Professional Documents
Culture Documents
TO THE EARTH
An Environmental Audit
For Benedictine Communities
by
Benedictine Sisters of Erie, Pennsylvania
at Lake Erie-Allegheny Earth Force
About the authors:
Pat Lupo, OSB has served as Program Director for the Western Pennsylvania
(USA) branch of Earth Force since 1997. Daily through the education of
teachers and students and in her personal commitment to local, state, national
and bi-national boards, Pat models responsible citizenship
and environmental stewardship.
Margarita Dangel, OSB has served as Education Director for the Western
Pennsylvania (USA) branch of Earth Force since 1997. Her position as a
summer camp director and assistant for environmental education at the
Benedictine owned center prepared her in many ways to guide youth and
educators to become actively involved in their community. Her goal is to help
young people realize that they are really needed in their community and that
they can contribute to finding solutions to environmental problems.
* www.earthforce.org/section/offices/lea
William L Bartlett
Margarita Dangel OSB
Pat Lupo OSB
Annette Marshall OSB
* www.worldbank.org/faithsandenvironment
† www.arcworld.org
Contents
FOREWORD by Joan D Chittister OSB . . . . . . vii The health effects of air pollution . . . . . . . 18
What’s causing the problems? . . . . . . . . . . 19
ABOUT THIS MANUAL . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix What’s being done? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
What can we do? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 AIR
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
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Listening To The Earth
3 DRINKING WATER
Water Conservation: Inventory . . . . . . . . 69
1. Monitoring Water Consumption . . . . . . 69
2. Leaks and plumbing fixtures . . . . . . . . . 69
Water: Catalyst and Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 3. Water Provider’s Practices . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Water: The Catalyst of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 4. Education and Personal Habits . . . . . . . 70
Water: Global Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 5. Using Greywater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Uses and Abuses of Water Resources . . . . . 46
Assessment of Community Practices . . . . . 47 Water Conservation: Evaluation . . . . . . . 70
1. Monitoring Water Consumption . . . . . . 70
Drinking Water Quality and Source 2. Leaks and plumbing fixtures . . . . . . . . . 71
Protection: Inventory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 3. Water Provider’s Practices . . . . . . . . . . . 71
1. Main Drinking Water Source . . . . . . . . . 47 4. Education and Personal Habits . . . . . . . 72
2. Potential sources of pollution: . . . . . . . . 48 5. Using Greywater. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3. NGO involvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4. Community Water Governance . . . . . . . 49 46 Ways of Saving Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5. Water Quality Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 Saving Water Outdoors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
6. Water Treatment by the Community . . . 49 General Water Saving Tips. . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
ii
7. Hygiene Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 1. Community Waste Generation Survey 118
8. General Sanitation Practices . . . . . . . . . 85 2. Community’s Practice for Solid Waste
Collection and/or End-Disposal . . . . . . . . 119
Community Excreta Handling and 3. Solid Waste Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Sanitation: Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 4. Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
1. Mix or No-Mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 5. Land Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
2. Soil Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 6. Seeking Expert Information . . . . . . . . . 125
3. General Characteristics of Sanitation 7. Cleaning of Public Areas . . . . . . . . . . . 126
System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 8. Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3i. Characteristics of Sanitation System: Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Plumbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3ii. Characteristics of Sanitation System: Hazardous Products and Wastes:
Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3iii. Characteristics of Sanitation System: An Overview of this Assessment . . . . . . . 129
Emptying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 What is Hazardous Waste? . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Evaluation of Sanitation Facilities (3-3iii) . 97 How Hazardous Waste Affects Health. . . 130
4. Resource Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 How Hazardous Waste Affects the
5. Sewer Network. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100 Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
6. Wastewater Treatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101 What needs to be done? . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
7. Hygienic Behaviors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103 Your Community’s Responsibility . . . . . . 133
8. General Sanitation Practices . . . . . . . . 103
Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104 Hazardous Products and Wastes Handling:
Inventory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Community Solid Waste Management: 1. Hazardous Product Survey. . . . . . . . . . 133
Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 2. Hazardous Product Handling. . . . . . . . 134
Preserving the Gifts of Garbage . . . . . . . . 105 3. Quantities and Priorities . . . . . . . . . . . 135
The Inherent Dangers of Solid Waste . . . 105 4. Legislative Policy Framework and Regional
The Waste Crisis: A Burden Borne by the Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Poor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Contributions to the Mismanagement of Hazardous Products and Wastes Handling:
Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Evaluation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
What’s Being Done? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 1-2. Hazardous Product Inventory and
Community Action. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Handling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
3. Quantities and Priorities . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Community Solid Waste Management: 4. Legislative Policy Framework and Regional
Inventory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
1. Community Waste Generation Survey 110 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
5 ENERGY
2. Community Waste Collection and
Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3. Solid Waste Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4. Recycling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Energy: The Animation of the Universe 155
5. Land Disposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Properties of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6A. Waste Handling Workers or Workers’ Many Forms of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115 Electricity, a Special Form of Energy . . . . 156
6B. Governmental Regulatory Agency . . . 116 Electricity: Modern ‘Utility’ . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6C. Environmental Information Source . . 116 The Grid and Social Inequality . . . . . . . . 157
6D. Expert Public Health/Safety Producing Electricity, Creating
Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116 Catastrophes? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7. Cleaning of Public Areas . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Sustainable Alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
8. Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Keeping Energy Sacred . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
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Listening To The Earth
iv
v
vi
Foreword
A Benedictine Consciousness
Whose Time Has Come—Again
by Joan D. Chittister OSB
f you are wondering why you are even considering such a thing as an ‘environmental audit’ in
I a life that seems so removed from such processes, consider the time in which you live.
There are two moments in history when Benedictinism has been needed in a very special way:
the first was in the 6th century; the second is now.
In the 6th century, Europe was reeling from the loss of civil order and the breakdown of
agrarian communities. Farm lands lay in ruin from the movement of foreign invaders across
Europe, trade routes were unsafe with the loss of the Roman Legions and the countryside was left
overgrown and in ruins.
To that sorry state, Benedictinism brought a new system of order, a new pattern of life, a new
commitment to the land and to life. Almost 700 years later, Cistercian groups again devoted
themselves to the reforestation, the replanting and the reclamation of some of the worst land in
Europe.
As a result of those conscious efforts, Europe became a garden again. Life thrived. People
organized themselves into productive communities. Agriculture flourished everywhere.
Now, in this last century, our own century, after over 100 years of erosion, pollution, and the
diminishment of natural resources by most unnatural means, the whole world is becoming alert
to the relationship between the gift of creation and sins against creation again.
The garden we were given to live in as a people, we have failed to tend. The solemn
commitment we made as a species to steward the fruits of the earth we have failed to honor.
On the contrary. We have all taken it for granted, even while it was being plundered right in
front of our eyes.
The industrial revolution that made the robber barons rich also made the globe poor: We
poisoned our fresh waters and drowned them in tin cans and coffee cups. We wasted our forests
and drained the world of their medicinal herbs. We turned farmland into grazing land to make
cheap hamburgers and so denied the people of the land, the very land they needed to live. We
belched gasses into the atmosphere till people died from the lack of fresh air. We saturated our
farmlands with chemicals which, in the end, ironically, bled them dry of nutrients. We stripped
the globe of whole species of animals. We dealt carelessly, recklessly, heedlessly and arrogantly
with the very resources that sustained us.
Now, we find ourselves locked in mortal struggle between those who are trying to redeem those
resources and those who are simply committed to making even more quick money on what’s left
of them. We find ourselves faced with those whose philosophy of life is “after me the deluge,”—
who use what’s available without restraint and leave the problem of scarcity to generations to
come—and those who simply fail to understand the magnitude of the problem and so go on
blindly, using what we should be saving, destroying what we cannot do without.
Time is of the essence; the future is at stake. We are choosing between a philosophy of
consumption that gobbles up the world for its own satisfaction and a philosophy of co-creation
that is committed to preserving natural resources for the sake of those to come.
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Listening To The Earth
We are choosing now between those who are willing to drain the present for the sake of
personal gratification and those who, loving the present, love it enough to preserve its richness
for the sake of the future, as well.
Clearly the whole world needs Benedictinism again, needs a mindset that cares for the tools of
life “as if they were vessels of the altar.” We need a sense of balance, of enoughness, of
stewardship and a sense of the eternal presence of God. We need a life lived in harmony with the
seasons, the sun, the self and the other.
For Benedictines, an environmental audit is not a fad. It is not a social nicety. It is certainly
not an option. It is simply a contemporary manifestation of an ancient commitment to the
rhythm of the earth, the needs of the community and the God of Creation.
Congratulations to those who see its sacramental value, its claim to the Benedictine heart.
They shall be called blessed for centuries to come, just as our ancestors before us.
viii
Preface
About This Manual
content can easily be applied to any population, The following controversial presumptions underlie
especially those living in the LAC region. While the content of this manual:
most of the explanatory text focuses on the
conditions of the LAC region, the main 1) That a respect for Creation, or reverence for
environmental principles that underlie the the environment to which we are
regional—specific information are applicable to intrinsically connected, is an essential
any region of the world. It was intended that this spiritual attitude.
manual be as broad as possible, give attention to 2) That industries, governments, and
both rural and urban environments, but address municipal operations (like water suppliers,
only those issues that can be affected by the trash haulers, etc) should be operated in a
actions of ordinary citizens. transparent and democratic manner; that is,
The main intentions of this manual are to (1) that citizens should both be able to know
educate the reader about environmental problems how a system is operating and be able to
and crises being faced by the world’s populations directly influence the operation.
today, (2) to provide the communities that utilize 3) Best practices are those that minimize or
the manual with a means of assessing how their eliminate adverse environmental impacts.
daily practices may contribute to these problems, 4) That despite the enormity of the
and (3) offer ideas and resources regarding better environmental problems being faced—
practices. which are often large enough and serious
Thus, each subject area consists of three enough to be called crises—there is still
segments: an introduction, an inventory, and an hope that future generations may still live
evaluation. The introductions provide background on this earth, and thus that actions we take
information about the subjects at hand, including today can make a difference.
the scope and importance of the problems, and
how individuals’ actions contribute to the Guidance for using this manual
problems. The inventories, then, are series of
questions which are suggested approaches to For ease of understanding, it is recommended that
inventorying the behaviors of community the introductory material—contained in the
members. Lastly, each suggested inventory is Preface and Introduction—is read in its entirety
followed by an evaluation section that provides before reading the main text. It should be noted
more information specific to the questions asked in that the chapters in the main text are not
the inventory sections. organized in a chronological or methodological
order; that is to say that the chapters may be used
Terminology in any order. The last chapter, “Developing an
Action Plan,” is intended to help guide
Since this manual was written specifically for communities into a decision making and action
religious communities, throughout the work, the planning process after conducting one or more
word “community” will often be used. When the inventories. Thus, this chapter can be read as soon
word is left unqualified, it may be assumed that the as the community is ready to take action. The
referent of the word is your religious, or intentional resources found in the appendix can be used
community. If the larger population of a barrio, throughout the process. It is recommended that
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Listening To The Earth
you review the appendix before beginning the work thus the entirety of available Spanish
of the audit so that you may be familiar with the literature was not utilized, with very few
resources available to you in your work. exceptions.
As mentioned before, each chapter begins with 2) The inventories are intended to analyze the
an introduction section that provides background practices that are shared in a general way
information about the subject at hand. Following by the population of the LAC region. As
the introduction are one or more assessments such, they do not adequately account for
which focus upon a particular set of practices. The the vast diversity of living conditions
assessments will vary in their applicability to an encountered throughout this region. Thus,
individual community’s characteristics, and a each inventory can at best be considered a
community can choose which assessments it will suggested list of questions to ask. This work
perform. Nevertheless, it is recommended that an in no way can make a claim to provide a
entire chapter be read over completely before thorough analysis of a community’s total
making the decision, as some parts of an contribution to environmental pollution.
assessment may be found to apply even when most 3) The majority of entries provided in the
of it does not. appendix unfortunately assume that
internet connectivity is available. As well,
Content sources and acknowledgements there is an overabundance of English
resources.
This manual was mainly edited in the United
States by an English speaking editor. It was Nevertheless, the amount of information
composed primarily with resources publicly provided by numerous citizens, agencies,
available on the Internet, and all attempts have industries, and governments around the world that
been made to acknowledge the actual sources used. is pertinent to the environment of LAC is truly
(See the Endnotes.) amazing and beautiful. Much gratitude is given by
Given these characteristics, there are several the authors of this manual to all those working
weaknesses to the manual which suggest possible towards a sustainable future, especially those that
improvements. The three most important publish their material for the benefit of all
weaknesses, in the authors opinion are: humanity.
x
Introduction
Steps to a Successful Environmental Program
1
Listening To The Earth
The committee should begin by establishing present your findings to the community at large for
common ground by agreeing to fundamental their input in prioritizing. Practices that were
principles that will guide the work of the program found to be critically important or dangerous
(e.g. a respect for Creation), and then extrapolating should, of course, be addressed first if possible.
these principles into a shared vision of what your
community could achieve someday if it were to Once your team has assessed your community’s
realize all these principles in everyday practices. present practices, has established relationships
with people or agencies that can further your
2. Community Environmental Inventory understanding of issues and alternatives, and has
The next major task of the team is to identify your established priorities, you are ready to give serious
community’s environmental problems or threats consideration to alternative courses of action and
and related community information, including its their potential consequences. Your team should
strengths. This is the step where your team gains develop a list of alternatives solutions to any one
awareness and creates visions: i.e. seeing “what is” problem. In creating this list, the rationale,
and “what can be” more clearly, in terms of beneficial impacts, expected difficulties, costs, and
environmental risks and sustainable development. measurability of each alternative should be
This is the step in which the chapters that follow included for analysis. Once this list is generated
can be utilized most effectively. your team may wish to consult with the entire
In addition, it is recommended that you community and/or outside experts, for help in
identify and analyze relevant public and private deciding which alternative to choose.
policies in addition to your community’s policies
and practices. Examine who makes policy and how, Characteristics of a Reasonable Option for Action
and strive to understand different perspectives on • Compatible with the overall program goals
issues. • Acceptable to those who will work to
In using this manual, it may be helpful to achieve them
choose to work on only one section, or • Understandable by everyone
environmental topic, at a time. Several of the • Motivational to encourage participation of
assessments included in this manual are fairly entire community
involved, and so several problems may be • Achievable with a reasonable amount of
identified within one assessment. Thus, to prevent effort
being overwhelmed by data, problems, and • Measurable over time
options, it may be a good idea to limit your team’s
focus to one area until your team feels that it has 5. Taking Action
the capacity to move onward. Once your team has decided what it needs to do,
an action plan needs be developed and
3. Forging partnerships implemented. This plan should include the
As you conduct your inventory, you will have specifics regarding how to acquire and mobilize the
several opportunities to create relationships with resources necessary for success, and a deadline
experts, industries, and government officials. It is established. A budget may need to be created, and
important to establish productive relationships funding secured. The plan should include how to
and working alliances with these people whenever effectively communicate the change to other
possible. These relationships provide a means of community members. As well, the means of
increasing your team’s knowledge, experience, and assessing the action’s success should be developed.
power. Thus, these partnerships can enhance your With all this accomplished, the action plan should
ability to effect change not only within your be executed and the results measured over time.
religious community, but also throughout the
larger community. 6. Looking Back and Ahead
Periodically, especially after an action plan has
4. Setting Priorities and Evaluating Options been executed, the Environmental Program team
Generally, the results of your audit identify several should reflect upon and assess the Program itself.
areas that could be improved, but changing them Identify successes and failures, strengths and
all at once is impractical. Thus, it is important to weaknesses, difficulties and examples of efficient
prioritize your findings, and possibly even to functioning. The overall progress and effectiveness
2
Introduction
3
4
Chapter 1
Benedictine Life and Ministries
5
Listening To The Earth
6
Chapter 1: Benedictine Life and Ministries
7
Listening To The Earth
leadership through example. Whether your greater chance that the policies may not be realized
community expresses its service through in everyday practice. Leaders play a tremendous
education, spirituality programs, providing food or role in unifying and influencing the actions of the
other alms to the poor, or other ministry, the community since they are ultimately responsible
deeply held values of your community are for executing community decisions. Thus it is
naturally expressed both by the content and important that your community’s commitment to
structure of the ministry itself, and by the actions environmental stewardship be reflected in the
of the individuals delivering the ministry. Thus, it communications and decisions made by the
is important that your community ministries are community leadership. The leader(s) of the
informed by agreed upon principles, including community should see to it that sustainable
environmental stewardship. Environmental principles are realized in ministries, liturgy, and
stewardship can be expressed in any ministry. educational activities, as well as in the
Your community’s ministries should exemplify administrative, fiscal, and domestic affairs of the
environmentally sustainable practices and respect community. It is suggested that a permanent
for Creation to the greatest extent possible. All committee should exist to continually review the
those engaged in ministerial activities should be sustainable practices of all community affairs, to be
educated about both the importance of sustainable responsible for educating the rest of the
practices, as well as ways in which they can community regarding environmentally conscious
exemplify these in their ministry. A deep respect practices, and to regularly update the leadership on
for Creation should be modeled in all activities. developments.
