaca de la Luna sample are discussed below.
The cut marks on the proximal femur fragment inserted into the "Danzantes"
mural ofHuaca Cao Viejo are similar to those on femora of several individuals from
Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. In all cases, cuts are located around the femoral neck and
suggest removal of the lower limb at the hip. The context of the "Danzantes" femur is
akin to that of the skeletons buried below the floor of Plaza 3C. In both cases, the bones
were deliberately incorporated into the ritual architecture of the pyramid. The
"Danzantes" femur is distinguished from the Huaca de la Luna material by its
perimortem proximal shaft fracture. This particular trauma is not found on any Huaca de
la Luna femur, or for that matter, on any femur in my sample.
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The perimortem treatment ofEntierro 2 from El Brujo closely resembles that of
10 sacrificial victims from Huaca de la Luna (six from Plaza 3A and four from Plaza 3C,
respectively) with cut marks diagnostic of both throat slitting and decapitation.
Perimortem fractures of C2-C4 of Entierro 2 are similar in location (i.e., on the inferior
articular facet and transverse processes) to those ofC3 ofH33 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de
la Luna. In both cases, the fractures most likely occurred during the decapitation process.
Two features differentiate Entierro 2 from the sacrificial victims from Huaca de la Luna.
The first is that Entierro 2 was buried in the standard Moche manner: extended on the
back, in a cane coffin with funerary offerings (Donnan 1995). The second is that the
skull was present and articulated with the neck. Decapitated individuals at Huaca de la
Luna are typically represented as isolated skulls and cervical vertebrae or bodies without
heads; the entire skeleton is never present in such cases. One possible explanation is that
Entierro 2 was killed elsewhere and the body recovered and returned to El Brujo, where it
was given a proper burial.
The cut marks on three left tarsal bones of Entierro 1 from El Brujo are
comparable to those found on the tarsals of 10 individuals from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna. An especially strong parallel can be drawn between Entierro 1 and H19 from Plaza
3C, which like Entierro 1, has cut marks on the left calcaneus, tal us and medial
cuneiform. (The left navicular ofH19 also has a cut mark). The curious thing about the
left foot of Entierro 1 is that it was properly articulated; therefore, the cut marks on the
tarsal bones represent appear to mark an attempt to remove rather than the complete
removal of the foot at the ankle. In contrast, in all 10 cases from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna mentioned above, the affected foot was found separate from the leg. Unlike the
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grouped interments of Plazas 3C and 3A at Huaca de la Luna, Entierro 1 was buried
alone in a simple grave. The motivation behind the cut marks on the tarsals of Entierro I
may have been amputation of the foot. Individuals missing feet are commonly depicted
in Moche art, and archaeological evidence for foot amputation by the Moche has been
documented on two individuals from El Brujo and one from Mocollope (Verano et al.
2000). Entierro 1 is similar to the three Moche foot amputees in that the robusticity of
the associated tibia and fibula appears normal, as do the hip and knee joints. In addition,
there is no evidence that the foot was detached because of infection. However, the three
Moche foot amputees differ from Entierro I in that all foot bones are absent and the distal
tibiae and fibulae show non-functional joint surfaces. For all four individuals, it is
possible that the loss of the foot (or in the case ofEntierro I, its attempted removal)
represents ritual mutilation.
Although the skeletal collection from the Cuarto de Ios Craneos at Dos Cabezas is
unique in that it is composed entirely of severed heads, the human remains in Plaza 3C
and Plaza 3A at Huaca de la Luna each include several isolated crania (in some cases
with an articulated mandible and some cervical vertebrae). Huaca de la Luna cuts occur
more frequently on upper cervical vertebrae than they do on lower cervical vertebrae,
whereas at Dos Cabezas, the opposite is true. Cut mark patterns on the Dos Cabezas
vertebrae suggest that the primary motivation is decapitation. While some individuals at
Huaca de la Luna were decapitated, these cases are relatively rare. Like H33 from Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna and Entierro 2 from El Brujo, one of the cervical vertebrae of
E-15-16 from the Cuarto de Ios Craneos also has perimortem fractures apparently
sustained during removal of the head. Cut marks on the left malar of E-15-I6 are similar
248
to those present on the malar bones of six individuals from Huaca de la Luna, including
Craneo IX from Plaza 3A and HG99-3, HG99-5, EIS and E18 from Plaza 3C. In all
cases, the cuts are concentrated around the margins of the orbit. Thus, at both Dos
Cabezas and Huaca de la Luna, it appears that multiple slash wounds around the eyes
were used as a method of torture or disfigurement. It is interesting, however, that at Dos
Cabezas, only one individual was treated this way. The vertical cut marks on the
mandible of E-15-13 are comparable in terms of orientation and location to those found
on the mandibles of seven individuals from Plaza 3C from Huaca de la Luna. In every
case, it is possible that the cut marks are the result of cutting strokes across the throat that
also nicked the jaw. The burial context of the sacrificial victims from the Cuarto de Ios
Craneos at Dos Cabezas differs somewhat from that of the individuals from Huaca de la
Luna. At Dos Cabezas, the human remains were found in an enclosed room rather than
in an open plaza as was the situation at Huaca de la Luna; however, in both cases the
bones were located in a restricted area of the pyramid complex. In addition, the skeletal
remains at Dos Cabezas are similar to sacrifice episode at Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna in
that multiple individuals were deposited at the same time.
Moche Versus Lambayeque
Like all Moche sacrificial victims discussed above, individuals in the
Lambayeque mass burial at Pacatnamu are adolescent and young adult males.
As at Huaca de la Luna, groups of individuals were placed haphazardly in a mass grave
on multiple occasions, ropes had been used to bind their wrists and ankles, and their
corpses had been left to rot in the open air for a considerable period of time before burial.
249
However, in contrast to the Moche custom of depositing sacrificial victims in plazas with
limited access, the Pacatnamu individuals were publicly displayed in a trench alongside a
main entrance to a major ceremonial complex.
As was the case at Huaca de la Luna, the high frequency of antemortem injuries in
the Lambayeque mass burial victims indicate that they, too, were warriors with battlefield
experience. Healed fractures of the skull, nose, ribs and toes are similar to those found
on the human remains from Plaza 3C and Plaza 3A, as are areas of healed periostitis on
lower long bones suggestive of antemortem blows to the legs. The M oche and
Lambayeque sacrificial victims show similar perimortem injuries. Perimortem fractures
of the skull, face, nose, ribs, scapula, arm, forearm, fmgers, pelvis and toes were found
both at Pacatnamu and Huaca de la Luna. Both Moche and Lambayeque collections
include individuals who were stabbed, in some cases, multiple times from different
angles.
While throat slitting, decapitation, disarticulation and opening of the chest cavity
are found in both Moche and Lambayeque collections, perimortem treatment patterns
vary. In the three individuals from Pacatnamu who exhibit cut marks suggestive of throat
slitting, all cut marks are located at or near the base of the neck. This pattern contrasts
with the M oche preference for slitting captives' throats high up on the neck, close to the
chin. On the other hand, relatively deep and angled cut marks on the anterior body and
inferior articular facets and perimortem fractures of the transverse processes and spinous
process diagnostic of decapitation found on two individuals from Pacatnamu are similar
in appearance and location to those observed on Moche sacrificial victims from Huaca de
la Luna, El Brujo and Dos Cabezas. Although evidence of defleshing at Moche sites
250
(especially at Huaca de la Luna) is not present at Pacatnamu, both cultures dismembered
sacrificial victims' bodies. However, at Moche sites, we do not see the consistent
removal of a specific bone from every individual within a particular group as we do at
Pacatnamu with the extraction of the left radius from all four members of Group I. The
closest Moche parallel in this case is the Cuarto de Ios Craneos at Dos Cabezas, where
only severed heads were found. As discussed in detail in the previous chapter, with one
exception, all members of Group 11 and Group Ill from Pacatnamu show evidence of
having their chest pried open using one of two methods. While as many as 13 individuals
from Plaza 3C at Huaca de la Luna may have had their chests forcibly opened as well, the
Moche technique of accessing the chest cavity is not as clear. Unlike at Pacatnamu, none
of the Plaza 3C individuals have bisected manubria or longitudinal cuts on the sternal
ends of their clavicles; chest opening is represented only by perimortem neck or proximal
shaft fractures of the ribs.
In summary, patterns ofperimortem treatment of the individuals in the
Lambayeque mass burial at Pacatnamu are regular and systematic and focus on a
particular activity, such as removal of the left radius or opening of the chest cavity.
Although certain activities occur with high frequencies at M oche sites (e.g., throat slitting
and defleshing at Plaza 3C, throat slitting at Plaza 3A, decapitation at Dos Cabezas),
perimortem treatment is more variable on an individual basis. Nevertheless, when overall
patterns at Moche sites and Pacatnamu are considered, there are many more similarities
than differences suggesting continuity in behavior associated with the sacrifice of
captives.
251
Moche Human Remains Versus Faunal Bones
The faunal bones in my comparative sample have cut marks and fractures typical
of food refuse. Cut mark patteming indicates systematic filleting and dismemberment
and there is a high frequency of spiral fractures associated with the extraction of bone
marrow. In addition, several faunal bones display cortical peeling and impact scars
characteristic of butchery. In many cases, cut marks on faunal elements are found in
similar locations as those present on Moche human bones; however, whereas the faunal
remains were clearly butchered for consumption, it is unlikely that the human sacrificial
victims were ritually cannibalized. The human corpses were not systematically
dismembered as is typical in butchering large food animals such as camelids and many
skeletons were found completely or largely articulated. Spiral fractures are rare, the
hammering and splintering of long bones to extract marrow was not observed and no
evidence of burning or cooking was found, such as that identified in putative cases of
cannibalism in American Southwest sites by White (1992) and Turner and Turner (1999).
If they were not eaten, then why were the Moche sacrificial victims defleshed? Verano
(n.d.l) argues that the Moche carefully removed the skin and flesh from the bones
because they were especially interested in the skeletons of the victims, ''using them, or
parts of them, for display or some other ritual purpose ... the discovery of the rope
fragments around wrists, ankles, isolated feet, and trunks, as well as around the necks of
skeletons, suggest[ s] they were originally suspended from some object." The human
bones' lack of breakage or other evidence of preparation for consumption seen in the
butchered faunal remains is consistent with this hypothesis.
252
TOOL ANALYSIS
Moche and Lambayegue Weaponry: Iconographic and Archaeological Evidence
The Moche had an extensive arsenal of weaponry at their disposal including long-
and short-handled clubs, darts, dart-throwers, slings and knives of different fonns. In
Moche iconography, war clubs with conical or star-shaped heads are featured as the
primary weapon used in combat, and depictions of warriors striking their opponents on
the head are common (Figure 410). In some cases, blood is shown spurting from the
opponent's scalp (Figure 411). In Moche prisoner-capture scenes, victors are
occasionally shown using war clubs to strike the captives, causing their noses to bleed
(Figure 412).
Examples ofMoche wooden war clubs have been found in archaeological
excavations. These include one discovered in a tomb in Platfonn 11, adjacent to Plaza 3A
at Huaca de la Luna, several covered in sheet metal that were found at the base of a wall
at Huaca Cao Viejo, El Brujo, and similar examples found in three tombs at Sipan
(Figure 413) (Bourget 2001b; Alva 2001). In contrast to the utilitarian club found at
Huaca de la Luna which was covered in residue that reacted positively with human
antiserum, the clubs from El Brujo appear to have been ceremonial rather than functional
(Bourget 2001 b). Moche war clubs also are present in museum collections, such that of
the Museo Arqueol6gico Rafael Larco Herrera in Lima, Peru (Larco Hoyle 2001a:Figure
236), and star-shaped, pointed and round mace heads made out of stone and copper also
are known (Figures 414-416) (Donnan 1978:Figure 111; Larco Hoyle 2001a:Figures
23 7a and b; 2001 b:Figure 173; Schindler 2000:1 05).
253
In Moche art, tumis are typically associated with scenes of human sacrifice. In
the Sacrifice Ceremony (described in Chapter Two), tumis are used to slit the throats of
nude bound captives (Figure 417). Tumis also are used by supernatural beings to
decapitate human victims (Figure 418). As discussed in Chapter Two, metal tumis made
from copper, silver and gold have been found in archaeological excavations at Moche
sites including Huaca de la Luna, El Brujo, Dos Cabezas, Pampa Grande and Sipan, and
many others exist in museums and private collections (Figures 419-421 ). The remaining
types of M oche weaponry listed above are commonly associated in the iconography with
scenes involving combat or hunting. Metal dart points and knives and wooden and metal
darts and dart-throwers also have been found, some in archaeological contexts such as at
Sipan (Figures 422 and 423)(Alva 2001; Donnan 1978; Larco Hoyle 2001a, 2001 b;
Schindler 2000). In addition, two bone points modified from non-human long bone shaft
fragments were recovered from Plaza 3C at Huaca de la Luna (Figure 424) (Verano
n.d.l).
Unlike in Moche art, few weapons besides tumis appear in Lambayeque
iconography. Several tumis have been excavated from the Lambayeque site ofBatan
Grande (see Chapter Two); many other examples are found in museum holdings (Figures
425 and 426) (Cordy-Collins 1996:Plate 51; de Lavalle and Lang 1977:116; Shimada et
al. 2000; Torres Della Pina 2000:81 and 103). Wooden darts, a wooden dart thrower and
metal dart points, dart throwers and daggers also were found in elite tombs at Batan
Grande (Shimada et al. 2000). In addition, bone dart points have been excavated at
Pacatnamu, including two point fragments found in the trench with the human sacrificial
254
victims (Figure 427) (V erano 1986). The bone points from Pacatnamu are very similar to
those found at Huaca de la Luna.
Tool Material Diagnosis
One of the research objectives of this dissertation was to determine the type of
tool material, i.e., stone or metal, used to produce the cut marks on the Moche and
Lambayeque human and faunal bones in my sample. With the possible exception of the
cut marks on a camelid humerus from El Brujo (discussed below), all cuts appear to have
been made with metal tools, most likely made from copper or a copper alloy.
Approximately 93% of cut marks where both shape in cross section and wall morphology
could be assessed have the same morphological pattern: V -shaped grooves with straight,
sheer walls. These traits are characteristic of marks made with metal tools. Although a
few cuts have relatively coarse walls or one straight wall and one coarse wall, in most
cases, these variations can be attributed to damage, weathering or bone porosity. Only
3% of the cut marks are U-shaped and most are relatively shallow. On nearly every bone
where U -shaped cuts are found, V -shaped cuts are also present, suggesting that the
observed morphological variation is due to differences in the amount of force and applied
pressure or varying sharpness of the tool edge rather than to differences in tool material.
Since tools made from copper or copper-alloys are not as sharp and do not hold an edge
as long as iron or steel tools, it is likely that the edges of the cutting instrument were
dulled by repeated contact with bony surfaces. The use of metal tools is also indicated by
the presence of multiple cuts with bone overhangs, a feature exclusive to cut marks
produced by metal tools. Also consistent with metal tool use, a small percentage (i.e.,
255
less than 19%) of the cut marks contain striations within the main groove, and in cases
where striations are present, they are of uniform depth and spacing. The low frequency
of chattermarks found on the bones in my sample suggests that in only a few cases were
the metal tools being wielded with intense pressure, causing them to skip over the bone
surface. Further support for the argument that the cut marks on the Precolumbian bones
in my sample were made with metal tools is their morphological similarity to the cuts on
the bones from the modem forensic case. Like most cuts on the Moche and Lambayeque
bones, the cut marks on the forensic bones are V -shaped, lack internal striae, and with
three exceptions, have straight sheer walls. The three cases where one wall is straight
and the other is coarse are a result of bone porosity.
In Walker and Long's (1977:609) experimental study, all of their cut marks were
wider than they were deep regardless of the class of tool used to make them (chert biface,
obsidian knife, steel knife and steel axe). A steel ~ i f with a 35 mm long blade
produced cuts with a mean depth to width index of0.38. Similar to the cut marks in
Walker and Long's (1977) study, all of the cuts in my data set for which maximum depth
and width measurements were taken are wider than they are deep. The mean depth to
width indices of the cut marks on the human bones in my sample are 0.36 and 0.44 for
cuts on faunal bones. The two groups combined have a mean depth to width index of
0.37. The differences between my mean depth to width indices and that of Walker and
Long (1977) may be explained by dissimilarities in the type of metal used (i.e., copper vs.
steel). Moreover, the amount of pressure exerted on the tool and the angle at which the
tool was held relative to the surface of the bone were not kept constant as they were in
Walker and Long's (1977) experimental study.
256
Cross-sectional analyses revealed that the cut marks on the El Brujo faunal bones
are significantly deeper than those on human bones from Moche sites. These results are
consistent across all five tested skeletal subsets (i.e., axial/appendicular and upper long
bone/lower long bone/non-long bone). Given the morphological similarities between the
cuts on human and faunal remains in my data set, the cross-sectional data probably reflect
the application of more force when modifying faunal bones rather than a difference in
tool material. The same argument applies to all significant differences between cut marks
on bones from below and above the floor of Plaza 3C. The results of cross-sectional
analyses comparing cut marks on Plaza 3C and Plaza 3A bones yielded no patterned
differences that could be used to answer the question of tool material.
The morphology of the cut marks on a camelid humerus excavated from
Complejo 3.4, El Brujo, especially those on the shaft, differs markedly from the pattern
typical of cuts on the other bones in my sample (Figure 300). As mentioned in the
previous chapter, almost all cuts on the shaft of the humerus are relatively wide and
shallow with coarse walls. While a few are V-shaped, the majority are U-shaped and
have the appearance of shallow chop marks or dents. In addition, several marks are
associated with surface spalling. Although cut marks located on the articular surfaces of
the bone (i.e., the medial and lateral condyles) are V-shaped and relatively deep, in nearly
all cases, their walls are also very coarse. These morphological variations may indicate
the use of a stone tool. Alternatively, they may be due to differences in tool type (i.e.,
axe vs. knife) or differences in force and applied pressure (i.e., chopping vs. slicing). If
the cut marks on the camelid left humerus were produced with a stone tool, then they
257
represent the only such cuts in my sample. In all other cases, the evidence supports the
argument that metal tools were used to modify both human and fauna! remains.
Tool Type Diagnoses
Based on their morphology, the vast majority of cut marks in my sample were
produced with a metal knife. Cuts associated with throat slitting and decapitation were
probably made with a tumi. In Moche and Lambayeque iconography, tumis are depicted
as the instrument used to slit the throats of or behead sacrificial victims and there is no
evidence to the contrary that this type of tool did not serve the same purposes in reality.
Whether tumis also were used to mutilate, deflesh and dismember the sacrificial victims
is unknown; it is possible that these activities involved knives with chisel-like edges
(which have been recovered archaeologically) or with other non-crescent shaped blades.
The morphology of the chop marks found on the occipital of Individual XXI
(Figure 15), and the shafts of an isolated right humerus and an isolated left femur
(Figures 46 and 60) from Plaza 3A, and on the body of the left malar oflndividual4 from
Pacatnamu (Figure 266) indicates that they were made using considerable force. The
type of metal tool responsible for these chop marks was probably heavier than the tool
used to produce the majority of cut marks in my sample and may have been a large knife
or axe. In addition, the location of these chop marks raises the possibility that they
represent perimortem blows with a sharp-bladed weapon rather than postmortem
processing.
As stated in Chapter Four, at least nine sacrificial victims from Plaza 3A have
massive skull fractures resulting from perimortem blows to the head. In six cases, the
258
blunt object used to strike the victims was probably a large rock or wooden club, the
latter possibly the one covered in dried human blood that Bourget (200 1 b) found in a
tomb in Platform 11. The three individuals on whose skulls impact scars are visible on the
margins of the fractured areas were most likely struck with a star-headed mace, similar to
that depicted in Figure 428. Eight of the nine individuals with skull fractures have cut
marks on their cervical vertebrae. Thus, it appears that certain individuals were killed not
only by having their throats slit, but also by being clubbed in the head, the latter action
perhaps performed as a coup de grace.
2
It is likely that the stab injuries suffered by HG99-3 from Plaza 3C and the
individuals in Group I from Pacatnamu were produced by darts with sharpened bone tips.
This hypothesis is supported by the finding of pointed faunallong bone fragments in
direct association with the human remains at each site (see "M oche and Lambayeque
Weaponry: Iconographic and Archaeological Evidence" section above). As further
evidence, Verano (1986:Figure 12) inserted one of the bone fragments found in the
Lambayeque mass burial into a penetrating wound in a vertebra of one of the victims and
found it was a good fit. The penetrating wound in the sternum ofHG96-1 from Plaza 3A
was probably also the result of being stabbed by a dart, but whether the dart tip was
fashioned out of bone or metal is unknown. It is difficult to discern the type of object
used to gouge the foot of Individual XV from Plaza 3A. It may have been done with a
bone sharpened into a point, or alternatively, with a metal knife with a blade resembling a
modem ice-pick, such as that shown in Figure 429.
PRISONER CAPTURE, TORTURE, SACRIFICE AND MUTILATION: A
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE PHYSICAL AND ICONOGRAPIDC
EVIDENCE
259
There are many parallels between the physical evidence of prisoner capture,
torture, sacrifice and mutilation at the Moche sites in my sample and scenes depicting
these activities in Moche iconography, but there is not a one-to-one correspondence. In
Moche art, captive warriors are typically portrayed nude, with ropes around their necks or
with their hands bound behind their backs (Figures 417, 430 and 431 ). No evidence of
clothing was associated with any of the sacrificial victims in my sample, and at Huaca de
la Luna, rope fragments (or, in one case from Plaza 3A, rope imprints) were found around
the necks and around or near the wrists of several skeletons (Bourget 2001 a; Verano
n.d.1, n.d.2) (Figure 432). In addition, pieces of rope were found around the trunk of one
individual (HG99-1 from Plaza 3C)-an unusual location because in Moche
iconography, captives are not shown with ropes tied around their chests or waists.
In Moche iconography, the mistreatment of prisoners is indicated by the
representation of captives with nosebleeds from being clubbed in the face (Figure 412),
tied to posts or racks (and, in some cases, being attacked by vultures) (Figures 433 and
434), with mutilated noses and lips (Figures 433 and 435), and with mutilated genitals or
legs (Figure 436). Evidence for healing and perimortem fractures of the nasal bones was
observed on the skulls of several individuals from Huaca de la Luna, and on Platform II,
Bourget (2001b:101) found postholes that he suggests may have anchored wooden
sacrificial racks. Eight individuals from Plaza 3C had cut marks consistent with removal
of the nose or lips (or both), and one of those same individuals plus five others had cuts
260
on the iliopubic ramus of the os coxae suggesting mutilation or removal of the genitals.
Cut marks on some of the lower limb bones from Plaza 3A (especially the isolated
elements) may represent mutilation of the legs. Forms of mistreatment that do not appear
in Moche art but for which there is physical evidence are scalp lacerations, wounds
around the eyes and mutilation of the hands and feet. Furthermore, the penetrating
injuries by sharp pointed weapons seen on bones from Huaca de la Luna have no direct
parallels in Moche iconography. Although stabbing is shown in Moche art, it is only
within the contexts of deer and fox hunting.
Moche artistic depictions of prisoner sacrifice show victims having their throats
slit by human or supernatural figures wielding tumis (Figures 417, 437 and 439-442). As
I have presented above, there is abundant physical evidence in my sample that throat
slitting was the standard technique used to sacrifice prisoners at Moche sites. A few
individuals may have been clubbed to death in addition to having their throats cut, but
these latter cases are rare and limited to Plaza 3A. In the iconography, clubbing occurs
only in portrayals of seal hunting, combat and, as stated above, prisoner mistreatment
(Figures 410 and 411). It is never depicted as an alternative method of human sacrifice.
The directionality study described in the previous chapter was conducted in order
to obtain data that would be useful in reconstructing the positioning of the assailant
relative to the victim in cases of throat slitting, and to compare the physical results with
how assailants and victims are positioned in Moche art. Table 90 lists all assailant-victim
positioning possibilities concerning the handedness of the assailant (i.e., right-handed or
left-handed), the orientation of the assailant relative to the victim (i.e., facing the victim
or behind the victim) and the movement of the assailant's arm in producing the cut mark
(i.e., extension or flexion of the forearm) based on whether cut marks found on the
anterior aspect of cervical vertebrae progress from left to right or right to left.
261
According to cross-cultural research among modem humans, approximately 900/o
are right-handed (Glassman and Dana 1992). If we assume that the percentage of right-
handed individuals in antiquity was the same as it is today, in cases where cut marks
traverse cervical vertebrae from left to right, two scenarios are possible. In the first, a
right-handed assailant stands in front of the seated victim and uses the extensor muscles
of the right arm to cut the victim's throat. If capturing the victim's blood into a goblet is
desired, the assailant easily could do so himself using his left hand; however, an assistant
presumably would be required to restrain the victim while his throat was being cut. In
the alternative (and, in my opinion, the most likely) scenario, a right-handed assailant
stands behind the seated victim, uses his left hand to restrain the victim by the hair and
his right to cut the victim's throat using the flexor muscles of the right arm (Figure 438).
If the victim's blood is collected, it would be awkward for the assailant to perform this
task himself, thus an assistant holding a container in front of the victim would be
necessary. In cases where cut marks traverse cervical vertebrae from right to left, only
one scenario is likely if we again assume that the assailant is right-handed. In this
scenario, a right-handed assailant stands in front of the seated victim and uses the flexor
muscles of his right arm to slash the victim's throat. A right-handed assailant is unlikely
to approach the victim from behind in this case because it would require pushing the
knife blade across the victim's throat-a counterintuitive motion and a potentially
difficult feat.
3
In cases where cut marks advance from left to right and right to left on the
same bone, it is most likely that an assailant (whether right-handed or left-handed) stands
262
behind the seated victim and cuts the victim's throat from both directions using a sawing
motion. A less likely scenario is where an assailant (either right-handed or left-handed)
stands in front of the seated victim and slashes the victim's throat with alternating strokes
involving the flexor and extensor muscles of the arm. As stated in Chapter Four, as a
whole, individuals whose throats were cut from left to right outnumber those whose
throats were cut from right to left or from both directions. This result is what we would
expect if most, if not all, of the assailants were right-handed. Ifhandedness at Plaza 3A
(the only sample large enough to conduct a Chi-square test) conforms to modem
frequencies, then this observed pattern does not depart significantly from the expected
(Table 91).
In Moche artistic depictions of throat slitting, the assailant is always shown
standing, and is pictured more often facing the victim than behind him (Figures 417 and
439-442). In one scene, the assailant stands on the victim's right side (Figure 437).
There does not seem to be a regular pattern ofhandedness-both right-handed and left
handed assailants are portrayed more or less equally. The hand that is not clutching a
tumi is almost always shown holding either the victim's hair or a goblet (Figures 417 and
439-442). The assailant usually collects the victim's blood in the goblet himself. In a
few examples, an assistant is depicted, either restraining the victim or holding a goblet
(Figures 439 and 441). The victim is typically portrayed seated, but in some cases,
especially where the assailant is an anthropomorphized weapon-bundle, the victim is
shown standing (Figures 440-442). The first three scenarios I suggest above to explain
the directionality of the cuts on cervical vertebrae in my sample have many similarities to
scenes of throat slitting depicted in the iconography. However, the variety of artistic
263
depictions of throat slitting, and in some cases, the artistic license taken in the positioning
of the assailant or victim (e.g., the assailant on the left in Figure 417 and the victim in
Figure 441 ), prevents a definitive interpretation of the physical evidence.
In Moche scenes of decapitation, it is the end result of this act that is depicted
rather than the act itself. Supernatural beings holding tumis and severed heads frequently
appear in Moche art, as do trophy heads (Figures 418 and 443-445). In addition,
Mountain Sacrifice scenes often feature a nude, decapitated individual at the base of the
mountain (Figure 446). It is possible that decapitation was an alternative method of
dispatching prisoners. Alternatively, the heads of some individuals may have been
removed postmortem as trophies. In my sample, there are at least 11 and as many as 15
cases from Huaca de la Luna, El Brujo and Dos Cabezas where cut marks on the cervical
vertebrae suggest both throat slitting and decapitation. In cases from Huaca de la Luna
and Dos Cabezas where only cut marks consistent with decapitation are present, it is still
possible that these individuals also were killed by having their throats slit, but that none
of the cuts to the anterior throat were deep enough to mark the vertebrae.
There are no scenes in M oche art of prisoners having their chests forcibly opened.
However, Zighelboim (1995) interprets the cone-shaped objects held in the claws of the
two-headed serpent which supports the upper register of the Sacrifice Ceremony as
human hearts extracted from sacrificial victims (Figure 417). In addition, he claims that
the scene in the upper right corner of Figure 439 also represents heart extraction. In my
opinion, Zighelboim's (1995) identification of the objects in the two-headed serpent's
claws is rather tenuous and the scene in the upper right corner of Figure 439 depicts
throat slitting and not heart extraction. Therefore, in the absence of convincing M oche
264
artistic depictions, evidence for the practice of prying open prisoners' chests (perhaps to
remove the heart) by the Moche appears to be limited to the archaeological record, and
more specifically, to Plaza 3C at Huaca de la Luna.
While cut mark patterning on bones from Plazas 3A and 3C provides strong
physical evidence that the Moche defleshed sacrificed prisoners, the iconographic
evidence for defleshing is not as clear. Individuals stripping the flesh from corpses are
not depicted in Moche iconography; however, it is possible that animated skeletons,
which frequently appear in Moche art, represent the end result of the defleshing process.
Skeletons seemed to have played a very important role in Moche culture and are shown
participating in a variety of activities such as playing musical instruments, dancing and
engaging in sexual acts with live human females (Figures 447 and 448).
In Moche art, dismemberment of sacrificial victims is represented by amputated
heads, arms and legs with ropes tied around them to facilitate their transport and display
as trophies (Figures 438,444 and 448).
4
In 1996, two modified human skulls were
excavated from the urban sector near the base of Huaca de la Luna that Verano et al.
(1999) identified as Moche trophy heads.
5
In my sample, dismemberment is suggested
by cut marks on or around the joint surfaces of bones and missing body parts. Also, in
Plaza 3C, rope fragments were found around the wrists and ankles of isolated arms and
legs.
Similar to the comparative analysis above, parallels also can be drawn between
the treatment of the individuals in the Lambayeque mass burial at Pacatnamu and
depictions of prisoner capture, sacrifice and mutilation in Lambayeque iconography. In
their descriptions of three wooden war captives found at the Lambayeque site of Huaca
265
Tacaynamo, Verano (1986:135) and Jackson (2004:310) note that they are wearing
nothing but loincloths and, in two cases, are shown with their hands behind their backs.
On one of the latter two captives, the rope tied around his neck and binding his wrists and
ankles is still present (Figure 450). At the Lambayeque mass burial at Pacatnamu,
remnants of rope were found around the ankles of two of the individuals in Group I, and,
as reported by Verano (1986: 117), a fragmentary plain weave textile-most likely the
remains of a loincloth-was found under the pelvis of Individual 1.
One of the wooden captives from Huaca Tacaynamo mentioned above has two
round holes, one in its upper chest and another in its lower back, which appear to be stab
wounds (Figure 451). Furthennore, according to Verano (1986:135) the margins of both
holes have been painted red to symbolize blood. At Pacatnamu, a count of the number
penetrating injuries found on bones of the trunk and shoulder revealed that each of the
four individuals in Group I was stabbed in the chest and abdomen a minimum of five to
nineteen times.
Tumis are frequently found in Lambayeque art, both as representations on
ceramic vessels and as three-dimensional metal objects (Figures 425 and 426). However,
prisoners having their throats slit do not appear in Lambayeque iconography. At
Pacatnamu, cut marks consistent with throat slitting were found on a cervical vertebra of
Individual 8. In addition, anterior cuts on the cervical vertebrae of Individual 13 suggest
that his throat may have been slit before his head was removed.
Similar to Moche art, the products of decapitation and dismembennent are
portrayed in Lambayeque art, but not the acts in progress. The "Sican Deity" is often
shown holding a tumi and a trophy head in his hands, and hammered metal hands, arms
and legs may represent trophies (Figures 452 and 453). At Pacatnamu, cut marks and
fractures suggesting decapitation (or partial decapitation) were found on the vertebrae
(and also, in one case, a rib) of three individuals. In addition, the left ulnae and wrist
bones of three others have cut marks and fractures consistent with trophy taking.
266
As described in Chapter Four, there is cut mark and fracture evidence that nine of
the ten individuals in Groups 11 and Ill in the Lambayeque mass burial at Pacatnamu had
their chests opened. However, there are no scenes of prisoners having their chests
opened in Lambayeque iconography nor are there artistic depictions of human hearts.
In summary, in most cases, the activities indicated by cut mark and fracture
patterning on the Moche and Lambayeque human remains in my sample are consistent
with the same types of activities depicted in Moche and Lambayeque iconography.
However, as I have shown in my comparative analysis, not everything for which there is
physical evidence has an iconographic match; therefore, the art is not a complete
narrative, nor can it be interpreted as an exact script. Nevertheless, the fact that there are
so many connections between the physical and iconographic evidence adds strong
support to the argument that Moche and Lambayeque artistic depictions of prisoner
capture, torture, sacrifice and mutilation represent actual practices.
267
CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION
Presented in this chapter is a summary of my research issues, methods and results.
This section is followed by a brief mention of research related to this project that has
been conducted by others, suggestions for future research, and some fmal remarks.
SUMMARY OF RESEARCH
The goal of this research project was to use cut mark morphology and patterning
to investigate the tools and techniques used in human sacrifice on the north coast of Peru,
utilizing osteological collections from the Moche sites of Huaca de la Luna, El Brujo and
Dos Cabezas. Three comparative samples, consisting of human remains from the
Lambayeque mass burial at Pacatnamu, butchered faunal bones from Huaca de la Luna,
El Brujo and Pacatnamu, and bones from a modem forensic case also were included in
this study. A total of 5, 776 cut marks were described and documented using drawings
and photographs, 1178 negative and 434 positive casts were made, and 305 thin sections
were produced. Tools used to analyze the cut marks included a hand lens, a light
microscope, a scanning electron microscope, thin sectioning equipment and a micro
X-ray fluorescence spectrometer. Four major hypotheses framed my research. Below, I
restate my hypotheses and discuss how my results relate to each.
268
Hmothesis 1: I expected cut mark patterning to be regular and predictable within each
site in my sample. I expected the patterning and morphology of cut marks on the human
remains in my sample to differ from that observed in my sample of butchered camelid
bones. I also hypothesized that bone modification of the camelid remains in my sample
would be similar to that recorded by Shimada (1988, 1994; Shimada and Shimada 1981},
Pozorski (1976} and Wing (1972} at other Precolumbian sites in Peru.
While there was some variability, in general, I found cut mark patterning on the
bones in my sample to be regular and predictable within each site. I also found that bone
modification of the came lid remains in my sample was very similar to that of butchered
camelid bones at the Moche site ofPampa Grande (Shimada, 1994}. Contrary to what I
expected, the morphology of the cut marks on the human and faunal bones in my sample
was nearly identical, and in many cases, the cuts were located in similar areas on the
bones. However, although diagnostic indicators of butchery, such as cortical peeling,
impact scars and spiral fractures, frequently were observed on the faunal remains, they
were rare on the human bones.
Hyoothesis 2: I expected that through the use of macroscopic, microscopic and
elemental analysis, I would be able to determine the type of tool material used to produce
cut marks on the bones in my sample. I hypothesized that metal tools were used
exclusively in the perimortem and postmortem treatment of human sacrifice victims and
that stone tools were used to process camelids and other fauna.
269
Using macroscopic and microscopic analysis of cut mark morphology and
microscopic analysis of cross-sections of cut marks, I was able to identify metal as the
tool material that produced the cut marks on the human bones in my sample. Therefore,
it is likely that metal tumis, such as those depicted in Moche and Lambayeque
iconography and found in the archaeological record were actually used in the perimortem
and postmortem treatment of human sacrifice victims on the north coast. Moreover, with
one possible exception, metal tools were also used to butcher the camelids and other
animals in my fauna! sample. Since raw material suitable for stone tools was readily
available, it suggests that the choice of tool material used to perform a task was based
more on the material's quality and efficacy than on the nature of the task itself.
Hypothesis 3: I expected some temporal change in the perimortem and postmortem
treatment of human sacrifice victims at Huaca de la Luna, both between individuals from
Plazas 3A and 3C and between the two deposits of sacrificial victims from Plaza 3C. I
expected to see much continuity in the perimortem and postmortem treatment of
sacrificial victims between the Moche and Lambayeque cultures. I hypothesized that any
differences between the Moche and Lambayeque human remains in my sample
concerning cut mark patterns and morphology would be attributable to advances in
metallurgy.
Overall, the sacrificial victims deposited below the floor of Plaza 3C at Huaca de
la Luna are very similar to those deposited above the floor in terms of cut mark patterning
and the types of perimortem and postmortem treatment. As a group, individuals found
270
below the floor received slightly more complex perimortem treatment and more extensive
postmortem processing than those found above the floor, but certain types of perimortem
trauma, such as stab wounds, were only observed within the above-floor sample. Since
about 300 years separate the two deposits, some changes over time are to be expected as
the practice evolved. More temporal changes are apparent in the way sacrificial victims
from Plaza 3C were treated compared to those deposited 100-400 years later in Plaza 3A.
The primary objectives at Plaza 3C were to slash victims' throats and systematically
deflesh their bodies, whereas at Plaza 3A, throat slitting was the paramount activity and
postmortem processing was rare. Dissimilarities in treatment between the two samples
might be explained by differences in motivation and whether the plaza was used as a
primary sacrificial site or as a secondary repository. As expected, there is much
continuity in the treatment of sacrificial victims between the Moche and Lambayeque
cultures, particularly in terms of slash wounds to the throat, evidence for which was
found at every site in my sample. In addition, modified versions of the practices of
selective dismemberment and forcible opening of the chest cavity seen at Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna were observed at Pacatnamu. Cut marks on bones from Moche sites
did not differ morphologically from those on bones from the Lambayeque mass burial at
Pacatnamu, suggesting that the two cultures practiced human sacrifice not only using
similar techniques, but with the same types of metal tools.
Hypothesis 4: Through in-depth macroscopic and microscopic analysis of osteological
remains and detailed recording of cut marks, it would be possible to identify and
distinguish "signature" patterns of different activities, such as throat slitting, decapitation,
271
defleshing, dismemberment and so forth, that preliminary analyses have indicated were
occurring at the sites included in my sample. Based on previous studies by Alva and
Donnan (1993}, Donnan and Castillo (1994) and others highlighting the close
resemblance of archaeological discoveries at Si pan and San Jose de Moro to certain
scenes illustrated in Moche art, I expected to fmd similarities between Moche and later
north coast iconographic depictions of prisoner capture, torture, sacrifice and mutilation
and the physical evidence for these activities.
Through macroscopic and microscopic analysis of cut mark morphology and
careful documentation of cut mark locations, I was able to distinguish among a host of
activities associated with human sacrifice, including scalp laceration, facial and genital
mutilation, mutilation of the hands and feet, throat slitting, decapitation, forcible opening
of the chest, defleshing and dismemberment, that took place at the sites in my sample.
While many direct parallels could be drawn between Moche and Lambayeque
iconographic depictions of prisoner capture, torture, sacrifice and mutilation and the
physical evidence for these activities, there were some types of treatment (e.g., chest
opening) for which physical, but not iconographic, evidence was found. Nevertheless,
similarities between the iconography and the physical evidence supports the argument
that Moche and Lambayeque artistic depictions of human sacrifice and its associated
activities are best interpreted as idealized records of actual events.
272
RELATED RESEARCH BY OTHERS
The data and conclusions presented here on the methods and techniques used in
Moche human sacrifice complements research conducted by other scholars on related
issues such as whether Moche combat was primarily ritual or secular, the specific
motivations behind the sacrifice of captive prisoners by the Moche, and the identity of the
sacrificial victims (Alva and Donnan 1993; Bawden 1999; Bourget 2001b; Castillo 2000;
Disselhoff 1956; Donnan 1997; Hocquenghem 1987; Kutscher 1950a, 1954; Proulx
1982; Shimada 1994; Topic and Topic 1997; Verano 2001b). Attempts to identify the
population origin of the Huaca de la Luna sacrificial victims have involved the use of
craniometries, dental morphological traits, mitochondrial DNA, bone chemistry, and
stable isotope analysis using hair samples (Sutter and Cortez 2005; Verano 2001b, n.d.2).
A detailed discussion of the issues listed above is beyond the scope of this dissertation;
the reader is directed to these sources for further information.
SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
My sample includes approximately% of the human bones excavated from Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna; therefore, the frrst step in any future research concerning Moche
human sacrifice should involve a complete analysis of the entire Plaza 3C collection.
Also, all of the faunal bones in my sample were from Moche or Lambayeque regional
centers and nearly all came from ritual contexts. I would like to examine cut marks on
faunal bones from more domestic, urban contexts and from Moche secondary sites to test
if the preference for metal tools over stone tools prevailed throughout the realm. In
addition, since the completion of the field research for this project, three additional
273
samples of Precolumbian human sacrificial victims with cut marks have been reported on
the north coast of Peru. Two are from sites in the Lambayeque V alley and are associated
with the Lambayeque culture. They are composed of 31 individuals from the hilltop
temple ofCerro Cerrillos and 15 individuals from the Adoratorio Temple at Tucume
(K.laus et al. 2004; Toyne 2004). The third sample of 178 individuals is associated with
the Chimu culture and was excavated from a beach at Punta Lobos in the Huarmey
Valley (Verano and Walde 2004). A cursory examination of the unpublished data from
these three sites indicates that these individuals have much in common with the human
sacrifice victims in my sample. A detailed comparative analysis that incorporates data on
burial context, biological profile, cut mark patteming, trauma patteming, and perimortem
and postmortem treatment from all north coast sites from which evidence of human
sacrifice has been found would further expand our knowledge and understanding of
human sacrifice as it was practiced on the north coast. Analysis of intersite similarities
and differences in the practice of human sacrifice would allow for the identification of
general patterns and provide a better understanding of continuity and change over time
and across space.
After a comprehensive study of human sacrifice on the north coast of Peru has
been completed, other fruitful avenues of research would involve comparisons of north
coast cut mark patterns with those found on Nasca trophy heads and on sacrificial human
remains from the Akapana and Akapana East mound at Tiwanaku in Bolivia (recently
reanalyzed in 2003 by Blom et al.). Comparisons could also be made between Peruvian
human sacrifice victims and modified human bones from sites outside of South America,
such as Mexico and the American Southwest.
274
FINAL REMARKS
This study has shown how detailed macroscopic and microscopic analysis of cut
marks can be used to explore issues of ritual behavior and either support or refute
interpretations based on iconographic evidence. These detailed analyses are an integral
part of conducting scientific research in order to make definitive comments about the
behaviors of past peoples. Without such studies there will always be doubt remaining
regarding questions such as how readily available metal tools were to Moche ritual
specialists conducting activities associated with human sacrifice. It is detail work such as
that presented here which allows us to move on to higher level questions and broaden our
comparisons cross-culturally. We are now ready for that next step.
275
TABLES
276
Table 1. Minimum Element Counts of Major Human Bones from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la
Luna.
Skeletal Element
Talus, left
Ulna, left
Humerus, left
Sac rum
Clavicle, left
Radius, left
Ulna, right
Calcaneus, left
Humerus, right
Fibula, left
Talus, right
Tibia, right
Calcaneus, right
Radius, right
Fibula, right
Tibia, left
Clavicle, right
Femur, left
Femur, right
Count
75
74
72
72
71
71
71
71
70
70
70
69
69
68
68
66
64
61
59
Table 2. Individuals Below and Above the Floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna,
Included in Sample.
Below the Floor Above the Floor
Year Excavated Individuals ofPia.za3C ofPia.za3C
1996 Entierro 2 ... Entierro 6

