{ t

]\EOPLATO}\IC AESTHETICS
Music, Literattlre,

Arus l theVisual

EDITED

BY

LnXn DPGNoLAMI CUEXT,Y ANDJOT-IX HpXnRrX

D.C./Bairimore'Bern New York o \il/ashington, . Vienna' Oxford am Main . Berlin . Brussels Frankfurt

PETER LANG

. Bern New York . Washington, D.C./Ba[timore . Vienna Frankfurt am Main' Berlin' Brussels ".Oxford

PETER LANG

I\eoplatonic Origins of Fostnnodern

Art and Architecture

Youli Rapti and Helen Tatla
Introduction ,
i
I

i,'L

i I l,
i

. . i i . ,

I .'
l

i {'tr.
l

Art and architectureof the Renaissance as much as Postmodernart and architecture searchedfor identity in a turn to the past. In both eras empirasiswas given to the intermediatespacebetweenarchetypeand work. This intermediate spaceacquireda particular significancein Neoplatonic philosophy, which was expressed in Renaissance art and architecture,while it became the principal spacein the developmentof philosophy and art during the Postmod.ern period. We lvill attempt an approachto this intermediatespace,first in Neoplatonic philosophy and Renaissance art and architecture, and then in contemporaryphilosophy and art. The first referenceto this spasein philosophyoccursin Plato's Tirnaeus, where things have a twofold existence:as ideas on the one hand and as sensible images of the ideas,eidola, on the other. The idea of a particular thing is its absolute form and it exists in the eternal worid of the ideas. Between thesetwo genresof being, the ideas and their sensibleirnages,arguesthe Zimaeus,there is a third kind of being, a third genre,chora. Chora is the reception of every birth, something like a mother or nurse, who takes all that becomesinto herself without assimilatingany of the characteristics of the entering beings. She is in a constantmovement and transformation in order to give form to everything sensible.' Chora is not approachable by logical or mythical thinking but by a kind of inauthentic reasoning, which is like dreaming. Chora receives the four so-called elements-fire, water, air and earth-which existed before the creation and already had a mathematical structure.Within the chora, the demiurgeundertakesthe creation of the particulars front the four elements, according to their idea or paradigm and mathematicalharrnony.2 In this essay,we conceiveof the Postmodern as a refereliceto the rupture within the ontologicaldirnensionof the thing, both metaphysicaland secular.

- Li)L

t v euP Lulu t t&t .lteJ ttrYl tcl;

i,li l

I UUrl

I\CIPll

4ll\r

rrvlvll.

l clrr4

LVJ

::,1'r
il:. ii'. $.,

We r.vill argue that tlie first instancesof the focus on this referencein art and occur in the Renaissance, in the Neoplatonictradition. architecture

t-

.4.n Approach to Neoplatonism The Neoplatonists'interestin the philosophyof art goesback to the beginning of Greekphilosophy.Plato is the centralfigure in their investigation. As Plato statestn lon, art consistsof the cognitive procedurethat controls and brings into being the results of the poet's inspiration.'The Greek term for beauty, kalon, was never distinguishedfrom the moral good. It was associated with artsbut only in a very generalsense.o When Plato discusses beauty in the Symposium and Phaedrus, he is not referring to works of art but to human persons,in the senseof naturalbeauty,beautyof the soul and beauty of cognitionwithout distinction.5 The finite natureof the particularscausedtheir principles,the ideas,to be connectedwith numbers.Plato's argumentabout the relation of the ideasto numbers originatesin ttre Pythagorean'principle of Unity and the Dyad or Limit and Unlimited. The all-embracingprinciple of Unity must be limited, in order that it is reproducedin the individual nature.This is why the Pyprinciple of goodness tiragorean and order was identifiedwith Limit, as contrasted with the principle of disorder, the Uniimited. Order consistedin hannonic numerical ratios defining the analogy between whole and parts. Every particularthing derivesby the actionof the Limit upon the Unlirnited.6 Plato, in the Philebus. dealing with the limited nature of individual things, identifiesmeasureand proportionwith the essence of things, or with 'o...for beauty and truth, or with the ldea of the Good: measureand proportion are everywhereidentified with beauty and virtue...Then if we cannot catch thegood with the aid of one idea, let us run it down to three'-beaufy, proportion,truth."t Ha.mony, rhythrn,balance,proportion,and symmetryare all expressions of beautyin this sense. Despite the fact that the metaphysical categories of Plato were well anchoredin the reaim of social reality, his separation betweenthe socialand the ideal paved the way for the ultimately mystical speculations of Neoplatonism. In Neoplatonicphilosophytoo, the conceptof beauty,as well as the associated concept of art, was of the first inrportance.The metaphysicsof beauty, wiriclr Plotitlus elaborated, has had the most profounclinfluenceou generations of artists,ptrilosoirhers and critics.