The resources found at the end of this chapter
may be helpful in improving the Earth- To what extent does the Community’s leadership give
centeredness of your ministries. expression to environmental consciousness?
123456789
To what extent does the Community incorporate
environmental consciousness into its ministries? 5. Resource Management
123456789
The keystone to environmental sustainability is
3. Community Policy the proper management of resources. Thus, to
express its commitment to sustainable principles,
The practices of individual members of your your community should definitely manage its own
community are ultimately the true expression of resources in the most sustainable manner possible.
your community’s environmental stewardship; Community resources include the property,
however, having policies in place which inform and buildings, equipment, and other commodities
guide the actions of community members helps to owned by the community. Buildings, properties,
unify and clarify the community intentions and and community events should be managed in a
values. Furthermore, having policies in place way that minimizes the impact on the
provides the opportunity to hold community environment.
members accountable for their actions. Thus, it is The following chapters of this manual were
important that your community adopt policies to designed to more closely examine how well your
strengthen and inform each member’s community incorporates sustainable practices into
commitment to environmental stewardship. its resource management.
To what extent does the Community incorporate To what extent does the Community incorporate
environmental consciousness into its community policy? environmental consciousness into resource management?
123456789 123456789
4. Leadership 6. Investments
Even if your community has policies regarding While it is certainly the intention of investment to
environmental stewardship and/or sustainability maximize the return, doing so without regard to
practices, without the support and espousal of what or who is being invested in is nothing short of
these by the community leadership, there is a irresponsible. Investments should be made in line
8
Chapter 1: Benedictine Life and Ministries
with community principles. Investing money is If you found areas of your community life that could be
simply a way of encouraging those who receive your improved in regard to environmental stewardship and
investment to succeed so that you can profit as sustainability, list them below:
well. Hence to realize your community’s
commitment to environmental sustainability, the Category (I-III)
environmental record of potential investments Issue 1
(companies and funds) should be reviewed before
your community makes the decision to invest. Or,
if there are already standing investments, these
should be audited in the same way and adjustments
made if deemed necessary. In addition, if your
community does own stock in a company with
questionable practices, you can exercise your rights Issue 2
as stockholders to bring attention to these issues at
stockholder meetings, or directly influence
company decisions if the company is small enough
or your position large enough.
Conclusions
Issue 4
Now enter the scores from each section in the
column on the right:
score
2 Ministries
Now categorize each issue listed above into one of
3 Community Policy the following three categories:
9
Listening To The Earth
Acknowledgements for Chapter 1 Berry, 1999, Bell Tower NY. Dedicated to all children,
the book calls us to experience creation as a source of
The information contained in this chapter has been adapted from the wonder and delight. We are urged to move into the
following sources: future making use of the four-fold wisdom available (of
Caring for the Earth: A Strategy for Sustainable Living,
indigenous peoples, of women, of classical traditions
World Conservation Union, United Nations and of science), using this moment of grace to
Environmental Program and World Wildlife Fund, transform this cenozoic era into the ecozoic.
Geneva, Switzerland, 1980 Voices of Hope in the Struggle to Save the Planet, by
The Earth Charter: A Religious perspective, in A Source
Marjorie Hope and James Young, 2000, ApexPress,
Book for the Community of Religions, Joel Beversluis, Council on International and Public Affairs, Inc., 777
International Coordinating Committee on Religion and United Nations Plaza, Ste. 3C, New York NY 10017;
the Earth, ed. Chicago: The Council for a Parliament of 800/316-2739. Beginning with the prophetic voice of
the World’s Religions. 1993, Preamble. Thomas Berry, the book continues with the lives and
ideas of key spiritual leaders in Judaism, western and
A Humble Stance: Benedictines’ Gift to the eastern Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, Taoism, Shinto,
Cosmos, McCarthy, Anne, OSB. American Benedictine and faiths of Native Americans and two other
Review, Volume 58, 2nd edition. p. 52. indigenous peoples.
Expert Statements Worth Paying Attention To, The Environmental Books for Children. All available from
Global Citizen, Meadows, Donella, www.sustainer.org, Wordsworth, a publishing service. Write for catalogue
Sustainability Institute, Hartland, VT to Wordsworth, 702 NE 24th St. Newton KS 67114,
(316) 283-6708.
Resources for Chapter 1 Ecology and the Jewish Spirit: Where Nature and the
Sacred Meet, edited by Ellen Bernstein, Jewish Lights
Internet Resources Publishing, Sunset Farm Offices, Rte.4, PO Box 237,
Woodstock, VT 05091; 800-962-4544. The first book
Alliance of Religions and Conservation: in the emerging field of religion and environment to
www.arcworld.org. ARC is a secular body that helps the reflect a Jewish ecological perspective.
major religions of the world to develop their own
environmental programs, based on their own core Ecology and Religion: Scientists Speak, John E. Carroll
teachings, beliefs and practices. The web site contains and Keith Warner, OFM, editors, 2000, Franciscan
several resources, both online and available in print. Press, Quincy University, Quincy IL 62301; 217/228-
5670; www.quincy.edu/press. An interfaith group of
Catholic Conservation Center: religious scientists articulate their understanding of the
http://conservation.catholic.org/ Available en español. relationship between religion and ecology. The book
This site contains several resources on incorporating challenges the various faith communities to address the
environmental consciousness into Catholic life. environment as a legitimate religious concern.
National Catholic Rural Life Conference: Peace with God the Creator, Peace with All Creation, a
http://www.ncrlc.com/ The NCRLC is is a membership resource packet of the US Catholic bishops’ Renewing
organization grounded in a spiritual tradition that the Earth program, includes homily helps; articles on
brings together the Church, care of community and ecological spirituality, environmental hazards, the good
care of creation. Their website contains a variety of life and the problem of consumption; guidelines to
information on environmental topics, particularly of integrate environmental education into responsibilities
interest to agricultural congregations. of parish committees; environmental justice resources,
Earth Ministry/ Caring for Creation: and much more. Available from Environmental Justice
http://www.earthministry.org/ The mission of Earth Program, US Catholic Conference, 3211 Fourth St.
Ministry is to inspire and mobilize the Christian NE, Washington DC 20078, 800/235-8722.
Community to play a leadership role in building a just Love of Nature and Environmental Activism: Danger or
and sustainable future. (In English only.) There are Duty for Christians, by Paul Hansen, available from
several resources available here, including a 225 page Hansen, 2899 Agoura Rd., West Lake Village CA
handbook of their own. 91361; 805/498-6066. A helpful booklet for Christians
EcoCongregation: working with Christians who are new to, or opposed to,
www.ecocongregation.org/ Based in Europe, earthkeeping.
EcoCongregation offers an ecumenical toolkit that Discovering Your Life-Place: A First Bioregional
encourages churches to weave creation care into their Workbook, by Peter Berg, Planet Drum Foundation,
life and mission. They also provide an environmental 1998. Leads readers to a new appreciation of their
audit manual with several modules. bioregion through practical, hands-on map-making
Print Resources (in English) exercises, for rural or urban areas, all ages. Order from
Embracing Earth: Catholic Approaches to Ecology, by Planet Drum Foundation, PO Box 31251, San
Albert J. LaChance and John E. Carroll,editors, Francisco CA 94131; 415/ 285-6556;
1994,Orbis Books, Maryknoll NY, 800/258-5838. planetdrum@igc.org.
Collection of seminal contributions by contemporary Ministering with the Earth, by Mary Elizabeth Moore
Catholic writers. Besides the editors, authors include: ($20), 1998, Chalice Press, St. Louis MO. Stories and
Thomas Berry CP; Miriam Therese MacGillis, theological discussion view the Earth as a sacred
Frederich G. Levine, David Toolan SJ, Mary Rosera creation of God in which we participate in a covenantal
Joyce, and more. relationship. Using the metaphor of quilt making, the
The Great Work: Our Way into the Future, by Thomas author challenges us to orient our spiritual life and
ministry in partnership with (rather than caring for)
10
Chapter 1: Benedictine Life and Ministries
the Earth. Appendix includes a retreat design “Quilting different religious perspectives, explore ways to respond
a life in Relation to God and to God’s Creation.” to the environment as the spiritual issue of our time.
Holy Ground: A Resource on Faith and the Ecotherapy: Healing Ourselves, Healing the Earth, by
Environment ($5) 1997, by Sojourners, 2401 15th St. Howard Clinebell, Ph D, The Haworth Press, 1996; 10
NW, Washington DC 20009; 800/714-7474. Study Alice St., Binghamton NY 13904. Clinebell brings
guide for four sessions – Covenant with Creation; together long overlooked issues at the boundary
Systems of Environmental Degradation; Environmental between human health and the health of the natural
Racism; Justice and Living Rightly with the Earth; environment; plus theories and methods of ecological
writings, resources, activities and discussion questions. diagnosis, treatment and education.
Forty Nights; Creation Centered Night Prayer, by Divided Planet: The Ecology of Rich and Poor, by Tom
Daniel J. McGill, Paulist Press, 997 Macarthur Blvd., Athanasiou ($24.95), Little Brown, New York, 1996. A
Mahwah NJ 07430, (201/ 825-7300) 1994. Blending challenging analysis of social and economic conditions
ecology and ecumenism, these prayers are the author’s of the ecological crisis. A call to institute the radical
personal response to the spiritual and intellectual social and economic changes required to shift the
transformation of our age. Each of the 40 prayer priorities of the New World Order with its ever
services may be used alone or with responses from a widening gap between rich and poor.
community. Women and the Environment, by Annabel Rodda,
Celebrating the Earth, by Scott McCarthy, 1998 1991, United Nations Publications, 2 UN Plaza, Room
Resource Publications, Inc., 160 E. Virginia St., San DC2-853, Dept.COO3, New York NY 10017, 800/253-
Jose CA 95112; 408/286-8505. An earth-centered 9646. Focusing on women’s roles as users, producers
theology of worship with blessings, prayers and rituals and managers of the earth’s resources, the book
that link Christian spirituality with the natural cycles explains all the major environmental issues and reveals
and patterns of earth. how women can be a major force for environmental
Ponderings From the Precipice: Soulwork for the New change. Includes a glossary of environmental terms, a
Millennium, by James Conlon,1998 Forest of Peace guide to education and action, bibliography and
Publishing, 251 Muncie Rd., Leavenworth KS 66048; resource guide.
800/659-3227. Forty-eight short reflections intended as Your Health and the Environment: A Christian
companions for moments of meditation. Perspective, by Shantilal P. Bhagat, 1998, Eco-Justice
Nature, God and Pulpit by Elizabeth Achtemeier, 1992, Working Group of the National Council of Churches.
paperback, Eerdmans. Intended primarily for preachers, Each of 13 chapters provides a biblical anchor,
this book draws together and interprets all the biblical information, suggestions and. discussion questions.
materials dealing with the natural world and God’s Order from NCC Environmental Justice Resources,
relation to it. It also relates the materials to findings of 800/762-0968.
modern science. Caring for Creation: Reflections on the Biblical Basis of
The Greening of Faith: God, the Environment, and the Earthcare, by Lisa Lofland Gould, 1999, Friends
Good Life, John E. Carroll, Paul Brockelman, and Mary Committee on Unity with Nature, Burlington VT. Five
Westfall, editors, 1996, University Press of New chapters focus on Celebration, Humility, Connections,
England, University of New Hampshire 1995. Fifteen Right Relationship and Stewardship; study guide
philosophers, theologians and environmentalists, from included.802/658-0308
11
Listening To The Earth
12
Chapter 2
Air Quality Assessment
13
Listening To The Earth
manufacturing), residential wood burning, and dissolves in water vapor to form acid, and
natural sources such as forest fires. Woodstoves, precipitates as acid rain. SO2 interacts with other
gas stoves, cigarette smoke, unvented gas and gases and particles in the air to form sulfates and
kerosene space heaters are sources of CO indoors. other products that can be harmful to people and
The highest levels of CO in the outside air their environment.
typically occur during the colder months of the Over 65% of SO2 released to the air, or more
year when the air pollution becomes trapped near than 13 million tons per year, comes from electric
the ground beneath a layer of warm air (a process utilities, especially those that burn coal. Other
called inversion). sources of SO2 are industrial facilities that derive
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is also a pollutant, even their products from raw materials like metallic ore,
though it is an important natural component of coal, and crude oil, or that burn coal or oil to
the atmosphere. Plants need it to grow; thus, produce process heat. Examples are petroleum
vegetation removes CO2 from the air, and in turn refineries, cement manufacturing, and metal
provides us with the oxygen we need. CO2 is also processing facilities. Also, locomotives, large ships,
a product of all combustion reactions. Carbon and some nonroad diesel equipment currently
dioxide is not directly harmful to our health; burn high sulfur fuel and release SO2 emissions to
however, one important characteristic of CO2 is the air in large quantities.
that it is able to reflect heat back towards the Volatile Organic Compounds, or VOCs, is a general
earth. This process is called the ‘greenhouse term that covers a wide range of organic (i.e.
effect,’ and consequently, CO2 is called a carbon-containing) compounds. VOCs may result
‘greenhouse gas.’ When too much greenhouse gas from combustion processes, or from the
exists in the atmosphere, the temperature of the evaporation of gasoline, solvent, and other organic
earth begins to rise, and this can cause many compound vapors. VOCs (especially methane)
severe problems. Since this is occurring, CO2 is an contribute to global warming, and they react with
important pollutant to consider. (The greenhouse other pollutants to form ground level ozone. Some
effect and global warming will be discussed more VOCs are in and of themselves toxic and
fully below in the Outdoor Air Pollution section.) hazardous to human health. Sources of VOCs
Nitrogen oxides, or NOX, is the generic term for a include: paints, paint strippers, and other
group of highly reactive gases, all of which contain solvents; wood preservatives; aerosol sprays;
nitrogen and oxygen in varying amounts. Many of cleansers and disinfectants; moth repellents and
the nitrogen oxides are colorless and odorless. air fresheners; stored fuels and automotive
However, one common pollutant, nitrogen dioxide products.