1996 Old Entierro 3

1999 HG99-1 ... HG99-9

1999 H99-1 ... H99-9

2000 El. .. E8

2000 E9 ... E15

2000 E18

2000 Hl. .. H16
2000 Hl7 ... H3

2001 H31, H33, H36

2000 IB2, IB4 .. .IB18
2000 IB19 ... IB24

2000 IB26 ... 1B36

277
Table 3. Minimum Element Counts of Major Human Bones from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna.
Skeletal Element
Femur, left
Tibia, right
Tibia, left
Os Coxae, right
Sacrum
Os Coxae, left
Fibula, left
Femur, right
Fibula, right
Mandible
Humerus, right
Radius, right
Ulna, left
Humerus, left
Ulna, right
Radius, left
Count
33
32
31
31
31
30
30
29
27
26
26
26
22
21
21
19
Table 4. Data Sample from the Cuarto de los Craneos, Dos Cabezas.
Individual #
E-15-1
E-15-2
E-15-3
E-15-4
E-15-5
E-15-6
E-15-7
E-15-8
E-15-9
E-15-10
E-15-11
E-15-12
E-15-13
E-15-14
E-15-15
E-15-16
E-15-17
Cranium Present?
Yes
Yes, but right Y2
only
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes, but fragments only
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes, but maxilla
fragment with teeth only
Yes
-**
Associated Mandible?
Yes
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
Yes
Associated
Vertebrae?
Cl
No
No
Cl-C4
C1-C5
C1-C3
No
No
C1-C6
Cl+ C3-C5
Cl-C2
No
C1-C7*
No
No
C1-C7
E-15-18 No Yes, but right Y2 only No
278
*In her personal field notes on E-15-13, Tyson lists only Cl-C6 as present. In my own
examination of the bones, I found all seven cervical vertebrae present.
* *E-15-17 is a right mandible fragment missing several teeth antemortem (Tyson,
personal communication 2000). This bone was missing from the Dos Cabezas material
and thus not available for study.
279
Table 5. Estimation of Sex as Determined by Tyson and Cordy-Collins (1998) and the
Author for Individuals from the Cuarto de Ios Craneos, Dos Cabezas.
Individual #
E-15-1
E-15-2
E-15-3
E-15-4
E-15-5
E-15-6
E-15-7
E-15-8
E-15-9
E-15-10
E-15-11
E-15-12
E-15-13
E-15-14
E-15-15
E-15-16
E-15-17
E-15-18
Sex Estimation
(Tyson and Cordy-Collins 1998)
Male
Female
Female
Female
Male
Probable female
Male
Indeterminate
Female
Female
Male
Female
Male
Indeterminate
Indeterminate
Male
Indeterminate
Indeterminate
Sex Estimation
(This Author)
Male
Probable female
Probable female
Probable female
Male
Ambiguous sex
Male
Indeterminate
Probable male
Ambiguous sex
Male
Indeterminate
Probable male
Male
Indeterminate
Male
NI A*
Male
*E-15-17 was not included in my data sample; therefore, no sex estimation was
determined for this individual.
Table 6. Data Sample from the Lambayeque Mass Burial at Pacatnamu.
Catalog#
T1C3B1
T1C3B2
T1C3B3
T1C3B12
T1C3B4
T1C3B5
T1C3B6
T1C3B7
T1C3B9
T1C3B10
T1C3B11
T1C3B13
TlC3B14
T1C3B15
Individual #*
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Group#*
I
I
I
I
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
Ill
Ill
*Individual# and Group# match descriptions provided in Verano 1986:136-137.
280
Table 7. Codes Used in Bone Inventory.
Cat A: Data Sample
BRU ElBrujo
DC DosCabezas
FOR Forensic Case
P3A Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna
P3C Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna
PAC Pacatnamu
Cat B: Catalog number (arbitrarily assigned by this author)
Field Code: Excavator-assigned field code
Spec#: Bone specimen number (arbitrarily assigned by this author)
Bone: Bone element
SKU Skull fragment ULNA Ulna
FRO Frontal FEM Femur
PAR Parietal TIB Tibia
TEM Temporal Pm Fibula
occ Occipital SCP Scaphoid
NAS Nasal LUN Lunate
MAL Malar HAM Hamate
MAX Maxilla CAP Capitate
MAN Mandible PIS Pisiform
HYO Hyoid TRI Triquetra!
CLA Clavicle TRP Trapezoid
SCA Scapula TPZ Trapezium
STEM Manubrium MC1-5 Metacarpal 1-5
STEB Sternal body PHP1-5 Proximal hand phalanx 1-5
STEX Xiphoid process MHP2-5 Middle hand phalanx 2-5
SAC Sac rum DHP1-5 Distal hand phalanx 1-5
coc Coccyx CAL Calcaneus
PAT Patella TAL Talus
ocx Os Coxae CUB Cuboid
CER1-7 Cervical vertebrae 1-7 NAV Navicular
TH01-12 Thoracic vertebrae 1-12 CUNl Medial cuneiform
LUM1-5 Lumbar vertebrae 1-5 CUN2 Intermediate cuneiform
VER Vertebra fragment, indet. CUN3 Lateral cuneiform
R#1 First rib MT1-5 Metatarsals 1-5
RmA Head, neck, tubercle,> Y2 shaft PFP1-5 Proximal foot phalanx 1-5
RmB Rm A without head MFP2-S Middle foot phalanx 1-5
RIBC > Yz shaft only DFPI-5 Distal foot phalanx 1-5
RmD < Y2 shaft only EPIP Epiphysis
RmE Rm A with< Y2 shaft PE PIP Proximal epiphysis
RmF Rm E without head DEPIP Distal epiphysis
HUM Humerus LONG Long bone fragment, indet.
RAD Radius IND Indet. postcranial fragment
Table 7, continued.
Side: Side of bone
L
R
B
I
Left
Right
Both left and right
Side indetenninate
Complete: Amount of bone present and complete
C Complete (90% of bone present and complete)
AC Almost complete (75% of bone present and complete)
PC Partially complete (50% of bone present and complete)
IC Incomplete(< 50% of bone present and complete)
Completeness Comments: Details on which part(s) of the bone is/are present or missing
Weather: Presence of weather cracking on bone
Y Yes
N No
Weather Comments: Details on location and extent of weather cracking on bone
Sun Bleach: Presence of sun bleaching on bone
Y Yes
N No
SB Comments: Details on location and extent of sun bleaching on bone
Trauma: Presence of trauma on bone
Y Yes
N No
Trauma Comments: Details on location and extent of trauma on bone
Other: Other relevant infonnation
281
Table 8. Codes Used in Cut Mark Inventory.
Cat A: (See Table 7)
Cat B: (See Table 7)
Field Code: (See Table 7)
Spec#: (See Table 7)
Bone: (See Table 7)
Side: (See Table 7)
Cut#: Cut mark number (arbitrarily assigned by this author)
Location: Aspect of bone on which cut mark is located
ANT Anterior EXT
POST Posterior INT
MED Medial PAL
LAT Lateral PLA
SUP Superior OOR
INF Inferior NI A
PROX Proximal
External
Internal
Palmar
Plantar
Dorsal
Data not available
Position: Position of cut mark relative to anatomical feature of bone
Length (mm): Length of cut mark, in millimeters
OA: Orientation of cut mark relative to the long axis of the bone, from medial to lateral
11 Parallel
_L Perpendicular
OB S-1 Oblique, superior to inferior
OB I-S Oblique, inferior to superior
NI A Data not available
Special cases:
A-P
M-L
HORIZ
VERT
C-NECK
anterior-posterior (in reference to cuts on skull vault)
medial-lateral (in reference to cuts on skull vault)
horizontal (in reference to cuts on vertebrae)
vertical (in reference to cuts on vertebrae)
Curving around neck (in reference to femoral neck cuts)
OB: Orientation of cut mark relative to other cut marks in group, from medial to lateral
11 Parallel
_L Perpendicular
OB Oblique
INT Intersecting
CONT Continuous
V AR Variable
282
283
Table 8, continued.
Width: Width relative to other cut marks in group or on bone
NAR Narrow
M-W Moderately wide
WIDE Wide
Depth: Depth relative to other cut marks in group or on bone
SHAL Shallow
SS Semi-shallow
M-D Moderately deep
DEEP Deep
Shape: Shape of cut mark in cross section
V V-shaped
U U-shaped
I Indeterminate
Walls: Morphology of cut mark walls
STR Straight, sheer walls
COR Coarse walls
Striae: Presence of fine, internal striae on walls or floor of cut mark
Y Yes
N No
Overhang: Presence of flap ofbone overhanging cut mark groove
Y Yes
N No
Wea!Dam: Presence of weather cracking or damage affecting cut mark
W Weather cracking
D Damage
NIA Data not available
Chatters: Presence of chattermarks above or below cut mark
Y Yes
N No
Comments: Other relevant information
Table 8, continued.
Activity: Inferred activity and anatomical feature(s) affected (e.g., joint, muscle, ligament)
TS Throat slitting
DECAP Decapitation
DF Defleshing
DM Dismemberment
Neg #: Negative cast number(s)
If no negative cast made, reason(s) why:
D Damaged
DB Debris in groove
DS Discontinuous
F Fragile
G Glue
Pos #: Positive cast number(s)
p
s
w
NS
Porosities
Too shallow
Weather cracks
Not selected for casting
TS Cast #: Positive cast chosen for thin sectioning (in cases of multiple casts)
TS Code: Thin section code
Cut #: Number of cut chosen for cross sectioning
SEM: SEM analysis conducted
SEM Cast chosen for SEM analysis
284
285
Table 9. Number ofNegative Casts (Both Originals and Duplicates) Made Per Each Data
Sample.
Human Faunal
Negative Casts Negative Casts
Data Samnte Orig Dun Or!& Dun
El Brujo 10 10 32 34
Dos Cabezas 7 5 0 0
Plaza3A 95 71 0 0
Plaza3C 465 351 37 16
Pacatnamu 14 11 6 9
F r ~ n s i Case 3 2 0 0
All Data Samples 594 450 75 59
Table 10. Number of Positive Casts (Both Originals and Duplicates) Made Per Each
Data Sample.
Data Sample
El Brujo
Dos Cabezas
Plaza 3A
Plaza 3C
Pacatnamu
Forensic Case
All Data Samples
Human
Positive Casts
Orig
10
7
78
248
14
3
360
Dup
4
0
0
3
0
0
7
Faunal
Positive Casts
Or!&
31
0
0
27
5
0
63
Dun
4
0
0
0
0
0
4
Table 11. Number of Thin Sections (Both Originals and Duplicates) Made Per Each Data
Sample.
Human Faunal
Thin Sections Thin Sections
Data Samnle Orig Dun Ori& Dun
El Brujo 6 2 25 2
DosCabezas 4 0 0 0
Plaza3A 49 4 0 0
Plaza3C 164 3 23 1
Pacatnamu 12 2 3 2
Forensic Case 2 1 0 0
All Data Samples 237 12 51 5
286
Table 12. Quantification of Cut Marks on Identifiable Skeletal Elements from Plaza 3A,
Huaca de la Luna.
Bone Affected* %Affected
Frontal 5/45 11.1%
Parietal (left) 3/41 7.3%
Parietal (right) 1142 2.3%
Occipital 3/52 5.7%
Skull Vault (indet.) 6/85 7.0%
Malar (right) 1145 2.2%
Atlas Vertebra 3/58 5.1%
Axis Vertebra 28/64 43.7%
C3-C7 Vertebrae 53/325 16.3%
First Rib (left) 1159 1.6%
First Rib (right) 1157 1.7%
Ribs 3-10 (right) 4/581 0.6%
Clavicle (left) 2/71 2.8%
Scapula (left) 3/67 4.4%
Scapula (right) 1/64 1.5%
Humerus (left) 2/72 2.7%
Humerus (right) 3/70 4.2%
Radius (left) 1/71 1.4%
Radius (right) 1/68 1.4%
Ulna (left) 1/74 1.3%
Ulna (right) 3/71 4.2%
Metacarpals (right) 3/280 1.0%
Proximal Hand Phalanges (left) 4/178 2.2%
Os Coxae (right) 1162 1.6%
Femur (left) 3/61 4.9%
Femur (right) 3/59 5.0%
Tibia (right)** 1169 1.4%
Fibula(left) 5/70 7.1%
Fibula (right) 1168 1.4%
Proximal Foot Phalanges (left) 31158 1.8%
*The number of elements with cut marks over the number of identifiable elements
present.
**Not included in this table is a side indeterminate tibial fragment with cut marks.
287
Table 13. The Number of Regions with Cut Marks per Number of Regions Present on
Bones from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna.
REGION
Frontal
Frontal squama
Left superciliary arch
Right orbit, lateral margin
Parietal
Left -area of temporalis attachment
-near bregma
Right-near lambda
Occipital
Occipital squama
Indeterminate Vault Bone Fragment
Malar
Right-orbit, lateral margin
First Cervical Vertebra
Anterior arch, inferior aspect
Lateral mass, anterior aspect
Left transverse process, anterior aspect
Right transverse process, anterior aspect
Right inferior articular facet, anterior margin
Second Cervical Vertebra
Anterior dens
Anterior body
Left transverse process, anterior and lateral aspects
Left transverse process, inferior aspect
Right lamina and right superior articular facet, posterior aspect
Third through Seventh Cervical Vertebrae
Anterior body
Inferior body
Left saddle, anterior aspect
Right saddle, anterior aspect
Left superior articular facet, anterior aspect
Right superior articular facet, anterior and lateral aspects
Right inferior articular facet, lateral and inferior aspects
OCCURRENCE
4/43
1144
1145
2/41
1141
1141
3/42
6/85
1/45
1156
1156
1155
1156
1156
3/61
18/64
8/59
1158
12/58
1/58
35/321
1/319
12/316
10/319
6/309
2/311
5/311
3/309
288
Table 13, continued.
REGION OCCURRENCE
Third through Seventh Cenical Vertebrae, continued
Right transverse process, anterior and lateral aspects 13/311
First Rib
Left -across tubercle, superior aspect 1159
Right-just sternal of tubercle, superior aspect 1155
Third though Tenth Ribs
Right-sternal 'iS of shaft, external aspect 4/4 7 5
-vertebral 'iS of shaft, external aspect 11573
Clavicle
Left -area of sternocleidomastoid attachment, superior aspect 1167
-area of trapezius attachment, posterior and posterior-superior aspects 1/67
Scapula
Left -superior border, posterior aspect 1153
-spine, posterior aspect 3/65
-infraspinous fossa, posterior aspect 1/66
-inferior angle, posterior aspect 1152
Right-spine, posterior aspect 1160
Humerus
Left -distal 'iS of shaft, anterior-medial aspect 1/71
-distal 'iS of shaft, anterior, anterior-lateral and lateral aspects 1/71
-proximal Y4 of shaft, medial aspect 1167
-midshaft, lateral aspect 1/72
-lateral epicondyle, lateral aspect 1169
-proximal Y4 of shaft, posterior aspect 1167
Right-shaft, medial aspect 2/70
-shaft, lateral aspect 1/70
-distal Yl of shaft, posterior aspect 1170
Radius
Left -middle Yl of shaft, anterior aspect 1/70
Right-proximal Y4 of shaft, anterior and anterior-lateral aspects 1166
-midshaft, anterior-lateral aspect 1165
Ulna
Left -middle Yl of shaft, anterior-medial aspect 1/73
Right-area of flexor digitorum profundus attachment, anterior and 3/71
medial aspects
-distal Y4 of shaft, posterior-lateral aspect 1165
289
REGION OCCURRENCE
Fint Metacarpal
Right-proximal Y2 of shaft, palmar aspect 1145
Second Metacarpal
Right-border between distal shaft and distal epiphysis, dorsal-medial aspect 1163
Third Metacarpal
Right-border between distal shaft and distal epiphysis, dorsal-medial aspect 1/58
Proximal Hand Phalanges
Left -proximal Y2 of shaft, dorsal aspect 11177
-midshaft, dorsal-lateral aspect 11177
-distal Yl of shaft, palmar-medial aspect 1/177
-distal Y2 of shaft, palmar and palmar-lateral aspects 4/177
-distal % of shaft, dorsal and dorsal-medial aspects 4/177
-border between distal shaft and distal articular surface, 11177
palmar-lateral aspect
-border between distal shaft and distal articular surface, dorsal 2/177
and dorsal-medial aspects
-distal articular surface, dorsal-medial aspect 11177
-distal articular surface, dorsal-lateral aspect 11177
Os Coxae
Right-iliac blade, lateral aspect 1161
-ischial tuberosity, medial aspect 1162
Femur
Left -proximal Y. of shaft, anterior aspect 1159
-shaft, lateral aspect 2/61
-distal Y. of shaft, posterior-medial aspect 1/58
-distal Yz of shaft, posterior-lateral aspect 1158
-shaft, posterior aspect 1161
Right-shaft, anterior aspect 2/59
-distal Y. of shaft, medial aspect 1158
-proximal Yz of shaft, lateral aspect 3/59
-distal Y. of shaft, lateral and posterior-lateral aspects 2/58
Tibia
Right-distal Y2 of shaft, anterior aspect 1169
-proximal Y. of shaft, posterior aspect 1167
Side Indeterminate-shaft, aspect indeterminate 111
REGION
Fibula
Left -proximal Y4 of shaft, near neck, anterior aspect
-proximal Y2 of shaft, anterior-lateral aspect
-shaft, lateral aspect
-proximal Y2 of shaft, posterior aspect
Right-proximal Y4 of shaft, near neck, anterior aspect
-distal '13 of shaft, anterior aspect
-distal Y2 of shaft, lateral aspect
Proximal Foot Phalanges
Left -proximal Y2 of shaft, dorsal aspect
-distal % of shaft, plantar and plantar-lateral aspects
-distal % of shaft, dorsal-lateral aspect
-distal Y4 of shaft, medial aspect
290
OCCURRENCE
1163
1166
1166
1166
1157
1161
1161
1/157
2/157
11157
2/157
291
Table 14. Individuals from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna with Assigned Field Codes and
Cut Marks on Their Cervical Vertebrae.
Throat-Slitting Only
Individual I
Individual 11
Individual IV
Individual VI
Individual XVIII*
Individual XX
Individual XXI
Individual XXII
Individual XXIII
Individual XXV a
Individual XXVII
Individual XXX
Craneo XVIIIa
HG96-5
HG96-10**
HG96-49
HG96-53
HG96-77
HG96-89***
HG96-98
H96-1
H96-24
H96-165
H96-167
Decapitation Only
lndividual3
HG96-1
HG96-10**
HG96-18
HG96-61
HG96-71
HG96-102
Both Throat-Slitting and
Decapitation
Individual XIX
HG96-22
HG96-104
*Two individuals were assigned in error the same field code of XVIII. One has cut
marks on C3, the other has incisions on C2 and C3. Both individuals had their throats
slit.
**The field code HG96-1 0 includes two individuals with cut marks on lower cervical
vertebrae. One individual had his throat slit, the other was decapitated.
***The field code HG96-89 includes multiple individuals. One individual has cut marks
on C3, another has cut marks on C4. Both individuals had their throats slit.
292
Table 15. Quantification of Cut Marks on Identifiable Skeletal Elements from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna.
Bone Affected* %Affected
Frontal 7/25 28.0%
Parietal (left) 2/24 8.3%
Parietal (right) 3/24 12.5%
Temporal (left) 3/25 12.0%
Temporal (right) 3/23 13.0%
Occipital 4/27 14.8%
Skull Vault (indet.) 5/24 20.8%
Nasal (left) 4/19 43.7%
Nasal (right) 4/18 22.2%
Malar (left) 2/25 8.0%
Malar (right) 6/25 24.0%
Maxilla (left) 8125 32.0%
Maxilla (right) 5/25 20.0%
Mandible 10/28 35.7%
Atlas Vertebra 1125 4.0%
Axis Vertebra 4/25 16.0%
C3-C7 Vertebrae 25/161 15.5%
Thoracic Vertebrae 70/399 17.5%
Lumbar Vertebrae 32/160 20.0%
Vertebral Fragments 6/84 7.1%
First Rib (left) 2/24 8.3%
First Rib (right) 3/25 12.0%
Second Rib (left) 2/16 12.5%
Second Rib (right) 1/15 6.6%
Ribs 3-10 (left) 53/189 28.0%
Ribs 3-10 (right) 40/207 19.3%
Ribs 3-10 (indet.) 10/152 6.5%
Ribs 11-12 (left) 10/28 35.7%
Ribs 11-12 (right) 8/28 28.5%
Stemal Body 1/18 5.5%
Clavicle (left) 13/25 52.0%
Clavicle (right) 5/20 25.0%
Scapula (left) 10/21 47.6%
Scapula (right) 10/21 47.6%
Humerus (left) 10/21 47.6%
Humerus (right) 13/26 50.0%
Radius (left) 8/19 42.1%
Radius( right) 10/26 38.4%
Ulna(left) 7/22 31.8%
Ulna (right) 7/21 33.3%
Carpals (left) 7/143 4.8%
Carpals (right) 5/131 3.8%
Bone Affected* % Affected
Metacarpals (left) 9/96 9.3%
Metacarpals (right) 10/77 12.9%
Proximal Hand Phalanges (left) 5/76 6.5%
Proximal Hand Phalanges (right) 6/46 13.0%
Middle Hand Phalanges (left) 8/58 13.7%
Middle Hand Phalanges (right) 8/37 21.6%
Os Coxae (left) 16/30 53.3%
Os Coxae (right) 16/31 51.6%
Sacrum 4/31 12.9%
Femur (left) 23/33 69.6%
Femur (right) 19/29 65.5%
Patella (right) 1124 4.1%
Tibia (left) 15/31 48.3%
Tibia (right) 17/32 53.1%
Fibula (left) 22/30 73.3%
Fibula (right) 18/27 66.6%
Tarsals (left) 15/167 8.9%
Tarsals (right) 9/172 5.2%
Metatarsals (left) 5/111 4.5%
Metatarsals (right) 4/110 3.6%
Proximal Foot Phalanges 11186 0.5%
*The number of elements with cut marks over the number of identifiable elements
present.
293
294
Table 16. The Number of Regions with Cut Marks per Number of Regions Present on
Bones from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
REGION
Frontal
Frontal squama
Left superciliary arch
Right superciliary arch
Area around glabella. including above nasal root
Left orbit, superior and lateral margins
Area of temporalis attachment, left or right
Parietal
Left -superior and posterior to area of temporalis attachment
-near lambdoid suture
Right-superior and posterior to area of temporalis attachment
-near posterior portion of parietal-temporal suture
-adjacent to sagittal suture
Temporal
Left -zygomatic process
-mastoid process
Right-zygomatic process
-temporal squama
Occipital
Occipital squama
Indeterminate Vault Bone Fragment
Nasal
Left
Right
Malar
Left -orbit, lateral margin
-frontal process
-near zygomaticofacial foramen
Right-orbit, lateral margin
-frontal process
-near zygomaticofacial foramen
-area of masseter attachment
OCCURRENCE
4/25
3/23
4/24
2/25
2/24
3/25
1123
1123
2/23
1124
1123
3/25
1124
3/21
1120
4/24
5/24
4/19
4/18
2/25
1125
1125
5/25
1125'
3/23
2/23
295
Rjj;GION OCCURRENCE
Maxilla
Left -frontal process
-zygomatic process
-alveolar process
Right-frontal process
-zygomatic process
-alveolar process
Mandible
Left lateral base of body including mental protruberance
Right lateral base of body including mental protruberance
Left lateral alveolar portion of body
Right lateral alveolar portion of body
Left inferior body
Right inferior body
Left lateral ramus
Right lateral ramus
Right posterior ramus
Right inferior ramus
First Cervical Vertebra
Posterior arch, inferior aspect
Second Cervical Vertebra
Posterior and posterior-lateral dens
Anterior body
Left transverse process, anterior and anterior-lateral aspects