Plotinusalludesto the unity betweenfinite tliings and the In the Enneads, ultimate harmonyof the One, through the notions of emanationand symbol. Thus the beautyof finite things is an emanationof infinite Beauty, which in turn is an emanationfrom the Good of the intellect. In this way, a beautiful objectbecomes a symbol of cosmicharmony.Works of art standbetweentire incompletebeautiesof nature,which they perfect,and beauty itself, which is by tire mind alone.Thus art is a symbol as much of the lower approachable reality of nature,as of the ultimate reality of the divine. In fact, it provides a statue,more than being an image the unify betweenthe two. In this sense, a symbol of the absoluteand is which irnitatesan archetypal idea, constitutes The natureof art receivesits first the whole universe. symbolic with unified in the philosophyof Plotinus.8 dev'elopment comprehensive philosophy of Plotinusbeauty enjoys its highesttranscenWhile in the dental status,in Augustine's teachingsit becomesa properry of God's creation: in De Ordine, the Plotinian emanationsare transformed into God's divine harmonies. Reality now is found to lie within the mind. The role of art one of the deepestand most and beaufy is fundamental,since art represents one of its most aciivities of the spirit, while beauty represents characteristic deeply desired objectives. Furthermore,Augustine's philosophy of art is more properly a philosophyof beauty.In De Ordine, under the influence of Pythagoras, Plato and Plotinus, beaufy has a mathematicalfoundation. Its prerequisites Unity is the fundarnental are unity and equality or resemblance. principle of a thing's existence. It is basedon harmony among the parts and constitutesthe source of befweenparts and whole, Equality or resemblance and number.e analogy,measure ln Augustine'sconceptionof the relationbetweenthe work of ar1and its imitation doesnot play an importantrole. As he relatestn De Muarchetype, sica, "animals imitate but they have not art."l0Besides,allegoricalinterpretation becomesthe way of revealingabsolutetruth. Allegory exists in favor of the uniry between idea and things. Throughout Medieval times, one of the was the allegorical interpretationof dominant interestsof the Neoplatonists ancientmyths and stories. Marsilio Ficino attemptedan allegorical interQuring the Renaissance, pretationof Plato's dialogues, in order to bring out the "concealed"meaning. Ficino seeksthe true nature of in his Commentaryon Plato's Syntposiurn, of visible beauty.The beauty.The movementto intelligiblebeautyis by r,vay expression of the formal properliesof the objects according to thought and constitutes the task of art, in the path fiom the lorver to the higher the seirses

r \rL,rrr r\oylr !lni' l.r.r :ir

grltr

ll-ulgll

I ctttcr

proportion, number and beauty. In Ficino's words: "light, gracefulness, by thought,vision and hearing(are the beautiwe apprehend tneasure,,which power of the searchfor beautyis love.'' In F'icino's ful)."1' The motivatimg art is conceivedas an extensionof the physical world work of the universe, i1 ernpiricaltenns, at the expenseof its direct connectiontcl the divine and the metaphysical.The continuum between the physical and the divine worlds, however,is not yet broken.