(NO2) along with particles in the air can often be Finally, Chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs are pollutants
seen as a reddish-brown layer over many urban that affect the amount of ozone found in the
areas. NOX gases can also dissolve in water; when upper levels of the atmosphere—called the ‘ozone
this occurs in the atmosphere, the NOX causes layer.’ The ozone layer is the important
acid rain. Furthermore, NOX react with other component of the Earth’s atmosphere that blocks
pollutants to create smog. Nitrogen oxides form dangerous radiation from hitting us on the
when fuel is burned at high temperatures, as in a ground. CFCs have been used extensively as
combustion process. The primary manmade refrigerants, aerosol propellants, and solvents, and
sources of NOX are motor vehicles, electric are also used in some industrial processes. Once
utilities, and other industrial, commercial, and CFCs enter the atmosphere, it takes a very long
residential sources that burn fuels. NOX can also time before they stop affecting the ozone layer.
be formed naturally. Thus, although their use and production has
Sulfur dioxide, or SO2, belongs to the family of dramatically declined on account of a successful
sulfur oxide gases (SOX). These gases dissolve international agreement, called the Montreal
easily in water. Sulfur is prevalent in all raw Protocol, it will be at least 100 years before their
materials, including crude oil, coal, and ore that effects on the ozone layer disappear because of
contains common metals like aluminum, copper, their long atmospheric lifetimes.
zinc, lead, and iron. SOX gases are formed when Opposite is a table which summarizes the
fuel containing sulfur, such as coal and oil, is information about these pollutants.
burned, and when gasoline is extracted from oil, or
metals are extracted from ore. Like NOX, SO2
14
Chapter 2: Air
Headaches, reduced
Motor vehicle mental alertness,
exhaust, indoor heart attack,
Carbon Monoxide Colorless, odorless Contribute to the
sources include cardiovascular
(CO) gas formation of smog
kerosene or wood diseases, impaired
burning stoves fetal development,
death
Combustion of any
Carbon Dioxide fuel, including oil, Does not directly
Colorless, odorless Major contributor to
(CO2) coal, natural gas, impair human
gas global warming
diesel fuel, gasoline, health
etc. Deforestation
15
Listening To The Earth
Overview of Outdoor and Indoor Air Gift to Life, as it is used by all plants and animals
Pollution to sustain life. While it is generally available
everywhere, today it is often in a condition that is
The air surrounds us all, and we all share this gift not suitable for human health nor for
with each other. Yet despite this many of our environmental sustainability. These unacceptable
personal and communal practices are not in accord conditions tend to especially occur in larger cities
with the need to respect and protect this sacred where industrial activities are concentrated,
gift. The quality of Earth’s air has been transportation networks are intense, and
deteriorating by alarming degrees over the past population density is high. Wherever we live, it is
century because of humanity’s use of fire, our job to make sure that we do our part not to
uncontrolled or inadequately controlled industrial contribute to these problems, and to help correct
processes, and internal combustion engines. them wherever possible. It is the intention of this
Although many people are now aware of the assessment to help your community achieve these
problems, and the need to do something about goals.
them, much is still left to be done. The Earth’s atmosphere consists of a number of
In addition to outdoor sources such as factories, gases and water vapor which provide an
power plants and vehicles, a person’s health can be environment within which life can flourish.
seriously affected by exposure to indoor air Unfortunately, the atmosphere is being affected by
pollution. Polluting fuels (wood, coal, etc.), poor human activities in ways that are threatening the
ventilation conditions, and long exposure times are life-sustaining ability of the air. The air is used by
responsible for conditions of ill-health. To make all forms of Life in a vital process called respiration,
matters worse, relatively little attention has been or breathing. People and other animals inhale
paid to the significant risks associated with the oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide; plants are vice
indoor use of solid fuel for cooking and heating. versa. Unfortunately, as pollutants deteriorate the
Simple stoves burning solid fuel (mostly biomass air quality, we are now breathing in irritating and
fuel) are used by about half of the world’s people. harmful gases along with the natural constituents
Poor ventilation and inefficient combustion result of our atmosphere; thus, breathing air may now be
in significant daily exposure ,particularly of women contributing to disease.
and young children, to a host of dangerous The gases in our atmosphere provide other gifts
pollutants. to life on earth besides the ability to breathe. Some
gases, particularly carbon dioxide, have the ability
to trap heat inside the Earth’s atmosphere,
allowing the globe to maintain the stable
Outdoor Air Pollution: temperatures necessary for life. However, an excess
Assessment of these gases cause temperatures to increase
around the world—a process called ‘global
This Chapter’s Assessments warming.’ The water vapor in the atmosphere is
also an essential component for life. As part of the
The two assessments in this chapter are intended to ‘water cycle’ (the endless cycle through which
help you identify ways in which your community water flows from the earth to the sky and from the
pollutes the air, and will hopefully encourage better sky to earth), water on earth evaporates into the
practices. Specific attention is paid to indoor air air before returning again as precipitation. The
pollution because it is such a widespread but process of evaporation and precipitation helps to
overlooked problem, particularly in rural areas. purify water so that life on the surface is
Besides these two assessments, it is continually provided fresh, clean water.
recommended that your community also complete Unfortunately, because human activities have
the Energy Assessment, Chapter Five, since a large contaminated the air, pollution is now mixing with
portion of air pollution is a consequence of energy the water vapor before precipitating as a
production. contaminated solution. This effect of pollution is
called ‘acid rain.’
Our Atmosphere: A Gift to be Preserved The upper levels of the atmosphere include a
layer of a special type of oxygen, called ‘ozone.’
The air is a vital environmental resource, a Sacred This ozone functions as a protective filter which
16
Chapter 2: Air
prevents the sun’s harmful ultraviolet rays from in Latin America aggravates the problems of air
burning the life that exists on the earth’s surface— pollution. Without a sustainable policy framework
like us. However, some forms of air pollution are to guide development, this growth is occurring at a
destroying this protective characteristic of the considerable and often increasing cost. More
atmosphere, progressively increasing our exposure people, more industry and more motor vehicles
to harmful radiation from the sun. will continue to produce ever-worsening air
The earth’s atmosphere has also been a source pollution, unless serious changes are made to the
of aesthetic pleasure; it has provided us with a practices and policies of city dwellers.
window in which we may glimpse the grandeur Below we will discuss four main phenomena
that our Creator has wrought. However, especially that are caused by air pollution. These problems
in densely populated urban areas, the clear blue are found in geographic regions all around the
skies have been replaced by a hazy, murky, world, some have severe implications for the future
malodorous cloud. This phenomenon is also a of life on this planet, and all are the result of
result of pollution, and we call it ‘photochemical human activity.
smog,’ or simply smog.
Each of these problems will be discussed more Smog or Ground-level Ozone
fully below. Ozone is the same molecule regardless of where it
is found, but its significance varies depending on if
Problems in the Air it is up high (stratospheric) or closer to the ground
(troposheric). Stratospheric ozone is found in the
Many Latin American cities are slowly becoming region between 10 and 50 km high. This is called
uninhabitable because of air pollution. Santiago, the ‘ozone layer.’
one of the most polluted urban areas in the world, On the other hand, a high accumulation of
is often forced to declare environmental ozone gas in the lower atmosphere closer to ground
emergencies on days of extreme air pollution, level is air pollution and can be harmful to people,
resulting in school closures and a severe reduction animals, crops, and other materials. Ground level
in outdoor activities. The emissions measured in ozone is a secondary product created by the
other South American metropolises can reach reaction of different types of pollution. Nitrogen
dizzying heights. In Mexico City, for example, oxides and hydrocarbons (VOCs) are known as the
around 5 million gallons of gasoline and diesel fuel chief ‘precursors’ of ozone. These compounds react
are consumed every day. As a result, 53,000 metric in the presence of sunlight to produce ozone. The
tons of gaseous substances are generated. sources of these precursor pollutants include cars,
Unfavorable topographic and meteorological trucks, power plants and factories, or wherever
conditions in some cities, like Mexico City, further natural gas, gasoline, diesel fuel, kerosene, and oil
exacerbate the impact of pollution: as the Valley of are combusted.
Mexico obstructs the dispersal of pollutants from These gaseous compounds mix like a thin soup
its metropolitan area, the hills surrounding in the atmosphere, and when they interact with
Santiago do the same. Thus the air pollution sunlight, ozone is formed. Ground level ozone is
concentrates above such cities, seriously increasing generally called ‘photochemical smog’ or simply,
both the visible and palpable effects of the ‘smog.’ Smog is the gas responsible for the hazy
pollutants. cloud that often surrounds cities. The general
When pollutants are emitted into the air, the reaction is:
area surrounding the source of emission is the first
to experience effects; the most acute impacts of VOC+NOX+HEAT+Sunlight=Ozone
urban air pollution generally occur in this vicinity
or region. However, since the atmosphere is always Ozone pollution, or smog, is mainly a daytime
in motion, emissions from one area eventually problem during summer months because sunlight
disperse and mix with the flowing air. Hence, the plays a primary role in its formation.
impacts of air pollution extend beyond the
immediate areas and become problems for Global Warming or Greenhouse Gas
neighboring locales and, indeed, the rest of the Emissions
world. Like light hitting a mirror, the sun’s heat bounces
The rapid and sustained growth of many cities off the Earth, back towards space; however, like the
17
Listening To The Earth
roof of a greenhouse, carbon dioxide and certain the lungs. This narrows air passages and irritate the
other gases (called greenhouse gases) trap some of lungs, thereby contributing to pneumonia and
the heat inside the Earth’s atmosphere. Without bronchitis and the weakening the body’s immune
greenhouse gas, the Earth would be frozen; but system.
with too much of it, temperatures rise around the
globe. This phenomenon is called ‘global warming.’ Ozone Layer depletion
Global warming is happening at an alarming rate The ozone layer, i.e. stratospheric ozone located
as you read this, largely on account of humanity’s 10-50 km in altitude, is extremely important to us
combustion of fossil fuels. The ramifications of because it is how the Earth shields us against
global warming are predicted to be severe: higher harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun, which would
temperatures mean many areas will become cause serious harm to living things if not filtered. It
deserts; ocean levels will be significantly higher, is suspected that a variety of biological
flooding coastal regions, and reducing the amount consequences, including increases in skin cancer,
of available fresh water; weather patterns will be damage to plants, and reduction of plankton
affected, potentially causing greater natural populations in the world’s oceans would result
disasters. Scientists continue to speculate about from increased UV exposure.
and observe many other significant consequences. Unfortunately, the ozone layer is being
Scientists and world governments have been destroyed, or depleted by chemicals that humans
taking these consequences very seriously, and on are releasing into the air. These chemicals include
account, have entered into several international chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) as well as other ozone
agreements like the Kyoto Protocol, which has depleting substances. Atmospheric levels of these
been signed by over 140 countries. For these chemicals have increased dramatically in the last
countries, and for citizens throughout the world, 30 years, and consequences have been observed in
reducing greenhouse gas emissions is now the ozone layer.
considered a necessity. Worldwide public and governmental concerns
Making the situation more critical is the fact about ozone depletion led to the adoption of the
that Nature’s own method of ‘scrubbing’ CO2 out Montreal Protocol in which it was decided that
of the atmosphere—trees and other plants—is chlorofluorocarbons and other ozone-depleting
similarly being assaulted by human activity, in the chemicals, such as methyl chloroform, should have
form of deforestation. Deforestation, or the large- been completely phased out by the end of 1999.
scale cutting down of trees, is a major problem Some countries had proceeded to ban all
throughout the world, and especially in Latin production of chloroflurocarbons even before this
America. Lush forest land is destroyed or date. Many consider this international agreement
‘developed’ so that humans can use the wood from to have been the most successful agreement ever
the trees, or extract resources from under the trees, implemented, as most countries have fully
or utilize the land for grazing cattle or growing complied and atmospheric levels of ozone
crops, while little or no effort is made even to depleting substances have leveled off, and in some
replant some of what has been cut down. cases declined.
18
Chapter 2: Air
estimated to cause at least 4000 annual cases of eighty percent of urban air pollution in the LAC
premature mortality. region can be attributed to vehicle use. Vehicles are
As with most social problems, urban air generally powered by either a gasoline or diesel
pollution generally has a higher impact on the engine, both of which spew a great deal of dirty
urban poor than on the population in general. The emissions into the air, including CO, VOCs, NOX,
health of the poor is often below average to begin and CO2. In some areas of LAC, engines release
with, and thus their resistance to disease is significant amounts of lead into the air (note,
reduced, and the chances that they will suffer however, that leaded fuel is now illegal to use in
health effects from air pollution are increased. most areas). Furthermore, the sprawling nature of
Secondly, the housing of the poor is usually low contemporary urban development compounds the
in quality, poorly ventilated, heated by very basic problem because residents must increasingly rely
systems using fuels and techniques which produce on personal vehicles for their needs. Public
high levels of indoor pollution; the same is true of transportation, which can be an environmentally
cooking facilities In some poor urban areas, indoor sound solution to the problem, is rarely
air pollution is the most serious health threat. successfully developed or implemented. Vehicle
Lastly, the urban poor often live in the less emissions regulations and on-board equipment
attractive areas which are often near air pollution exist that can also do a great deal to curb
sources in heavily exposed down-wind areas; this emissions, but their implementation is problematic
typically exposes them to highly localized and tardy for a variety of reasons. Nevertheless, it
concentrations of air pollution which are much is ultimately the vehicle operators who are
more severe than the average levels measured responsible for reducing and eliminating vehicular
elsewhere in the city. air pollution—and they can do a great deal simply
by properly maintaining their vehicle, and
What’s causing the problems? following pollution-conscious driving practices.
19
Listening To The Earth
20
Chapter 2: Air
Year of manufacture of vehicle: Is there a person in your community responsible for the
maintenance of the vehicle(s)?
Make and Model of vehicle: Yes / No
Name of person responsible:
What type of fuel is used to power the vehicle? Has the mechanic been trained to service vehicles that
c Gasoline have emissions control devices?
c Diesel Fuel Yes / No
c Ethanol or methanol (alcohol)
c Bio-Diesel Are the maintenance expenses of the vehicle(s)
c Natural gas or Propane incorporated into the regular budget?
c Electricity Yes / No
Other (name):
What pollution control, or emission control devices are 2. Community Transportation Practices
present on the vehicle? (if unsure, you may need to ask
a mechanic) What is the cumulative distance that your community
c Catalytic converter members drove through the course of one month?
c Positive crankcase ventilation valve
c Exhaust gas return valve
c Electronic fuel injection (This can be determined by listing all community vehicles,
c Evaporative collection and purge reading their odometers, waiting a month, reading their
c Fuel tank cap odometers again, subtracting the two readings, and adding all
Other (name): the distances together)
Observe the vehicle with the engine running and note Does your community make an intentional effort (e.g.
the characteristics of the exhaust smoke: by use of policy or established protocol) to minimize the
Amount: amount of distance driven?
c Visible plumes Yes / No
c Light wisps
c Not visible In which of the following practices does your community
Color: participate?
c Blue c Car-pooling / ride sharing
c White c Trip planning
c Black/grey c Public Transit
c Bicycling or Walking
Who operates the vehicle? Other (name):
Other (name):
Does the operator check the following fluid levels each
time the vehicle is refuelled? Are the members of your community educated about
c Motor oil driving habits that reduce fuel efficiency?
c Transmission fluid Yes / No
c Engine coolant
21
Listening To The Earth
Is/are there any form(s) of public transportation What type of fuel powers the engine (tick all that
available for use in your larger community? apply):
Yes / No c Gasoline
If so, which modes are available?: c Diesel fuel
c Ethanol or methanol (alcohol)
c Bio-diesel
c Natural gas or Propane
For each of public transportation modes available, c Electricity
determine the party that is responsible for the Other (name):
management of the service.
Name of Service: Who is responsible for the maintenance of this engine?
What problems is the service facing? Or, what restricts According to the operators of the equipment, as well as
the expansion of these services? the community consensus, how important or essential is
this equipment?
123456789
(Luxury item, unnecessary……Critical for community life)
If applicable, does the service enforce—or must the
service comply with—emissions regulations for their fleet Do the operators of the equipment make an effort to run
of transportation vehicles? the engine only when necessary, and turn it off when not
Yes / No in use?
If so, describe: Yes / No / Sometimes
4. Other Internal Combustion Engines According to the community’s consensus, how important
or essential is this practice?
Does your community own and operate any other 123456789
internal combustion engines? (consider generators, (Useless/unneccessary…Critical for community life)
tractors, power equipment, motorized bicycle/ cart, etc)
Yes / No (Refer to the next section, ‘Indoor Air Quality
Assessment’ to evaluate indoor uses of
If Yes then complete the following questions for combustion)
each vehicle (if there are more than one engine,
additional paper will be required): Is there a community policy that prohibits the burning
22
Chapter 2: Air
Does your community, or a nearby agricultural According to these experts, what are the main sources of
operation (farm, plantation, etc.) regularly spray atmospheric pollution in your area?
pesticides or herbicides on fields?
Yes / No
If so, do members of your community experience any
of the following symptoms around the time of
pesticide application? According to these experts, what policies (i.e. laws or
c Irritated eyes legislation) exist regarding airborne emissions that are
c Headaches applicable to your locale?
c Fatigue
c Difficulty breathing
c Incidence of asthma
c Disorientation
According to the organization, what are the most
8. Community Tree Preservation important actions people can take to reduce the
pollution?
How would you rate the tree cover of the landscape of
your geographical vicinity?
123456789
(Densely urbanized…Some tree cover…Wooded areas…Dense
forest)
23
Listening To The Earth
9B. Expert Public Health Information Source If we are to preserve the Earth’s air for
ourselves, the Earth’s other creatures, and future
It will also be helpful to contact a public health generations, we must prevent as much vehicular air
advocacy organization or agency that can provide pollution as we can. There are three primary ways
reliable, expert data about the incidence of disease to reduce vehicular air pollution: (1) Minimize
amongst the population. distances driven, (2) Maximize fuel efficiency, (i.e.
Name of Organization: drive more distance per unit of fuel), and (3)
Reduce emissions: Emit fewer pollutants per unit
Name of contact person: of fuel or unit of distance.