Right transverse process, anterior and anterior-lateral aspects
Right transverse process, posterior-lateral aspect
Left lamina, posterior aspect
Third through Seventh Cervical Vertebrae
Anterior body
Left saddle, anterior aspect
Left superior articular facet, anterior and lateral aspects
Left superior articular facet, posterior aspect
Right superior articular facet, anterior and lateral aspects
Left inferior articular facet, anterior, anterior-inferior and lateral aspects
Right inferior articular facet, lateral aspect
Left transverse process, lateral aspect
Right transverse process, anterior and lateral aspects
Left lamina, lateral and posterior aspects
Right lamina, posterior and posterior-lateral aspect
2/21
2/21
5/25
2/21
1/20
4/25
7/27
4/27
2/27
2/27
2/27
4/27
1/27
2/27
1/27
1/27
1/24
1/24
3/25
3/24
3/24
1/24
1/24
7/151
2/150
6/145
1/145
10/146
3/147
1/145
3/145
5/147
41146
3/145
RGION
Third through Seventh Cervical Vertebrae, continued
Spinous process, posterior and inferior aspects
Thoracic Vertebrae
Left superior articular facet, anterior aspect
Right superior articular facet, anterior aspect
Left transverse process, anterior and inferior aspects
Left transverse process, posterior and posterior-inferior aspects
Right transverse process, posterior aspect
Right transverse process, inferior aspect
Transverse process (side and aspect indeterminate)
Right pedicle, adjacent to or bisecting rib facet, lateral aspect
Right lamina, posterior aspect
Spinous process, left lateral aspect
Spinous process, right lateral aspect
Spinous process, midline
Lumbar Vertebrae
Left transverse process, posterior aspect
Right transverse process, posterior aspect
Transverse process (side and aspect indeterminate)
Right pedicle, lateral aspect
Right lamina, posterior aspect
Spinous process, left lateral aspect
Spinous process, right lateral aspect
Vertebral Fragment
Transverse process
First Rib
Left -area of middle scalene attachment, superior aspect
-area of supraplural membrane attachment, superior aspect
Right-area of middle scalene attachment, superior aspect
-neck, inferior aspect
296
OCCURRENCE
3/148
1/349
1/349
6/337
25/337
3/340
25/340
5/340
111
51365
7/354
10/353
13/350
7/350
8/350
8/139
11/139
6/136
4/136
2/2
11150
3/150
8/150
41150
4/150
6/22
1124
1124
2/23
1123
REGION
Second Rib
Left -sternal of shaft, superior aspect
-vertebral Yz of shaft, superior aspect
Right-sternal Y.. of shaft, superior aspect
Third though Tenth Ribs
Left -sternal Yz of shaft, superior and superior-external aspect
-sternal Yz of shaft, external aspect
-midshaft, external aspect
-vertebral Yz of shaft, external aspect
-angle, external aspect
-below tubercle, inferior aspect
Right-sterna! Yz of shaft, external aspect
-vertebral Y4 of shaft, internal aspect
-tubercle, external aspect
-neck, external aspect
-neck, internal aspect
Side indeterminate-shaft, external aspect
Eleventh and Twelfth Ribs
Left -sterna! Yz of shaft, external aspect
Right-sterna! Yz of shaft, external aspect
Sternum
Sterna! body, distal end, anterior aspect
Clavicle
297
OCCURRENCE
1115
1115
1114
4/137
12/137
7/137
36/164
5/137
11168
4/141
3/141
51141
24/163
3/163
4/175
11176
6/176
10/152
6/28
1128
7/28
3/28
1128
7/28
1118
Left -sterna! Yz of shaft, superior aspect 2/23
-area of trapezius attachment, superior and posterior aspects 4/22
-area of pectoralis major attachment, superior and anterior aspects 5/25
-area of deltoid attachment, anterior and inferior aspects 6/22
-sternal Yz of shaft, posterior aspect 2/23
-area of conoid ligament attachment, inferior aspect 1122
-area of subclavius and clavipectoral fascia attachment, inferior aspect 1125
Right-acromial Yz of shaft, superior aspect 1117
-area of pectoralis major attachment, anterior and inferior aspects 2/20
298
REGION OCCURRENCE
Clavicle, continued
Right-area of deltoid attachment, anterior aspect 1/17
-area of trapezius attachment, posterior aspect 1/17
-sternal Y2 of shaft, posterior-inferior aspect 1120
Scapula
Left -subscapular fossa, anterior aspect 5/19
-axillary border, anterior aspect 2/20
-axillary border, posterior aspect 4/20
-acromion, lateral aspect 1120
-supraspinous fossa, posterior aspect 1/19
-medial border, posterior aspect 1/19
-infraspinous fossa, posterior aspect 8/19
Right-subscapular fossa, anterior aspect 5/18
-axillary border, anterior aspect 1/20
-axillary border, posterior aspect 5/20
-acromion, lateral aspect 3/20
-superior angle, posterior aspect 1118
-superior border, posterior aspect 1118
-supraspinous fossa, posterior aspect 1/18
-infraspinous fossa, posterior aspect 6118
Humerus
Left -surgical neck, posterior-medial aspect 1/19
-proximal 'lS of shaft, anterior aspect 1/20
-midshaft, anterior and anterior-medial aspects 2/21
-distal Y2 of shaft, anterior and anterior-lateral aspects 7/20
-proximal Y2 of shaft, medial aspect 4/21
-proximal Y.. of shaft, lateral aspect 1120
-distal 'lS of shaft, lateral aspect 1120
-proximal Yz of shaft, posterior aspect 3/21
-midshaft, posterior aspect 2/21
-distal Yz of shaft, posterior and posterior-medial aspects 3/20
-medial supracondylar ridge 1120
-lateral supracondylar ridge 2/20
-lateral epicondyle, posterior aspect 2/21
Right-greater tubercle, lateral aspect 1/22
-lesser tubercle, anterior aspect 1122
-proximal Yz of shaft, anterior aspect 3/25
-distal Yz of shaft, anterior and anterior-medial aspects 6/25
-proximal Yz of shaft, medial aspect 3/25
299
REGION OCCURRENCE
llummerus,contbmued
Right-proximal Y-1 of shaft, lateral aspect 2/24
-distal Y2 of shaft, lateral aspect 1/25
-proximal Y-1 of shaft, posterior and posterior-lateral aspects 5/24
-proximal Y2 of shaft, posterior-medial aspect 1/24
-distal Y2 of shaft, posterior and posterior-medial aspects 6/25
-medial supracondylar ridge 1/25
-lateral supracondylar ridge 2/25
-medial epicondyle, anterior and medial aspects 2/25
-medial epicondyle, posterior aspect 2/24
Radius
Left -head, anterior aspect 1/19
-neck, anterior aspect 1/19
-neck, posterior aspect 3/19
-proximal Y3 of shaft, anterior and anterior-lateral aspects 2/19
-distal Y2 of shaft, anterior aspect 2/19
-proximal Y2 of shaft, lateral aspect 1/19
-distal Y2 of shaft, lateral aspect 2/19
-proximal Y3 of shaft, posterior and posterior-lateral aspects 2/19
-distal Y-1 of shaft, posterior aspect 1/19
-styloid process, posterior aspect 1/18
Right-head, posterior aspect 1/24
-neck, anterior aspect 1/24
-neck, lateral and posterior-lateral aspects 3/24
-proximal Y3 of shaft, anterior and anterior-lateral aspect 2/24
-midshaft, anterior aspect 2/24
-distal Yz of shaft, anterior aspect 4/23
-proximal Y-1 of shaft, lateral aspect 3/24
-midshaft, lateral aspect 1/24
-proximal Y3 of shaft, posterior and posterior-lateral aspects 3/24
-distal Y2 of shaft, posterior and posterior-lateral aspects 4/23
-styloid process, posterior aspect 1/23
Ulna
Left -proximal Vz of shaft, anterior and anterior-medial aspects 2/21
-distal Yz of shaft, anterior and anterior-medial aspects 1/21
-distal Yz of shaft, anterior-lateral aspect 1/21
-proximal Yz of shaft, medial aspect 4/21
-distal Yz of shaft, medial aspect 3/21
-proximal Y3 of shaft, lateral and posterior-lateral aspects 1121
-distal Yz of shaft, lateral aspect 2/21
REGION
Ulna, continued
Left -area of anconeus attachment, posterior aspect
-proximal Y4 of shaft, posterior and posterior-medial aspects
-distal Y4 of shaft, aspect indeterminate
Right-coronoid process, anterior and medial aspects
-proximal % of shaft, anterior-medial and medial aspects
-area of anconeus attachment, posterior aspect
-midshaft, posterior aspect
Scaphoid
Left -radial articular surface, proximal aspect
-dorsal aspect
Right-radial articular surface, proximal aspect
-tubercle, proximal aspect
-tubercle, dorsal aspect
Lunate
Left -radial articular surface, lateral aspect
-dorsal aspect
Right-radial articular surface, proximal aspect
Hamate
Left -hamulus, palmar aspect
Capitate
Left -head, dorsal aspect
Right-head, dorsal aspect
Triquetral
Left -dorsal aspect
Right-dorsal aspect
Trapezium
Left -tubercle, palmar aspect
First Metacarpal
Left -proximal Y2 of shaft, palmar aspect
-distal Y2 of shaft, palmar aspect
-distal Y4 of shaft, dorsal aspect
-distal articular surface, dorsal aspect
300
OCCURRENCE
3/21
2/21
l/21
2/21
4/21
l/19
3/21
1/21
1117
1/17.
1120
1120
1120
1117
1117
1/18
1/20
1119
1/14
1117
1/16
2/17
1117
1/17
1117
1117
REGION
First Metacarpal, continued
Right-proximal Y2 of shaft, palmar aspect
-distal Y4 of shaft, palmar aspect
-distal articular surface, palmar and lateral aspects
Second Metacarpal
Left -midshaft, palmar aspect
Right-proximal Y2 of shaft, dorsal aspect
-distal articular surface, dorsal aspect
Third Metacarpal
301
OCCURRENCE
1/14
1114
1/14
2/14
1/21
1/14
2/14
1/12
Left -distal Y4 of shaft, dorsal aspect 1/21
-distal articular surface, dorsal aspect 1120
Right-distal Y4 of shaft, dorsal aspect 1/18
-border between distal shaft and distal epiphysis, palmar-medial 1117
aspect
Fourth Metacarpal
Left -proximal Y4 of shaft, dorsal aspect 1/18
-distal articular surface, lateral aspect 1/18
Right-proximal Y4 of shaft, dorsal aspect 1/16
Fifth Metacarpal
Left -midshaft, palmar aspect 1/18
-proximal Y2 of shaft, dorsal aspect 1/18
-border between distal shaft and distal epiphysis, palmar-medial 1/18
aspect
Right-distal Y2 of shaft, palmar aspect 1/15
-distal Y2 of shaft, dorsal aspect 1115
-border between distal shaft and distal epiphysis, palmar-medial 1/14
aspect
-distal articular surface, medial aspect 1/14
Proximal Hand Phalanges
Left -midshaft, dorsal aspect 1176
-distal Y2 of shaft, dorsal and dorsal-lateral aspects 4175
-border between distal shaft and distal articular surface, palmar aspect 1174
-border between distal shaft and distal articular surface, 217 4
dorsal and dorsal-medial aspects
-distal articular surface, palmar aspect 1174
-distal articular surface, dorsal aspect 217 4
302
REGION OCCURRENCE
Proximal Hand Phalanges, continued
Right-proximal Y2 of shaft, dorsal aspect 1146
-midshaft, palmar aspect 1146
-midshaft, dorsal-medial aspect 1146
-midshaft, dorsal-lateral aspect 2/46
-distal Y2 of shaft, palmar aspect 1146
-distal Y2 of shaft, dorsal and dorsal-lateral aspects 3/46
-border between distal shaft and distal articular surface, 1146
distal-lateral aspect
-distal articular surface, palmar aspect 1146
-distal articular surface, dorsal aspect 2/46
Middle Hand Phalanges
Left -midshaft, dorsal aspect 1158
-distal Y2 of shaft, palmar and palmar-medial aspects 2/58
-distal of shaft, palmar-lateral aspect 2/58
-distal of shaft, dorsal and dorsal-medial aspects 2/58
-border between distal shaft and distal articular surface, 1/58
palmar-lateral aspect
-border between distal shaft and distal articular surface, dorsal and 2/58
dorsal-medial aspects
-distal articular surface, palmar aspect 1/58
-distal articular surface, dorsal and dorsal-medial aspects 4/58
Right-distal of shaft, palmar aspect 2/36
-distal of shaft, dorsal-lateral aspect 1136
-border between distal shaft and distal articular surface, 3/36
dorsal and dorsal-lateral aspects
-distal articular surface, medial aspect 1136
-distal articular surface, dorsal and dorsal-medial aspects 3/36
-distal articular surface, dorsal-lateral aspect 1/36
Os Coxae
Left
Medial aspect-area of transversus abdominis attachment
-iliac fossa
-iliopubic ramus
-on or immediately superior to ischial tuberosity
Lateral aspect-area of external oblique attachment
-anterior superior iliac spine
-area of gluteal muscles attachment
-area of piriformis attachment
3/29
7/28
1129
1128
3/29
1/27
11/29
1128
303
REGION OCCURRENCE
Os Coxae, continued
Left
Lateral aspect-on or near rim of acetabulum 4/29
-obturator crest 3/29
-iliopubic ramus 4/29
-body of pubis 2/27
-anterior margin of obturator foramen 3/27
-inferior margin of obturator foramen 2/25
-posterior margin of obturator foramen 1124
-ischiopubic ramus 3/24
-on or immediately superior to ischial tuberosity 3/28
Right
Medial aspect-area of transversus abdominis attachment 1/29
-area of quadratus lumborum attachment 1129
-anterior inferior iliac spine 1129
-iliac fossa 6/29
-arcuate line 1129
-iliopubic eminence 2/29
-body of ischium 1/28
Lateral aspect-area of external oblique attachment 3/29
-anterior inferior iliac spine 1128
-area of gluteal muscles attachment 9/29
-area of piriformis attachment 1/28
-on or near rim of acetabulum 5/29
-iliopubic ramus 1126
-body of pubis 1/26
-posterior margin of obturator foramen 2/28
-ischiopubic ramus 2/24
-ischial spine 1129
Sacrum
Area of erector spinae attachment, posterior aspect 3/29
Area of gluteaus maximus attachment, posterior aspect 2/28
Sacral cornu, posterior aspect 1128
Femur
Left -neck, anterior aspect 2/30
-neck, medial aspect 2/30
-neck, posterior aspect 2/30
-greater trochanter, superior, superior-anterior and anterior aspects 1/30
-greater trochanter, posterior aspect 1/30
BEG ION
Femur, continued
Left -lesser trochanter, posterior aspect
-proximal Y2 of shaft, anterior and anterior-medial aspects
-proximal Yl of shaft, anterior-lateral aspect
-distal Y2 of shaft, anterior and anterior-medial aspects
-m.idshaft, anterior-lateral aspect
-distal Y2 of shaft, anterior-lateral aspect
-proximal Yl of shaft, medial aspect
-distallf.t of shaft, medial aspect
-proximal Y2 of shaft, lateral aspect
-midshaft, posterior-medial aspect
-distal Y2 of shaft, posterior and posterior-medial aspects
-distal Y2 of shaft, posterior-lateral aspect
Right-rim of head, anterior aspect
-rim of head, posterior aspect
-neck, superior, superior-anterior and anterior aspects
-neck, posterior aspect
-greater trochanter, posterior aspect
-lesser trochanter, posterior aspect
-proximal Yl of shaft, anterior and anterior-medial aspects
-midshaft, anterior aspect
-distal Y2 of shaft, anterior and anterior-medial aspects
-distal Y2 of shaft, anterior-lateral aspect
-proximal Y2 of shaft, medial aspect
-midshaft, medial aspect
- midshaft, lateral aspect
-proximal Yl of shaft, posterior and posterior-lateral aspects
-midshaft, posterior and posterior-medial aspects
-distal Y4 of shaft, posterior-lateral aspect
Patella
Right-apex, posterior aspect
304
OCCURRENCE
2/27
13/29
3/29
8/28
1128
1129
6/29
4/28
14/29
6/28
7/29
1128
13/28
3/28
1127
1127
3/27
2/27
6/26
4/25
9/28
4/28
1128
5/28
2/28
6/28
1128
2/27
12/28
2/28
9/28
11128
2/28
7/28
1127
1124
REGION
Tibia
Left -proximal Y4 of shaft, anterior aspect
-middle V3 of shaft, anterior aspect
-distal Y2 of shaft, anterior aspect
-across or adjacent to popliteal line, posterior aspect
-middle V3 of shaft, posterior aspect
-medial malleolus, anterior aspect
Right-proximal Y2 of shaft, anterior aspect
-distal Y2 of shaft, anterior aspect
-proximal Y4 of shaft, medial aspect
-middle Yl of shaft, lateral aspect
-across or adjancent to popliteal line, posterior aspect
-proximal Yz of shaft, posterior aspect
-distal Yz of shaft, posterior and posterior-medial aspects
-medial malleolus, medial aspect
Fibula
Left -styloid process, posterior aspect
-neck, anterior and anterior-lateral aspects
-neck, lateral and posterior-lateral aspects
-neck, posterior and posterior-medial aspects
-proximal Yz of shaft, anterior and anterior-medial aspects
-midshaft, anterior aspect
-distal Yz of shaft, anterior and anterior-lateral aspects
-midshaft, medial aspect
-proximal V3 of shaft, lateral and posterior-lateral aspects
-midshaft, lateral aspect
-distal Yz of shaft, lateral aspect
-proximal Yz of shaft, posterior and posterior-medial aspects
-distal Yz of shaft, posterior and posterior-lateral aspects
-articular surface of lateral malleolus, medial aspect
-lateral malleolus, anterior aspect
-lateral malleolus, lateral aspect
-lateral malleolus, posterior and posterior-lateral aspects
305
OCCURRENCE
1127
1129
5/29
1129
1129
4/29
6/29
2/29
5/29
1130
4/27
5/28
2/27
2/28
5/27
3/27
1128
4/28
1127
2/23
4/23
3/23
3/23
2/28
1126
1128
3/29
1128
1128
4/28
1128
6/29
10/28
2/28
10/29
1130
1130
2/30
2/30
306
REGION OCCURRENCE
Fibula, continued
Right-head, anterior aspect 2/22
-head, lateral aspect 2/22
-neck, anterior and anterior-lateral aspects 3/25
-neck, lateral aspect 5/25
-neck, posterior aspect 1125
-proximal Y2 of shaft, anterior and anterior-lateral aspects 6/25
-midshaft, anterior and anterior-lateral aspects 1/25
-distal Yz of shaft, anterior-lateral aspect 1125
-distal Y3 of shaft, medial aspect 2/24
-proximal Yz of shaft, lateral and posterior-lateral aspects 9/25
-middle Y3 of shaft, lateral aspect 3/25
-distal Yz of shaft, lateral aspect 5/25
-proximal Yz of shaft, posterior and posterior-medial aspects 8/25
-distal Yz of shaft, posterior and posterior-lateral aspects 7/25
-distal Yz of shaft, posterior-medial aspect 1125
Calcaneus
Left -near margin of posterior talar articular surface, dorsal aspect 2/25
-medial aspect 1/24
-area of short plantar ligament attachment, plantar aspect 1125
-calcaneal tuber, posterior aspect 1124
Right-near margin of posterior talar articular surface, dorsal aspect 2/26
-near margin of cuboid facet, dorsal-lateral aspect 1126
-area of long plantar ligament attachment, plantar aspect 1/26
-near margin of middle talar articular surface, plantar aspect 1/26
Talus
Left -head, dorsal-lateral aspect 1/24
-neck, dorsal aspect 1/24
-medial margin of trochlea, dorsal aspect 1/24
-lateral margin of trochlea and lateral malleolar surface, 1/24
dorsal-lateral aspect
-lateral body, dorsal aspect 2/24
-lateral tubercle, dorsal aspect 4/24
Right-head, medial aspect 1/26
-medial margin of trochlea and medial malleolar surface, 1/26
dorsal-medial aspect
-posterior-medial margin of trochlea, dorsal aspect 1/26
-lateral malleolar surface, lateral aspect 2/26
-lateral body, dorsal aspect 2/26
-lateral tubercle, dorsal aspect 3/26
307
REGION OCCURRENCE
Cuboid
Left -dorsal aspect 1126
-area of long plantar ligament attachment, plantar aspect 1/26
Right-dorsal aspect 1122
Navicular
Left -dorsal aspect 1/26
-dorsal margin of talar facet, dorsal aspect 1/26
Medial Cuneiform
Left -dorsal aspect 1121
-plantar aspect 1121
Lateral Cuneiform
Left -dorsal aspect 1/21
First Metatarsal
Left -proximal Y4 of shaft, medial aspect 1124
-distal Y3 of shaft, dorsal and dorsal-medial aspects 1123
Right-proximal Y3 of shaft, plantar aspect 1119
-distal articular surface, plantar aspect 1/19
Second Metatarsal
Left -border between distal shaft and distal epiphysis, dorsal-medial 1120
aspect
Third Metatarsal
Left -distal Y2 of shaft, dorsal aspect 1122
-border between distal shaft and distal epiphysis, dorsal aspect 1122
Fifth Metatarsal
Left -distal Y4 of shaft, plantar aspect 1120
-border between distal shaft and distal epiphysis, plantar aspect 1120
Right-distal Y2 of shaft, dorsal aspect 1/23
-distal Y4 of shaft, plantar aspect 1123
First Proximal Foot Phalanx
Side indeterminate-proximal Y4 of shaft, dorsal aspect 114
308
Table 17. Possible Torture and Mutilation Suffered by Individuals with Cut Marks on
Bones of the Face from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
Individual
HG99-3
HG99-5
HG99-6
Slash Wounds
Around Eyes
El2
El3
El5
Flaying of
Cheeks
El8
Hl7 SKI
H27 SK2
Lacerations to/
Removal of Nose
IB17*
*In this case, IB 17 refers to a surface collected partial cranium.
Removal of
Upper Lip
Table 18. Bones with Cut Marks from the Cuarto de Ios Craneos, Dos Cabezas: Tyson and Cordy-Collins (1998) vs. This Author.
Individual #
E-1S-1
E-1S-2
E-1S-3
E-1S-4
E-1S-S
E-1S-S
E-1S-6
E-1S-7
E-1S-8
E-1S-9
E-1S-10
E-1S-11
E-1S-12
E-1S-13
E-1S-13
E-1S-13
E-1S-13
E-1S-13
E-1S-14
E-1S-1S
E-1S-16
E-1S-16
E-1S-17
E-1S-18
Bone with Cut Mark(s)
Tyson & Cordy-Collins 1998 This Author
CS
C6
CS
C7
C4
C4
CS
C6
CS
Mandible
C2
C3
C6
C7
Malar, left
C7
NI A*
Number of Cut Marks Observed on Bone
Tyson & Cordy-Collins 1998 This Author
1
1
1
3
3
1
1
1
1
4
2
1
4
4
11
3
NI A*
*E-1S-17 was not included in my data sample; therefore, no observations were possible for this individual.
w