,,

ldea and Forrn theoty becomes-for the first time in art and architecture, In Renaissance history-the basis of the existenoeof the work. In fact, only through theory can the work enjoy existenceas much in the absolute as in the corporeal world. Theory has undertakenthe task of re-establishingthe lost unity between form and the absolute.A work cannot exist without a theoretical support any more. Thus, we could argue, Renaissancetheory of art anC need for re-unifying form with the originatesin the fundamental architecture absolute.

Art and Architecture Renaissance

Fninciples art and architecUnder the influenceof Neoplatonicphilosophy,Renaissance principles: as an outcomeof the following ture will be d,iscussed 1. The idea as a rnetaphysicalentity becomesprincipally abstractat the expense of its tneaningas formr consistsof two parts: 2. The archetypeof a work of art or architecture first, the idea as an abstract entity and, second, Classical art and as well as nature. architecture as the intermediatefactor, which connectsidea with form, 3. Allegory with the two ends acquiresan increasingsignificancein comparison of the procedure. 4. Mathematicalrelations deriving from Pythagorasand Plato constias far as they claim absotute the main tool of allegory in this sense, lute value as carriersof a "certaitttruth." Here, the term allegory bears the meaning of the connectionbetween two entities: the metaphysicalideas of the Neoplatonic tradition heterogeneous on the one hand, and Classical art and architectureas well as nature approachedby an empirical attitude on the other. Thus, aliegory becomesthe name of unity betvyeentwo entities, which originally were not unitedClassical philosophy and Classical art and architecture-and had a totally Renaisdifferent meaning from that ascribedto them by the Renaissance. sauceartists,though, believcdthat their art was a revival of Classicalart aird art did. absolute truth in the rvay that Classical that it expressed

Beauty and Ornarnent of a appearance that the aesthetic declares Alberti, in his De re aediJicatoriA, buildirrg consistsof two elements:beauty and ornament. He defines beauty as "the harmony and concord of all parts achieved in such a manner tirat nothing could be addedor taken away or alteredexceptfor the worse."l3Ornament is "a kind of additional brightness and improvement to beauty. Beauty is somethinglovely which is proper and innateand diffused throughout the whole, whilst ornamentis somethingadded and fastenedon, rather that "the principal ornament in than proper and innate." Alberti emphasizes all architecturecertainly lies in the column."'oBy consideringthe column, which is the main elementof Classicalarchitecture,as the principal olxato the catement, Alberti seemsto reducethe whole of Classicalarchitecture gory of ornament. Thus Classical architecturebecomes secondary in the expressionof the idea, after rnathematicalharmony. Only through mathematical harmony can Classicalform participatein Ihe idea.

t and UnitY Disrnembermen Classicalforms, as much as forms of nature,approached In the Renaissance, by Uniry is expressed and re-organized. in empirical terms,are disrnembered as well harmony as above,with mathematical allegory in the sensediscussed syrnbolic allegory as its principal tools. On the cover of his Quattro libri the aliegoricalrelation betweenClassical dell'architectura,Palladio stresses hannony.'t form and the icieaof Virtus(Virtue), throughmathematical

zt)o

lYeopm[onrc Aestnencs

lii':',
fiiil' ir.