24
Chapter 2: Air
25
Listening To The Earth
Finally, be aware that pollution will increase manufacturer or a nearby dealer to obtain a copy
dramatically if a vehicle’s emission control system of the owner’s manual if your community does not
is tampered with or leaded gasoline is used in a have one.
vehicle designed for unleaded gasoline. In many By taking proper care of a vehicle, its life is
countries these activities are illegal—for individual extended, its resale value increased, and its fuel
vehicle owners as well as for fleet operators and efficiency optimized. Records should be kept of the
auto technicians. Any tampering with emission preventive maintenance carried out to ensure that
control components may not only drastically the manufacturer’s recommendations are followed.
increase emissions but is likely to have a negative Like all material creations, combustion-powered
effect on vehicle performance and durability. vehicles naturally tend to deteriorate with age and
(c) Preventative maintenance: A vehicle’s emissions usage, and as a result, emission levels can rise
can be reduced, and its performance enhanced if significantly as the engine ages. Good maintenance
the manufacturer’s recommended maintenance is required to keep emission levels at or near design
guidelines are followed. The owner’s manual levels. A preventative maintenance program
specific to a particular vehicle contains a wealth of specifically targeted toward emissions control can
information. It outlines recommended especially identify problem vehicles and assure
maintenance intervals, product specifications, and their repair. If a modern car has high emissions, it
operating procedures. The manual also explains is usually due to a defined malfunction that needs
the manufacturer’s warranty of the emission to be fixed.
control system, if so equipped. Contact the Every vehicle has some items that need to be
Common Causes of Vehicle Smoke
(Note: it is normal for smoke to appear during only the first few seconds after engine startup)
Gasoline engines
Color of smoke Diagnosis Probable causes
Diesel engines
• Faulty fuel injection system
• Incorrect fuel injection and valve timing
White Improper air/fuel mixture
• Engine overheating
• Faulty fuel pump and/or injection pump
26
Chapter 2: Air
checked on a regular basis and others that need to required in Latin American cities as well.
be replaced periodically. These include the air filter, Nevertheless, with the proper instruction and
vacuum and coolant hoses, oil, oil filter, fluids, comprehension of engine controls, any individual
belts, and so on. It’s also important to keep the can perform their own inspection. But, it remains
tires inflated to the recommended pressure. This important that a vehicle be serviced by a skilled
will minimize tire wear and help your vehicle get technician who understands modern emission
the best possible fuel economy. Check the tire control systems. See the resources provided at the
pressure at least once a month and maintain the end of this chapter for more information regarding
maximum tire pressure specified by the vehicle vehicle emissions inspection education programs.
manufacturer. This will decrease fuel consumption
and emissions. Regular vehicle maintenance and inspections are an
The most important maintenance requirement important priority in our community
is regular oil changes. Oil is the vehicle engine’s 123456789
‘life blood.’ It reduces wear caused by friction
between the moving parts of the engine and Our community includes emissions reduction as a
removes acids, sludge and other harmful criterion for fuel choice
substances. Oil helps to cool the engine, provides a 123456789
seal between the cylinder walls and the pistons,
and prevents the engine from rusting. Eventually, Our community includes emissions reduction as a
oil becomes contaminated and its performance criterion for vehicle purchases
additives deteriorate, so it is important that the oil 123456789
be changed regularly. Neglecting to replace worn-
out oil can result in severe damage to the engine 2. Community Transportation Practices
The oil filter should be changed with every oil
change. (Refer to the Hazardous Products and Reducing cumulative distance driven
Waste section of the Waste Handling chapter, page The most important way that your community can
138, for a discussion regarding the proper disposal reduce their atmospheric pollution is to simply
of used motor oil, as well as other fluids and drive less—this means reducing the cumulative
materials used on your vehicle.) amount of distance that your community members
In addition to having the vehicle serviced drive. The world now realizes that vehicles are
according to the maintenance schedule a quick driven too much. Since most vehicles are compact
walk-around inspection to check for fluid leaks, to mid-sized sedans, they generally hold only 2-5
low tire pressure, and exhaust smoke passengers, and are often operated for the purposes
characteristics should be performed every time of only a single individual. This pattern of vehicle
someone uses the vehicle. Routinely inspect the use is extremely inefficient. Thus, the most basic
spot where the vehicle is parked for evidence of way to reduce your community’s cumulative
fluid leaks. Leaking fluids are not only a sure sign vehicle use is to reduce the need for individual
that the vehicle needs repair, but the fluids are also trips.
harmful to the environment. Below are common While reducing cumulative distance may
fluids that can leak from a vehicle: require a higher degree of coordination and
planning than is presently practiced in your
colour of drippings fluid community, the benefits are numerous. Less wear-
Black or dark brown: motor oil or grease and-tear on community vehicles means less
Yellow or green: coolant or antifreeze maintenance, less fuel expenses, more cooperation
Pink or red: transmission fluid amongst community members, and less pollution.
Clear: brake fluid, power steering fluid or gasoline Probably the easiest ways to reduce distance are:
advanced planning of trips, sharing rides, and
The table on the previous page describes some using other means of travel besides the small
of the most common causes for vehicle smoke—a pollution generators known as cars. Each are
vehicle’s exhaust should normally be very light, discussed below.
almost invisible. Trip planning: By planning errands such that
Compulsory emissions inspections are required several tasks are undertaken during a single trip,
by law in some countries and are beginning to be your community can get the most out of the time
27
Listening To The Earth
any one members spends behind the wheel. Avoid unnecessary idling: Do not allow a vehicle’s
Several tasks can be accomplished when you go engine to run when it is not being driven. If
somewhere by simply driving to a central location practical, this may extend to any situation in which
and parking, and then walking, biking, or using you are going to wait for more than 30 seconds. To
public transit between destinations. accomplish this, several car manufacturers now
Ridesharing: Ridesharing can also be an ideal way produce ‘hybrid-electric’ vehicles that incorporate
to reduce your community’s contribution to an automatic shut-off into their design. ‘Hybrid’
pollution. Every time a ride is ‘shared’ (i.e. two or vehicles also reduce emissions by supplementing
more people with their own itineraries use the the combustion engine with an electric motor
same vehicle), at least one individual trip is which is charged by the vehicle’s own braking
eliminated. energy.
Other modes of travel: Briefly, the main alternate Plan your route to reduce ‘stop-and-go’ driving: Driving
modes of transportation to small vehicles are: in traffic is not always avoidable. But whenever
public transport, pedestrian travel, and bicycling. possible, plan trips outside rush hour and peak
Because public transport greatly reduces the traffic periods. Try to ‘smooth’ your driving by
number of individual trips needed by many people, accelerating and decelerating gradually,
the use of public transportation is a great way to anticipating stops and starts for traffic lights,
reduce cumulative mileage. See question #3 for a changing traffic speeds, and so on. A vehicle that is
more in-depth look at public transportation. crawling along releases about three times more
Biking or walking to a destination creates no smog-producing VOCs than one cruising at the
pollution at all. These activities have the benefit of most fuel-efficient speed. Also, avoid rough roads
also increasing a person’s physical fitness level. where possible: smooth road surfaces can reduce
Unfortunately, as roads expand in cities, fuel consumption by 10 to 30%.
walking options are often reduced substantially. Reduce the use of air conditioning: Use of a vehicle air
Limited investment in sidewalks combined with conditioner increases load on the engine. This can
space constraints mean that sidewalks along streets increase emissions and decrease fuel economy. Try
are often either non-existent or very narrow, opening the window or the fresh air vent to cool
forcing individuals to walk in the streets, where the inside of your vehicle. Also, park in the shade
they must compete for space with motorized if you can to prevent the car from heating up in the
vehicles. In addition, as motorized vehicle traffic sun. Besides keeping the interior temperature of
grows, it becomes increasingly difficult for your car more comfortable, you will lessen the
individuals to cross by foot without some pollution and waste that occurs when gasoline
supporting infrastructure such as stoplights. These evaporates from the engine and gas tank.
problems are only exacerbated if decisions are Reduce vehicle weight: Your car burns more gas and
made to widen the streets to accommodate more emits more pollution when the engine is operating
vehicle traffic. under high load; that is, when it is working
Bicycles also face growing impediments. They, especially hard. Extra load is created by carrying
too, must compete for space with motorized extra weight. Thus, remove excess weight from
vehicles, and are often outlawed altogether on vehicle and keep the vehicle free of unnecessary
major streets. Moreover, even if they can be used to objects which would add weight.
reach a public transportation stop, there is no safe Drive vehicle as smoothly as possible: Maintain
means of storing the bicycles, either by locking moderate speeds and accelerate smoothly—i.e.
them up or by taking them onto the public avoid speeding and abrupt starts and stops. The
transportation vehicles. In addition, bicycles are optimum fuel economy for most vehicles is
often treated as a luxury item and are assessed achieved at a steady speed of between 80 and
substantial tariffs, if imported. 100km per hour. Tests show that most cars use
about 10% less fuel when driving at 90 instead of
Driving efficiently 100km/hr. Avoiding speed changes saves fuel.
Even a perfectly maintained car will pollute more Accelerate and decelerate gradually. (This will also
than necessary if it is driven carelessly. Your car’s reduce engine wear.) Anticipating traffic
emissions will be lower if you apply common sense movement will help you avoid frequent brake
to your driving and follow some basic rules like applications. Stepping on the accelerator too
these below: heavily can use up to four times as much fuel as
28
Chapter 2: Air
29
Listening To The Earth
particularly in large metropolitan areas, while services do exist, the movement should be toward
smaller systems exist in other areas. On any scale, reducing the emissions from this service. Consider
there are problems that such service systems face. that a fleet of diesel-fueled buses driving in
In some cases the problems overwhelm the service, congested urban traffic use more fuel and emit
and it becomes lost to the public. In other cases, considerably more pollutants than, e.g. the same
the cost of the service prohibits the general public, buses driving in their own unobstructed lanes, or
from using it. In addition, a lack or deficiency of the same buses using a cleaner fuel.
logistical control can severely affect the reliability
and usefulness of the service. Thus, to be effective Our community utilizes public transportation whenever
and beneficial, a public transit system should be it is a feasible alternative to driving
well planned, accessible, and equitable. 123456789
In LAC, as in other parts of the world, the
traditional pattern for developing urban Our community publicly supports the development of
transportation systems has been first to invest in and sustenance of public transportation
road infrastructure. Public transportation systems 123456789
and their associated infrastructure, whether road-
based or not, are rarely planned for or invested in 4. Other Combustion Engines
during this initial period. Such an investment
strategy, similar to what has occurred in most of The evaluation information for this question can
the cities in North America, breeds the creation of be reasonably adapted from the information
a personal automobile-based transportation provided in question number 1, as the operative
system. As cities grow, the existing infrastructure principles are the same.
fosters transportation demands being met by
personal automobiles, further fueling demand for Our community strives to minimize emissions from the
expanding the road-based system, which, in turn, engines we use besides those belonging to vehicles
stimulates the development of urban sprawl. As a 123456789
result, when attention turns to designing public
transportation systems and their associated 5. Burning
infrastructure, the sprawling nature of a city’s
development limits the applicability of public In some areas, particularly those that lack a
transportation. Either only a small portion of a comprehensive system of waste collection, open
city’s residents are able to make use of the public burning of waste by residents can be a major
transportation system, or the cost of developing a contributor to air pollution. Open burning of waste
transportation system sufficiently extensive to can produce mixed and very toxic fumes. Burn
serve a large fraction of the city’s population is barrels often emit acid vapors, carcinogenic tars,
prohibitively expensive. The consequence, and ‘heavy metals’ such as lead, cadmium and
inevitably, is to fortify and expand the personal car- chromium, as well as dangerous levels of carbon
based system instead. Because there are powerful monoxide. The closer you stand to the burn barrel,
interests (e.g. car manufactures, oil companies, the more of these harmful chemicals you inhale.
etc.) that actively, if covertly, oppose public Residual ash is another result of incomplete
transportation initiatives, sometimes political combustion. Frequently, a significant portion of
action is necessary to oppose these forces. In these material in the barrel—especially at the bottom—
cases, as well as in areas where there is no public is not burned up. Ash disposal outside of a sanitary
transit available, but there is a need, political landfill can cause problems sooner (for those
action is often required to motivate the municipal immediately exposed) or later (for example, if
leaders to commit to a project, or to keep them water contacting the ash becomes contaminated
committed to the sustainability of an existing and gets into groundwater and/or surface water).
service. Your community should be aware of these See the Waste Handling Assessment, Chapter 4
and other issues surrounding the sustainability of to take a closer look at your community’s waste
public transportation in your area, and become disposal practices.
actively engaged in ways your community feels Materials that absolutely should not be burned
appropriate. in a burn barrel are tires, plastics, electrical
For the areas in which public transportation equipment, and rubber. These also should not be
30
Chapter 2: Air
burned in a furnace, wood stove or similar home Refrigerant found in appliances should also be
heating system. Painted surfaces as well as various reclaimed before disposal of the appliance. A
petrochemicals also release a great deal of trained technician is capable of emptying a
pollutants into the air, so they also should not be refrigeration system without leaking any refrierent
burnt. into the atmosphere. This refrigerent can then be
Even the smoke generated by a large number of re-used. Thus, it would be helpful for your
simultaneous leaf fires can cause significant health community to locate a technician that is capable of
problems. Leaf smoke can irritate the eyes, nose performing this work.
and throat of healthy adults. But it can be much
more harmful to small children, the elderly, and Our community strives to eliminate the use of CFCs
people with asthma or other lung or heart diseases. 123456789
31
Listening To The Earth
32
Chapter 2: Air
Conclusions Problem 2
33
Listening To The Earth
Indoor Air Pollution: Assessment pollutants add up to a great deal of disease and
environmental degradation; however, when smoke
Air pollution—Inside is concentrated by walls and a roof, the dangers
become much more critical.
Air pollution can affect our health in many ways Inside most Latin American households, the
with both short-term and long-term effects. stove or cookstove is the major source of emissions.
Different groups of individuals are affected by air The indoor air pollution that comes from
pollution in different ways. Some individuals are cookstove fires is the most harmful and deadly
much more sensitive to pollutants than are others. problem facing most people of the countryside,
Young children and elderly people often suffer especially the women and children.
more from the effects of air pollution. People with
health problems such as asthma, heart and lung
disease may also suffer more when the air is
polluted. The extent to which an individual is
Indoor Air Pollution: Inventory
harmed by air pollution usually depends on the
total exposure to the damaging chemicals, i.e. the The following sections are designed to help your
duration of exposure and the concentration of the community make an inventory of its indoor air
chemicals must be taken into account. Consider pollution. This is so that the community can assess
that indoors, gases can rapidly become much more both the sources of indoor air pollution, as well as
concentrated than outdoors. what is being done (or can be done) to help
Examples of short-term effects include irritation improve the community’s practices.
to the eyes, nose and throat, and upper respiratory The following inventory is based around the
infections such as bronchitis and pneumonia. likely main sources of a community’s indoor air
Other symptoms can include headaches, nausea, pollution: cooking/heating, and smoking; thus, it
and allergic reactions. Short-term air pollution can will especially examine the kitchen area. However,
aggravate the medical conditions of individuals the principles of efficiency and ventilation of a
with asthma and emphysema. cookstove readily apply to any other use of fire
Long-term health effects can include chronic that your community might have. Each question is
respiratory disease, lung cancer, heart disease, and discussed in the section following the inventory,
even damage to the brain, nerves, liver, or kidneys. where you will be provided a means to evaluate
Continual exposure to air pollution affects the your responses, and directions to go for
lungs of growing children and may aggravate or improvement.
complicate medical conditions in the elderly.
Indoor air pollution, like atmospheric pollution, 1. Types and uses of community fuel
is generally a result of combustion. Combustion is
a chemical reaction that lets off a great deal of Here is a list of fuels you might be using:
energy. We experience this energy as the light and Biomass Fuels:
the heat that comes off a flame. Harnessing this Dung
energy has been very useful to us. Fire is a reaction Wood
which breaks ‘organic’ matter down into smaller Agricultural residues
bits. (Organic matter is anything that has the Other residues
element ‘carbon’ in it.) Residue briquettes
‘Incomplete combustion’ means that the fuel is Charcoal
not being fully broken down. We see evidence of Liquid and Gas Fuels:
incomplete combustion whenever we see smoke. Kerosene (Paraffin)
Most of the pollution from fire comes from Bottled gas (LPG)
incomplete combustion. Biodiesel or other liquid bio-fuel
Smoke is made up of a wide variety of particles Biogas
and gases. Carbon monoxide (CO) is a very deadly Solar Energy:
gas that is a result of incomplete combustion. Solar cooker
There are many other dangerous components like Solar electric (solar PV)
nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, sulfur oxides, and Other Fuels:
suspended particle matter. In general, all these Grid electricity
34
Chapter 2: Air
What is the source of your main type(s) of fuel? The main fuel that you use – about how dry is it
c Raw biomass (wood, dung) usually?
c Petroleum products c not applicable—do not use biofuel
c Converted biomass (e.g. Biogas, biodiesel, c Very dry
plant oil, residue briquettes, etc) c Dry
c Grid electric—if so, is it generated from c Damp
coal, oil, nuclear or hydro? c Wet
c ‘Green’
c The sun Definitions:
c Other source (specify) Very dry: wood that is completely dry having been outdoors
c Fuel 1 in very dry weather for a long period, or kept to dry in the
c Fuel 2 house for some weeks at least;
Dry: wood that does not feel damp, was gathered when the
If you buy fuel, how much do you pay for it per week? weather was variable and has needed to be dried in the house
(show unit of currency) for several days;
Wood: Damp: wood that feels slightly damp, has not been dried in
Charcoal: the house;
Kerosene (paraffin): Wet: wood that is wet due to prevailing rain and dampness
Bottled gas: rather than because it is green (see below), and not having
Grid electricity: been dried to any degree in the house;
Batteries: Green: wood that was cut while still growing, or was doing so
Wax candles: very recently, so that the wood contains sap.