Table 19. Summary of Cut Marks on Faunal Bones from Huaca de la Luna, El Brujo and Pacatnamu and Comparison with Binford's
(1981) Inventory of Skinning and Butchering Marks.
ELEMENT
Skull Vault
Atlas Vertebra
Ventral arch
Cervical Vertebra
Superior articular facet, ventral and ventral-lateral aspects
Thoracic Vertebra
Superior articular facet, lateral aspect
Transverse process, lateral aspect
Lamina, lateral aspect
Lumbar Vertebrae
Superior articular facet, ventral, lateral and dorsal aspects
Body, ventral aspect
Transverse process, ventral, dorsal and dorsal-lateral aspects
Pedicle, lateral aspect
Lamina, lateral and dorsal aspects
Inferior articular facet, ventral, lateral and dorsal aspects
Spinous process, lateral aspect
ACTIVITY
PRODUCING MARK
Food preparation
Dismembering
Dismembering
Dismembering
Dismembering
Dismembering
Dismembering
Dismembering
Filleting/Dismembering
Dismembering
Dismembering
Filleting
BINFORD (1981:136-142)
TABLE 4.04 CODE NUMBER
TV-2
w
-0
ELEMENT
Vertebrae (Untyped) and Vertebral Fragments
Superior articular facet, ventral aspect
Body, ventral-lateral aspect
Transverse process, dorsal aspect
Transverse process, inferior aspect
Inferior articular facet, ventral aspect
Sacrum
Sacral body, ventral aspect
Ribs
Head, ventral aspect
Neck, dorsal aspect
Tubercle, ventral and dorsal aspects
Vertebral Y-l of the shaft, near head, ventral aspect
Vertebral Y2 of shaft, ventral aspect
Vertebral Y2 of shaft, dorsal aspect
Stemal Y2 of shaft, dorsal aspect
Scapula
Axillary border, ventral aspect
Infraspinous fossa, dorsal aspect
Os Coxae
Ilium, lateral aspect
Iliopubic ramus, ventral aspect
Near rim of acetabulum, ventral aspect
ACTIVITY
PRODUCING MARK
Dismembering
Dismembering
Dismembering
Dismembering
Dismembering
Dismembering
Dismembering
Dismembering
Dismembering
Filleting
Filleting
Filleting
Dismembering
Filleting
Dismembering
Dismembering
Dismembering
BINFORD (1981:136-142)
TV-5
RS-3
RS-1
S-2
S-3
PS-7
PS-10
PS-10
w
-
-
ELEMENT
Humerus
Proximal ~ of the shaft, anterior aspect
Proximal ~ of the shaft, lateral and posterior aspects
Distal ~ of the shaft, anterior aspect
Distal V4 of the shaft, anterior aspect
Distal V4 of the shaft, medial aspect
Distal Y3 of the shaft, lateral aspect
Distal V4 of the shaft, posterior aspect
Medial condyle, anterior aspect
Medial condyle, anterior-medial and medial aspects
Medial condyle, inferior aspect
Lateral condyle, anterior aspect
Lateral condyle, lateral and posterior aspects
Lateral condyle, inferior aspect
Radius-Ulna
Anterior margin of the radial tuberosities
Proximal V4 of the shaft, anterior aspect
Proximal V4 of the shaft, posterior aspect
Lat condyle, lateral aspect
Shaft (aspect indet.)
Femur
Ball of head, anterior and posterior aspects
Margin of head, anterior aspect
e e ~ medial aspect
Lesser trochanter, medial aspect
ACTIVITY
PRODUCING MARK
Filleting
Filleting
Filleting
Dismembering
Dismembering
Filleting
Dismembering
Dismembering
Dismembering
Dismembering
Dismembering
Dismembering
Dismembering
Dismembering
Filleting
Filleting
Dismembering
Filleting
Dismembering
Dismembering
Dismembering
Filleting
BINFORD (1981:136-142)
Hd-6
Hd-2
Hd-3
Hd-1
Hd-2
Hd-1
Hd-4
RCp-5
RCp-6
RCp-7
RCd-3
Fp-2
Fp-3
Fp-1
Fp-4
w
-N
ELEMENT
Femur, continued
Prox Y4 of the shaft, medial aspect
Prox Y4 shaft, ant, med, lat, post, post-lat
Shaft (portion indet.), posterior aspect
Tibia
Tibial crest, anterior aspect
Proximal Y4 of the shaft, posterior aspect
Shaft (aspect indet.)
Long Bone
Shaft(aspect indet.)
Astragalus
Distal trochlea, anterior aspect
Between proximal and distal trochleae, anterior aspect
Medial aspect
Calcaneal articular surface, posterior aspect
Calcaneus
Distal process, anterior aspect
Proximal to lateral malleolus articular surface, anterior aspect
Lateral malleolus articular surface, lateral aspect
Near cuboidal articular surface, anterior aspect
Body, lateral and posterior aspects
Calcaneal tuber, posterior aspect
ACTIVITY
PRODUCING MARK
Filleting
Filleting
Filleting
Filleting
Filleting
Filleting
Filleting
Dismembering
Dismembering
Dismembering
Dismembering
Dismembering
Filleting
Dismembering
Dismembering
Dismembering
BINFORD (1981:136-142)
Fp-6
TA-l
TA-2
TC-1
TC-3
TC-1
TC-2
w
,_.
w
ELEMENT
Cuboid
Anterior aspect
Fibulare
ACTIVITY
PRODUCING MARK
Dismembering
Dismembering
BINFORD (1981:136-142)
1NC-1
w
.....
,.J::I.
315
Table 20. Sample Size, Mean and Standard Deviation for Cut Mark Samples (n 6) in
Assemblage, Separated by Width, Depth and Depth/Width Ratio.
I
N Mean Std. Deviation
Width El Brujo 6 .45 .21
Plaza3A 42 .51 .33
Plaza 3C Above Floor 90 .45 .23
Plaza 3C Below Floor 66 .39 .17
Pacatnamu Group TI 6 .46 .18
El Brujo Faunal 20 .48 .25
Plaza 3C Faunal 23 .48 .20
Total 253 .45 .24
Depth ElBrujo 6 .15 .06
Plaza3A 42 .17 .11
Pacatnamu Group TI 6 .20 .10
Total 253 .16 .09
Depth/Width El Brujo 6 .36 .14
Plaza3A 42 .34 .12
Pacatnamu Group 11 6 .43 .10
Total 253 .37 .13
Table 21. ANOV A of Cut Mark Samples in AssemblaJ;le (n = 253).
I
Sum of Mean
Squares df Square F
p
TS Width Between Groups .460 6 .077 1.400 .215
Within Groups 13.471 246 .055
Total 13.931 252
TS Depth Between Groups .141 6 .024 3.038 .007
Total 2.049 252
Depth/Width Between Groups .409 6 .068 4.557 <.001
Total 4.088 252
316
Table 22. Sample Size, Mean and Standard Deviation for Cut Marks on Moche Human
Remains, Lambayeque Human Bones and Faunal Remains, Separated by Width, Depth
and Depth/Width Ratio.
I
Width M oche 208 .44 .24
Lambayeque 9 .58 .29
Faunal 46 .48 .23
Total 263 .45 .24
Depth M oche 208 .15 .09
Faunal 46 .20 .11
Total 263 .16 .09
Depth/Width Moche 208 .35 .11
Faunal 46 .44 .18
Total 263 .37 .13
Table 23. ANOVA of Cut Marks on Moche Human Remains, Lambayeque Human
Remains and Faunal Elements (n = 263).
I
Sum of
df
Mean
F
p
Squares Square
Width Between Groups .189 2 .095 1.668 .191
Total 14.927 262
Depth Between Groups .148 2 .074 8.982 <.001
Total 2.290 262
Depth/Width Between Groups .301 2 .150 9.416 <.001
Total 4.449 262
317
Table 24. Sample Size, Mean and Standard Deviation for Cut Marks on Human Axial
and Appendicular Bones, Separated by Width, Depth and Depth/Width Ratio.
I
Width Axial 108 .44 .26
Appendicular 109 .46 .22
Total 217 .45 .24
Depth Axial 108 .15 .09
Total 217 .16 .09
Depth/Width Axial 108 .35 .11
Total 217 .36 .11
Table 25. ANOVA of Cut Marks on Human Axial and Appendicular Bones (n = 217).
I
Sum of
df Mean Square F
p
Squares
Width Between Groups .007 I .007 .112 .738
Total 12.531 216
Depth Between Groups .007 1 .007 .934 .335
Total 1.654 216
Depth/Width Between Groups .011 1 .011 .848 .358
Total 2.749 216
318
Table 26. Sample Size, Mean and Standard Deviation for Cut Marks on Faunal Axial
and Appendicular Bones, Separated by Width, Depth and Depth/Width Ratio.
I
Total 46 .48 .23
Total 46 .20 .11
Total 46 .44 .18
Table 27. ANOVA of Cut Marks on Faunal Axial and Appendicular Bones (n = 46).
I
Sum of
df Mean Square F
p
Squares
Total 2.365 45
Depth Between Groups .017 1 .017 1.402 .243
Within Groups .529 44 .012
Total .546 45
Depth/Width Between Groups .001 I .001 .039 .844
Total 1.431 45
Table 28. Sample Size, Mean and Standard Deviation for Cut Marks on Human and
Faunal Axial Bones, Separated by Width, Depth and Depth/Width Ratio.
Width Human 108 .44
Faunal 16 .43
Total 124 .44
Depth Human 108 .15
Faunal 16 .18
Total 124 .15
Depth/Width Human 108 .35
Faunal 16 .45
Total 124 .36
Table 29. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human and Faunal Axial Bones (n = 124).
I
Sum of
df
Mean
F
p
Squares Square
Width Between Groups .004 1 .004 .064
Total 8.101 123
Depth Between Groups .011 1 .011 1.325
Total 1.051 123
Depth/Width Between Groups .135 1 .135 7.893
Total 2.228 123
319
.26
.23
.26
.09
.10
.09
.11
.22
.13
.801
.252
.006
Faunal Appendicular Bones, Separated by Width, Depth and Depth/Width Ratio.
Width Human 109 .46
Faunal 30 .51
Total 139 .47
Depth Human 109 .16
Faunal 30 .22
Total 139 .17
Faunal 30 .44
Total 139 .38
320
.22
.23
.22
.08
.11
.09
.11
.16
.13
Table 31. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human and Faunal Appendicular Bones (n = 139).
I
Sum of
df
Mean
F
p
Squares Square
Total 6.788 138
Total 1.213 138
Depth/Width Between Groups .127 1 .127 8.362 .004
Total 2.202 138
321
Table 32. Sample Size, Mean and Standard Deviation for Cut Marks on Human Upper
Long Bones, Lower Long Bones and Non-Long Bones, Separated by Width, Depth and
Depth/Width Ratio.
I
Width Upper Long Bone 27 .40 .17
Lower Long Bone 49 .46 .22
Non-Long Bone 141 .45 .26
Total 217 .45 .24
Depth Upper Long Bone 27 .13 .07
Total 217 .16 .09
Depth/Width Upper Long Bone 27 .32 .11
Total 217 .36 .11
Table 33. ANOVA of Cut Marks on Human Upper Long Bones, Lower Long Bones and
Non-Long Bones (n = 217).
I
Sum of
df
Mean
F
p
Squares Square
Width
Between
.081 2 .041 .698 .499
Groups
Total 12.531 216
Depth
Between
.024 2 .012 1.607 .203
Groups
Total 1.654 216
Depth/Width
Between
.032 2 .016 1.271 .283
Groups
Total 2.749 216
322
Table 34. Sample Size, Mean and Standard Deviation for Cut Marks on Faunal Upper
Long Bones, Lower Long Bones and Non-Long Bones, Separated by Width, Depth and
Depth/Width Ratio.
I
Total 44 .48 .23
Total 44 .21 .11
Total 44 .45 .18
Table 35. ANOVA of Cut Marks on Faunal Upper Long Bones, Lower Long Bones and
Non-Long Bones (n = 44).
I
Sum of
df
Mean
F
p
Squares Square
Total 2.321 43
Total .511 43
Total 1.332 43
Faunal Upper Long Bones, Separated by Width, Depth and Depth/Width Ratio.
Width Human 27 .40 .17
Faunal 11 .60 .28
Total 38 .46 .22
Depth Human 27 .13 .07
Faunal 11 .25 .13
Total 38 .16 .10
Depth/Width Human 27 .32 .11
Faunal 11 .44 .14
Total 38 .36 .13
Table 37. ANOVA of Cut Marks on Human and Faunal Upper Long Bones (n = 38).
I
Sum of
df
Mean
F
p
Squares Square
Width Between Groups .305 1 .305 7.108
Total 1.849 37
323
.011
Depth Between Groups .120 1 .120 15.080 <.001
Total .407 37
Total .646 37
Faunal Lower Long Bones, Separated by Width, Depth and Depth/Width Ratio.
I
Width Human 49 .46
Faunal 9 .43
Total 58 .46
Depth Human 49 .16
Faunal 9 .20
Total 58 .17
Faunal 9 .47
Total 58 .37
324
.22
.07
.20
.08
.09
.08
.11
.17
.13
Table 39. ANOVA of Cut Marks on Human and Faunal Lower Long Bones (n =58).
I
Sum of
df
Mean
F
p
Squares Square
Width Between Groups .011 1 .011 .267 .608
Total 2.324 57
Total .359 57
Total .900 57
Faunal Non-Long Bones, Separated by Width, Depth and Depth/Width Ratio.
l
Width Human 141 .45
Faunal 24 .46
Total 165 .45
Depth Human 141 .16
Faunal 24 .19
Total 165 .17
Fauna! 24 .45
Total 165 .37
325
.26
.24
.26
.09
.11
.10
.11
.20
.13
Table 41. ANOVA of Cut Marks on Human and Faunal Non-Long Bones (n = 165).
I
Sum of
df
Mean
F
p
Squares Square
Total 10.723 164
Total 1.508 164
Total 2.850 164
326
Table 42. Sample Size, Mean and Standard Deviation for Cut Marks on Human Bones,
from Huaca de la Luna and Other Moche Sites, Separated by Width, Depth and
Depth/Width Ratio.
l
Width Other Moche Sites 10 .43 .18
Huaca de la Luna 198 .44 .24
Total 208 .44 .24
Depth Other Moche Sites 10 .14 .05
Total 208 .15 .09
Depth/Width Other Moche Sites 10 .35 .11
Total 208 .35 .11
Table 43. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human Bones from Huaca de la Luna and Other
Moche Sites (n = 208).
I
Sum of
df
Mean
F
p
Squares Square
Total 11.715 207
Total 1.498 207
Total 2.632 207
Table 44. Comparative Means and Standard Deviations for Cut Marks on Human
Axial and Appendicular Bones from Huaca de la Luna and Other Moche Sites,
Separated by Width, Depth and Depth/Width Ratio.
327
Provenience
I I
Width Depth Depth/Width
Other Moche Sites Axial Mean .48 .13 .30
N 6 6 6
Std. Deviation .21 .04 .09
Append Mean .35 .15 .43
N 4 4 4
Total Mean .43 .14 .35
N 10 10 10
Huaca de la Luna Axial Mean .44 .15 .35
N 98 98 98
Append Mean .45 .16 .36
N 100 100 lOO
N 198 198 198
328
Table 45. Comparative Means and Standard Deviations for Cut Marks on Human Upper
Long Bones, Lower Long Bones and Non-Long Bones from Huaca de la Luna and Other
Moche Sites, Separated by Width, Depth and Depth/Width Ratio.
Provenience I Cut Mark Location
I
Width Depth Depth/Width
Other Moche Sites Lower Long Bone Mean .27 .11 .40
N 2 2 2
Non-Long Bone Mean .47 .15 .34
N 8 8 8
N 10 10 10
Huaca de la Luna Upper Long Bone Mean .40 .13 .32
N 27 27 27
Lower Long Bone Mean .47 .16 .35
N 47 47 47
Non-Long Bone Mean .44 .16 .36
N 124 124 124
N 198 198 198
329
Table 46. Sample Size, Mean and Standard Deviation for Cut Marks on Human Bones,
from Plaza 3A and Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna, Separated by Width, Depth and
Depth/Width Ratio.
I
Width Plaza3A 42 .51 .33
Plaza 3C 156 .43 .21
Total 198 .44 .24
Depth Plaza 3A 42 .17 .11
Plaza 3C 156 .15 .08
Total 198 .15 .09
Depth/Width Plaza 3A 42 .34 .12
Plaza 3C 156 .36 .11
Total 198 .35 .11
Table 47. ANOVA of Cut Marks on Human Bones from Plaza 3A and Plaza 3C, Huaca
de la Luna (n = 198).
I
Sum of
df
Mean
F
p
Squares Square
Total 11.406 197
Total 1.477 197
Total 2.517 197
330
and Appendicular Bones from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna, Separated by Width, Depth
I
Total 42 .51 .33
Total 42 .17 .li
Total 42 .34 .12
Table 49. ANOVA of Cut Marks on Human Axial and Appendicular Bones from Plaza
3A, Huaca de la Luna (n = 42).
I
Sum of
df
Mean
F Sig.
Squares Square
Width Between Groups .055 I .055 .5I2 .479
Within Groups 4.324 40 .I08
Total 4.380 41
Depth Between Groups .000 I .000 .OOI .975
Within Groups .484 40 .OI2
Total .484 4I
Depth/Width Between Groups .003 I .003 .226 .637
Total .565 4I
331
and Appendicular Bones from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la.Luna, Separated by Width, Depth
I
Total 156 .43 .21
Total 156 .15 .08
Total 156 .36 .11
Table 51. ANOVA of Cut Marks on Human Axial and Appendicular Bones from Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna (n = 156).
I
Sum of
df
Mean
F
p
Squares Square
Total 6.774 155
Total .981 155
Total 1.943 155
332
Bones from Plaza 3A and Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna, Separated by Width, Depth and
Depth/Width Ratio.
I
Width Plaza 3A 25 .54 .40
Plaza 3C 73 .40 .19
Total 98 .44 .26
Depth Plaza3A 25 .17 .12
Plaza 3C 73 .14 .07
Total 98 .15 .09
Plaza 3C 73 .35 .11
Total 98 .35 .12
Table 53. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human Axial Bones from Plaza 3A and Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna (n = 98).
I
Sum of
df
Mean
F
p
Squares Square
Total 6.758 97
Total .784 97
Total 1.286 97
Table 54. Sample Size, Mean and Standard Deviation for Cut Marks on Human
Appendicular Bones from Plaza 3A and Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna, Separated by
Width, Depth and Depth/Width Ratio.
333
I
Plaza 3C 83 .45 .22
Total 100 .45 .22
Plaza 3C 83 .16 .08
Total 100 .16 .08
Plaza 3C 83 .36 .11
Total 100 .36 .11
Table 55. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human Appendicular Bones from Plaza 3A and
Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna (n = 1 00).
I
Sum of
df Mean Square F
p
Squares
Total 4.639 99
Total .687 99
Total 1.227 99
334
Long Bones, Lower Long Bones and Non-Long Bones from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna,
I
Total 42 .51 .33
Total 42 .17 .11
Total 42 .34 .12
Table 57. ANOVA of Cut Marks on Human Upper Long Bones, Lower Long Bones and
Non-Long Bones from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna (n = 42).
I
Sum of
df
Mean
F
p
Squares Square
Total 4.380 41
Depth Between Groups .009 2 I .005 .372 .691
I
Within Groups .475 39 I .012
Total .484 41
Total .565 41
335
Long Bones, Lower Long Bones and Non-Long Bones from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna,
I
Width Upper Long Bone 21 .38
Lower Long Bone 40 .47
Non-Long Bone 95 .42
Total 156 .43
Depth Upper Long Bone 21 .13
Total 156 .15
Depth/Width Upper Long Bone 21 .34
Total 156 .36
Table 59. ANOVA of Cut Marks on Human Upper Long Bones, Lower Long Bones
and Non-Long Bones from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna (n = 1 5 6 .
I
Sum of
df Mean Square F
p
Squares
Total 6.774 155
Total .981 155
Depth/Width Between Groups .012 2 .006 .487
Total 1.943 155
.18
.22
.21
.21
.07
.08
.08
.08
.11
.12
.11
.11
.207
.304
.616
336
Long Bones from Plaza 3A and Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna, Separated by Width, Depth
I
Plaza 3C 21 .38 .18
Total 27 .40 .17
Plaza 3C 21 .13 .07
Total 27 .13 .07
Plaza 3C 21 .34 .11
Total 27 .32 .11
Table 61. ANOVA of Cut Marks on Human Upper Long Bones from Plaza 3A and
Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna (n = 27).
I
Sum of
df Mean Square F
p
Squares
Total .769 26
Total .130 26
Total .336 26
337
Table 62. Sample Size, Mean and Standard Deviation for Cut Marks on Human Lower
Long Bones from Plaza 3A and Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna, Separated by Width,
Depth and Depth/Width Ratio.
I
Plaza 3C 40 .47 .22
Total 47 .47 .22
Plaza 3C 40 .16 .08
Total 47 .16 .08
Plaza 3C 40 .35 .12
Total 47 .35 .11
Table 63. ANOVA of Cut Marks on Human Lower Long Bones from Plaza 3A and
I
Sum of
df Mean Square F
p
Squares
Total 2.192 46
Total .276 46
Total .551 46
338
Table 64. Sample Size, Mean and Standard Deviation for Cut Marks on Human Non-
Long Bones from Plaza 3A and Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna, Separated by Width, Depth
I
Width Plaza 3A 29 .54
Plaza3C 95 .42
Total 124 .44
Depth Plaza 3A 29 .17
Plaza 3C 95 .15
Total 124 .16
Depth/Width Plaza 3A 29 .35
Plaza 3C 95 .36
Total 124 .36
Table 65. ANOVA of Cut Marks on Human Non-Long Bones from Plaza 3A and
I
Sum of
df Mean Square F
Squares
Total 8.354 123
Total 1.050 123
Total 1.602 123
.37
.21
.26
.12
.08
.09
.13
.11
.11
p
.026
.206
.518
339
Table 66. Sample Size, Mean and Standard Deviation for Cut Marks on Human Bones
from Above the Floor and Below the Floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna, Separated by
I
Width Plaza 3C Above Floor 90 .45 .23
Total 156 .43 .21
Depth Plaza 3C Above Floor 90 .16 .09
Total 156 .15 .08
Depth/Width Plaza 3C Above Floor 90 .36 .11
Total 156 .36 .11
Table 67. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human Bones from Above the Floor and Below
the Floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna (n = 156).
I
Sum of
df Mean Square F
p
Squares
Total 6.774 155
Total .981 155
Total 1.943 155
340
and Appendicular Bones from Above the Floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna, Separated
by Width, Depth and Depth/Width Ratio.
I
Width Axial 40 .45
Appendicular 50 .46
Total 90 .45
Depth Axial 40 .16
Appendicular 50 .17
Total 90 .16
Depth/Width Axial 40 .35
Appendicular 50 .37
Total 90 .36
Table 69. ANOVA of Cut Marks on Human Axial and Appendicular Bones from
Above the Floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna (n = 90).
I
Sum of
df Mean Square F
Squares
Total 4.825 89
Depth Between Groups .002 1 .002 .299
Total .713 89
Within Groups 1.011 88 .Oll
Total 1.017 89
.22
.24
.23
.08
.09
.09
.11
.10
.11
p
.810
.586
.455
341
and Appendicular Bones from Below the Floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna, Separated
I
Total 66 .39 .17
Total 66 .13 .06
Total 66 .36 .12
Table 71. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human Axial and Appendicular Bones from Below
I
Sum of
df
Mean
F
p
Squares Square
Total 1.780 65
Total .239 65
Total .925 65
Bones from Above and Below the Floor ofPlaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna, Separated by
342
I
Total 73 .40 .19
Total 73 .14 .07
Total 73 .35 .11
Table 73. ANOVA of Cut Marks on Human Axial Bones from Above and Below the
Floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna (n = 73).
I
Sum of
df Mean Square F
p
Squares
Total 2.636 72
Total .401 72
Total .906 72
343
Table 74. Sample Size, Mean and Standard Deviation for Cut Marks on Human
Appendicular Bones from Above and Below the Floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna,
I
Width Plaza 3C Above Floor 50 .46
Plaza 3C Below Floor 33 .43
Total 83 .45
Depth Plaza 3C Above Floor 50 .17
Total 83 .16
Depth/Width Plaza 3C Above Floor 50 .37
Total 83 .36
Table 75. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human Appendicular Bones from Above and
Below the Floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna (n = 83).
I
Sum of
Squares df Mean Square F
Width Between Groups
.019 1 .019 .372
Within Groups
4.038 81 .050
Total
4.057 82
Depth Between Groups
.011 1 .011 1.524
Within Groups
.560 81 .007
Total
.571 82
Depth/Width Between Groups
.004 1 .004 .349
Within Groups
1.031 81 .013
Total
1.036 82
.24
.19
.22
.09
.06
.08
.10
.12
.11
p
.544
.221
.556
344
Long Bones, Lower Long Bones and Non-Long Bones from Above the Floor of Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna, Separated by Width, Depth and Depth/Width Ratio.
I
Total 90 .45
Total 90 .16
Total 90 .36
and Non-Long Bones from Above the Floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna (n = 90).
I
Sum of
df
Mean
F
p
Squares Square
Total 4.825 89
Depth Between Groups .012 2 .006 .760
Total .713 89
Total 1.017 89
.20
.22
.25
.23
.08
.09
.09
.09
.10
.11
.11
.11
.632
.471
.704
345
Long Bones, Lower Long Bones and Non-Long Bones from Below the Floor of Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna, Separated by Width, Depth and Depth/Width Ratio.
1
Total 66 .39
Total 66 .13
Total 66 .36
and Non-Long Bones from Below the Floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna (n = 66).
I
Sum of
df Mean Square F
p
Squares
Total 1.780 65
Total .239 65
Total .925 65
.13
.22
.13
.17
.06
.07
.06
.06
.14
.13
.11
.12
.035
.269
.747
346
Long Bones from Above and Below the Floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna, Separated
I
Total 21 .38 .18
Total 21 .13 .07
Total 21 .34 .11
Table 81. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human Upper Long Bones from Above and Below
I
Sum of
df
Mean
F
p
Squares Square
Total .624 20
Total .099 20
Total .262 20
347
Table 82. Sample Size, Mean and Standard Deviation for Cut Marks on Human Lower
Total 40 .47 .22
Total 40 .16 .08
Total 40 .35 .12
Table 83. ANOVA of Cut Marks on Human Lower Long Bones from Above and Below
I
Sum of
df Mean Square F
p
Squares
Total 1.814 39
Total .229 39
Total .522 39
348
Table 84. Sample Size, Mean and Standard Deviation for Cut Marks on Human Non-
Total 95 .42 .21
Total 95 .15 .08
Total 95 .36 .11
Table 85. ANOV A of Cut Marks on Human Non-Long Bones from Above and Below
I
Sum of
df
Mean
F
p
Squares Square
Total 4.198 94
Total .638 94
Total 1.146 94
Table 86. Counts ofDirectionality Criteria and Cutting Strokes.
Data Sample Cut Marks Bone Smearsb
P3A 58 18
P3CAF
1
33 13
P3CBF
2
4 0
BRU 1 0
DC 2 1
PAC
3
5 3
FOR 2 0
TOTAL 105 35
1 Above the floor of Plaza 3C
2 Below the floor of Plaza 3C
3 Groups 11 and Ill only
a Number of cut marks observed
b Number of bone smears observed
c Number of oblique faults observed
Oblique Faultse Noned
10 33
2 19
0 4
0 1
0 1
0 2
0 2
12 62
d Number of cut marks for which no directionality criteria were observed
e Number of left to right cutting strokes
f Number of right to left cutting strokes
Left to Righte
17
8
0
0
1
3
0
29
Table 87. Throat-Slitting Directionality Results by Individual.
Data Sample Individuals Left to Rightb Right to Lefte Both Direetionsd
P3A 18 12 1 1
P3CAF 5 1 2 2
BRU 1 0 0 0
PAC 1 1 0 0
TOTAL 25 14 3 3
349
Right to Left
1
8
6
0
0
0
0
0
14
Direction N/ A e
4
0
1
0
5
a Number of individuals represented per data sample with cut marks on the anterior aspect of cervical
vertebrae indicative of throat slitting
b Number of individuals whose throats were cut from left to right
c Number of individuals whose throats were cut from right to left
d Number of individuals whose throats were cut from both left to right and right to left
e Number of individuals for whom directionality of cuts to throat is not available
Table 88. Quantification of Cut Marks on Identifiable Skeletal Elements Deposited
Below and Above the Floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
Bone
Frontal
Parietal (left)
Parietal (right)
Temporal (left)
Temporal (right)
Occipital
Skull Vault (indet.)
Nasal (left)
Nasal (right)
Malar (left)
Malar (right)
Maxilla (left)
Maxilla (right)
Mandible
Atlas Vertebra
Axis Vertebra
C3-C7 Vertebrae
Thoracic Vertebrae
Lumbar Vertebrae
Vertebral Fragments
First Rib (left)
First Rib (right)
Second Rib (left)
Second Rib (right)
Ribs 3-10 (left)
Ribs 3-10 (right)
Ribs 3-10 (indet.)
Ribs 11-12 (left)
Ribs 11-12 (right)
Sternal Body
Clavicle (left)
Clavicle (right)
Scapula (left)
Scapula (right)
Humerus (left)
Humerus (right)
Radius (left)
Radius (right)
Ulna (left)
Ulna (right)
%Affected*
Below the Floor
44.4%
10.0%
10.0%
20.0%
22.2%
20.0%
0.0%
50.0%
50.0%
10.0%
30.0%
50.0%
33.3%
53.80/o
9.0%
10.0%
14.2%
31.4%
27.5%
8.9%
20.0%
22.2%
0.0%
0.0%
19.2%
22.3%
11.1%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
71.4%
25.0%
48.2%
40.0%
66.6%
60.0%
60.0%
50.0%
50.0%
20.0%
%Affected*
Above the Floor
18.7%
7.1%
14.2%
6.6%
7.1%
11.7%
20.8%
7.6%
8.3%
6.6%
20.0%
20.0%
12.5%
20.0%
0.0%
20.0%
16.4%
6.3%
12.5%
0.0%
5.2%
6.2%
14.2%
8.3%
31.3%
17.8%
1.4%
41.6%
30.7%
5.8%
44.4%
25.0%
50.0%
50.0%
40.0%
43.7%
35.7%
33.3%
21.4%
37.5%
350
% AtTected*
0
/o Affected*
Bone Below the Floor Above the Floor
Carpals (left) 0.0% 5.6%
Carpals (right) 6.6% 2.9%
Metacarpals (left) 0.00/o 11.2%
Metacarpals (right) 19.0% 10.7%
Proximal Hand Phalanges (left) 0.0% 7.9%
Proximal Hand Phalanges (right) 0.0% 14.6%
Middle Hand Phalanges (left) 0.0% 16.3%
Middle Hand Phalanges (right) 0.0% 25.8%
Os Coxae (left) 80.0% 26.6%
Os Coxae (right) 80.0% 25.0%
Sacrum 12.5% 13.3%
Femur (left) 75.0% 64.7%
Femur (right) 75.0% 58.8%
Patella (right) 9.0% 0.0%
Tibia (left) 58.3% 44.4%
Tibia (right) 64.2% 44.4%
Fibula (left) 75.0% 71.4%
Fibula (right) 63.6% 68.7%
Tarsals (left) 12.7% 7.1%
Tarsals (right) 8.0% 3.6%
Metatarsals (left) 8.3% 2.6%
Metatarsals (right) 0.0% 5.7%
Proximal Foot Phalanges 1.4% 0.0%
* The number of elements with cut marks over the number of identifiable elements
present.
351
352
Table 89. Quantification of Cut Marks on Identifiable Skeletal Elements from Plaza 3C
and Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna.
Bone
Frontal
Parietal (left)
Parietal (right)
Temporal (left)
Temporal (right)
Occipital
Skull Vault (indet.)
Nasal (left)
Nasal (right)
Malar (left)
Malar (right)
Maxilla (left)
Maxilla (right)
Mandible
Atlas Vertebra
Axis Vertebra
C3-C7 Vertebrae
Thoracic Vertebrae
Lumbar Vertebrae
Vertebral Fragments
First Rib (left)
First Rib (right)
Second Rib (left)
Second Rib (right)
Ribs 3-10 (left)
Ribs 3-10 (right)
Ribs 3-10 (indet.)
Ribs 11-12 (left)
Ribs 11-12 (right)
Sternal Body
Clavicle (left)
Clavicle (right)
Scapula (left)
Scapula (right)
Humerus (left)
Humerus (right)
Radius (left)
Radius (right)
Ulna (left)
Ulna (right)
%Affected*
Plaza3C
28.0%
8.3%
12.5%
12.0%
13.0%
14.8%
20.8%
43.7%
22.2%
8.0%
24.0%
32.0%
20.0%
35.7%
4.0%
16.0%
15.5%
17.5%
20.0%
7.1%
8.3%
12.0%
12.5%
6.6%
28.0%
19.3%
6.5%
35.7%
28.5%
5.5%
52.0%
25.0%
47.6%
47.6%
47.6%
50.0%
42.1%
38.4%
31.8%
33.3%
0
/0 Affected*
Plaza3A
11.1%
7.3%
2.3%
0.0%
0.0%
5.7%
7.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
2.2%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
5.1%
43.7%
16.3%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
1.6%
1.7%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.6%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
0.0%
2.8%
0.0%
4.4%
1.5%
2.7%
4.2%
1.4%
1.4%
1.3%
4.2%
o/o Affected* % Affected*
Bone Plaza 3C Plaza 3A
Carpals (left) 4.8% 0.0%
Carpals (right) 3.8% 0.0%
Metacarpals (left) 9.3% 0.0%
Metacarpals (right) 12.9% 1.0%
Proximal Hand Phalanges (left) 6.5% 2.2%
Proximal Hand Phalanges (right) 13.0% 0.0%
Middle Hand Phalanges (left) 13.7% 0.0%
Middle Hand Phalanges (right) 21.6% 0.0%
Os Coxae (left) 53.3% 1.6%
Os Coxae (right) 51.6% 0.0%
Sacrum 12.9% 0.0%
Femur (left) 69.6% 4.9"/o
Femur (right) 65.5% 5.0%
Patella (right) 4.1% 0.0%
Tibia (left) 48.3% 0.0%
Tibia (right) 53.1% 1.4%
Fibula (left) 73.3% 7.1%
Fibula (right) 66.6% 1.4%
Tarsals (left) 8.9% 0.0%
Tarsals (right) 5.2% 0.0%
Metatarsals (left) 4.5% 0.0%
Metatarsals (right) 3.6% 0.0%
Proximal Foot Phalanges 0.5% 0.6%
* The number of elements with cut marks over the number of identifiable elements
present.
353
354
Table 90. Assailant-Victim Positioning Possibilities During Throat-Slitting Events Based
on Directionality of Cut Marks Located on the Anterior Aspect of Cervical Vertebrae.
A) Cut Mark Direction: Left to Right
Handedness of
Assailant
Right
Right
Left
Left
Position of Assailant
Relative to Victim
Facing Victim
Behind Victim
Facing Victim
Behind Victim
B) Cut Mark Direction: Right to Left
Handedness of
Assailant
Right
Right
Left
Left
Position of Assailant
Relative to Victim
Facing Victim
Behind Victim
Facing Victim
Behind Victim
Movement of Assailant's Ann
When Slitting Victim's Throat
Extension
Flexion
Flexion
Extension
Movement of Assailant's Ann
When Slitting Victim's Throat
Flexion
Extension
Extension
Flexion
Table 91. Chi-Square Test of Plaza 3A Directionality Results by Individual Assuming a
Global Population of90% Right-Handed.
Cut Mark Direction
Left to Right
Right to Left
Total
Observed
12
1
13
X
2
= 0.0146, df= 1, a= 0.05, 0.95 < p < 0.90
Expected
11.7
1.3
13.0
355
FIGURES
356
Figure 1. Map of the north coast of Peru showing the locations of the sites included in
the data sample (modified after Verano et al. 1999:Figure 1 ).
357
N
t
0
Figure 2. Map of the Pyramids at Moche (after Uceda 2001 :Figure 1 ).
358
tl / Plalfofll' 11
o 100m
~ - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - - _ j
figllt<' 3. Plan ofiluact' de la Luna ~ Uceda 2001 :figur<' 3).
359
.
_,_,, .. .. ,.., .