Yoult Rapfi and Helen

'l

atla

t6/

Aiberti, in De pictura, treats the work of art as an extensionof nature, while throughits mundane representations the divine is drawn rathertowards the phenomenal world. Mathernatical relationsandperspective, as well as the istoria-a narrative basedon the Aristotelian myth, which interpretsthemss taken from Classicalmythology through the fiiter o1'Christianand Neoplatonic allegory-constitute the meansof unity within the work.'u This particular collage/montage, aimedat unity throughallegory,is usedby Renaissance artists in severalways. Domenico Veneziano'sSan Giovanni in the Desert (1445) constitutes an allegory for the renunciationof all mundanevanities. At the sametime, San Giovanni recallsPraxiteles'Hermes,a reference alien to the Clrristiantradition in painting. SandroBotticelli's Primavera (1475-8) could be considered as an allegoryfor Marsilio Ficino'sphilosophical teachings. zephyr, Chloris, Fiora, Amor, Natural Venus, Celestial Venus, the Three Gracesand Hermesare united through the allegoricalaction of bringing forth the spiritualmoment.In Raphael's Schoolof Athens(1510),the unfinished Saint Peter's, designed according to the rules of perspective, 'Western provides the whole of philosophy-since the time of the Presocratics-with spatio-temporal unity in an allegoricalsense. Consideringthe caseof architecturej we have already discussed that in Alberti's De re aedfficotoria,beauty is defined through mathematicalharmonic relationsamong the parts and betweenpartsand the whole. During his renovationof the fugadeof SantaMaria Novella (1458-70), Alberti introduced new elementssuch as the columns, the pediment, the attic, and the scrolls,which, as Wittkower argues,"would remain isolatedfeatures were it not for that all-pen,adingharmony which fbrmed the basis and background of his whole theory."l7 A single systemof proportionpermeates the front, resulting in the first Renaissance fagade.ls A reference to the Pantheon is obvious. Beside rnathematical allegory the other route towardsunity for RenaissanQe architectswas symbolic allegory. Following aresome examples.The dome becomesthe principal symbol of Renaissance architecfure and crowns Gothic and Classical churches alike: Brunelleschi's clome for Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence(i 42A4q constitutes the first instance of new architecture. In De re aedificatoria,Alberti justifies his preference for round forms in sacred architecture basedon nature'slove for the circle. Nafure, as understood by Alberti, "aspiresto absolute perfection,she is the best and divine teacher of all things."re

(:

The temple front is anotherexample.Renaissance architectshad difficulty in applying the Classicaltemple front-with its simple portico and pediment-to the basilica,with its high nave and the lower aisles.Both A1berti and Palladio devisedsolutionsto the problem. Alberti applied the triumphal arch at the front of his churches,He borrowed from the Romans the Arch of Constantinefor the front of San Francescoat Rimini, for instance. The allegory here was the triumph of Jesusover death. More than a cenfury later, Palladio proposedtwo interpenetrating temple fronts as a solution for the basilica's tripartite front. At his basilicasat Venice, virtue was an ailegory for the fagade of the church conceivedin this way. Paliadio did not hesitateto graft the temple front symbolizingvirtue onto the wall of a house as well. At his villas, allegory stands for truth as a heterogeneous unity achievedthroughsymbolismand mathematical harmony. Thus in Renaissance art and architecture, allegory plays a privileged role in the connectionof the work with the divine world. In fact, this can be considered as the first step towards the release of the visual image into an autonomous world. The autonomy of art in this sensewas accomplishedin the age of the Enlightenment. As a consequence, allegory as a factor of unity was expelled by the Cartesianrational analysis of the world into separate fields of research. Only in recentyearshas allegory been restoredwithin the limits of Postmodemism.

The PostmodernSituation phiiosophy,the Postmodern In contemporary conceptionof the interrnediate spacebetweenarchetypeand work is best expressed by two opposite streams of thought: the PhilosophicalHermeneutics of Hans Georg Gadameron the one hand and the Deconstruction of Jacques Derrida on the other. Gadamer aims to restorethe disruptedunity within the thing. Through a phenomenological understanding of Plato,he proposeshis interpretativecircle as an open ontological procedure from understanding to interpretation and to applicationover and over again.The notion of prejudiceas opposedto scientific thinking is fundamental in Gadamer'sconceptionof understanding. The prejudicesof the interpreter, that is to say tire way he, conditionedby his own histor:icity,interpretsthe past, constitutethe condition of truth for the system.In tire courseof history, Gadameralgues,prejudicereunitesthe Platonic idea with its sensibleirnage (eidolon) not on a metaphysicalbut on a