Other (e.g. gelfuel):
Total cost: Do you dry your main fuel before use?
c not applicable (not biofuel or always very
If your fuel is gathered, who is responsible for gathering dry)
it? c always
c usually
How many hours a week are spent gathering fuel? c occasionally
c never
Check any problems encountered by those collecting fuel:
c Supply is scarce
35
Listening To The Earth
Survey the members of your community and any Permanent ventilation in roof of kitchen:
workers that work there. In what ways does smoke affect c None
their health? Answer each question by indicating the c Small holes (less than 10cm in diameter)
percentage of people that report each symptom, i.e.: c Large holes (more than 10cm in diameter)
1 = 0-25% c No roof, or very open roof
2 = 26-50%
3 = 51-75% Does the kitchen area have eavespace?
4 = 76%-100% c none
c All round room
How many people are being interviewed for this c Along outside walls
question? c Along walls within house
What percentage report itchy, watery or irritated eyes? How many windows are in the room where cooking is
done?
What percentage report a persistent cough?
How many doors are there in the kitchen?
What percentage presently have a chest illness?
Are the door(s) usually open or closed?
What percentage report having a shortness of breath?
Can any black soot or residue be found on the walls,
What percentage report having frequent headaches? ceiling, or other locations?
7. The stove
5. Smoking
Type of stove—main stove and secondary stove (choose
How many members of the community smoke? from the following):
main secondary
Do people smoke inside? c c Three-stone or two-stone fire (i.e.
No / Occasionally / Yes, regularly open fire)
c c Shielded (from wind or air currents)
Has your community been educated about the health mud fire or mud stove (including
and environmental effects of smoking? chimney stove)
Yes / No c c Wood-burning ceramic stove (made
of fired clay)
Does the community have a smoking policy? (e.g. smoke c c Metal stove
only in designated areas) c c Improved charcoal stove
Yes / No c c Pressurized kerosene stove
c c Non-pressurized kerosene stove
Is the community policy explained to all members and c c Gas stove
guests? c c Solar cooker
Yes / No c c Grid-powered electric stove
Are there designated smoking areas? If unsure, or if you have ‘other’ type of stove, please
Yes / No describe:
If Yes where are these areas located?
36
Chapter 2: Air
Is the space between the flame and the burner plate(s) If Yes do people sleep in that room?
or pots minimized?
Yes / No
Does the burning area have insulation to absorb and (list who sleeps there)
retain heat? (e.g. Clay, sand, brick, etc.)
Yes / No / Not applicable 8. Smoke extraction
Can the burning chamber be closed, excepting an inlet Is there any type of smoke extraction in the kitchen
for air? (chimney stove, hood etc)?
Yes / No Yes / No
If the stove has spaces for multiple pots, are there plates If the answer is Yes rate the condition of each type of
to block unused burner areas? extraction device on a scale from 1-5 (1 being ‘poor’).
Yes / No / Not applicable Consider things like rust, holes, cleanliness, state of
repair:
If the stove has spaces for multiple pots, can the air flow
to each be controlled with internal baffles? Extraction method: 1-5
Yes / No / Not applicable Chimney (built into structure of building):
Smoke hood (semi-permanent fixture):
If the fire is internal, are there dampers on the air inlet Other (specify):
to control the size of the flame?
Yes / No / Not applicable If ‘other’ smoke extraction method, please describe or
sketch it:
Is there a flue (i.e. chimney) built into the design of the
stove?
Yes / No
How many people usually sleep in the room with the Maintenance:
main stove? Is there someone in your community that is charged
with maintaining all exhaust systems (chimneys, etc)?
Is this stove usually kept alight at night? Yes / No
Is a stove used in any other room in the house other Does your community have a regular maintenance
than the kitchen? schedule for chimneys and vents?
Yes / No Yes / No
37
Listening To The Earth
9. Education, Policy, and Civic Engagement compressed residues, liquid fuels, gaseous fuels,
solar energy (most efficient).
Has everyone in your community been educated about Thus, using dung as fuel (without first
the dangers of indoor air pollution? converting it into biogas) releases the greatest
Yes / No amounts of particulate matter, carbon monoxide,
and several other pollutants. Burning corn cobs or
Does your community have a policy on indoor air stalks, or other crop wastes is slightly cleaner than
pollution? dung. Cleaner yet is wood, charcoal, coal, or other
Yes / No solid fuel types. However, all these ‘biomass’ fuels
release a great deal of pollutants because they do
Does your community have an active plan to help not often burn completely. This is why liquids and
educate the public about air pollution, deforestation, gases release much less air pollution.
and better practices? Bottled gas, kerosene, and other heating liquids
Yes / No and gases are much cleaner relative to wood.
Nonetheless, all of these fuels let off carbon
Is your community taking steps to address or change dioxide and usually carbon monoxide, which are
public policies which affect air quality (e.g. forest use, both pollutants that can concentrate into
emission standards, fuel standards, etc)? dangerous levels indoors. In addition, if the fuel is
Yes / No petroleum based, there are still a number of
pollutants released besides carbon dioxide and
carbon monoxide, like sulfur oxides and volatile
organic compounds. ‘Biofuels’—for example, gases
Indoor Air Pollution: Evaluation made from the digestion of dung, or ethanol made
from corn, or diesel made from seeds—release far
At the end of each discussion section, there will be a statement fewer pollutants than their petroleum
and a list of numbers from which to choose. Choose a number counterparts.
from 1-9 to indicate your assessment of how well your If your community uses electric power (from
community represents the statement given (1= disagree, the grid) for heating or cooking, refer to the
community practices unhealthy; 9= agree completely, no change chapter in this manual about energy, Chapter 5.
needed). By far, the cleanest, most efficient means of
heating and cooking is the sun, or solar energy. The
1-2. Types, Uses, Costs of Community’s Fuel use of solar energy releases no pollution and uses
no fuel. You can use passive solar warmers to bake
The purpose of these questions is to inventory the bread, to boil water, to heat vegetables, as well as
types, uses, and costs of the community’s fuel. many other tasks that would normally require the
Making an inventory of the types of fuels used burning of fuel. Solar technology is rapidly
for various purposes helps your community spreading throughout Latin America because the
develop a clear picture of your community’s required materials are generally available and
practical fuel choices. It is often the case that inexpensive, and, of course, because there is a lot
several different fuels are used within a community, of sun!
but each for their own purposes. It should be your The cost is an important aspect to keep track of,
community’s goal to maximize the efficiency and because it measures how much of the community’s
cleanliness of fuel for each purpose that fuel is resources are being used for fuel. These resources
needed, with the priority being set on those fuels may be monetary or they may be in the form of
which are used most often. personal labor. If a decision is made to change
The choice of fuel has perhaps a greater effect fuels, or to include the use of solar heating, keeping
upon the amount of pollution emitted by burning track of the fuel costs becomes an important
than any other single factor. Basically, the hotter means of judging the efficiency of the fuels.
and cleaner that a fuel burns, the less pollution it Refer to the resources at the end of this chapter
lets off. The gradient of efficient burning is as to find additional information regarding bio-gas,
follows (this is general and does not include factors cooking fuels, and solar cookers. Resources for bio-
like dryness or stove capabilities): dung (least gas production can also be found in the Waste
efficient), crop residues, wood, charcoal or Handling, Chapter 4.
38
Chapter 2: Air
Our community takes steps to ensure that any biomass Our community strives to eliminate the dangers of
fuels are thoroughly dried before attempting to burn environmental tobacco smoke
them 123456789
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
(choose 10 if not applicable) 6. Ventilation of the kitchen area
39
Listening To The Earth
Nevertheless, since several of the structural 5. Maximize user satisfaction by making the
improvements that could be made to increase stoves convenient to use (with local fuels, cooking
ventilation are costly and/or labor intensive, these pots, and utensils) and able to easily prepare local
questions about kitchen design can be used to dishes well
indicate the relative importance of upgrading the 6. In summary, only a stove with what might be
efficiency of the cookstove, or the installation of a called robust efficiency will consistently save fuel
chimney or vent hood. For example, if your kitchen under conditions of actual use. Stoves must be
has no windows, only one door, and very little easy to use and fuel efficient under a variety of
eavespace, it is very important that the smoke is conditions: when it is boiling, simmering, baking,
vented. However, if there are roof vents, eavespace, or frying food; when it is using only one opening of
windows, and a door, replacing a chimneyless stove a large, three-pot stove; and when it is dirty or
is less important than making sure that the stove is worn. Cookstoves are workhorses, not racehorses,
burning efficiently. and must be designed accordingly.
It is important to include the comments of all It is absolutely essential that all fires are vented.
those who work in the kitchen (not only those who That is, each stove should have either a built-in
are community members) in this inventory, since chimney vented outdoors, or a vent hood which is
they may have a more intimate knowledge of the similarly vented outside. If any fire in your
kitchen, stove and ventilation problems than community is not equipped with such a device,
anyone else. installing one is the highest priority in order to
improve indoor air quality. Ample kitchen
Our community’s kitchen is very well ventilated. It has ventilation (with eaves, windows, roof vents, etc.)
adequate eavespace, is well lit, and shows no signs of reduces the danger of concentrated exhaust smoke,
soot or smoke build-up but does not completely alleviate it. Consider that
123456789 on a day where the air is stagnant, air currents do
not flow through the kitchen, and thus do little to
remove the smoke. References to resources to help
7-8. The stove and smoke extraction you in this can be found in the categorized
reference section in the back of this manual.
The cookstove and its smoke extraction device are It is important that all chimneys, vents, stoves,
the crux of the indoor air pollution matter. The or other heating device be checked on a regular
cookstove should be as efficient as possible. schedule to ensure proper operation. The
Efficiency not only makes the operation of it inspection schedule might be as infrequent as once
cheaper, it greatly reduces the amount of air a season, but it is very important that it occur. Any
pollution released by it. There are a few simple vent must be intact (without holes), clean and free
principles to keep in mind when designing or of obstruction. All burners must be functioning
upgrading a cookstove. properly, smoke shouldn’t be escaping into the
There are an incredible variety of cookstove kitchen with a well designed cookstove. It is
designs; but the qualities of a good cookstove are probably best if one person is put in charge of the
as follows: regular maintenance of cooking, heating, and
1. Maximize combustion of the fuel by keeping ventilation systems within the community.
the temperature high and ensuring the presence of Refer to the resources at the end of this chapter
sufficient oxygen to find more information regarding indoor air
2. Maximize radiative heat transfer from the pollution, cookstove designs, and ventilation.
fire to the pot(s) by keeping the pot as close to the
flame as possible Some care and thoughtfulness has been put into the
3. Maximize convection from the fire to the design of our community’s stove(s). All stoves are
pot(s) with a stove design that passes as much of directly vented with either a chimney or a vent hood.
the hot gases over the pot(s) as possible; reduce They are as efficient as they can be for the primary type
drafts of fuel used
4. Maximize conduction to the food pot(s) by 123456789
using an insulating material for the stove so that
the heat is retained and concentrated near the
pot(s)
40
Chapter 2: Air
9. Education, Policy, and Civic Engagement Now that you have comprehensively examined your
protection of indoor air quality, how would you rate,
Reducing indoor air pollution is everyone’s overall, your community’s practices in these regards?
responsibility. Therefore it is important that Excellent / Satisfactory / Poor / Critically
everyone be aware of the dangers of smoke and deficient
how to avoid its concentration inside confined
spaces. Reducing indoor air pollution should not If you found that problems exist, list them below:
only be a personal policy, but a community policy Category (I-III)
as well, since it affects all members of the Problem 1
community.
Spreading the principles of clean air needs to
happen not only within your community, but
within your municipality, country, and throughout
the world. Thus to protect God’s creation, it is
important that your community work at all levels
to educate and change policies regarding air Problem 2
pollution.
Conclusions
41
Listening To The Earth
Some suggestions for reducing Indoor Air Pollution Your Car and Clean Air: What YOU Can Do to Reduce
Pollution. EPA, Office of Mobile Sources, United States
Fuel types / Alternate fuel-cooker combinations: Environmental Protection Agency, document 420-F-93-
002. Available online: http://www.epa.gov.
• Briquettes and pellets
• Charcoal, Kerosene Energy-Environment Linkages in the Urban Sector.
• Liquid petroleum gas (LPG) Leitmann, Josef, UNDP/World Bank/UNCHS Urban
• Biogas, Producer gas Management Program (UMP). Discussion paper, 1991.
• Solar cookers (thermal) Environmental Issues Information Sheet: Air Pollution.
• Other low smoke fuels Smith-Sebasto, University of Illinois Extension. 2000.
• Electricity Full text available online:
Drying biomass fuels: http://www.nres.uiuc.edu/outreach/pubs/info-
sheets.html.
• All biomass is thoroughly dried
Urban Air Quality Handbook. Prepared and written by
Tobacco smoking:
the staff and consultants of the Sustainable Cities
• Only in well ventilated areas or outdoors Programme, UNCHS, Kenya. Available online:
Kitchen design and placement of the stove: http://www.unchs.org/scp
• Shelters/cooking huts GEO3: Global Environmental Outlook. UNEP, 2002.
• Windows/ventilation holes Available online: http://www.unep.org/geo/geo3
• Eavespaces Smoke – the Killer in the Kitchen. Warwick, Hugh and
• Stove at waist height Alison Doig, ITDG Publishing, London, UK; 2004
Improved ventilation Ecological Cookers: An essential element in Bettering
• Hoods/fireplaces and chimneys (built into structure Household Health. Whitfield, David, Fundación
of house) CEDESOL. Available by request online:
solar1@zuper.net.
Improved cooking devices:
Chapter 2: Resources for Air Quality
• Chimneyless improved biomass stoves
• Improved stoves with flues attached Sustainable Urban Transport Project for Latin America:
Kitchen practices: http://sutp.org/esp/espindex.htm Cra. 14 # 94a- 24 of.
409; Bogotá, Colombia; Tel: (+571) 635 9048; Fax:
• Use of pot lids
(+571) 635 9015. SUTP is dedicated to advancing
• Good maintenance
sustainable transportation practices throughout
• Sound operation
developing countries. They are a great resource for
• Partially pre-cooked food
policy makers and concerned citizens. Their free
Sourcebook for Policy Makers in Developing Countries
Source: ITDG, 2004 (modules available in Spanish and English) provides a
tremendous amount of information and guidance on
topics such as: vehicle maintenance and inspection,
cleaner fuels, eco-driving, mass transit options, and
raising public awareness.
Chapter 2: Acknowledgements Clean Air Initiative: http://www.cleanairnet.org. The
Clean Air Initiative is a project of the World Bank that
The information contained in this chapter has been adapted from the advances innovative ways to improve air quality in
following sources: cities by sharing knowledge and experiences through
The Origin, Fate, and Health Effects of Combustion By- partnerships in selected regions of the world. La
Products: A Research Framework. Avakian, Maureen D., Iniciativa de Aire Limpio en Ciudades de América
Dellinger, et.al. Environmental Health Perspectives. Latina (IAL-CAL) tiene como propósito revertir el
VOLUME 110, NUMBER 11, November 2002. deterioro de la calidad del aire urbano en América
Latina, que es el resultado de la creciente urbanización,
Emissions of Rural Wood-Burning Cooking Devices, A aumento del transporte vehicular, y de la producción
thesis submitted to the Faculty of Engineering, Ballard- industrial.
Tremeer, Grant, University of the Witwatersrand,
Johannesburg, 1997. Available online: Environmental Protection Agency of the United States:
http://www.wits.ac.za. http://www.epa.gov/Many pages available in spanish.
Many resources on air pollution, mobile sources, and
Smoke, Health, and Household Energy, Volume 1. Bates, pollution prevention.