Figure 4. Reconstruction drawing of the north ofHuaca Cao Viejo. The
"Danzantes" relief is denoted by the letter "D" (after Galvez and Bricefio 2001 :Figure
17).
Figure 5. The human and camelid bones
inserted into the modeled clay foot of one of
the "Danzantes" at Huaca Cao Viejo
(Photograph courtesy of John Verano).
I
I
I
I
I
L.._-

.. w
...
.... CD e

....... * ,.., ...
. ......... .. .. .,
...... .
r-------r--T:
., .. , .... "'"" "'
Ill' .. .,.

N.C U
..........
.....
I I
I I
11
... -.
: IIUIO
.
:
I I I 1 I
.. .!'-
..
.......
PIJITAOO
.......
-
-
.......
1.. -- -'-- .. --- -!.- _,_------- -----------------.1
-
oc ....
-
---- --- -------- -- ------ - -
0
..

..

360
N
11 I
Figure 6. Plan ofHuaca Eat Dos Cabezas. The "Cuarto de los Cnineos" is located in the
lower right hand corner of the drawing (modified after Donnan and Cock 1995:Figure
31).
361
Figure 7. Plan of the northern portion of the Huaca 1 Complex at Pacatnamu showing the
location of the Lambayeque mass burial (after Verano 1986:Figure 1).
Figure 8. Cut marks on the left side of the frontal of Individual II from
Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna. Note the salt crystals on the bone.
------ "><
-
--------
w
0\
N
Figure 9. Superior view of cut marks on the right frontal of Individual
IV from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna. On the drawing at right, note also
the cut marks on the right parietal and occipital bones.
---
\ I
-- ,._
w
0'1
w
Figure 10. Cut marks on the frontal and right malar around the
lateral margin of the right orbit ofCnineo IX from Plaza 3A,
Huaca de la Luna.
w

---
Figure 11. Cut marks on the left side of the frontal and left parietal ofHG96-53 from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna.
w
01
VI
Figure 12. Cut mark above the temporal line on the left
parietal of Craneo XIV from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna.
I
I .______
~ ?
Figure 13. Cut marks
on the right parietal and
occipital squama of
Individual IV from
Plaza 3A, Huaca de la
Luna.
w
~
Figure 14. At left is a photograph of an occipital fragment belonging to Individual XX from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna. Black
arrows point to cut marks, while white arrows point to perimortem scarring possibly made with a different tool. On the drawing at
right, hatch marks denote the fractured out area resulting from perimortem blows to the back of the skull. Heavy black lines indicate
fracture borders. The mandible is missing. Drawing modified from original by John Verano.
w
0\
-....)
Figure 15. At left is a photograph of an occipital fragment belonging to Individual XXI from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna. Black
arrow points to cut mark, while white arrow points to three gashes possibly made with a different tool. On the drawing at right, hatch
marks denote the fractured out area resulting from perimortem blows to the back of the skull. Heavy black lines indicate fracture
borders. Drawing modified from original by John Verano.
w
0\
QO
H96-157
H96-215
H96-157 H96-180
Figure 16. Skull vault fragments with cut marks, Plaza 3A,
Huaca de la Luna. All fractured edges are perimortem.
w
0'1
1.0
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Cl C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C?
Total number of
vertebrae
Number of vertebrae
with cut marks
370
Figure 17. Chart illustrating the ratio of cervical vertebrae with cut marks per total
number of cervical vertebrae from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna. Cervical vertebrae (C3-
C7) of indeterminate position are indicated as "C?".
Figure 18. Cut marks on the
inferior aspect of the anterior
arch of an atlas vertebra from
Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna.
371
Figure 19. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the right transverse process and the
anterior margin of the right inferior articular facet of the atlas vertebra ofHG96-61 from
Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna
Figure 20. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of an
atlas and axis vertebra from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la
Luna. Shaded areas represent bones missing.
Figure 21. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the axis and third cervical vertebrae
associated with Cnineo :XVIIIa from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna.
Figure 22. Inferior view of cut marks near the left inferior articular facet on an axis
vertebra from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna.
372
Figure 23. Superior view of cut marks on and near the right superior articular facet of an
axis vertebra from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna.
e
.c

.r;
=
...
=
tl
.c
a
=
z
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0 11 12 13 14 15 16 1 7 18 19 2 0 21 22 2 3 24
Number ofcut marks per axis vertebra
Figure 24. Chart showing the number of cut marks per axis vertebra from Plaza 3A,
Huaca de la Luna.
373
Figure 25. Scanning electron micrograph illustrating the straight, sheer walls typical of
anterior body cuts on axis vertebrae from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna. Superior wall
(arrow) of cut mark shown.
Figure 26. Cut marks (left arrows) on the anterior
bodies of C3 and C4 of Individual XX from Plaza 3A,
Huaca de la Luna. In both the photograph above and
on the drawing at right, the right arrow points to an
area of perimortem damage.
Figure 27. Anterior view of the C3
vertebra of Individual 3 from Plaza
3A, Huaca de la Luna. As indicated
by arrows, portions of the left and
right superior articular facets and left
and right lateral margins of the
superior aspect of the body are
missing as a result of knife cuts
passing completely through the bone.
374
Figure 28. Cut marks on the inferior margin of the body and the right inferior articular
facet of C3 of HG96-1 02 from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna.
Figure 29. Cut marks on the lateral margin of the right inferior articular facet of C4 of
HG96-18 from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna. Drawing by Gustavo Perez, modified after
the original by Carlos Ayesta.
t
Figure 30. Cut marks on the anterior body ofC7 ofHG96-10 from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la
Luna. Drawing by Gustavo Perez, modified after the original by Carlos Ayesta.
~
14
f
.c
12
~
~
10 ...
-- = I:'
~ u 8
t ~ 6
~ u
u_
~ 4
...
~
2 .c
e
=
0
z
1 2 3 4 5
375
Figure 31. Cut marks on the lateral aspect
of the right superior articular facet of a
cervical vertebra (C3-C7) fragment from
6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Number of cut marks per cervical vertebra (C3-C7)
Figure 32. Chart illustrating the number of cut marks per cervical vertebra (C3-C7) from
Figure 33. Scanning
electron micrograph
illustrating the straight,
sheer walls typical of
anterior body cuts on C3-
C7 vertebrae from Plaza
3A, Huaca de la Luna.
Micrograph is of a cut mark
on C3 of Individual XVIII.
376
\
Figure 34. Superior view of cut marks across the tubercle of a left first rib fragment from
Figure 35. Cut marks located just anterior of the tubercle on the superior aspect of a right
first rib from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna. Drawing by Gustavo Perez, modified after the
original by Carlos Ayesta.
Figure 36. Cut marks on the external aspect of the shaft of the right eighth rib of
Individual 3 from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna.
377
Figure 3 7. Cut marks on the superior aspect of the sterna! Y4 of the shaft of a left clavicle
from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna.
\
\ \\
Figure 38. Cut marks on the superior-posterior aspect of the acromial Y4 of the shaft of
the left clavicle of HG96-l from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna. The photograph features
the superior-posterior aspect of the bone, whereas the posterior aspect is illustrated in the
drawing. Shaft fracture is perimortem. Drawing by Gustavo Perez.
378
Figure 39. Cut marks on the the spine (upper left) and infraspinous fossa (bottom left) on
the posterior aspect of the left scapula ofHG96-1 from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna. The
cut mark on the infraspinous fossa is not shown on the drawing.
Figure 40. Two parallel cut marks on the spine of the left scapula ofHG96-44 from
Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna. Note the presence of a bone overlap.
Figure 41. (Left) Cut marks on the anterior
aspect ofthe left humerus ofHG96-l from
Figure 42. (Right) Cut marks on the
posterior-lateral aspect of the left
humerus ofHG96-l from Plaza 3A,
Huaca de la Luna. Drawing by
Gustavo Perez.
~
~ ~
"
-I'\
w
-....1
\0
Figure 43. Cut marks on the medial aspect of the proximal
~ o the shaft of the right humerus ofHG96-1 from Plaza
3A, Huaca de la Luna. The drawings at right show the (a)
anterior and (b) posterior aspects of the bone.
a
-
----
b
w
00
0
of the shaft of a right humerus from Plaza
3A, Huaca de la Luna. Cut marks on the
proximal Y4 of the shaft on the drawing at
right appear in the photograph above.
-
-
Figure 45. Cut marks on the posterior
aspect of the proximal Y4 of the shaft of
a left humerus from Plaza 3A, Huaca de
Luna.
w
00
.....
Figure 46. Perimortem blow with chop marks or
chattermarks on the medial aspect of the proximal shaft of a
right humerus from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna. Drawing
by Gustavo Perez.
382
-
a b
Figure 47. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the
left (a) ulna and (b) radius ofHG96-l from Plaza
A
-
~
on the anterior-lateral
aspect of the proximal
shaft of the right radius
of HG96-1 from Plaza
Drawing at right shows
. the anterior aspect. Note
also the cut mark at
midshaft.
-
w
00
w
4
Figure 49. Cut marks on the anterior
aspect of the right ulna ofHG96-l
'
"'
"
Figure 50. Cut marks on the medial aspect
-
-
-
Figure 51. Cut marks on the palmar aspect
of the shaft of a right ftrst metacarpal from
Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna. Drawing by
Gustavo Perez.
of the shaft of a right ulna from Plaza 3A,
Huaca de la Luna. Drawing by Gustavo Perez.
w
00

Palmar View
Dorsal View
2nd
I r
\
\.._
385
Figure 52. Cut marks on the palmar and
dorsal aspects of the shafts of the (left to
right) left second through fifth proximal
hand phalanges of an individual from
Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna. In the
drawing below, for each bone, the
palmar view is on the left and the dorsal
view is on the right. Drawings by
Gustavo Perez.
\
'
3rd
386
lateral aspect of the iliac
blade (above left) and on the
medial aspect across the
superior border of the
ischial tuberosity (above
right) of the right os coxae of
HG96-60 from Plaza 3A,
Huaca de la Luna.
I
)
-
--
-
-
-
387
........... _-
-
-
Figure 55. Cut marks on the lateral aspect of the
proximal 'l4 of the shaft of a right femur from Plaza 3 A,
Huaca de la Luna.
aspect of the shaft of a left femur from
aspect of the proximal shaft of the
left femur of HG96-1 from Plaza 3A,
Huaca de la Luna.
----1/
aspect at midshaft of the right femur
ofHG96-1 from Plaza 3A, Huaca de
a Luna. The most distal cut on the
drawing at right is not visible in the
photograph above.
--
___,..
/I...-
w
00
00
Figure 58. Cut marks on the lateral
aspect of the proximal Y2 of the
shaft of the left femur of HG96-1
389
Figure 59. Cut mark on the medial aspect of the
distal shaft of the right femur ofHG96-1 from
Figure 60. Chop mark on the lateral aspect, just distal to midshaft,
of a left femur from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna. Note the impact scar
immediately superior.
\
Figure 61. Cut marks (left) on the anterior aspect of the distal ~ o the shaft and (right) on the posterior aspect of the proximal Y4 of
the shaft of a right tibia from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna.
w
~
Figure 62. Cut marks on a tibial shaft fragment
(side and aspect indeterminate) from Plaza 3A,
Huaca de la Luna.
--+
---+
,,_
a b
Figure 63. Cut marks on the (a) posterior aspect of the shaft of the left fibula and
the (b) anterior aspect of the shaft of the right fibula ofHG96-60 from Plaza 3A,
Huaca de la Luna. Posterior and anterior views shown in drawings, respectively.
w
\0
-
aspect of the proximal V.. of the shaft
of a left fibula from Plaza A ~ Huaca
de laLuna.
a
392
Figure 65. Cut mark on the posterior
aspect of the proximal Y2 of the shaft
of the left fibula of Individual XV from
Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna. Fine,
shallow scrapes are visible above left of
the cut mark.
b
Figure 66. Cut marks on the (a) anterior-lateral aspect of the proximal Y2 of the shaft and
the (b) lateral aspect of the distal V.. of the shaft of the left fibula of HG96-44 from Plaza
~ Huaca de la Luna. Note the rodent gnawing along the medial border of the bone in
the left photograph.
393
---
Figure 67. Cut marks on the plantar aspects of the (left to right) left first and fourth
proximal foot phalanges and the plantar-lateral aspect of the left fifth proximal foot
phalanx of Individual XV from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna. Plantar view shown in all
drawings. Drawings by Gustavo Perez.
Figure 68. Cut marks on the (top left) left frontal and (bottom left) zygomatic arch of the left temporal ofHG99-5 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna. On the drawing to the right, note also the cut marks on the left nasal, maxilla and mandible. Shaded area
represents the portion of the skull vault removed postmortem.
w

Figure 69. Cut marks above the nasal root on the frontal (top left) and on the right maxilla (bottom left) ofE15 from Plaza 3C, Huaca
de la Luna. On the drawing to the right, note also the cut marks on the right malar and mandible.
w
\0
VI
Figure 70. Cut marks on the frontal ofE18 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. On the
drawing above, note also the cut marks on the nasals, malars, maxillae and mandible.
396

\
I
.. ?--
Figure 71. Cut marks on the left parietal and occipital of
H27 SK2 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
Figure 72. Cut marks near the parietal-temporal s11:ture on the
right parietal ofHG99-5 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
w
1.0
-....1
r "'-::.. '
.. ,, ...