L'JO

tYeopmtoruc Aesthetrcs

I (JUlr

I\4Ptr

alllLt

ll9llrll

t 4LrCt

hermeneutical ground.20 Aftempting an interpretation of Plato's Timaeus,he insists thatchora is not only the negativeimpedimentof the rationalstructure of the four elements but also an ontologicalopportunityfor all sensibles. The conceptionof chora is, accordingto Gadamer, the only way that sensibles as imagesof the ideascould exist.2r Derrida,by deconstructing the whole of Westernphilosophy,identifiesas the source of the binary structure of the thing Plato's distinction between idea andeidolon.In contrastto Gadamer, who aims to unify, Derrida focuses upon separation. According to his interpretation of the Platonic Timaeus,between idea and eidolon an abyss openswide, which makes their relation unapproachable as much by logical as by mythical thinking.22 In this sense, the referenceof an image to an idea canbe neither true nor false, neither good nor bad. lt is simply allegorical.23 According to the phitosophyof Deconstruction,this allegory founded upon Plato constitutes the basisof the relation within all Westernbinariesas form and content, natureand culture,rnind and body, theory and practice,etc. Collage/montage as a device of criticism could play a principal role in exposingthis situation.Gregory Ulmer seesthe collage/montage techniqueas a manifestation of the function of the gram in Derrida's Grammatology.He quotesa piissagefrom collages:
(In the collage's)heterogeneiry....Each cited elementbreakstlie continuityor linearity of the discourseand leads necessarilyto a double reading: that of tlre fragment perceived in relation to its text of origin; that of the samefragment as incorporated into a new whole, a different totality. The trick of collageconsistsalso of never entirely suppressingthe alterity of theseelementsreunited in a contemporarycomposition. Thus the art of collage proves to be one of the most effective stratesiesin the putting into questionof all the illusionsof representatio'.2a

In Hermeneuticand Deconstructivephilosophy alike, neither idea nor form has absolutevalue any lnore. Their relative value derives from the interpretationof the past. The connectingfactor betweenform andidea is either preiudice in the sense of Hermeneutic,or allegory in the sense of Deconstructive philosophy.In fact, the spacebetweenidea and form occupied by prejudice or allegory constitutes the principal preoccupationof art and architecture today. Within this space,Hermeneutic philosophy searches for consistency but is open to the interpretation forms, while Deconstructive philosophy aims to exposethe inherentheterogeneity of the system.Under thesecircumstances, we cau no longerspeakof the beautiful.The connection of the Postnlodernwith the sublime, introclucerJ by Lyotarcl, is widely accepted.

The role of mathematicsseemsto be quite different in Deconstructive and Hermeneuticphilosophy,os far as architecture is concerned. Within the scopeof Hermeneutis philosophy,mathematics could be conceivedas a medium towardsa consistency of form, which, in architecture at least,remainsa well-organized geometrical entity. Regular solids, symrnetry and simple tnathematical relations seemto constitutethe main characteristics of rvorks of architecture such as Aldo Rossi's Teatro ciel Mondo (Venice, l9B2) or Rob Krier's HousingUnit at Rauchstrasse (Berlin, l980-84), for instance. In works relatedto Deconstruction such as Daniel Libeskind's Extension to the Jewish Museum (Berlin, 1989) or Frank Gehry's Guggenheim Museum(Bilbao, 1993-97),mathematics is conceivedas inhabitantof the chaos within the binary structureof things.As such, it could never result in a consistent,well-organized form. In works of art that can be relatedwith Hermeneutics, a certain consistency of form alwaysexists.trnFrancisBacon's Euntenides (1944) or Anselm Kiefer's Iconoclastic Controversy(1980), myth and history are interpreted through the prejudicesof the present.On the contrary,works related to Deconstruction such as Jackson Pollock'sFull FathornFive (1947) or Cornelia Parker's Cold, DurlcMatter: An Exploded View (1991),in fact cancelany attempt for consistency within the work. It becomesclear that the loss of unity within the thing is definite.In this context,allegory acquiresa principal role in the pursuitsof contemporaryart and architecfure. Thus, while in the Renaissance allegoryoperatedas a meansof unity between the absoluteand the mundaneworld, in Deconstructive philosophy allegory stands for the rupfure betlveen the two worlds. On the other hand, Gadamer aims at unity through prejudice, within the limits of ontoiogical Hermeneutics.