Liz and the Smoke Team, UK Department for
International Development, 2005. Available online: Resources for the Future: http://www.rff.org/ Offer
http://www.itdg.org several articles and reports on air pollution, climate
change, and pollution prevention.
Urban Transportation: Challenges facing Latin America.
Bleviss, Deborah Lynn, 1999. Available online: Drive Green - Environmental guide to driving:
http://www.iadb.org/sds/doc/UrbanTransportBleviss.pdf http://www.ns.ec.gc.ca/epb/factsheets/drive.html From
Environment Canada, a guide to better driving
Central America: Environmental Issues. Energy practices.
Information Agency, United States Department of
Energy, 2002. Online: GREENTIE: http://www.greentie.org/ GREENTIE was an
http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/centamenv.html international directory of suppliers whose technologies
help to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. GREENTIE
42
Chapter 2: Air
ceased collecting new information at the end of March Energia: International Network on Gender and
2005. Nevertheless, the information will remain Sustainable Energy: http://www.energia.org/ Tel:
available through this web site’s search facilities as it +31.(0)33.4326044 (Netherlands). ENERGIA is an
represents one of the World’s most detailed repositories international network on gender and sustainable energy
of such information. which links individuals and groups concerned with
energy, sustainable development, and gender.
Diesel Emissions Evaluation Program:
ENERGIA’s goal is to contribute to the empowerment
http://www.deep.org/reports/ Check under their listed
of rural and urban poor women through a specific focus
research projects for diesel maintenance guidelines and
on energy issues. ENERGIA provides numerous
best practices.
publications and resources toward improving cooking
Emissions of Rural Wood-Burning Cooking Devices: practices.
http://www.ecoharmony.com/thesis Ph.D thesis by
Aprovecho Research Center: http://www.aprovecho.net/
Grant Ballard-Tremeer which offers a detailed analysis
The Aprovecho Research Center website contains
of cookstove designs and their emissions.
construction plans for many different cook stove
Renewable Energy Policy Project (Center for Renewable designs
Energy and Sustainable Technology):
SPARKNET: http://sparknet.info/home.php SPARKNET
http://www.repp.org REPP’s goal is to accelerate the use
is an interdisciplinary interactive Knowledge Network
of renewable energy by providing credible information,
focusing on energy for low-income households in South
insightful policy analysis, and innovative strategies
and East Africa.
amid changing energy markets and mounting
environmental needs by researching, publishing, and HEDON Household Energy Network:
disseminating information, creating policy tools, and http://www.hedon.info/ The HEDON Household
hosting highly active, on-line, renewable energy Energy Network is an informal forum dedicated to
discussion groups. improving social, economic, and environmental
conditions in the South, through promotion of local,
Biomass Cooking Stoves discussion forums:
national, regional and international initiatives in the
http://www.crest.org/discussiongroups/resources/stoves/
household energy sector.
This site exists to help people develop better stoves for
cooking with biomass fuels in developing regions. Professor Kirk R. Smith: University of California,
http://www.repp.org/discussiongroups/resources/stoves/C Berkeley: http://ehs.sph.berkeley.edu/krsmith/ Excellent
ountries/country.htmlLinks to biomass cooking stove resource on the effects of indoor air pollution from
resources in different countries. cookstoves.
43
Listening To The Earth
44
Chapter 3
Drinking Water—Quality and Source Protection
Water: Catalyst and Crisis account for 3.5 per cent and soil moisture accounts
for only 1.5 per cent.
Water: The Catalyst of Life Fresh water is a limited resource. Our demands on it
can not be unbounded.
ater is essential to all forms of life on
45
Listening To The Earth
In many areas of the world water has become a other groundwater sources are linked to piped
very scarce resource, and safe water has truly distribution, limited disinfection is usually carried
become a rarity. Correcting these critical out prior to consumption.
impairments is of global significance. In addition to its use as drinking water, water
from beneath the ground has been exploited for
Therefore, to ensure their own health, and the health of domestic use, livestock and irrigation since the
the environment, communities must: earliest times. Groundwater use has grown
• Ensure source adequacy and quality of drinking water consistently ever since successful methods of
• Take care to safely handle and/or treat drinking water bringing the water to the surface have been
• Identify and eliminate wasteful and polluting practices developed.
• Ensure sustainable protection of its water source In Latin America, many of the continent’s
largest cities, Mexico City, Lima, Buenos Aires and
Uses and Abuses of Water Resources Santiago, obtain a significant proportion of their
municipal water supply from groundwater. In the
Humans affect the quality of the Earth’s valley of Mexico City, over 1,000 deep wells supply
groundwaters, surface waters, and atmospheric 3.2 billion cubic meters per day, which is about 95
waters. Ground and surface waters are being per cent of the total supply to a population of
overconsumed and polluted, while atmospheric nearly 20 million people. (WHO)
waters are greatly affected by air pollution. Thus, Unfortunately, while groundwater may be
below we will discuss the uses and bad cheap and abundant, the critical measure of these
management practices that adversely affect sources is not their volumes, but their renewability.
groundwater and surface water, while reserving a When groundwater sources are tapped beyond
discussion of air polluting habits for another their capacity for renewal, water levels drop,
chapter. (See the Outdoor Air Quality Assessment, aquifers become brackish through salinization,
Chapter 2). pumping costs increase, and sooner or later the
resource is depleted.
Groundwater The dominant role of groundwater resources is
Often the importance of groundwater is clear and their use and protection is, therefore, of
underestimated. It is customary to think of fundamental importance to human life and
groundwater as being more important in arid or economic activity.
semi-arid areas and surface water as more
important in humid areas. However, inventories of Surface water
groundwater and surface water use reveal the Humans use surface water for a large variety of
worldwide importance of groundwater. The reasons reasons. Some of the major uses of surface water
for this include its convenient availability close to are:
where water is required, its natural quality which is 1. sources of drinking water supply
generally adequate for potable supplies, and the 2. irrigation of agricultural lands
relatively low capital cost of development. 3. industrial and municipal water supplies
A principal feature of groundwater bodies 4. industrial and municipal waste disposal
which distinguishes them from surface water is the 5. navigation
relatively slow movement of water through the 6. fishing, boating and body-contact recreation
ground. This means that residence times in 7. aesthetic value
groundwaters are generally orders of magnitude Rivers are our most important freshwater
longer than in surface waters. Once polluted, a resource. Social, economic and political
groundwater body could remain so for decades, or development has, in the past, been largely related
even for hundreds of years, because the natural to the availability and distribution of fresh waters
processes of through-flushing are so slow. contained in riverine systems.
As groundwater in its natural state is often of Upstream use of water must only be undertaken
good microbiological quality, it is often the in such a way that it does not affect water quantity,
preferred source for drinking water. In many cases, or water quality, for downstream users. Use of river
groundwater sources do not receive any form of water is, therefore, the subject of major political
treatment, as they are low-cost supplies designed negotiations at all levels.
for community-management. Where boreholes or In addition to the above list of uses, lakes are
46
Chapter 3: Drinking Water
prime regions for human settlement and achieving these goals. In addition to these
habitation. It has been commonly believed that inventories, Chapter 4 on Waste Management
large lakes have an infinite ability to absorb or provides information regarding safe sanitation
dilute industrial and municipal waste, and it is practices and preventing diffuse chemical
largely as a result of human waste disposal pollution, and the Outdoor Air Quality
practices that monitoring and assessment are Assessment in Chapter 2 provides information
proving to be necessary in many large lakes. about the ways in which our air pollution affects
water quality.
Good surface water quality is essential for providing
drinking water, maintaining fisheries, and for the
provisions of recreation and bathing. The degradation of
water induced by agricultural use and by industrial and
Drinking Water Quality and
municipal waste disposal practices must be stopped. It is Source Protection: Inventory
incumbant upon every stakeholder in a watershed to
protect it from degradation. 1. Main Drinking Water Source
Assessment of Community Practices What is/are the main source(s) of your religious
community’s drinking water? Check all that apply:
A
We have seen that in order for communities to
ensure their health, the health of their larger Surface Water
community, and the health of ecosystems, it is c Spring
necessary that they: c River/ Stream
• Ensure source adequacy and quality c Pond/ Lake
• Take care to safely handle and/or treat c Dam
B
drinking water
• Identify and eliminate wasteful and polluting Dug Well
practices c Private well
• Ensure sustainable protection of their water c Open public well
C
source
Communities in rural areas may not have Borehole
wasteful habits, but may instead be faced with an c Private well
c
C1
inadequate supply. Assessment of source selection Public well
c
C2
may thus be more important to consider for rural Mechanical pump
communities; however, communities in urban c Handpump
D
areas may have to focus more on their wasteful
water use habits. Spring
Safe handling of water is most important to c Open spring
assess in poorer communities, where source or tap c Protected spring
E
sharing is more frequent, or compromised water
sources are more prevalent. Rainwater
Ensuring sustainable source protection is c Covered container
everyone’s concern and responsibility. Aside from c Open Container
F
direct measures, (for example, protection of a
spring,) source protection means becoming Commercial Water Vendor
involved in all levels of water management. c Small water vendor
Communities should be aware of what decisions c Tanker Truck
are being made that affect their water source, and c Bottled Water
G
become advocates for its protection. Political
action may be necessary to ensure that protective Piped water
policies are both made and enforced. c House connection
c
G1
Public standpipes
c
G1
The inventories that follow are designed to help Gravity fed
your community assess how well it strives towards c W/service reservoir
47
Listening To The Earth
48
Chapter 3: Drinking Water
4. Community Water Governance the water source for drinking water quality?
Yes / No
Does your larger community have a body (i.e.
Committee, organization, corporation, government Was the testing:
bureau, etc.) which is in charge of water governance? c A one time occurrence
Yes / No c Part of a regular testing cycle
Testing interval:
Is there an individual from your religious community
serving as a member of the governing body? Are the results of the tests made available to the public?
Yes / No / Not applicable Yes / No
How reliable is the governed water supply? Does the water source have any chemical pollution
c Very Reliable (uninterrupted supply) problems?
c Reliable (no disruptions for months) Yes / No
c Fair (some disruptions in the past few
months) Does the water source have any biological problems?
c Intermittent (disruptions on a weekly Yes / No
basis)
c Sporadic (only available a few times a Explain the problems identified with the water source:
week)
c Inadequate (supply is critical concern)
What happens if someone does not pay on time? If you do, what methods do you use?
c Receives a reminder c Boil
c Access refused c Solar Distilled/Disinfected
c Collector visits again c Add Bleach/Chlorine
c Water turned off c Sedimentation/Settling
c Other (specify): c Sieve it through cloth
c Candle filters
Does your community include water expenses as part Other (specify):
of the budget?
Yes / No Is water treatment a standard protocol?
Yes / No
5. Water Quality Testing
If bleach or chlorine is used, does your community
Has a government regulatory agency, or other qualified chemically test the water?
entity (besides the Water Provider, if one exists) tested c Yes, chlorine levels are tested
49
Listening To The Earth
c We have test kit, but do not use it Drinking Water Quality and
c We do not have test kit Source Protection: Evaluation
Is there someone in charge of overseeing water At the end of each discussion section, there will be a
treatment? statement and a list of numbers from which to choose.
Choose a number from 1-9 to indicate your assessment
Name of supervisor: of how well your community represents the statement
given. (1 = disagree, community practices unhealthy; 9
= agree completely, no change needed)
Does the community include water treatment expenses as
part of the budget? 1. Water sources
Yes / No
Each water source listed as an option in this
7. Water Storage question is followed by a capitalized, bold-faced
letter. This letter is meant to indicate the
Is drinking water stored in containers? appropriate inventory to complete in the next
Yes / No / Sometimes section, called ‘Site-Specific Source Assessments,’
found on page 60. The sets of questions found
What type(s) of container(s) is/are used to store therein help you determine the safety of your
drinking/ cooking water? water sources, and describe standard protection
c Narrow-mouthed vessels methods. Following the inventories and
c Wide-mouthed vessels evaluations, there is a list of things to consider if
c bowls or pots your community decides to improve its water
source. The inventory for your source(s) should be
Are the containers covered? completed at this point, and the results assessed
All / Some / None below.
To promote community health, an easily
Are the containers clearly labeled or recognizable? accessible water supply should be available that
All / Some / None provides sufficient safe water to meet community
needs. There are many types of low-risk water
How often are the water storage container(s) cleaned supplies for drinking and other domestic uses.
with soap? Often, communities have unprotected water
c Once a day sources, such as springs, traditional wells and
c Once a week ponds, which are open to contamination and pose
c Less than once per week a potential health risk. To ensure that the water is
c Never potable, the water supply should be protected and
the water should be treated before use.
Is this a regular habit/protocol? Unprotected sources can be improved, and this
Yes / No may be preferable to constructing completely new
supplies.
How do you draw water from the water container(s)? In general, it is best to be able to rely upon one
c Pouring source for all your community’s drinking water
c Spigot/Tap needs. Relying only upon one source minimizes the
c Dipping amount of resources a community must spend
Other (specify): monitoring the safety of their sources.
c Both pouring and dipping If your main source often goes dry,
consideration should be given to undertaking the
If drawn by dipping, what is used to remove water? construction of an additional water supply. In cases
c Same receptacle/cup used to drink from of water shortages, water is often obtained from
c Special receptacle only for drawing drinking alternative sources, or from neighbors. In such
water cases, it is important to treat the water as if it were
contaminated, since you cannot be sure of its
quality.
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Chapter 3: Drinking Water
Our community’s drinking water source is nearby and due to operational failures and leaks due to
measures are in place for its protection*. The source corrosion or structural failure of pipes or tanks.
consistently provides an adequate and safe supply. Petroleum and petroleum products are the most
123456789 important because they are widely used.
*NOTE: Source Inventory must be completed The cost of aquifer restoration measures and/or
before answering this question. provision of alternative water supplies after major
incidents of this type can be extraordinarily
2. Water Source Pollution Hazards expensive. All too often the expense is not paid,
and the disasters do not get cleaned up.
There are a number of hazards to the sustainability of
both groundwater and surface water resources. The World vi. Agricultural habits
Health Organization points out these following Agricultural land-use and cultivation practices
pertaining to groundwater: have been shown to exert major influences on
groundwater quality. Under certain circumstances
i. Unsewered sanitation serious groundwater pollution can be caused by
Contamination of groundwater supplies by agricultural activities.
unsewered sanitation. Problems usually arise where
the water table is so shallow that on-site sanitation vii. Mining activities
systems discharge directly into the saturated zone. A range of groundwater pollution problems can be
Often the most serious problems arise in medium associated with mining activities. The nature of the
to smaller sized towns and in densely populated pollution depends on the materials being extracted
peri-urban and rural areas where local, shallower, and the post-extraction processing. Coal, salt,
and often untreated, groundwater sources are used. potash, phosphate and uranium mines are major
In these circumstances, direct pollution of the polluters
source at the wellhead by the users, by livestock
and by wastewater can be a serious problem. viii. General sources of contaminants to rivers
and lakes:
ii. Contamination at source
Unprotected extraction points allows a. Direct point sources
contamination to enter well/ spring waters directly. Municipal and industrial discharges.
51
Listening To The Earth
The hazards to our community’s water source have been 4. Water Governance
inventoried and no significant risks exist.
123456789 Local water management is everywhere valuable,
especially in times of water scarcity, but it requires
3. Water resource protection committee good governance to fulfill its potential. Good
governance is open, participatory, and responsible.