: . d
.. '
...
. . : .. .. """'
' .. J
Figure 73. Cut marks on the occipital ofHG99-6 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna. On the drawing to the right, note also the cut
mark on the right parietal.
IJ

\
w
\0
00
--------

\
Figure 74. Cut marks on the left temporal (top left) and left malar (bottom left) of
E18 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. On the drawing above, note also the cut
marks on the left frontal, nasal, maxilla and mandible.
w

---------
Figure 75. Cut marks on the right temporal (top left) and right malar (bottom
left) ofE18 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. On the drawing above, note also
the cut marks on the right frontal, parietal, nasal and maxilla.
0
0
401
Figure 76. Cut marks on the nasal bones ofHG99-5 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
Figure 77. Cut marks on the left maxilla ofHG99-5 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
Figure 78. Cut marks on the left maxilla ofE12 from Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna.
Figure 79. Cut marks on the left maxilla ofE13 from
Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.

0
N
Figure 80. Cut marks on the nasals, maxillae and right malar
ofH17 SKI from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. The mandible
is missing.
Figure 81. Cut marks on the left side of the mandible ofHG99-5
from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.

V)

'
f
Figure 82. Cut marks on the right side of the mandible ofH99-6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. On the drawing above, note also
the cut mark at the base of the right ramus.
.J:.

I
I
(
I
I
I
I
I
I
Figure 83. Cut marks on the inferior aspect of the mandible ofE18 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
,
'
\
\
\
\
)

0
Vl
406
Figure 84. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the right ramus of the mandible of H17
SK3 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
I
Figure 85. Cut marks on the left side of the mandible ofH25 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna.
40
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C?
Total number of
vertebrae
Number of vertebrae
with cut marks
407
Figure 86. Chart illustrating the ratio of cervical vertebrae with cut marks per total
number of cervical vertebrae from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. Cervical vertebrae
(C3-C7) of indeterminate position are indicated as "C?".
inferior aspect of the posterior
arch of the atlas vertebra ofH36
axis and third cervical vertebra of HG99-l from
Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. The atlas vertebra is
missing.
Figure 89. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of
C2-C4 of E2 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
Photograph courtesy of John Verano.
408
409
Figure 90. Cut marks on the (above left) left lateral and (above right) right lateral aspects
of the axis vertebra ofH36 from Plaia 3C, Huaca de la Luna. Drawings by Gustavo
Perez.
Figure 91. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the axis vertebra ofH36 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna. Drawing by Gustavo Perez.
Figure 92. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of C3
of Entierro 3 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
On the drawing at right, note also the cut marks
on C4. Shaded areas represent missing bones.
Figure 93. Cut marks on the left lateral aspect
of C3-C4 of HG99-5 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de
la Luna. The drawing at right illustrates the
anterior aspect.
410
411
Figure 94. Cut marks on the posterior aspect ofC4 ofH36 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de
la Luna. The photograph features the posterior aspect of the bone whereas the drawing
shows the left lateral view. Drawing by Gustavo Perez.
Figure 95. Cut marks on the right lateral aspect of C6-C7 of HG99-7 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna. Drawing at right is of C6. Drawing by Carlos Ayesta.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
Number of cut marks per vertebra (C3-C7)
Figure 96. Chart illustrating the number of cut marks per cervical vertebra (C3-C7) from
412
Figure 97. Cut marks on the anterior aspect ofC3 ofH33 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna. Note the perimortem fractures to both left and right transverse processes. Drawing
by Gustavo Perez.
Figure 98. (Upper left) Posterior
and (bottom left) inferior views
of the perimortem fracture to the
vertebral arch ofC3 ofH33 from
Associated bone peeling of the
right lamina is visible in the
upper left photograph. The
portion of bone removed from
the vertebra was missing in situ.
Figure 99. Cut marks on the left lamina
of a thoracic vertebra associated with
Entierro 5 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna.
Figure 101. Cut marks on the spinous
processes of T6-T7 of HG99-5 from
of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
Figure 103. Cut marks on the inferior
aspect of the transverse process of T9 of
E 14 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
413
Figure 100. Cut marks on the left transverse
process of a thoracic vertebra associated
with Entierro 5 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna.
Figure 102. Cut marks on the anterior aspect
of the left and right superior articular facets of
T2 ofE14 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
Figure 104. Cut marks on the right
pedicles across the rib facets ofT9-T10 of
E14 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
aspect of the left transverse process of L5
of Entierro 6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna.
414
aspect of the right transverse processes
ofL2-L3 ofE4 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna.
Figure 107. Cut marks on the right lamina
and spinous process of L2 of E 15 from Plaza
Figure 108. Cut mark on the
superior aspect of the left first
rib ofE9 from Plaza 3C, Huaca
de la Luna.
Figure 109. Cut marks on the inferior aspect of an isolated
right first rib from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. Shaded
area on drawing represents bone missing postmortem.
I
415
superior aspect of the
vertebral Y2 of the shaft of the
left second rib ofE7 from
Figure 111. Cut marks on the external aspect of the vertebral Y2 of the shaft of the left
tenth rib ofHG99-2 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
\
\
.......
'
.......__

\\
\ '\\ \ \

\\\1\ \\ J

\\ \\
\
416
Figure 112. Cut marks on
the superior-external
aspect of the sterna! Y2 of
the shaft of the left third
rib ofHG99-4 from Plaza
"
..
Figure 113. Cut marks on the external aspect of the shafts of the right third, fourth and
fifth ribs ofE7 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
I 1/ (I I I
417
the internal aspect of the
necks of four right ribs of
Entierro 3 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna. All
fractures are perimortem.
external aspect of the tubercle
and vertebral Y4 of the shaft
of a right rib of E 10 from
Shaft fracture is perimortem.
inferior aspect below the tubercle of
an isolated left rib 3-10 from Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna. Shaft fracture
is perimortem.
Figure 117. Cut marks on the external aspect of the vertebral Y2 of the shaft of the left
eleventh rib ofHG99-3 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
Figure 118. Cut marks on the external aspect of the shaft of the right eleventh rib of
HG99-5 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
418
Figure 119. Cut marks on the external aspect of the shaft of the left twelfth rib ofHG99-
2 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
Figure 120. Cut marks on the external aspect of the shaft of the right twelfth rib of
419
Figure 121. Scanning electron micrograph illustrating the straight, sheer walls of a cut
mark on the left twelfth rib ofHG99-3 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. The black
arrow points to the superior margin of the cut mark and the white arrow indicates the
main groove of the cut mark. The inferior wall of the cut mark is not clearly discernible
due to a 30 angle of tilt.
Figure 122. Perimortem neck and tubercle fractures of left and right ribs of E 10 from
420
Figure 123. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the sternal body ofE7 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna.
I lt/
l
1
t
l
Figure 124. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the left clavicle ofHG99-1 from Plaza
421
J
l
Figure 125. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the left clavicle ofHG99-3 from Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna. Middle cut shown on drawing is not pictured in the photographs.
Figure 126. Cut marks on the inferior aspect of the left clavicle ofE7 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna. Shaft fracture is perimortem. Shaded area represents missing bone.
Figure 127. Cut marks on the inferior aspect of the of the shaft of the left
clavicle of E 13 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
422
posterior aspect of the acromial Y4
of the shaft of the right clavicle of
HG99-1 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de
laLuna.
Figure 129. Cut marks on the inferior aspect of the sternal Y4 of the shaft of the right
clavicle of E9 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. Shaft fracture is perimortem. Shaded
area represents missing bone.
aspect on the supraspinous fossa and
spine of the left scapula ofHG99-1
from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. The
fracture shown across the infraspinous
fossa is perimortem.
aspect on the spine and axillary border of
the left scapula ofE2 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna.
423
aspect on the infraspinous fossa on the left
scapula of HG99-5 from Plaza 3C, Huaca
de laLuna.
Figure 133. Cut marks (top) on the lateral
aspect of the acromion and (bottom) on the
posterior aspect on the infraspinous fossa
of the left scapula ofE6 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna.
424
Figure 134. Cut mark and scrapes Figure 135. Cut marks on the posterior aspect on the
on the anterior aspect below the spine of the right scapula ofHG99-5 from Plaza
glenoid margin of the right scapula 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
of HG99-l from Plaza 3C, Huaca
de laLuna.
aspect of the right scapula of E2 from
-
aspect of the right scapula ofE6 from Plaza
medial aspect of the proximal
Yl of the shaft of the left humerus
ofHG99-3 from Plaza 3C, Huaca
de la Luna.
425
Figure 139. Cut marks on the posterior-lateral
aspect of the lateral supracondylar ridge and the
lateral epicondyle of the left humerus ofHG99-3
Figure 140. Cut marks on the posterior aspect
of the lateral epicondyle of the left humerus of
E12 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
Figure 141. Cut marks on the anterior-
medial aspect at midshaft of the left
humerus ofE18 from Plaza 3C, Huaca
de la Luna. On the drawing at right,
note also the cut marks on the distal Y4
the shaft.
aspect of the left humerus of E 18 from
Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. In the
photograph above, some of the cut
marks on the distal of the shaft are
visible.
----- .... -::::.
-' ._
-
-
.,.... __
.....
N
0"1
427
a
\
b
c d e
Figure 143. Counterclockwise from upper left: (a) Cut marks on the anterior aspect on
the lesser tubercle, (b) on the anterior aspect of the distal V.. of the shaft and medial
epicondyle, (c) on the medial aspect of the proximal V.. of the shaft, (d) on the lateral
aspect of the proximal V.. of the shaft and (e) on the anterior aspect of the right humerus
of Entierro 6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
-/
-
-
posterior aspect of the right
humerus of HG99-5 from Plaza
~
aspect of the distal ~ o the shaft and
the lateral supracondylar ridge of the
right humerus ofHG99-6 from Plaza
"
-
\
'
Figure 14 7. Cut marks on the posterior
aspect of the medial epicondyle of the
right humerus ofE13 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna.
the posterior aspect of the
right humerus ofE10 from
~
00
anterior aspect of the distal Y2 of
the left radius ofEntierro 4
from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna.
50. Cut marks on the
aspect of the proximal Y4 of the shaft
of the left radius ofHG99-1 from
429
posterior aspect of the styloid process
of the left radius ofEntierro 6 from
aspect of the head of the left radius of E8
from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.Plaza
a
b
anterior aspect of the middle 'l'3
of the shaft of the right radius of
E2 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna.
430
(a) distal Y2 of the shaft and
the (b) styloid process of
the right radius ofEntierro
6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de
la Luna. On the drawing at
left, note also the cut marks
on the proximal Y2 and distal
V.. of the shaft.
-\
-'
i
\
Figure 154. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of
the proximal V.. of the shaft of the right radius of
E6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. The distal
most cut shown on the drawing is not visible in
the photograph.
431
Figure 155. Cut marks on the (left) posterior aspect of the distal shaft of the left radius
and (right) lateral aspect of the distal shaft of the left ulna ofHG99-3 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna.
Figure 156. Cut marks on the (left) posterior aspect
at midshaft of the right ulna and (right) posterior
aspect at midshaft of the right radius ofHG99-3
from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. On the drawings
at right, note the additional incisions on the ulna
and radius that are not visible in the photograph
above.
.
-.
-
#
-
-1
~
-
-
--
left ulna of E 18 from Plaza
anterior aspect of the shaft of
the left ulna of E 18 from Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna. Not all
cuts shown on the drawing are
visible in the photographs at left.
--
--
-
-
/
-1::-
VJ
N
medial aspect of the shaft of
the left ulna of E 18 from
Cut marks on the distal
of the shaft are visible in
the photograph below.
,. -
;' -
J
-"1
--
the lateral aspect of the shaft
ofthe left ulna ofE18 from
Cut marks on the distal of
of the shaft are visible in the
photograph below.
-1
--
/, __
/,'

w
w
434
the medial aspect of the
proximal shaft below the
coronoid process of the
right ulna of HG99-3 from
Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna.
proximal 1!4 of the shaft of
the right ulna of E2 from
hamulus of the left hamate of
E6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de
laLuna.
tubercle of the left trapezium of
H13 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna.
435
Figure 164. Cut marks (clockwise from upper left)
on the left lunate, triquetra!, capitate and scaphoid of
an extra left hand associated with E7 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna. Photograph courtesy of John
Verano.
Figure 166. Cut marks on the right triquetra! and
lunate of an extra right hand associated with E7
from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. Photograph
courtesy of John Verano.
Figure 167. Cut marks (left arrow) on the tubercle of
an isolated right scaphoid from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna. Right arrow points to rodent gnawing around
the margin of the radial articular surface.
palmar aspect of the left first and
fifth metacarpals of HG99-1
from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna
436
Figure 169. Cut marks on the (left to right)
dorsal aspect of the left first and third
metacarpals, the lateral aspect of the left fourth
metacarpal and the medial aspect of the left fifth
metacarpal ofHG99-1 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de
laLuna.
Figure 170. Cut marks on the palmar aspect of the right first metacarpal ofHG99-1 from
437
Figure 171. Cut marks on the (left) palmar and (right) dorsal aspects of the left hand of
Figure 172. Cut marks on the dorsal aspect Figure 173. Cut marks on the medial aspect
of the left flrst proximal hand phalanx of of the left third middle hand phalanx of
HG99-6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. HG99-6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
Figure 174. (Left) Cut marks
on the dorsal-medial aspect of
the left fourth middle hand
phalanx ofHG99-6 from Plaza
Figure 175. (Right) Cut marks on the
palmar aspect of the left flfth middle hand
phalanx of HG99-6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca
de la Luna.
438
Figure 176. Cut marks on the (left) palmar and (right) dorsal aspects ofthe right hand of
H099-6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
on the medial aspect of
the right first proximal
hand phalanx of
HG99-6 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna.
a b c d
Figure 178. Cut marks on the palmar aspect of the right second
and fourth middle hand phalanges (a and c) and the dorsal hand
aspect of the right third and fifth middle hand phalanges (b and
d) ofHG99-6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
palmar-medial aspect of the left
first metacarpal of E6 from
439
Figure 180. Cut marks on the dorsal aspect of the
left first proximal hand phalanx of E6 from Plaza
Figure 181. Cut marks on the dorsal aspect of the right hand of E6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca
de la Luna. The photograph features the cut marks on the dorsal aspect of the right
second metacarpal.
ilium of the left os coxae of Entierro 3 from Plaza
440
medial aspect of the left os
coxae of Entierro 6 from
Figure 184. Cut marks on the lateral aspect of the ilium of the left os coxae of H20 from
Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. On the drawing, note also the cut marks near the rim of the
acetabulum and on the iliopubic ramus and obturator crest.
a
441
b
aspect (a) above the ischial tuberosity
and (b) on the obturator crest and
anterior margin of the obturator
foramen of the left os coxae of H27
SK1 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
In the drawing at left, note also the cut
marks on the ilium and ischiopubic
ramus.
Figure 186. Cut marks on the lateral aspect of
the ilium of the right os coxae of Entierro 6
442
Figure 187. (Clockwise from upper right) Cut marks on the medial aspect of the ilium
and ischial tuberosity of the right os coxae ofE15 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. On
the drawing above, note also the cut marks above and adjacent to the ischial tuberosity.
443
aspect of the right os coxae of E 15 from
Figure 189. Cut marks on the medial
aspect of the right os coxae ofH17 SK3
ilium and around the rim of the acetabulum of the
right os coxae of H30 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna. On the drawing at right, note also the cut
marks on the iliopubic ramus and superior to the
ischial tuberosity.
)
0 .-C) 0
\ \I
0
Ill' I
444
Figure 191. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the sacrum of Entierro 6 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna.
aspect of the sacrum ofHG99-4 from Plaza
Figure 193. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the sacrum ofElO from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna.
Figure 194. Cut
marks on the medial
aspect of the
proximal 1!4 of the
shaft of the left
femur of Entierro 3
from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna.
445
aspect of the proximal 1!4 of the shaft
of the left femur ofHG99-1 from
-
-
--
-
Figure 196. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the shaft of
the left femur ofHG99-1 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
Not all cuts on the drawing are visible in the photographs above.
446
aspect of the lesser trochanter of the left
femur ofHG99-3 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de
la Luna.
Figure 198. Cut marks on the anterior-
superior aspect of the greater trochanter
of the left femur of E6 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna.
'
+--
\
\.
+-
"
+--
\
the posterior aspect ofthe
shaft of the left femur of
E 11 from Plaza 3C, Huaca
de la Luna.

/-
Figure 200. Cut marks on the lateral aspect of the proximal
1;4 of the shaft of the left femur ofE13 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna. Only one of the distal cluster of cuts
shown on the drawing is visible in the photograph.
Figure 20 I. Cut marks on the medial aspect of the neck
of the left femur of EIS from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna.
the anterior-medial aspect
of the proximal of the
shaft of the left femur of
HI7 SKI from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna.
posterior aspect of the distal
of the shaft of the left femur of
H27 SKI from Plaza 3C, Huaca
de la Luna. The cut mark on the
proximal of the shaft shown
on the drawing at left is not visible
in the photograph above.
,. -- -- ....
'
I
0:
I
--+ I
--+ ,/
447
---+- I
I
448
Figure 204. Cut marks on the medial aspect of the proximal Y4 of the shaft, including the
base of the neck and around the lesser trochanter of the right femur of Entierro 3 from
Figure 205. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the lesser
trochanter and proximal Y4 of the shaft of the right femur of
Entierro 6 from Huaca de la Luna. On the drawing at left,
note also the cut marks on the greater trochanter.
-
-
449
-/
Figure 206. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the (top) neck and greater trochanter
and (bottom) distal 114 of the shaft of the right femur ofE7 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna. In the top photograph, note also the cuts around the rim of the acetabulum of the
right os coxa. Not all cut marks shown on the drawing appear in the photographs above.
of the distal 114 of the shaft of the right femur
of Ell from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
The distal epiphysis of this individual is unfused
and was not included in the photograph.
450
Figure 208. Cut marks on the lateral aspect of the proximal Y4 of the shaft of the right
femur ofE13 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
.....__
\
./
'
.....__
Figure 209. Cut marks on the medial aspect of the distal
Y3 of the shaft of the right femur ofH17 SK2 from Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna. The most proximal cut shown
on the drawing is not included in the photograph.
/
/

-
/
--+
lateral aspect of the distal Y3
of the shaft of the right femur
ofH17 SK2 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna.
451
\+-
Figure 212. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the
head and neck of the right femur of H30 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna.
anterior aspect of the neck and
shaft of the right femur of H24
Figure 213. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the apex of the right patella ofH31
aspect of the proximal Y4 of the shaft of
the left tibia of Entierro 3 from Plaza
the
aspect of the shaft of the left tibia of E4
from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. The
distal cluster of cut marks pictured on
the drawing at left is featured in the
photograph above.
anterior aspect of the distal '14
of the shaft of the left tibia of
HG99-3 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna.
452
Figure 217. Cut mark on the lateral aspect of the
proximal shaft of the left tibia ofE6 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna.
Figure 219. Cut marks on anterior aspect at
midshaft of the left tibia ofH7 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna.
distal epiphysis (medial malleolus) of the left tibia of
H27 SK2 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
453
posterior aspect at midshaft of
the left tibia of E 18 from Plaza
\
)
Figure 221. Cut mark on the medial aspect
of the medial malleolus of the right tibia of
Entierro 3 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna.
distal of the shaft of the
right tibia ofH17 SK2 from
Shaded area on drawing
represents bone missing
postmortem.
\.
454
aspect of the middle of the shaft of the
right tibia of E4 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de
la Luna.
aspect at midshaft of the right tibia of
H29 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
a b
proximal 'l4 of the shaft of the (a) right tibia and (b)
right fibula ofH12 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
Photograph modified after the original by John Verano.
On the drawing of the right tibia, note also the cut near
midshaft.
455
Figure 225. Scanning electron
micrograph illustrating the
straight, sheer walls (arrow)
typical of cut marks on
tibiae from Plaza 3C, Huaca de
la Luna. The micrograph is of
the cut mark on the medial
malleolus of the right tibia of
Entierro 03. Inferior wall is not
shown.
-
the lateral aspect of the neck
and proximal Y.. of the shaft
of the left fibula ofEntierro
3 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de
la Luna.
~
._
Figure 228. (Left) Cut marks on
the posterior aspect of the left
fibula ofEntierro 3 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna. Not all cut
marks shown on the drawing are
visible in the photographs.
Figure 229. (Right) Cut mark on
the anterior aspect of the lateral
malleolus of the left fibula of
HG99-1 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de
laLuna.
~ : ; >
U\
0"1

- '+--
__..,
+--
=

a b
Figure 230. Cut marks on the (a)
anterior and (b) posterior aspects
of the left fibula of E4 from Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna. All cut
marks on the anterior aspect
and three cut marks on the
posterior aspect of the distal Y3
of the shaft are visible in the
photograph of the lateral
aspect below.
Lateral aspect
the posterior aspect of an
isolated left fibula from
Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna. Cut marks on the
distal Y3 of the shaft are
visible in the photograph
below. Shaded area on
the drawing represents
bone missing postmortem.
Posterior aspect
--+-
--+

'
"'.:-
'

VI
........
a b
___..