U*i)i!i..

i*,,

!4i:, li,,,:i,, l*i:.

i!".,'' ie., ;v:.

Notes
1. 2.
?
A

Plato, Timaeus,50c. Ibid., 52b-d, 53a-f. Plato,[on,534. Wladyslaw Tatarkiewicz gives a detailed account of the meaning of the term techne in his "Classification of the Arts in Antiquity," Journal of the History of ldeas, Vol. XXIV, April 1963,p.231. See Paul Oskar Kristeller, "The Modern System of the Arts: A Study in the History of Aesthetics" (I), in Journal of the History of ldeas, XII, 1951,p.499. See the introduction by Hugh Tredennick in Aristotle, Metaphysic's, trans. Hugh Tredennick, The Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge,MA: Flarvard University Press,1933), pp. xxii-xxiv. Plato, Philebus 64e, trans. H. N. Fowler, cited in Wladyslaw Tatarkiewicz, History of (The Hague: Mouton, 1970),Vol. l, p. 128. Aesthetics Plotinus, Enneads, trans. Stephen McKenna (London: Faber and Faber, 1956); see Erznead I, Sixth Tractate; Ennead III, Eighth Tractate, 34i Ennead V, Eighth Tractate; Ennead Yl,Seventh Tractate,3 1-33, in particular.

5. 6.

7. 8.

9.

Saint Augustine, De Ordine, trans. Robert P. Russell (New York: Cosmopolitan Scienoe and Art ServiceCo., 1942).

10. Augustine, De lvfusica. Book VI, included in Albert Hofstadter and Richard Francis Kuhns, eds.,Philosophies of Art attd Beauty (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,

re76 ile641).
ll. From a letter Ficino wrote to Giovanni Cavalcanti, included in Albert Hofstadter and Richard FrancisKuhns, eds.,Philosophiesof Art and Beauty,p.204. 12. Marsilio Ficino, Commentary on Plato's Symposium, trans. Sears Reynolds Jayne (Colurnbia, Missouri: University of Missouri Studies,XIX, No. l). 13. Leon Battista Alberti, The Ten Boolcsof Architecture (De re aediJicatoria), trans. James Leoni, 1726(New York: Dover Publications, 1986),Book Vl, Ch. 2, f. m. VII V. 14. Ibid., Book Vi, Ch. 13, f. b. VL 15. Andrea Palladio, The Four Books of Architecture (Quatro libri dell'architectura) (New York: Dover Publications, 1965). 16. Leon Battista Alberti, On Painting (De Pictura), trans. John R. Spencer (New Haven: Yale University Press,1956). 17. Rudolf Wittkower, Architectural Principles in the Age of Humanism (London: Academy

p.45. Editions, 1973 U9491), 1 8 . Seethedi.scussion in lbid.,pp.4147. 1 9 . Ibid.,p. 5. 20. HansGeorgGadamer, Truthand Method(London:Sheed and Wand Ltd., 1975),tr?ns. (Tubingen: from ltlahrheitund Methode J. C. B. Mohr, 1960); seepp. XXVI, 246, and 269 in particular. For themeaning of "prejudice" seepp.252153 and344. 2 t . Hans GeorgGadamer, "Idea and Realityirr Plato'sTimaeus," insludedin HansGeorg Gadamer, DialogueandDialectic,Eight Hermeneutical Studies on Plato,hanslated with