Water resources are shared resources. The activities It undertakes careful research so that decisions are
of many people affect the quality of the water made based on factual evidence, and works
source, and it is easy for the actions of just a few deliberately to better the lives of its poorest and
people to affect the entire community’s water most vulnerable members. The condition of
supply. Thus, it is important that all the women, minorities, and the landless poor is a
stakeholders, (those people that use or affect the specific responsibility of the institutional authority.
water source) are aware of the health of the water It is now recognized that women in poor
body and how their activities might affect the communities must be involved in local water and
quality of the water. sanitation management. They work longer hours
It is also important that a group of local people, than anyone else on domestic water and hygiene,
local stakeholders, are able to communicate both and they are experts.
to other stakeholders, and to larger regulatory Participation in the water management body
bodies (e.g. governments) about the conditions of should be broad, with the interests of all
their water resources, and about the problems stakeholders represented. Thus, it is important
facing it. that your religious community have a member
Although national or regional governments serve on the body, if that is possible.
often have divisions whose stated purpose is the To make and carry out sustainable resource
protection of water or environmental resources, decisions, good governance requires institutional
these governmental entities are often slowed by capacity. That includes the capacity to gather and
their internal beaurocratic processes, and/or have a assess relevant information, to deliberate, to
geographical region to cover that far exceeds the execute policies, and to answer responsibly to
capacity of the staff. members of the community. On the smallest,
For these reasons, it is advisable that each body simplest scale, institutional capacity represents a
52
Chapter 3: Drinking Water
neighborhood’s ability to build and maintain a principles, and our religious community is represented in
shared network that stores and distributes the management body.
rainwater around a few city blocks. It is the forum 123456789
where villages up and down a hillside can
apportion seasonal runoff for maximum usage and 5. Water quality testing
minimum losses of water and soil. It is the
mechanism that can mobilize a community’s Water of poor microbial quality can have a
capital investment in a wastewater recycling plant significant impact on the health of community
or in new-technology groundwater pumping members by causing disease and contributing to
systems. It is the recognition that management the spread of epidemics. Water quality should
involves administrative and financial tasks, as well therefore be monitored on a regular basis. Ideally,
as technical ones, that regular maintenance is as it should be tested by staff working with qualified
important as initial construction, and that from bodies such as a governmental Health
time to time enforcement of rules and regulations Department/ Ministry of Health, or Ministry of
will be necessary. It is the deliberation in which Environment. There are also both national and
environmental quality is acknowledged as a value, international NGO’s that provide water quality
and where the interests of future generations are monitoring services. The community should
heard and accepted. request such support, particularly if it suspected
Communities attempting local water that the community water supply is contaminated.
management need supportive links with their The test results should be provided to the
‘senior’ governments. This is especially important community and if any problems arise, the
in the management of watersheds and aquifers that community should request recommendations for
must be shared with others. Creating coherent solutions.
relationships between local management and wider
watershed approaches goes to the heart of good Microbial quality
water management. Governments can encourage The principal method of assessing the microbial
the diffusion of new and helpful knowledge, quality of water is to test for bacteria whose
especially to its agencies and extension services. presence indicates that feces may be in the water.
These arms of government have the organization An analysis of the test results is usually beyond the
with the expertise and resources to speed resources of communities and will be carried out
dissemination and promote education. By by health or water officials. Some kits have been
diffusing the results of research and development, developed for community use, but the results of
governments multiply many times the value of new these tests should be analysed with caution.
knowledge to local communities. So doing, with Water quality tests look at the microbiology of
NGOs and others, they enlarge the national wealth water samples to identify viral, bacterial and
and the welfare of citizens. parasitical agents linked to hepatitis A, diarrhea,
Unfortunately, there is a trend in Latin America typhoid and other illnesses. The major concern of
toward the ‘privatization’ of water management. microbiological testing is whether feces have
Meant to reduce the burden placed upon contaminated the water supply, as most of the
government, privatized water supplies are infectious water-related diseases, such as cholera
managed by corporate managers, with the goal of and dysentery, are caused by fecal contamination.
making a profit for the corporation’s stockholders. Although these diseases can also be transmitted
The stockholders are most often not the through poor hygiene and inadequate sanitation,
stakeholders, and quite often live in distant control of drinking-water quality is one of the main
countries. In most scenarios of privatized water ways of preventing their spread.
supplies, the corporate management is not open, Microbiological testing should be conducted
participatory, and not responsive to the needs of whenever a new water source is put into use.
the poor. Regular monitoring should continue afterward, on
Activism at all levels becomes essential if your at least a monthly cycle. More frequent testing
community is suffering hardships due to poor should be conducted if a problem is identified until
management of water resources. the problem has been corrected and the quality has
stabilized. Furthermore, it is advisable to test water
Our water supply is managed with good governance after a heavy rain, as flooding and increased flow
53
Listening To The Earth
54
Chapter 3: Drinking Water
should be filtered first and then boiled. Some from the ground seeds of Moringa oleifera
filters incorporate silver into the candle, but this (horseradish tree) and Moringa stenopetala,
does not disinfect the water and the candle acts sprinkled onto the water surface.
simply as a normal filter. It should be stressed that settling does NOT
remove all pathogens, silt or clay. The settling of
Disinfection particles may reduce pathogens but some will
One method of treating water in households is to remain, and water should be boiled or disinfected
add chlorine. This will kill most bacteria and some before it is consumed.
viruses. Since the taste of chlorine disappears when Many of the resources listed at the end of this
water is left in open containers, a very small lump chapter will help you identify the various water
of bleaching powder or one drop of household treatment technology options that may be
bleach can be added to a 20-liter water container reasonable for your community.
and the mix left to stand for at least 30 minutes.
After this time, if a faint smell of chlorine can be Our community treats our water to ensure that it is safe
detected in the water, it should be low-risk and to drink. We strive to use environmentally friendly
palatable to drink. Chlorine should only be added treatment methods.
to clear water otherwise it will be absorbed by the 123456789
dirt in the water. Moreover, chlorine that has been
stored for some time will lose potency. The use of 7. Water handling
disinfectants as a household treatment system has
been successfully implemented in Latin America Frequently, water collected from a communal point
and Asia. and transported back to houses for use becomes
Despite its effectiveness, the use of chlorine contaminated because of poor handling.
poses several risks that may be avoided by using Community members should therefore be aware of
other disinfection methods. Many of the the risks of contaminating the water and how it
compounds formed when chlorine reacts with can be prevented.
contaminates in water are carcinogenic, and/or are All water containers should be clean, especially
‘persistent environmental pollutants,’ meaning inside. It is always best to clean the insides of
that they do not decompose and remain in the storage containers with either detergent or
environment, often accumulating to unsafe levels. chlorine. Leaving a capful of bleach in a sealed
In addition, sodium hypochlorite (chlorine bleach) plastic or metal container full of water for 30
is very toxic, and poses severe health risks if minutes will kill most pathogens. If detergent or
consumed undiluted. Extreme caution should be chlorine is not available, the insides of clay pots
taken whenever chlorine is used. can be cleaned with ash. If ash must be used, it
Other disinfection systems have been should be from a fire of organic fuel, not metals,
developed for treating household water, plastics, paints, or electronic equipment. Plastic or
particularly the use of solar radiation. Simple metal containers should be cleaned weekly by
methods of solar disinfection (e.g. SODIS, which putting clean sand and water inside them and
requires little more than a capped plastic bottle shaking for a few minutes. The top of the water
and some tape or paint), can effectively treat water, container should be covered to stop dust and other
although they may take longer than chlorine contaminants falling into the drinking-water. For
disinfection. Performed correctly, solar disinfection the same reason, water containers should also have
is very safe and ecologically friendy, and thus is a a narrow neck. It is best for water to be poured
practical and preferable alternative for water from the container to prevent contact with dirty
treatment. fingers and hands. When scoops are used to take
water out of the storage container they should be
Sedimentation/Settling clean and kept inside the water storage jar. They
Where water is cloudy or muddy, a simple should never be placed on the floor.
treatment is to allow particulates in the water to
settle overnight. Clear water at the top of the Our community takes the utmost care to preserve the
container is then poured into a clean container. quality of our drinking water any time that it is stored
Adding certain chemicals can help settling, such as for use.
a pinch of aluminium sulfate (alum), or powder 123456789
55
Listening To The Earth
Conclusions
Problem 2
Now enter the scores from each section in the column at
right:
score
4. Water governance
6. Water treatment
Problem 4
7. Water handling
If you found that problems exist, list them below: Now categorize each problem listed above into one
Category (I-III) of the following three categories:
Problem 1 I = Critically important. Currently dangerous,
must be addressed immediately
II = Important, but not immediately dangerous.
Must be addressed
III = Current practice should be improved, but is
not immediately important
56
Chapter 3: Drinking Water
B Dug Well
it.
• People do not step into the water while collecting
it.
• Latrines are located as far away as possible from 1) Is there a latrine within 10m of the well?
the water source and preferably not on higher Yes / No
ground. If there are community concerns about this,
expert advice should be sought.
• Solid waste pits, animal excreta and other 2) Is the nearest latrine uphill of the well?
pollution sources are located as far as possible from Yes / No
the water source.
• There is no stagnant water within 5 metres of the 3) Is there any other source of pollution within 10m of
water source. the well? (e.g. Animal breeding, cultivation, roads,
• If wells are used, the collection buckets are kept industry, etc)
clean and off the ground, or a handpump is used.
Yes / No
57
Listening To The Earth
4) Is the drainage faulty, allowing ponding within 5m 7) Is the floor of the pumphouse permeabe to water?
of the well? Yes / No
Yes / No
8) Does water form pools in the pumphouse?
5) Is the drainage channel cracked, broken, or in need of Yes / No
cleaning?
Yes / No 9) Is the well seal unsanitary?
Yes / No
6) Is the fence missing or faulty?
Yes / No 10) Does the water change colour after heavy rain?
Yes / No
9) Does spilt water collect in the apron area? 3) Are there any other sources of pollution within 10m
Yes / No of borehole/well? (e.g. Animal breeding, cultivation,
raods, industy, etc)
10) (if applicable) Is the handpump loose at the point Yes / No
of attachment to the well head?
Yes / No 4) Is the drainage faulty, allowing ponding within 2m
of the borehole?
11) Does the water change colour after heavy rain? Yes / No
Yes / No
Refer to the evaluation below, labeled ‘Ground 5) Is the drainage channel cracked, broken, or in need of
2) Is the nearest latrine unsewered? 8) Does spilt water collect in the apron area?
Yes / No Yes / No
3) Is there any source of pollution within 50m? 9) Is the apron cracked or damaged?
Yes / No Yes / No
4) Is there an uncapped well within 100m? 10) Is the handpump loose at the point of attachment
Yes / No to the apron?
Yes / No
5) Is the drainage around the pumphouse faulty?
Yes / No 11) Does the water change colour after heavy rain?
Yes / No
6) Is the fencing damaged, allowing animal entry? Refer to the evaluation below, labeled ‘Ground
Yes / No Water Overview’ and then continue to ‘Ground
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Chapter 3: Drinking Water
D Spring
Yes / No
4) Does spilt water flood the collection area? 7) Is the tap leaking or damaged, or absent?
Yes / No Yes / No
5) Is the fence absent or faulty? 8) Is there any source of pollution around the tank or
Yes / No water collection area?
Yes / No
6) Can animals have access within 10m of the spring?
Yes / No 9) Is the tank clean inside?
Yes / No
(E)’
7) Is there a latrine uphill and/or within 30m of the Refer to the evaluation below, labeled ‘Rainwater
spring?
10) Are there any other sources of pollution uphill of 3) Is the delivery nozzle dirty or in poor condition?
the spring (e.g. Solid waste) Yes / No
Yes / No
4) Is the tanker ever used for transporting other liquids?
11) Does the water change colour after heavy rain? Yes / No
Yes / No
Refer to the evaluation below, labeled ‘Ground 5) Is the inside of the tanker dirty?
Vendors (F)’
Refer to the evaluation below, labeled ‘Water
2) Are there visible signs of contamination on the roof
catchment? (e.g. Plants, excreta, dust, etc.)
Yes / No
59
Listening To The Earth
2) Does surface water collect around any tapstand? Name your Water Provider:
Yes / No
Contact the Water Provider and answer these
3) Is the area uphill of any tapstand eroded? following questions:
Yes / No
1. Who is the contact person?
4) Are the pipes exposed close to any tapstand?
Yes / No
2. When there is a problem with your water supply,
5) Is there any human or animal waste within 10m of who do you contact, and how?
any tapstand?
Yes / No
6) Is there a sewer within 30m of any tapstand? 3. Does the provider treat the water?
Yes / No Yes / No
7) Has there been a discontinuity in the last 10 days 4. If Yes, what treatment method(s) do they use?
at any tapstand? c Chlorination
Yes / No c Sedimentation
c Filtration
8) Are there signs of leaks in the main pipes? Other (specify):
Yes / No
5. What are the most common water supply problems?
9) Is the main pipe exposed anywhere? c Leaks
Yes / No c Sediments
c Broken pipes
10) Does the water change colour after heavy rain? c Smells
Yes / No c Illegal withdrawal
c Bacterial contamination
11) Is the system’s water source untreated before being c Broken meters
distributed? c Treatment not working
Yes / No c Fees not paid
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Chapter 3: Drinking Water
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Listening To The Earth
is the immediate sanitary protection works at the Ground water: Dug wells (B)
source. These works are primarily designed to
prevent contaminated surface water or wastewater Dug wells are usually shallow wells dug by hand,
from directly entering the water source and although some may be quite deep. Wells are often
preventing other hazards that may allow direct lined with bricks.
contamination of the aquifer. Unless artesian water is tapped, many dug wells
Such works include measures such as casting go dry or have very little water in dry periods
concrete aprons on the ground surface and sealing because it is difficult to sink wells below the water
of upper levels of boreholes and dug wells, and the table without using more sophisticated excavation
construction of diversion ditches and covering of techniques.
the backfill area of springs. Good source protection Dug wells are often more vulnerable to
at this level depends in part on good design and contamination than other point sources because it
construction, but the maintenance of such is difficult to make the lining of the well
measures when put in place is extremely impermeable and the means of withdrawing water
important. Well-designed sanitary protection can easily become unsanitary. In some cases, dug
measures may easily deteriorate if they are not wells are constructed to reduce the specific risk of
maintained. guinea worm transmission and therefore only have
The next stage of source protection is to define an headwall to prevent people from entering the
areas where land-use and in particular the release well. However, such wells may still be
of contaminants will be controlled—a process contaminated and it is therefore preferred that dug
usually referred to as groundwater protection wells should be covered and either a handpump or
zones. Several zones may be defined, typically windlass installed to withdraw the water.
including an inner zone to protect against Where water is collected by a bucket, this may
microbiological contaminants, a second zone to contaminate the well, particularly if each person
control chemical contamination and a final zone to uses their own bucket and the area is not well
protect recharge. All zones are usually determined fenced to prevent animals from having access to
by a travel time – i.e. the time expected for a the well. Dug wells can be improved by using a
microbe to reach a water source from the ground protected intake. This may use a filter box installed
surface. Such zones must take into account the at the base of the well. Where wells are used, you
vulnerability of the aquifer, the nature of the should ensure that these are covered, have a
hydrogeological regime and the likely hydraulic headwall of at least 30cm above the apron and a
load applied. handpump or windlass is used.
For the inner zone, a value of 50 days is often Ponding around the well provides a great
used. Some research may need to be persued in environment for insect breeding which contributes
order to determine the characteristics of your to the spread of disease. Furthermore, ponding
groundwater aquifer. The hydrogeological around a well which does not have a concrete
department in the national water resource apron (or one that is cracked), can easily
management body should define travel time safety contaminate the well water.
zones based on hydrogeological surveys. Rainwater may also affect the water quality of a
The further zone may be defined for chemical dug well. If the water turns a different color after a
contaminants, again based on an estimated travel period of rain, this indicates an unsanitary
time that will reduce contaminants to acceptable condition. Water is seeping into the well from areas
levels. Where natural chemicals represent a of the ground that it usually doesn’t, or is moving
problem, it is important to identify whether certain through the earth faster than it is able to be
parts of the aquifer represent a higher risk and to filtered.
define depths of abstraction that may reduce the The shaft of an improved dug well should have
problem. a concrete lining above the dry-season water table
A final zone may be defined to cover the and a series of concrete rings (caissons) sunk below
recharge area to provide protection for both quality this level to ensure a year-round supply of water.
and quantity of water. The purpose of all these The lining acts both to protect the shaft from
zones is to control land-use in such a way that it collapse and to prevent surface water from
does not create a significant deterioration in source infiltrating into the well at shallow depths.
water quality. The top of the well (the wellhead) should be
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Chapter 3: Drinking Water
built up by at least 30 cm and an apron cast Our community is satisfied with the quality and
around it to prevent surface water from entering quantity of water provided by this source.
the well directly. 123456789
63
Listening To The Earth
Wet season—after
Activity Dry season Wet season—routine
heavy rainfall
grease working parts of the
at least once per week at least once per week at least once per week
handpump
check hand pump to see whether at least once per at least once per at least once per
worn parts need replacement quarter quarter quarter
make sure fence is in good at least once per at least once per at least once per
condition and make repairs quarter quarter quarter
check drainage channels and clean at least once per month at least once per week clean if required
64
Chapter 3: Drinking Water
hazard as this means that surface water may be the ground. The area behind the wall or box is
able to directly enter. In this case, try to create a backfilled with sand and stones to filter water as it
concrete ring around the top of the pipe and if enters the box and help remove contamination in
possible seal this by making a small plinth for the the groundwater. The backfill area is capped with
handpump to rest on and extend the rising main clay and grass is planted on top.
into the base of the handpump. The whole area should be fenced and a ditch
dug above the spring to prevent surface water from
Our community’s borehole has well maintained eroding the backfill area and contaminating the
protection measures. spring. The collection area should be covered with
123456789 concrete and sufficient space left beneath the
outlet pipe for people to place jerry cans and
Our community strives to keep the point of water buckets. A lined drain should be constructed to
extraction, and the surrounding area sanitary. carry spilled water away from the spring. The
123456789 water could be used for laundry, to feed an animal-
watering trough or for irrigating a garden. In other
Our community strives to maintain a zone of protection situations spilled water may be drained to a soak-
around the borehole. away pit or to the nearest surface water body. To
123456789 prevent mosquito breeding, water from the spring
should not be allowed to form pools.