Figure 232. Cut marks on the (a) posterior-medial aspect of the lateral
malleolus and (b) posterior aspect of the distal Y4 of the shaft and
and lateral malleolus of an isolated left fibula fragment from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna. The drawing on the left illustrates the medial aspect
of the bone.
Figure 233. Cut marks on the (top) anterior
aspect of the head and (bottom) posterior
aspect of the distal Y3 of the shaft of the
right fibula ofHG99-1 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna.
.J:;o.
IJ\
00
posterior-lateral aspect of the
proximal of the shaft of the
right fibula ofHG99-5 from
lateral aspect of the distal Yz of
the shaft of the right fibula of
Ell from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna.
-
-
the plantar aspect of the
right first metatarsal of
HG99-l from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna.
anterior aspect of the right
fibula of E 18 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna.
.$>.
Vl
1.0
Figure 239. Cut marks on the dorsal
aspect of the left foot of E6 from Plaza
460
medial aspect of the left
calcaneus ofHG99-2 from
Figure 240. Cut marks on the plantar
aspect of the left cuboid of E6 from
the plantar aspect of the
left fifth metatarsal of E6
from Plaza 3C, Huaca de
la Luna.
Figure 242. Cut marks on the dorsal-lateral aspect near
the margin of the cuboid articular surface of the right
calcaneus of E6 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
461
plantar aspect of the right first
metatarsal ofE6 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna. Figure 244. Cut marks on the dorsal-lateral
aspect of the head and neck of the left talus
of E7 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
Figure 245. Cut marks on the dorsal aspect of the
left talus ofH2 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
462
Figure 246. Photographs of cut marks on the dorsal (top) and lateral (bottom) aspects of
the right talus ofHll from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. The adjacent drawings illustrate
the (top to bottom) posterior, medial and lateral aspects of the bone. Drawings by Carlos
Ayesta.
a
Figure 24 7. Cut marks on the dorsal aspect
of the left (a) calcaneus, talus, (b) navicular
and medial cuneiform ofH19 from Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna. At right is a
photograph of the medial aspect of the left
first metatarsal ofH19. Note also on the
drawing at far right the cut mark on
the dorsal aspect of the left second
metatarsal ofH19.
463
b
Figure 248. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the calcaneal tuber of the left calcaneus
ofH33 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. Cut mark on the dorsal aspect of the talus as
shown on the drawing is not visible in the photograph. Drawing by Gustavo Perez.
- - --
Figure 249. Cut marks on the (a) anterior and (b) posterior aspects of the El Brujo
"Danzantes" human right femur. Shaft fracture is perimortem. Drawings by Gustavo
Perez.
Figure 250. Photograph of the cut marks on the posterior aspect of the neck of the El
Brujo "Danzantes" human right femur.
464
465
Figure 251. Scanning electron micrograph of one of the cut marks on the posterior aspect
of the neck of the El Brujo "Danzantes" human right femur illustrating the straight, sheer
walls (vertical arrows) typical of incisions on this bone. The superior wall is not as
clearly defmed as the inferior wall due to 45 angle of tilt. Horizontal arrow indicates a
microscopic weather crack crossing the groove.
Figure 252. Cut marks on C2-C3 ofEntierro 2 (1994) from El Brujo. Fractures of the
right transverse processes of both bones are perimortem.
466
Figure 253. Cut marks on the right lateral aspect of the axis ofEntierro 2 (1994) from
El Brujo. Fractures of the right transverse process and inferior articular facet are
perimortem. Drawing by Gustavo Perez.
Figure 254. Cut marks on the inferior aspect of the axis ofEntierro 2 (1994) from
El Brujo. Fractures of the right transverse process and right inferior articular facet are
perimortem. Drawing by Gustavo Perez.
-
-
-
-
Figure 255. Cut marks on the posterior-medial aspect of the calcaneal tuber of the left calcaneus and the dorsal and medial
aspects of the left tal us ofEntierro I (2000) from El Brujo. Drawings by Gustavo Perez.
-1:>-
0'\
-....l
Figure 256. Cut mark on the anterior body of CS of E-15-1 0 from the Cuarto de Ios
Craneos, Dos Cabezas.
468
Figure 257. Cut marks on the spinous processes of(left to right) C2 and C6 ofE-15-13
from the Cuarto de Ios Craneos, Dos Cabezas.
Figure 258. Superior views of cut marks on the spinous processes of (left to right) C2,
C6 and C7 of E-15-13 from the Cuarto de Ios Craneos, Dos Cabezas.
Figure 259. Cut marks on the left malar ofE-15-16 from the Cuarto de Ios Craneos,
Dos Cabezas.
469
Figure 260. Cut marks on the left mandible of E-15-13 from the Cuarto de Ios Craneos,
Dos Cabezas.
470
Figure 261. Cut marks on the radial articular surface of the left scaphoid of Individual 1
from Pacatnamu. Cortex damage (left arrow on photograph) is perimortem. Drawing by
Jocelyn Wright.
Figure 262. Cut marks on the medial aspect of the distal shaft of the right ulna of
Individual2 from Pacatnamu. The styloid process (bottom arrow) also has been partially
cut away. The comminuted fracture is perimortem.
471
Figure 263. Cut marks on the anterior of the head of the left ulna oflndividual3 from
Pacatnamu. Cortex damage is perimortem.
Figure 264. Two views of cut marks on and near the radial articular surface and tubercle
of the left scaphoid oflndividual3 from Pacatnamu. Note the similarities in location to
the cut marks on the left scaphoid of Individual I (Figure 261). Damage to tubercle is
perimortem. Drawings by Carlos Ayesta.
Figure 265. Three views of cut marks on the tubercle and on areas between the articular
facets for the scaphoid and left first metacarpal of the left trapezium oflndividual3 from
Pacatnamu. Drawings by Carlos Ayesta.
472
Figure 266. Chop mark on the left malar of Individua14 from Pacatnamu.
Figure 267. Scanning electron micrograph of the chop mark on the left malar of
Individua14 from Pacatnamu. Arrows point to a large depressed area of bone within the
main groove of the chop mark.
473
Figure 268. Discontinuous cut mark across the anterior body and anterior aspect of the
right transverse process of C6 of Individual 8 from Pacatnamu.
Figure 269. Cut marks on the superior aspect of the sternal end of the left clavicle of
Individual 8 from Pacatnamu.
Figure 270. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the sterna! end of the left clavicle of
Individual 9 from Pacatnamu. Drawing by Jocelyn Wright.
474
Figure 271. Cut marks on the superior aspect of the sterna! end of the right clavicle of
Individual 9 from Pacatnamu. Drawing by Jocelyn Wright.
Figure 272. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of the manubrium oflndividual9 from
Pacatnamu. Drawing by Jocelyn Wright.
475
Figure 273. Cut marks on the superior aspect of the shaft of the left fJ.rst rib oflndividual
9 from Pacatnamu. Drawing by Jocelyn Wright.
Figure 274. Cut marks on the superior aspect of the shaft of the left fJ.rst rib of Individual
11 from Pacatnamu. Fracture is perimortem. Drawing by Carlos Ayesta.
476
\
Figure 275. Cut marks on the anterior body (photograph and top drawing) and inferior
(bottom drawing) aspect of the axis vertebra of lndividual13 from Pacatnamu. All
fractures are perimortem. Drawings by Jocelyn Wright.
477
Figure 276. Cut marks on the anterior aspect ofC3 oflndividuall3 from Pacatnamu.
Fractures of the superior rim of the body are perimortem. Drawing by Jocelyn Wright.
Figure 277. Scanning electron micrograph illustrating the straight, sheer walls (arrows)
typical of cut marks on C3 of Individual 13 from Pacatnamu.
Figure 278. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the left lamina ofC3 of the forensic
case (C2-C4 pictured).
478
Figure 279. Scanning electron micrograph of cut marks on C3 of the forensic case. Note
the straight, sheer walls (arrows) of the incisions and that the superior cut mark is actually
two intersecting cuts.
479
Figure 280. Cut marks on the distal
articular surface of the left first metacarpal
of the forensic case. The vertical marks to
the right of the incisions are preparators'
marks.
Figure 281. Cut mark on the dorsal aspect of the
proximal shaft of the left third proximal hand
phalanx of the forensic case. Shaft fracture is
perimortem.
micrograph of the most dorsal
cut mark on the left first
metacarpal of the forensic case.
Note the straight, sheer
superior wall of the incision
(arrow).
480
/
Figure 283. Cut marks on the ventral arch of a camelid atlas from Complejo 3.1, El
Brujo. All fractures are perimortem. Drawing by Carlos Ayesta.
Figure 284. Cut marks on the ventral
aspect of the left and right superior
articular facets of a came lid upper cervical
vertebra from Tomb 2 (1998), El Brujo.
Fracture of right inferior articular facet
is perimortem. Drawing by Carlos Ayesta.
\
Figure 285. Cut marks on a spinous process
fragment of a camelid vertebra from Tomb 2
(1998), El Brujo. Fracture at base of
spinous process is perimortem. Drawing by
Carlos Ayesta.
I \
Figure 286. Cut marks on the ventral aspect of a camelid vertebral body fragment from
Tomb 2 (1998), El Brujo. Fractures are perimortem. Drawing by Carlos Ayesta.
Figure 287. Cut marks on the ventral aspect of the left and right superior and inferior articular facets of a suface collected
camelid lumbar vertebra from Pacatnamu. Not all cut marks on the left and right inferior articular facets are visible on the
drawing. Drawing by Jocelyn Wright.
....
00
......
Figure 288. Cut marks on the (top left photo) ventral and (bottom left photo) left lateral
aspects of a surface collected camelid lumbar vertebra from Pacatnamu. All fractures
are perimortem. The drawings above show the (clockwise from upper left) ventral,
dorsal, right lateral and left lateral views of the bone. All fractures are perimortem.
Drawings by Jocelyn Wright.

00
N
483
Figure 289. Cut marks on the neck and tubercle of a left camelid rib associated with E2
from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. Tubercle cut is not visible on the drawing. Shaft
fracture is perimortem. Drawing by Carlos Ayesta.
Figure 290. Cut marks on the dorsal aspect of
the vertebral '14 of the shaft of an isolated
camelid left rib from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna. Neck fracture is perimortem.
Figure 291. Cut marks on the dorsal
aspect of an isolated camelid right rib
from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. Shaft
fracture is perimortem.
([):----______
\ \
Figure 292. Cut marks on the head and neck of a camelid left rib from Tomb 2 (1998), El
Brujo. Shaft fracture visible on drawing is perimortem. Drawing by Carlos Ayesta.
\
484
Figure 293. Cut marks on the stemal 'l4
of the shaft of a surface collected
camelid right rib from Pacatnamu. Shaft
fracture is perimortem. Drawing by
Jocelyn Wright.
dorsal aspect on the
infraspinous fossa of a sea
lion right scapula from Tomb
2 (1998), El Brujo. Fractures
are perimortem. Photograph
modified from the original by
John Verano. Drawing by
Carlos Ayesta.
Figure 295. Cut marks on the lateral aspect of
the iliopubic ramus of an isolated came lid right
os coxae from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
485
aspect near the rim of the acetabulum
of an isolated camelid left os coxae
Drawing by Gustavo Perez.
micrograph illustrating the
straight, sheer walls (arrows)
typical of cut marks on faunal
axial bones in the comparative
sample. Featured in the
micrograph is one of the cut marks
on the iliopubic ramus of the
isolated camelid right os coxae
pictured in Figure 294.
486
Figure 298. Cut marks on the anterior aspect of a camelid left distal humerus fragment
from Tomb 2 (1998), El Brujo. Drawings show the (clockwise from upper left) anterior,
right lateral and posterior aspects of the bone. Distal shaft fracture is perimortem.
Drawings by Carlos Ayesta.
Figure 299. Cut marks on the anterior shaft of a sea lion right humerus from Complejo
3.1, El Brujo. Left photograph is a close up of the cut marks. Fractures are perimortem.

Figure 300. Cut marks on the (left)
left lateral and (above and right)
posterior aspects of a camelid left
humerus from Complejo 3.4, El Brujo.
All fractures are perimortem. Note
morphological differences between the
cuts on the shaft and those on the
lateral condyle. Some cut marks on
the shaft shown on the drawings are
not visible in the photographs.
Drawings by Carlos Ayesta.
.j:::..
00
-....l
proximal Y4 of the shaft of an isolated came lid left
radius-ulna from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. Shaft
fracture is perimortem. Drawing by Gustavo Perez.
488
Figure 302. Cut mark on the lateral aspect of the lateral
condyle of an isolated came lid right radius-ulna distal
epiphysis from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
the anterior aspect of the
proximal Y4 of the shaft of
a camelid left radius-ulna
from Tomb 2 (1998), El
Brujo. Shaft fracture is
perimortem. Distal most
cut mark on shaft shown
on drawing is not visible in
+ the photograph. Drawing
by Carlos Ayesta.
Figure 304. Cut mark on the anterior aspect of the
head of a camelid left femur from Tomb 2 (1998),
489
El Brujo. Shaft fracture shown on drawing is perimortem. Drawing by Carlos Ayesta.
Figure 305. (Above) Cut marks on the medial aspect
of the neck and lesser trochanter of a camelid left femur
from Tomb 2 (1998), El Brujo. Shaft fracture is
perimortem. Drawing by Carlos Ayesta.
Figure 306. (Right) Cut marks on the anterior aspect of
the proximal Y4 of the shaft of the El Brujo "Danzantes"
camelid right femur. All fractures are perimortem.
490
Figure 307. Cut marks on the anterior aspect on the tibial crest of a came lid left tibia
from Tomb 2 (1998), El Brujo. Shaft fracture is perimortem. Drawing by Carlos Ayesta.
Figure 308. Cut marks on the posterior aspect of the proximal Y4 of the shaft of an
isolated camelid left tibia from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. Shaft fracture is perimortem.
491
anterior aspect of an isolated
camelid left calcaneus from Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna. Drawing
by Gustavo Perez.
Figure 310. Cut mark on the anterior-lateral aspect,
near the margin of the cuboid articular surface of a came lid
left calcaneus from Tomb 2 (1998), El Brujo. Drawing by
Carlos Ayesta.
Figure 311. Cut mark on the posterior
aspect of a surface collected camelid
right calcaneus from Pacatnamu.
Drawing by Jocelyn Wright.
492
Figure 312. Cut marks on the lateral aspect of a surface collected camelid right calcaneus
from Pacatnamu. The cut mark on the posterior aspect of the bone shown on the drawing
is not visible in the photograph. Drawing by Jocelyn Wright.
a b
c d
Figure 313. Cut marks on the (a) anterior, (b) posterior, (c) medial and (d) lateral aspects
of a camelid right astragalus from Tomb 2 (1998), El Brujo. Drawings by Carlos Ayesta.
anterior aspect of an isolated
camelid cuboid from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna.
493
Figure 315. Cut marks on a came lid right fibulare
from Complejo 3.1, El Brujo. Drawing by Carlos
Ayesta.
Figure 316. Scanning
electron micrograph
illustrating the straight, sheer
walls (arrows) typical of cut
marks on faunal appendicular
bones in the comparative
sample. Micrograph is of one
of the cut marks on the lateral
aspect of the El Brujo
"Danzantes" camelid right
femur. The superior wall is
not as clearly defined as the
inferior wall due to a 45
angle of tilt.
Figure 317. Scanning
electron micrograph of two
cut marks on the lateral
margin of the articular
surface for the lateral
malleolus of the surface
collected camelid right
calcaneus from Pacatnamu
shown in Figure 310. Note
the V -shape and straight
walls of both cuts. All
porosities are air bubble
defects in the cast.
494
a b c
e f
g h
\ ~ ...
.. '
' . '
; .
- J ...
... i f
,. * l
, '.
1
Figure 318. Cross-sectional profiles of cut marks on human bones from (a) Plaza 3A and
(b) Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna, (c) El Brujo, (d) Dos Cabezas, (e) Pacatnamu and (f) the
forensic case, and on faunal bones from (g) Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna, (h) El Brujo and
(i) Pacatnamu.
495
.54
.52
-e
.50
e
- ..c:
.48
-
"'
.....

.46
e;....,
0
.44
=

Q)
::\E
.42
.40
.38 ,.__---.---....----.---....--------A
Cut Mark Sample
Figure 319. Means plot of width for the entire cut mark assemblage (where n 6). Key
to x-axis: 1 =El Brujo, 2 =Plaza 3A, 3 =Plaza 3C, Above Floor, 4 =Plaza 3C, Below
Floor, 5 = Pacatnamu, Group 11, 6 = El Brujo Fauna!, 7 = Plaza 3C Faunal. No
significant differences in width .
. 22
-e
e
- .20
;S
Q..
0 .18
e;....,
0
a .16

.14
Cut Mark Sample
Figure 320. Means plot of depth for the entire cut mark assemblage (where n 6). Key
to x-axis same as stated in Figure 319. Significant differences in depth between 2, 3 and
4 each in comparison with 6 (p < 0.001).
496
-5
"t::
....

.5
...._
-5
p.
Cl)
Q
c.,.;
0
c::
.4
o;S

Cut Mark Sample
Figure 321. Means plot of depth/width ratios for the entire cut mark assemblage (where
n 2: 6). Key to x-axis: 1 =El Brujo, 2 =Plaza 3A, 3 =Plaza 3C, Above Floor, 4 =Plaza
3C, Below Floor, 5 = Pacatnamu, Group 11, 6 = El Brujo Faunal, 7 = Plaza 3C Faunal.
Significant differences in depth/width. values between 2, 3, 4 and 7 each in comparison
with 6 (p < 0.001) .
. 60
.58
.56
-e
s .54
._.,
..c:
-
.52 "t::
....

c.,.;
0
.50
c::
o;S
.48
Cl)
::;E
.46
.44
.42
Moche (n = 208) Lambayeque (n = 9) Fauna! (n = 46)
Human v. Faunal
Figure 322. Means plot of width of cut marks on Moche human remains, Lambayeque
human bones and faunal elements. No significant differences in width.
497
.22
]'
'-'
t .20
~
(+-;
0
.18

~
.16
. 1 4 ~ - - - - - - - - - . . - - - - - - - - - - - . 1
Moche (n = 208) Lambayeque (n = 9) Faunal (n = 46)
Human v. Faunal
Figure 323. Means plot of depth of cut marks on Moche human remains, Lambayeque
human bones and faunal elements. Significant differences in depth between Moche
human remains and Lambayeque human bones and between Moche human remains and
faunal elements (p < 0.001 ) .
. 44
~
~ .42
.;
fr
0 .40
(+-;
0
= .38
QJ
::E
.36
.34 - - - - - - - - - - . - - - - - - - - - - - - . 1
Moche (n = 208) Lambayeque (n = 9) Faunal (n = 46)
Human v. Faunal
Figure 324. Means plot of depth/width ratios of cut marks on Moche human bones,
Lambayeque human remains and faunal elements. Significant differences in depth/width
values between Moche human remains and faunal elements (p < 0.001).
498
.46
--

,_,
-s
.44
"0
.....
~
~
0
.42
s::
"'
Cl)
~
.40
. 3 8 ~ ~ ~
Upper LB (n = 27) Lower LB (n = 49) Non-LB (n = 141)
Within Human Sample
Figure 325. Means plot of width of cut marks on human upper long bones, lower long
bones and non-long bones. No significant differences in width. LB = Long Bone .
. 16
-- s
s
,_,
-s
.15
c..
Cl)
Q
~
0
.14
s::
"'
Cl)
~
.13
.12 ot----------------.--------""'"'
Within Human Sample
Figure 326. Means plot of depth of cut marks on human upper long bones, lower long
bones and non-long bones. No significant differences in depth. LB = Long Bone.
~
~
.36
~ .35
0
~
0 .34
d
CO
~
.33
.32---------.....-----------4
Within Hwnan Sample
499
Figure 327. Means plot of depth/width ratios of cut marks on hwnan upper long bones,
lower long bones and non-long bones. No significant differences in depth/width values.
LB =Long Bone.
,.-._
8
8 .6
'-"'
..d
.....
"t:l
.....
~
~
0
d
CO
.5
Q)
::E
. 4 ~ ~
Upper LB (n = ll) Lower LB (n = 9) Non-LB (n = 24)
Within Faunal Group
Figure 328. Means plot of width of cut marks on faunal upper long bones, lower long
bones and non-long bones. No significant differences in width. LB = Long Bone.
.26
.25
,.-._
s .24
s
"-'
;S
.23
0..
~
0
(+o<
.22
0
$:1
t':S
~
::;z .21
.20
.19
Within Faunal Group
Figure 329. Means plot of depth of cut marks on faunal upper long bones, lower long
bones and non-long bones. No significant differences in depth. LB = Long Bone .
. 8 ~ ~
.47
;S
"'d
...
~
-
.46
;S
0..
~
0
(+o<
0
.45
$:1
t':S
~
::;z
.44
. 4 3 ~ ~ ~
Within Faunal Sample
500
Figure 330. Means plot of depth/width ratios of cut marks on faunal upper long bones,
lower long bones and non-long bones. No significant differences in depth/width values.
LB =Long Bone.
501
.54
,.-_
~ .52
'-"
;S
' ~ ' : : )
-

.50
~
0
=

.48
C1)
~
.46
.44 oi------------..------------.1
Within Plaza 3A Sample
bones and non-long bones from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna. No significant differences
in width. LB = Long Bone .
. 18
.17
-
.16
'-"
;S
Q..,
C1)
.15
0
~
0
=

.14
C1)
:g
.13
.12 oi-----------...----------.1
bones and non-long bones from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna. No significant differences
in depth. LB = Long Bone.
502
.38
.36
-5
'"0
-
.34

..._
..c:
.....
p,.
0
.32
to-.
0
= .30 d
Cl.)

.28
.26111------------.......---------.1
Figure 333. Means plot of depth/width ratios of cut marks on human upper long bones,
lower long bones and non-long bones from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna. No significant
differences in depth/width values. LB = Long Bone .
.48
.46
,--.

.44
'-"
-5
'"0
-

.42
to-.
0
=
d
.40
Cl.)

.38
.36 ,.__----------...----------.1
Within Plaza 3C Sample
bones and non-long bones from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. No significant differences
in width. LB = Long Bone.
503
.16
.13
.12 oi-----------.....----------.1
WithinPlaza3C Sample
bones and non-long bones from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. No significant differences
in depth. LB = Long Bone .
. 37-----------------.
-5
.36
"0
-

.......
-5
c.
0
.35
Q

0
=
1:1:1
0

.34
.33 oi-----------.....----------.1
Within Plaza 3C Sample
lower long bones and non-long bones from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. No significant
differences in depth/width values. LB = Long Bone.
504
.50
.48
-

.46
'-"
..c=
-
-e
-

.44

0
s::

.42
Cl)
:a
.40
.38
Within Plaza 3C Above-Floor Sample
bones and non-long bones from above the floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. No
significant differences in width. LB = Long Bone .
. 17
-
!
;5 .16
g

0
s:: .15

.14
.13 ..._--------..----------.1
bones and non-long bones from above the floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna No
significant differences in depth. LB = Long Bone.
505
ofi
.36
'"0
-

........
ofi
0.
ll)
.35
0

0
s::

ll)
:E
.34
.33 ,.._----------,.-----------i
lower long bones and non-long bones from above the floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna. No significant differences in depth/width values. LB = Long Bone .
.48
.46
,--..,

.44
'-'
..c:
.42
....
'"0
-

.40
0
s::

ll)
.38
:E
.36
.34
Within Plaza 3C Below-Floor Sample
bones and non-long bones from below the floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
Significant differences in width between lower long bones and non-long bones.
506
.15
.12
.11 --------------..-------------'
Within Plaza 3C Floor Sample
bones and bones from below the floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. No
significant differences in depth. LB = Long Bone .
..s
.36
'0
-

-..s
Q.,

.35
0
(+-;
0
=

:::E
.34
.33 --------------..------------'
Within Plaza 3C Floor Sample
lower long bones and long bones from below the floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la
Luna. No significant differences in depth/width values. LB = Long Bone.
' ' \ . .
\ . .:; '1 \ .,
' \..-, ...
.. ' 'I? ,,u:.,l. L ....
.,-J.. ., . \
. . ,, "" _,..
""'
,,. .,. t.t'
.. . . , ... ".. .l
. -,. t>
l i, , . . . ',
,._ ...
. ft. .. '
'
"
IDii
lt
11
,.:.,:,.
,.
I
' of' . . i . . ,' t
-:. ,,. rt'''., ,,. '1,
..-- . .. . ;" ... ._' ......... _.... . . . ' .
. \ .fs - -.>!. .. ... ,._\ >\
,},t- ... '(:,'\ - .... '.
( ' Q -,
,4
' ' - \ ..
' ' ' ..... {"'
2 0 3 7 ,,. 2 aK u . X 50 10 e llD 2 a ; -
Figure 343. Scanning electron micrographs of (clockwise from upper left) a cut mark, scrape marks, rodent gnawing and sand
abrasion.
U\
0
-...J
508
Figure 344. Bone smears (boxed areas) on the floor of one of the cut marks on the
anterior aspect of C3 of HG99-5 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. Directionality from
right to left.
Figure 345. Bone smear (boxed area) on the floor of another of the cut marks on the
anterior aspect ofC3 ofHG99-5 from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. Directionality from
left to right.
EDAX lne. - Eagle 11 Applications Lab Mabwab N.J
Fse: 1850 LSec: 20 21-Mar-2002 2:32PM kV:40 uA:530 (Rb) 300um-Spot Atm:Vacuum
A D:\PittCon2002\TulaneUniv Bone cut.spc Bonecut2
B D:\PittCon2002\TulaneUniv Bone only.spc Bone only 2
1800
1620 -
c
1440 -
( K +-- Present in both the bone
8
and within the cut mark
0
u
1260 1-
n
t
s 1080 f-
900 f-
720 1-
540
360
180
f- ]eK +-- Present within the
cut mark only
-
I
CaK

-

....
Ag
I I I I I
I
I I I
I 9.00 I 10.00 I 11.00
1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.10
Energy ( keV I
Figure 346. Element concentrations determined by x-ray fluorescence (XRF) in a human bone (dark gray lines) and within a cut mark
on that bone (light gray lines). Bone sample from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna The elements present are as follows (left to right),
potassium (K), calcium (Ca), titanium (Ti), magnesium (Mn) and iron (Fe). The capital K after all elements refers to the K orbital
electron shell (Bohr's atom model). The two peaks shown for each element represent the stronger Ka peak and the weaker Kp peak,
respectively. Although the label states otherwise, the sample was not under a vacuum.
Vl
0
1.0
EDAX Inc. - Eagle 11 Applications Lab Mabwala N.J
Fsc: 1707 LSec: 14 21-Mar-2002 3:16PM kV:40 uA: 530 (Ria) 300um-Spot Atm:Vacuum
A Bone cut llama
1700
B Bone only llama
1530 r-
c
1360 1-
CaK -+-- both the bone
and wtthm the cut mark
0
u
1190 -
n
t
s
1020