I yeup r. u ru n tc Aes Lnelrcs an introductionby P. ChristopherSmith (New Haven: Yale University Press,1980); see pp. 174-175in particular.
I r , I r

il::., tli:i

22. JacquesDenida and Peter Eisenman, Chora L Wctrks,New York: The Monacelli Press. t997. 23. For the connectionbetweencollage and allegory within the scopeof Deconstruction, see Craig Owens, "Tite Allegorical hnpulse: Towards a Thecry of Postnrodernism,"itt October 72 and 13, 1980; see also Gregory L. Ulmer, "The Object of post-Criticism,"in Hal Fostered.,TheAnti-Aesthelic (Seattle: Bay Press,1983). 24. Ibid., Gregory L. Ulmer, p. 88; the quotation is taken from: Group lvfu eds.,Coltages (Paris: Union G6n6rale,1978),pp. 34-5.

tsibliogrephy Selected

Haci Mustafa Acikoz, "PhilosophicalRoots and Religious lmplication of the Concepts of Respect and Tolerance," Internationai Symposium on Respect and Tolerance Between Islam and Christianity in the Texts of History and Literature, Canakkale, May l5-lB, 2000. Haci Mustafa Acikoz, "Scepticism in the Philosophiesof al-Ghazali and Sextus Empiricus," 19th Annual PhilosophyConference, October27-29,2000, Binghamton University. Haci Mustafa Acikoz, "Yesevi'ye Meta-matematikce Bir Bakys-A Meta-mathematical
I

Approach to Yesevi," "1. Turk Dunyasj Cagdas Lehce ve Edebiyatlary Sempozyumu," Mugla UniversitesiYaylinlaqi, ss. 2l--41, Mugla, 2001. Leorr Battista Alberti, C)nthe Art of Building in Ten Bool<s(De re aedificatoria), trans. Joseph Rykwert, Neil Leach and Robert Tavernor, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988. On Painting (.DePictura), trans.Cecil Grayson,London: PenguinBooks, i991. -r On Painting and On Sculpture, trans.Cecil Grayson,London: Phaidon,1972. -, -, On Painting (De Pictttra),trans. John R. Spencer,New Haven: Yale University Press, 1956. The Ten Books of Architecture (De re aediJicatoria), trans. JarnesLeoni, 1726, Nerv

I.

York: Dover Publications, 1986. Andrea Alciato, Diverse impresse accommodate a diverse moralita con versi che i loro significati dichiarono tratte da gli Emblemi dell'Alciato, ed. and trans. by Guilliame Roville, Lyon, L549-r Emblematum libellus cum commentarii,Lyon, 1546 (Basel 1531). Aphrodite Alexandrakis, ed., Neoplatonism and f(estern Aesthetics,Albany: State University of New York Press,2002. L. Al-Faruqi-Lamia,The Cultural Atlas of Islam,New York, 1986. Muhammed Al-Ghazali, Muslim's Character, Jeddah:WAMY, 1990. Albert A. Anderson, Universal Justice: A Dialectical Approacft, Amsterdam: Rodopi,1997. Maria Antonaccio, and William Schweiker, eds., Iris Murdoch and the Search for Human Goodness, Chicago:The Universityof ChicagoPress,1996. Maria Antonaccio, Picturing the Huntan: The Moral Thought oJ'Iris Murdoch, Oxford: Oxford University Press,2000. Saint Thomas Aquinas, Tle Summa T'heologica, trans. Father Laurence Shapcote,Chicago: EncyclopediaBritanni ca, 1952. Aristotle, Metaphysics,trans. Hugh Tredennick, The Loeb Classical Library, Canrbridge, IVIA: HarvardUniversity Press,1933.