850 -
680
'
eK Present within the
'
cut mark only
510 -
I
340 r-

170

r-

--
....
J{K TiK
u, ...... .\X
I 1.00 I 2.00 I 3.00 I 4.00 I 5.00 I 6.00 I 7.00 I 8.00 I 9.00 I 10.00 I 11.00
Energy I keV I
Figure 347. Element concentrations determined by x-ray fluorescence (XRF) in a faunal bone (dark gray lines) and within a cut mark
on that bone (light gray lines). Bone sample from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. The elements present are as follows (left to right),
potassium (K), calcium (Ca), titanium (Ti), magnesium (Mn) and iron (Fe). The capital K after all elements refers to the K orbital
electron shell (Bohr's atom model). The two peaks shown for each element represent the stronger Ka peak and the weaker K
13
peak,
respectively. Although the label states otherwise, the sample was not under a vacuum.
VI
......
0
Figure 348. Healed depressed fracture on the frontal bone of
Craneo VII from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna.
Figure 349. Skull ofH96-216 from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna
with a healed broken nose.
Vl
-
-
512
Figure 350. Thoracic vertebrae
T6-T8 ofHG96-100 from Plaza
3A, Huaca de la Luna showing a
healed compression fracture of T7
with associated anterior wedging.
Figure 351. Left ribs with healed shaft fractures of
Individual XXIII from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna.
Figure 352. Posterior view of a healed injury
of the infraspinous fossa of the left scapula of
H96-205 from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna.
Figure 353.
A healed parry
fracture of the left
radius and ulna
of Individual I
from Plaza 3A,
Huaca de la Luna.
Note the
displacement of
the distal shafts.
513
Figure 354. Perimortem fracture of
the left parietal and occipital of
lndividualll from Plaza 3A, Huaca
de la Luna. Note the semi-circular
imprints (arrows) left by the
weapon.
Figure 355. Internal view of a perimortem shaft fracture of a left
rib from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna.
Figure 356. Perimortem shaft fracture of the left clavicle ofHG96-1
Figure 357. Perimortem fracture of the distal shaft
of a right humerus from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna.
Figure 358. Two proximal hand
phalanges with perimortem shaft
fractures from Plaza 3A, Huaca de
laLuna.
514
Figure 359. A perimortem fracture
of the head of the left talus of
H96-180 from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la
Luna.
Figure 360. Perimortem fractures of (left) the right
fourth middle foot phalanx and (right) the right fifth
proximal foot phalanx oflndividual XXX from Plaza 3A,
Huaca de la Luna.
Figure 361. Perimortem parry fracture near midshaft of the left ulna of H96-162 from
Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna. Note the bone has shattered into three pieces.
Figure 362. Perimortem
injury to the left body
of L2 of Individual
XI from Plaza 3A,
Huaca de la Luna.
injury to the left cuboid and left
third and fourth metatarsals of
Individual XV from Plaza 3A,
Huaca de la Luna.
Figure 364. Anterior
(left) and posterior
(right) views of a
penetrating injury to
the upper body of the
sternum of HG96-1
from Plaza 3A,
Huaca de la Luna.
Entry from anterior
aspect. Perforations
in the lower stemal
body and xiphoid
process are natural
apertures.
Figure 365. Penetrating wounds or
bite marks on the (left) dorsal and
(right) palmar aspects of a right first
proximal hand phalanx from Plaza
Ul
.......
Ul
Figure 366. Healing impacted fracture
of the distal shaft of the left fifth
metacarpal ofE5 from Plaza 3C, Huaca
de la Luna. Note the periosteal reaction
and callus formation. Photograph courtesy
of John Verano.
Figure 368. Healed fractures of the distal
ends of the right tibia and fibula of E6 from
Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. The right
talus (not shown) was also affected.
516
Figure 367. Palmar (left) and lateral (right)
views of an isolated right first metacarpal
with a healed shaft fracture from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna.
Figure 369. Healing parry fracture of
the distal shaft of the left ulna of E6
Note the periosteal reaction and callus
formation. Photograph courtesy of
John Verano.
Figure 370. Posterior view of
swelling of the proximal shaft
of the left femur of E5 from Plaza
Figure 372. Perimortem fracture
of the radial articular surface of
a right scaphoid from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna.
Figure 3 71. Anterior view of
swelling at midshaft of the
left fibula ofE12 from Plaza
517
fracture of the distal end of
the right first proximal foot
phalanx of H23 from Plaza
3C, Huaca de la Luna. Right
first distal phalanx not found.
fracture of the sternal 1h of
the shaft of the right clavicle
of El from Plaza 3C, Huaca
de la Luna. Acromial % of
the bone not found.
518
Figure 375. Perimortem fractures of the
necks of ribs ofE15 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna.
Figure 376. Perimortem fractures of the
proximal shafts of left ribs ofH9 SKI from
Figure 377. Penetrating injuries to the bodies of (left) C7 and (right) T4 ofHG99-3 from
Figure 379. Healed shaft fracture
of the right third metatarsal of
519
Figure 3 78. Perimortem fractures of the
right transverse process and inferior
body of C7 of E-15-16 from the Cuarto
de los Craneos, Dos Cabezas. Note also
the cut marks on the anterior body.
Figure 380. Posterior view of three penetrating
wounds through the infraspinous fossa of the left
scapula of Individual 1 from Pacatnamu. Entries
from anterior aspect.
Figure 381. Perimortem shaft fracture of
the left first rib of Individual 2 from
Pacatnamu.
Figure 382. Penetrating wounds to the left
eleventh and twelfth ribs of Individual 2
from Pacatnamu. Entries from anterior
aspect.
Figure 383. Penetrating injuries to
the bodies ofT6-T8 oflndividual2
from Pacatnamu.
Figure 385. Penetrating wound to the
right sacroiliac joint of Individual 2
from Pacatnamu.
520
Figure 384. Anterior view of a penetrating
wound to the manubrium of Individual 2
from Pacatnamu. Entry from anterior aspect.
fractures of the left fifth
metacarpal and fifth proximal
hand phalanx of Individual 3
from Pacatnamu.
521
Figure 387. Perimortem fractures of the nasal bones of
fracture of the styloid
process of the left ulna of
Individual 1 from
Pacatnamu.
Figure 389. Perimortem fracture across the
distal end of the right humerus of Individual
6 from Pacatnamu.
Figure 390. Perimortem shaft
fracture of a right proximal foot
phalanx of Individual 6 from
Pacatnamu.
Figure 391. Perimortem fractures of bones of the face and nose oflndividual9 from
Pacatnamu.
522
Figure 392. Anterior view of perimortem
fractures of the left scapula oflndividual10
from Pacatnamu. Entries from posterior
aspect.
Figure 393. Anterior view ofperimortem
compression fractures ofT12-L1
of Individual 11 from Pacatnamu.
Figure 394. (Left to right) Camelid radius-ulna, femur and long bone fragments with perimortem spiral fractures from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna. White arrows point to cut marks.
V.
N
w
+--
-
a -- " b -... - ~ c ...... ,,, d
Figure 395. Cut marks on (a and b) Entierro 3 and (c and d) Entierro 4 from the subfloor deposit of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
V\
N
~
-
a ..,., ~ b ....._ ..---- c 11111111"' ""' d
Figure 396. Cut marks on (a and b) Entierro 5 and (c and d) Entierro 6 from the subfloor deposit of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. Due
to commingling of the vertebrae and ribs of these two skeletons, cut marks on these bones are not shown.
Ul
N
Ul
a =--- ,- b ---.. L..F ___... c ..,.. ~ d
Figure 397. Cut marks on (a and b) E9 and (c and d) ElO from the subfloor deposit of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
Ul
N
0'\
-
-
a - ,. b --w . . . . - ~ c ~ ~ . d
Figure 398. Cut marks on (a and b) Ell and (c and d) El2 from the subfloor deposit of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
U\
N
-.....)
--.r. H+-
-
a - b .,. - c d
Figure 399. Cut marks on (a and b) E\3 and ( c and d) E14 from the sub floor deposit of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
V\
N
QO
a 0<' -q- b L.J ...._. c Z!!lflll"' ,.... d
Figure 400. Cut marks on (a and b) E 15 and ( c and d) E 18 from the subfloor deposit of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna. Due to
fragmented state ofE18 vertebrae and ribs, cut marks on these bones not shown. Vl
N
\0
d
b
c
Figure 40 I. Cut marks on (a and b) HG99-1 and ( c and d) HG99-2 from the above-floor deposit of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
a
Vl
Vl
0
-->
a a.-' '<:\- b -\J '-" c 111' ,,. d
Figure 402. Cut marks on (a and b) HG99-3 and (c and d) HG99-4 from the above-floor deposit of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
V1
w
......
..-
--+
a b c d
Figure 403. Cut marks on (a and b) HG99-5 and (c and d) HG99-6 from the above-floor deposit of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
Vl
w
N
-
a - b '-' - c d
Figure 404. Cut marl<s on (a and b) HG99-9 and ( c and d) E2 from the above-floor deposit of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
-
Ul
w
w
/
-
a b c d
Figure 405. Cut marks on (a and b) E4 and (c and d) E6 from the above-floor deposit of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
Ul
w

-
-
-
a b - c - d
Figure 406. Cut marl<s on (a and b) E7 and ( c and d) E8 from the above-floor deposit of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
IJ\
VJ
IJ\

80
I

I
Below Floor
rll I
- -
I 11J Above Floor
-
=
60
=
-=
....
i::;
-=
=
"""'
""'
40
=

20
0
. .. .v.fl!'" .... _ #'
# , #
W '?1\J J.- ;s)f{j
<:f <!" . V . rt.l.$'
"-,.V '& ... 0 ,ri.<?
c::;l O'l;Y A;! v .._'() V
tl':t-v #'..,.
w -Q'>t?

Type of Perimortem or Postmortem Treatment
Figure 407. Chart comparing the types of perimortem and postmortem treatment suggested by cut marks on individuals represented
by articulated and semi-articulated skeletons deposited below (n = 12) and above (n = 17) the floor of Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
Vl
1,;.)
01
a or ,- b
Figure 408. Cut marks on the (a) anterior and (b) posterior aspects ofHG96-1 from Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna.
(A
w
--..J

80
.!5
I
I\ 0 Plaza 3C
=
n
=
"0 60
Plaza3A
....
. =:
"0
= loo-4
eo..
40 Q

1:>
20
0
. &".,c<> ;$'<> .
Ji(:>'{J"" '{)""
"'"(li - -...... s;. .-'ZJ.........
"V" ...... <rJ..... c -:v-
# # //
. c<> c .

#

Type of Perimortem or Postmortem Treatment
Figure 409. Chart comparing the types of perimortem and postmortem treatment suggested by cut marks on individuals represented
by articulated and semi-articulated skeletons from Plaza 3C (n = 30) and Plaza 3A (n = 62), Huaca de la Luna.
Vl
tH
00
l i t ~ - -
Figure 410. Roll-out drawing of warriors in combat on a Moche strirrup-spout vessel in the Phoebe Apperson Hearst Museum of
Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley. Drawing by Donna McClelland. After Donnan and McClelland 1999:Figure 3.37.
Ul
VJ
\0

Figure 411. Roll-out drawing of a combat scene on a Moche stirrup-spout vessel in the Museum fiir Volkerkunde, Berlin. After
Kutcher 1954:Plate 21. Note the use of war clubs with both conical and star-shaped heads.
U"l

Figure 412. Roll-out drawing of warriors using war clubs to strike nude captive prisoners and make their noses bleed on a Moche
stirrup-spout vessel in a private collection. Drawing by Donna McClelland. After Donnan and McClelland 1999:Figure 3.39.
Vl

......
Figure 413. Wooden club covered in dried human blood found in a Moche tomb on
Platform II, adjacent to Plaza 3A, Huaca de la Luna. Museo de Arqueologia,
Antropologia e Historia, Universidad Nacional de Trujillo Collection. After Bourget
200lb:Figure 10.
542
Figure 414. Moche wooden clubs
in the Museo Arqueol6gico Rafael
Larco Herrera, Lima. After Larco
Hoyle, 2001a:Figure 236.
543
Figure 415. Moche star-shaped copper mace heads in the Museo Arqueol6gico Rafael
Larco Herrera, Lima. After Larco Hoyle 2001 b:Figure 173.
Figure 416. Moche stone mace heads in the Museo Arqueol6gico Rafael Larco Herrera,
Lima. After Larco Hoyle 2001a:Figure 237b.
Figure 417. Roll-out drawing of the Sacrifice Ceremony on a Moche stirrup-spout bottle in the Staatliches Museum fiir Volkerkunde,
Munich. Drawing by Donna McClelland. After Donnan and McClelland 1999:Figure 4.1 02.
V.
t
545
Figure 418. Moche
stirrup-spout vessel
featuring a supernatural
deity holding a tumi and
a severed human head in
the Museo Arqueol6gico
Rafael Larco Herrera,
Lima After Bertin
1997 :Plate 91.
Figure 419. M oche copper tumi found in
the left hand of an elite individual in a
tomb burial at Dos Cabezas. Photograph
by Alana Cordy-Collins. After Cordy-
Collins 2001:Figure 2.10.
Figure 420. Moche copper tumi in the
Metropolitan Museum of Art. Gift of
Nathan Cummings. After Donnan 1978:
Figure 107.
Figure 421. Moche copper tumi
in the Norbert Mayrock Art
Collection. After Schindler 2000:
104.
546
Figure 422. Moche copper dart points in the
Museo Arqueol6gico Rafael Larco Herrera,
Lima. After Larco Hoyle 2001a:Figure 243.
547
Figure 423. Moche copper knife
with chisel-like edge in the Norbert
Mayrock Art Collection. After
Schindler 2000:96.
Figure 424. Sharpened non-human bone fragment from Plaza 3C, Huaca de la Luna.
Figure 425. Lambayeque copper tumi in the
Robert Woods Bliss Collection ofPrecolumbian
Art at Dumbarton Oaks. After Cordy-Collins
1996:Plate 51.
Figure 426. Lambayeque silver tumi in the Museo
Oro del Peru, Lima. After Torres Della Pina
2000:103.
548
Figure 427. Above left, a large sharpened non-human bone
found at Pacatnamu. Above right, two sharpened non-human
bone fragments found in direct association with Individuals 1
and 2 from the Lambayeque mass burial at Pacatnamu. After
Verano 1986:Figure 11.
;.:
.
~
~
Figure 428. Moche vessel featuring an individual
holding a star-shaped mace in the Collection
Tropenmuseum, Amsterdam. After Donnan 1978:
Figure 110.
Ut
~
1.0
550
Figure 429. Moche copper scepter-knife with three
figures (an owl deity and two humans) at the top in
the Norbert Mayrock Art Collection. After Schindler
2000:100.
551
Figure 430. Moche prisoner vessel in the Museo Arqueol6gico Cassinelli, Trujillo. After
Donnan 2004:Figure 7.17.
Figure 431. Roll-out drawing of prisoners, stripped of their clothing and weapons, being
paraded by warriors on a Moche vessel in a private collection. Drawing by Donna
McClelland. After Donnan 2004:Figure 7.4.
Figure 433. Moche vessel featuring a
prisoner with mutilated nose and lips
tied to a post and being attacked by a
vulture in the Museo Arqueol6gico
Rafael Larco Herrera, Lima. After
Berrin 1997 :Plate 93.
552
Figure 432. Rope
fragments (arrows)
found around the neck
of E5 from Plaza 3C,
Huaca de la Luna.
Photograph courtesy
of John Verano.
553
Figure 434. Moche vessel
featuring a prisoner tied to a
rack in the Museum :fiir
Volkerkunde, Berlin. After
Bourget 2001b:Figure 19.
Figure 435. Moche vessel
featuring an individual with
mutilated nose and lips in the
Museo Arqueol6gico Larco
Herrera. After Larco Hoyle
200lb:Figure 48.
Figure 436. Detail of the prisoner
relief on the north fayade of Huaca
Cao Viejo, El Brujo. Note the
depicted mutilation to the base of
the prisoner's penis. After Galvez
and Bricefio 2001:140.
554
Figure 437. Moche stirrup-
spout vessel featuring a
supernatural figure using a
tumi to slit the throat of a
sacrificial victim in the
Museum fiir Volkerkunde,
Berlin. After Donnan
1978:Figure 151.
555
Figure 438. Reconstruction ofMoche assailant-victim positioning during throat slitting.
Note that the assailant holds the tumi in a power grip in the palm of his hand with his
fingers up.
Figure 439. Roll-out drawing of the presentation of prisoners to an elite individual on a
Moche vessel in the American Museum ofNatural History, New York. Note the prisoner
in the upper right hand corner who is about to have his throat slit (arrow). Drawing by
Donna McClelland. After Donnan 2004:Figure 7.5.
556
Figure 440. Roll-out drawing of a version ofthe Sacrifice Ceremony on a Moche stirrup-
spout bottle in the Museo Nacional Antropologia, Arqueologia e Historia, Lima.
Drawing by Donna McClelland. After Donnan and McClelland 1999:Figure 4.1 04.
Figure 441. Roll-out drawing of another version of the Sacrifice Ceremony on a Moche
vessel in the Museum fiir Volkerkunde, Hamburg. After Kutscher 1983:Figure 303-2.
Figure 442. Roll-out drawing of anthropomorphized weapon-bundles sacrificing captive
prisoners on a Moche stirrup-spout vessel in the Art Institute of Chicago. Drawing by
Donnan McClelland. After Donnan and McClelland 1999:Figure 4.71.
Figure 444. Moche trophy head in the
Jay Conger Collection. After Donnan
1978:Figure 273.
557
Figure 443. Moche stirrup-spout vessel
featuring an owl deity holding a tumi in one
hand and a severed human head in the other.
After Donnan 1978:Figure 205.
558
Figure 445. Roll-out drawing of individuals surrounded by a trophy head, trophy arms
and trophy legs on a Moche vessel in the Museum ft1r VOlkerkunde, Munich. Drawing
by Donnan McClelland. After Donnan 1978:Figure 205.
Figure 446. Mountain Sacrifice
scene on a Moche stirrup-spout
bottle in the Museo
Arqueol6gico Larco Herrera,
Lima. After Larco Hoyle
200lb:Figure 335.
Figure 44 7. Roll-out drawing of skeletons playing musical instruments on a Moche
stirrup-spout bottle in the Museum fiir Volkerkunde, Berlin. Drawing by Donna
McClelland. After Donnan and McClelland 1999:Figure 3.16.
559
Figure 448. Roll-out drawing of skeletons dancing on a Moche stirrup-spout bottle in the
Museum fiir Volkerkunde, Berlin. Drawing by Donna McClelland. After Donnan and
McClelland 1999:Figure 4.78.
Figure 449. Roll-out drawing of prisoner dismemberment on a Moche stirrup-spout
bottle in Museo Antropologia, Arqueologia e Historia, Lima. Drawing by Donna
McClelland. After Donnan 2004:Figure 7.7.
560
Figure 450. Three wooden captives found at the Lambayeque site of Huaca Tacaynamo.
Note that the rope around the neck and ankles of the first individual is still preserved.
After Verano 1986:Figure 26.
Figure 451. Oblique views of
the third wooden captive from
Figure 450. Note the holes in the
upper left chest and lower left
back. After Verano 1986:Figure
26.
Figure 452. Reconstruction of a polychrome painting on a plastered textile found at
Huaca las Ventanas, Batan Grande. Note in the center the Sican Deity holding a tumi
knife and a severed human head. Drawing by Cesar Samillan. After Shimada
2000:Figure 40.
Figure 453.
Lambayeque
hammered gold
arm in the Robert
Woods Bliss
Collection of
Precolumbian Art
at Dumbarton
Oaks. After
Cordy -Collins
1996:Plate 45.
561
562
END NOTES
Notes to pages 9-51
1. The site of Tiwanaku is actually located in o l i v i ~ but its cultural sphere
of influence included much of the southern highlands of Peru.
2. Although not a focus of this dissertation, archaeological evidence of
human sacrificial victims strangled by ligature has been documented and summarized by
Verano (2001a).
3. For details about old and perimortem fractures sustained by the war
captives excavated from Plaza 3A at Huaca de la Luna, see Verano (1998, 2001a, 2001b)
and Chapter Four of this dissertation.
4. Gilbert and Richards (2000) have published an article detailing their
method of sample imaging analysis using Adobe PhotoShop and a high resolution
digital camera equipped with a charged-coupled device (CCD) and an SLR lens that they
claim produces images of bone modification that are comparable to those obtained with
anSEM.
5. Evidence of throat slitting has been observed on a few Iron Age bog
bodies (e.g., Lindow 11 from England and Grauballe Man and Ravnholt Man from
Denmark) (Glob 1969; Stead et al. 1986). However, since their discovery, these
individuals have been maintained as fully fleshed corpses; thus, it is not known whether
cut marks are present on the cervical vertebrae. In addition, cut marks consistent with
throat slitting recently have been found on human sacrifice victims from three other sites
on the north coast of Peru: Cerro Cerrillos and Tucume in the Lambayeque Valley, and
Punta Lobos in the Huarmey Valley. The data from these three sites have not yet been
published.
6. Darling (1999) and Ogilvie and Hilton (2000) argue that witch execution
and disposal rather than cannibalism best explains evidence of defleshing,
dismemberment, bone breakage and burning at Anasazi sites in the American Southwest.
563
Notes to pages 62-66
1. Bones inventoried as part of the Plaza 3A osteological collection but
excluded from my data sample are those from four tombs excavated from Platform 11
above the mass burial, several intrusive child burials and assorted looters' pits. All faunal
bones from Plaza 3A also were excluded from my data sample.
2. Sex estimation is based on skull and pelvic morphology, and in a few
cases, on bone size and robusticity of muscle attachments. Age estimation is based on
morphology of the pubic symphysis, auricular surface, epiphyseal closure, and endo- and
ectocranial suture closure. Average age is based on a sample of74 individuals for which
an age range of 10 years or fewer was possible to determine.
3. The skeletons of children found in two tombs excavated from Plaza 3C
during the 2000 field season (Verano and Tufmio n.d.; Verano n.d.) are not included in
my data sample.
4. Sex estimation is based on skull and pelvic morphology. Age estimation
is based on stemal rib morphology and morphology of the pubic symphysis and auricular
surface of the os coxa, and on epiphyseal closure and endo- and ectocranial suture
closure. Average age is based on a sample of 42 individuals for which an age range of 10
years or fewer was possible to determine.
5. The Moche Foodways Archaeological Project commenced in 1997, with
excavations in the Moche Valley. While excavations at El Brujo began in 1998 and were
concluded in 2001, laboratory analysis is still ongoing.
6. The original physical analysis of the Entierro 2 (1994) and Entierro 1
(2000) skeletons from Huaca Cao Viejo was done by John Verano. Sex determination is
based on skull and pelvic morphology. Age determination is based on morphology of the
pubic symphysis and auricular surface of the os coxa, and on epiphyseal closure.
7. The antiquity of the sun bleaching on the frontal bone is questionable. It
may be recent.
8. Only 17 of the 18 individuals from the "Cuarto de los Craneos" were
included in my data sample because one individual (E-15-1 7, represented by a single
right mandible fragment) could not be located.
9. Tyson, Cordy-Collins, and I based our sex determination on skull
morphology.
564
10. Quoting from Verano and DeNiro (1993:382), "The isotopically adjusted
date (o
13
C = -12.5%) on bone collagen from a combined sample from two individuals
was 880 110 B.P." Verano calibrated the date himself using tables in Klein et al.
(1982).
11. According to Verano (1986:132), "'Age determination is based on
epiphyseal closure and morphology of the pubic symphysis. Sex determination is based
on pelvic morphology."
12. Regarding the total number of human bones in my data sample, the three
elements of the sternum (i.e., manubrium, stemal body and xiphoid process) were
counted as separate bones. Skulls, whether or not they were complete, were treated as the
following separate bones: frontal, left and right parietal, left and right temporal,
occipital, left and right nasal, left and right malar, left and right maxilla, and mandible.
The total number of bones in my data sample, both human and faunal, is 18,596.
13. Cruz-Uribe and Klein (1994:42) argued that microscopic marks were
excluded from their analysis because it "(would] require hundreds or thousands of
additional hours to complete, and ... because the principal observations available for
comparison are macroscopic." See also Blumenschine et al. (1996:495) for their
definition of "conspicuous" marks and discussion of analytical standards used in bone
surface modification studies.
14. Macroscopic scrapes were also recorded in my notes and database and
sketched on line drawings but they were excluded from my analysis.
15. A total of5,272 cut marks were observed on the human bones in my
sample and 505 cut marks were on observed on the faunal bones.
16. By subtype, I am referring to the smaller, and more specific, categories
into which certain types of bones can be divided. For example, the type "vertebrae" is
composed of three subtypes: cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebrae.
17. For those cut marks that were not cast, the reason (e.g., damaged, too
weathered, too fragile, not chosen) was recorded in my notes.
18. I experimented with different acrylic paint colors, including sandalwood
and mauve, but found that cut marks showed up the best on positive casts colored with
unbleached titanium paint.
19. The Image-Pro Plus measurement feature was calibrated to millimeters
at 40X using a special calibration slide imprinted with a ruler.
565
20. Total numbers of maximum width and depth measurements include both
human and camelid samples. Separately, a total of 223 maximum width and 224
maximum depth measurements were recorded for the human sample, and a total of 48
maximum width and 48 maximum depth measurements were recorded for the camelid
sample.
21. In one case, two casts of the same cervical vertebra were used.
22. Human bones exported from Peru for use in elemental analysis consisted
of one complete talus, one complete cervical vertebrae, and two fibula fragments, and one
fragment each of a skull, rib, cervical vertebra, and thoracic vertebra. Camelid bones
exported for elemental analysis consisted of one fragment each of a rib, vertebra, os coxa,
femur, long bone, and astragalus.
CHAPTERFOUR: BESULTS
1. Three separate skull vault fragments with cut marks were assigned the
same field code H96-157.
2. In 1995, two individuals were assigned the same field code "XVIIr' in
error. In addition, the field code "HG96-10" includes the remains of three individuals.
Both Individuals XVIII and two of the three individuals ofHG96-10 have cervical
vertebrae with cut marks.
3. Tables 15 and 16 are modeled after Tables 1 and 2 in Melbye and
Fairgrieve (1994).
4. Based on a photograph taken by Verano in 1999, three additional cut
marks were present above the canine on the alveolar process of the right maxilla ofH17
SKl. However, since these incisions were not observable at the time of my analysis, they
are not included in my database and are not part of any counts. Nevertheless, since I was
aware of their existence at the time of my analysis, they do appear in Figure 80.
5. Only the proximal epiphysis of the right humerus of HG99-4 was
recovered at the time of excavation.
6. Although the sternal 'l2 of the left clavicle ofEntierro 6 was present at the
time of excavation, the lateral 'l2 was missing.
7. The left and right femora ofH11 SK5 are not a pair, but rather belong to
two different individuals.
566
8. Two cervical vertebrae, CS of Individual E-15-5 and C6 of Individual
E-15-9, had been exported and were therefore unavailable for microscopic analysis.
However, I obtained slides of these bones from Rose Tyson and was able to observe the
number and location of the cut marks on each bone.
9. It also is possible that E-15-2, E-15-3 and E-15-4, originally classified as
females by Tyson and Cordy-Collins (1998), and by me as probable females are, in fact,
adolescent males. However, the poor condition of the skulls and the absence of all pelvic
sex indicators preclude any definitive statements about the sex of the deceased.
10. In Verano's (1986) report on the Lambayeque mass burial at Pacatnamu,
this bone is incorrectly identified as a left ulna.
11. V erano ( 1986) does not mention cut marks on the left scaphoid and left
trapezium of Individual 3 in his report.
12. The bisected manubria of Individuals 6 and 7 from Group 11 and
Individual 14 from Group Ill were absent from the Pacatnamu collection when I analyzed
it, thus my discussion of the manubria from these individuals is based entirely on the text
of and figures in Verano's (1986) report.
13. The cut mark on the anterior aspect of the manubrium oflndividual5 is
clearly visible Figure 21 ofVerano's (1986) report, however, it is not mentioned
explicitly.
14.. There is no mention of cut marks on the left first rib of Individual 9 in
Verano's (1986) report.
15. As stated in this dissertation and in the caption to Figure 19 in Verano
(1986:129), cuts are present on C2 and C3 oflndividual13, not on C3 and C4, as is
incorrectly listed in the Appendix ofVerano's (1986:137) report.
16. For the purpose of statistical analysis, "axial" bones include the skull,
vertebrae, ribs, sternum and pelvis, "appendicular" elements consist of the clavicle,
scapula and all bones of the upper and lower limbs.
17. All directionality in this analysis is discussed anatomically relative to the
victim. Thus, a cut mark proceeding from left to right advances from the left side of the
bone to the right side of the bone.
18. Very small peaks of potassium, titanium and magnesium were detected
within the cut marks. These elements may be attributed to the burial matrix and are not
of great significance to this study.
567
19. The expected peaks for arsenic refer to the K electron shell while the
expected peaks for silver and gold refer to the L electron shell. K shell peaks for both
silver and gold are greater than 11.00 on the horizontal axis and thus would not be shown.
Also, although both human and faunal cuts show a small peak at 2.9 on the horizontal
axis, in both cases, the peak represents argon gas in the air rather than silver because the
samples were not examined under a vacuum.
20. This study was inspired by Phillip Walker (1990), who used energy
dispersion x-ray analysis to assess the elemental composition of debris within cut marks
on prehistoric Inuit human remains from Saunaktuk, Alaska in order to identify the tool
used to produce the incisions. His study did not yield positive results. More recently,
Klaus et al. found metal traces in cut marks on human bones from the Lambayeque site of
Cerro Cerrillos (V erano, personal communication 2005).
21. In 1995, I assisted Verano in the original trauma analysis of the remains
from Plaza 3A at Huaca de la Luna.
22. In addition to the nine skulls showing clear evidence of perimortem blunt
force trauma, perimortem breakage was observed on 34 isolated cranial vault fragments.
23. No evidence of trauma other than cut marks was mentioned in Tyson and
Cordy-Collins' (1998) report.
24. Additional evidence of trauma is present on the remains of this individual.
However, since it is found on bones other than those included in my data sample, it is not
addressed in this report.
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION
1. Cut marks consistent with facial mutilation and dismemberment are not
shown as present on Plaza 3A bones in Figure 410 because cuts reflecting these two
activities were found only on isolated elements.
2. In his own analysis of the Plaza 3A material, Verano (n.d.2) reached the
same conclusion.
3. This same reasoning can be used to argue that a victim whose throat was
slit from left to right was not cut by a left-handed assailant who approached the victim
from behind.
4. Sometimes, as illustrated in Figure 438, amputated heads are shown
without ropes attached.
568
Note to page 264
5. Unfortunately, it was not possible to include these modified human skulls
in my data sample.
569
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BIOGRAPHY
Laurel Anderson Hamilton was born on January 29, 1972 in Santa Rosa,
California. In 1993, she graduated with highest honors and Phi Beta Kappa from the
University of California, Davis with a bachelor's degree in anthropology. She earned a
master's degree in anthropology from UCLA in 1995. She entered the graduate program
at Tulane University in 1995. She is married to Conard Crutchfield Hamilton and has
two cats.

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CUT MARKS AS EVIDENCE OF PRECOLUMBIAN HUMAN SACRIFICE AND

POSTMORTEM BONE MODIFICATION ON THE NORTH COAST OF PERU

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