Our community is satisfied with the quality and For protected springs, it is important to look at
quantity of water provided by this source. the state of the protection works—including the
123456789 backfill area—to see whether these show any
65
Listening To The Earth
66
Chapter 3: Drinking Water
Our community strives to keep the point of water Water should be drawn from a tap at the base
extraction, and the surrounding area sanitary. of the tank, rather than with a bucket, which may
123456789 contaminate the water. It is better not to bury the
collection tank, even partially, since contaminated
Our community strives to maintain a zone of protection water from the soil can enter the tank. Covering
around the spring. the tank is also essential for preventing
123456789 contamination of the water and for reducing
opportunities for disease vectors to breed.
Our community is satisfied with the quality and The household should make sure that the roof
quantity of water provided by this source. is not overhung by trees or close to food stores as
123456789 this may encourage rodents and lead to excreta
Rainwater (E)
being found on the roof.
67
Listening To The Earth
68
Chapter 3: Drinking Water
distance between the tap outlet and the opening Water Conservation: Inventory
on the water container. The height of the riser pipe
can be reduced to a level that is just above the (These questions apply primarily to communities in
height of the usual container. Riser pipes do not urban areas with individually tapped piped water
need to be 0.5m high if the usual container is only supplies.)
0.3m high. Another approach, which may be
appropriate when the tap is already in place, is to
construct a small plinth to rest the container on 1. Monitoring Water Consumption
that will raise the container up to close to the
height of the tap. This will also help to support the Estimate the number of liters of water that the
tap against damage. community uses in a day. Try to minimize the
For more information regarding sanitary guess-work by actually measuring as much as
plumbing practices, refer to the WHO publication possible. If your water is metered, you can simply
listed at the end of this chapter, ‘Health Aspects of divide the amount of water used per period by the
Plumbing.’ number of days in the period.
Our community is satisfied with the quality and Amount of water used per day:
quantity of water provided by the water system.
123456789 2. Leaks and plumbing fixtures
Our community does all it can to maintain the safety Is there a plumber (someone charged with maintaining
and sanitary conditions of its tapstands and piping. water lines, faucets, toilets, sinks, etc.) in the
123456789 community?
Yes / No
Factors for communities considering water
supply improvements The following questions should be directed to the
• Have community members been fully consulted person responsible for making plumbing repairs:
about the type of water supply?
• Have community members had previous Are all faucets or taps free of leaks or drips?
experiences with water supply improvements and
Yes / No / Not Applicable
have these been reviewed?
• How will the water supply be managed to ensure
that it is reasonably accessible to everyone in the Are all toilet fill lines free of leaks?
community? Yes / No / Not Applicable
• How will initial costs be paid and is the
community expected to provide labour?
• Will labour be provided free or will the Are all garden hoses free of leaks?
community have to raise funds to cover labour Yes / No / Not Applicable
charges?
• What are the long-term financial implications of
the choice of water supply? Is all plumbing free of leaks?
• Can the community afford to pay expected Yes / No / Not Applicable
operation and maintenance costs?
• What spare parts are required and how often
should they be replaced? Does the community have replacement parts that are
• Who sells these spares and where are they commonly needed (eg. washers, fittings,
obtained? faucets/valves)?
• What tools are required and where can they be
obtained? Yes / No / Not Applicable
• Who will be trained to operate and maintain the
water supply? Are routine checks of pipes and faucets performed?
• What skills should operators have and what
training will they receive? Yes / No / Not Applicable
• What long-term support can the community Is there a procedure in place for reporting leaks?
expect from the government and other agencies? Yes / No
• If major repairs are required, whom should you
Describe Procedure:
contact and who will pay?
• Will the quality of the water be tested?
• How often will testing be done and how will the
information be communicated to the community?
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Listening To The Earth
Contact your water provider and to answer the Used water is collected from the following sources: (check
following questions. all that apply)
Water provider: c Showers
c Kitchen sinks
Name of contact person: c Bath tubs
c Bathroom sinks
Contact infromation: c Utility sinks
c Dishwasher
How much water is lost from the system through c Washing machines
leakage?
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Chapter 3: Drinking Water
community about their water usage, you many grossly out of proportion with the waste that the
determine why the consumption is so high. water flushes.
Inessential uses of water should be identified and • Install a composting toilet, if appropriate, and
eliminated, and less consumptive practices should you can do away with using water to flush away
be disseminated throughout your community. your wastes. The added benefit to this simple
technology is the rich compost at the end of the
Our community regularly keeps track of our water process, returning nutrients back to the soil that
consumption and consistently strives to minimize the would otherwise end up in rivers. In China and
amount used. Japan night soil (as it is called) has been
123456789 scrupulously collected for centuries to fertilise the
fields. Composting toilets need no water and
2. Leaks and plumbing fixtures depend on bacterial action to break down harmful
bugs in the waste.
Check for leaks, especially faulty washers, and (Consult the resources listed at the end of this
repair them. It’s probably best if the community chapter for more information regarding water
has at least one person that is responsible for conservation technologies. More information
maintaining plumbing and plumbing fixtures. about composting toilets can be found in the
The community should keep a small inventory Sanitation Assessment in Chapter 4.)
of commonly needed parts and tools needed to
repair the most common problems. A good Our community has clear policies and procedures
inventory is best stocked according to the regarding water leaks, so that any leaks are quickly
accumulated history of the community’s plumbing repaired.
problems (water leaks). The experience of a 123456789
community plumber is one way to keep track of
the history, but maintaining records is a wise idea Our community also strives to use water conserving
also. devices whenever they are available.
There should be routine inspections, especially 123456789
in the most common problem areas, such as areas
that receive high amounts of useage (community 3. Water Provider’s Practices
sinks, taps, etc.). In addition, all community
members can be a part of a continual inspection by Write to, or call your local Water Provider and find
reporting any leaks encountered. The reporting out how much water it loses in its pipes through
process should be easy, standard, and known to all leakage and what measures it is taking to alleviate
community members. the situation. In some areas this figure is over one
Fit water conserving devices. Many commonly third.
used appliances can be modified to conserve water Communities should discuss with the Water
or bought specifically for their water conserving Provider the short- and long-term impacts of water
qualities: supply improvement on water resources. For
• Spray taps and faucet aerators are an example, sinking too many boreholes in an area
alternative to steady flow taps enabling a smaller may cause serious depletion of water held
volume of water to achieve the same results. underground and even cause water sources to dry
• Low flow shower heads can be fitted to up.
maximise water coverage and minimise water This can also lead to deteriorating water
volume. quality: as the water table falls, domestic boreholes
• In the toilet: By adding a sealed plastic bottle must be sunk deeper into underground water that
filled with water inside your toilet cistern or by may contain harmful chemicals such as fluoride or
adjusting your ballcock, the amount of water used arsenic.
per flush can be reduced to a minimum. Because community members are the principal
Alternatively a dual flush toilet system can be stakeholders of local water resources, they should
fitted which discharges a small volume of water for always assess the longer-term effects of water
liquid waste and a larger volume for solid waste, pumping on the environment and should be
efficient flushing depends upon the velocity of the actively involved in evaluating the risks.
water rather than the volume which tends to be Especially if shortages occur, if costs rise, if
71
Listening To The Earth
72
Chapter 3: Drinking Water
(These three together use 75% of non-flush water detected by making a test for pH. Any possible
used in the home and contain less than 10% of the harmful effects can be minimised by diluting the
particulates) greywater with collected/fresh or filtered water.
• Washing machine Explore the resources listed at the end of this
• Utility sinks chapter to learn of inexpensive and safe ways to
• Dishwashers adapt your plumbing to reuse greywater.
• Kitchen sinks
Our community makes the most reasonable use of our
Making use of Waste Water greywater.
A temporary solution is to manually bucket the 123456789
water, usually termed greywater, from the source to
its eventual destination. A more sophisticated Conclusions
method is to re-route the drain pipes of the fixtures
and appliances from which you intend to re-use Now enter the scores from each section in the column at
water into a common discharge buffer tank. A right
small electric or hand pump may be needed if score
gravity feed is not possible, dishwashers and
washing machines have their own discharge pumps 1. Water consumption monitoring
which are capable of delivering water to an
elevated storage tank. 2. Leaks and plumbing fixtures
73
Listening To The Earth
74
Chapter 3: Drinking Water
18. Install water softening systems only when necessary. Save 31. Outfit your hose with a shut-off nozzle that can be
water and salt by running the minimum amount of adjusted down to fine spray so that water flows only as
regenerations necessary to maintain water softness. Turn needed. When finished, ‘Turn it Off ’ at the tap instead of
softeners off while on vacation. at the nozzle to avoid leaks.
19. Check your pump. If you have a well at your home, listen 32. Use hose washers between spigots and water hoses to
to see if the pump kicks on and off while the water is not eliminate leaks.
in use. If it does, you have a leak. 33. Check all hoses, connectors and spigots regularly.
20. When adjusting water temperatures, instead of turning 34. Consider using a commercial car wash that recycles water.
water flow up, try turning it down. If the water is too hot If you wash your own car, park on the grass to do so.
or cold, turn the offender down rather than increasing 35. Avoid the installation of ornamental water features (such
water flow to balance the temperatures. as fountains) unless the water is recycled.
21. If the toilet flush handle frequently sticks in the flush
position, letting water run constantly, replace or adjust it
General Water Saving Tips
Saving Water Outdoors 36. Create an awareness of the need for water conservation
within your community.
22. Don’t over-water your lawn. As a general rule, lawns only 37. Be aware of and follow all water conservation and water
need watering every 5 to 7 days in the summer and every shortage rules and restrictions that may be in effect in
10 to 14 days in the winter. A hearty rain eliminates the your area.
need for watering for as long as two weeks. 38. Encourage your employer to promote water conservation
23. Water lawns during the early morning hours when at the workplace. Suggest that water conservation be put
temperatures and wind speed are the lowest. This reduces in the employee orientation manual and training program.
losses from evaporation. 39. Patronise businesses that practice and promote water
24. Don’t water your street, driveway or sidewalk. Position conservation.
your sprinklers so that your water lands on the lawn and 40. Report all significant water losses (broken pipes, open
shrubs ... not the paved areas. hydrants, errant sprinklers, abandoned free-flowing wells,
25. Install sprinklers that are the most water-efficient for each etc.) to the property owner, local authorities or your Water
use. Micro and drip irrigation and soaker hoses are Management District.
examples of water-efficient methods of irrigation. 41. Encourage your school system and local government to
26. Regularly check sprinkler systems and timing devices to be help develop and promote a water conservation ethic
sure they are operating properly. It is highly among children and adults.
reccommended that anyone who purchases and installs an 42. Support projects that will lead to an increased use of
automatic lawn sprinkler system should also install a rain reclaimed waste water for irrigation and other uses.
sensor device or switch which will override the irrigation 43. Support efforts and programs to create a concern for water
cycle of the sprinkler system if inadequate rainfall has conservation among tourists and visitors. Make sure your
occurred. To retrofit your existing system, contact an visitors understand the need for, and benefits of, water
irrigation professional for more information. conservation.
27. Raise the lawn mower blade to at least three inches. A 44. Encourage your friends and neighbours to be part of a
lawn cut higher encourages grass roots to grow deeper, water conscious community. Promote water conservation
shades the root system and holds soil moisture better than in community newsletters, on bulletin boards and by
a closely-clipped lawn. example.
28. Mulch to retain moisture in the soil. Mulching also helps 45. Conserve water because it is the right thing to do. Don’t
to control weeds that compete with plants for water. waste water just because someone else is footing the bill
29. Plant native and/or drought-tolerant grasses, ground such as when you are staying at a hotel.
covers, shrubs and trees. Once established, they do not 46. Try to do one thing each day that will result in a savings
need to be watered as frequently and they usually will of water. Don’t worry if the savings is minimal. Every drop
survive a dry period without any watering. Group plants counts. And every person can make a difference. So tell
together based on similar water needs. your friends, neighbours and co-workers to ‘Turn it Off ’
30. Do not hose down your driveway or sidewalk. Use a and ‘Keep it Off ’.
broom to clean leaves and other debris from these areas.
Using a hose to clean a driveway can waste hundreds of (Source: Water Ambassador)
liters of water.
75
Listening To The Earth
76
Chapter 3: Drinking Water
Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) Fundacion Sodis para America Latina, Universidad
http://www.paho.org is the regional division of WHO Mayor de San Simon, Cochabamba, Bolivia, Castilla
with contacts and offices present in most countries: 5783 Telefono (+571) 4 454 2259
Headquarters (USA): 1-202-974-3000 www.fundacionsodis.org Fundacion Sodis is a non-
Cuba- (53-7) 831-0245 profit organisation whose mission is to promote the
Nicaragua-(505) 289-4200 low-cost and effective Sodis method of water treatment
Argentina- (54-11) 4312-5301 throughout Latin America.
Dom. Rep.- (1-809)562-1519
Panama- (507) 212-7800
Bahamas- (1-242) 326-7390
Ecuador- (593-2) 246-0330 Print Resources
Paraguay- (595-21) 450-495
Barbados: (1-246) 426-3860 Cassinath, Natasha; R. Garcia; et.al. Trabajando Juntos:
El Salvador- (503)298-3491 Un manual de campo para trabajar con proyectos de
Peru- (51-1) 421-3030 agua. (2nd Ed.). Red Centroamericana de Manejo de
Belize- (501) 224-4885 Recursos Hidricos (CARA), 2002. Available from the
Guatemala- (011-502) 332-2032 Universidad Nacional
Puerto Rico- (787) 274-7608 Autónoma de Nicaragua: (505) 278-6981, or online at
Bolivia- (591-2) 241-2303 http://www.caragua.org.
Guyana- (592) 225-3000
Suriname- (597) 471-676 World Health Organization (WHO). Guidelines for
Brazil- (55-61) 426-9595 Drinking-water Quality: 3rd ed. WHO Press, 2004.
Haiti- (509) 260-5700 WHO. Health Aspects of Plumbing. Published jointly
Trinidad- (1-868) 624-7524 by WHO, and World Plumbing Council. WHO Press,
Chile- (56-2) 264-9300 2006.
Honduras- (504) 239-0136
Uruguay- (598-2) 707-3590 WHO. Healthy Villages. WHO Press, 2002.
Colombia- (57-1) 347-8373
Jamaica- (1-876)967-4626
Venezuela- (58-212) 267-1622
Costa Rica- (506) 258-5810
Mexico- (5255) 5089-08-60
77
Listening To The Earth
78
Chapter 4
Sanitation and Waste Handling
79
Listening To The Earth
Sanitation and Population Explosion: A Deadly million children die of diarrhea, deaths that could
Mix? have been prevented by good sanitation: millions
more suffer the nutritional, educational, and
Unfortunately, sanitation is a critical problem in economic loss through diarrheal disease that
many places around the world because of rapid improvements in sanitation, especially human
population growth and unsuitable technological excreta management, can prevent.
responses. Sanitary conditions for much of the Overall, the World Health Organization
world’s population are not improving despite the estimates that nearly 3.3 million people die
enormous suffering caused by poor sanitation. annually from diarrheal diseases, and that a
For as long as the human population was small staggering 1.5 billion suffer, at any one time, from
and dispersed over a large area, sanitation was not parasitic worm infections stemming from human
such a problem; however, the situation has excreta and solid wastes in the environment.
dramatically changed. The human population is Besides the infectious diseases associated with
now 1000 times greater than it was 10 000 years poor sanitation, the wastewater from sewer
ago. Today 2.5 billion people live in urban areas systems also creates a host of environmental and
alone. People are living closer and closer together; health problems. Heavy metals, toxic organic and
alternately stated, more and more people are living inorganic substances are also often present in
in the same amount of space. wastewater. These pollutants can also pose serious
One consequence of this increasing population threats to human health and the environment.
density is that we (humans) are putting higher and Industrial wastewater and ‘municipal sludge’ (one
higher pressure on the environment, especially in by-product of sewage treatment which consists of
the most densely populated regions. The closer the solids settled out of wastewater) may contain
together we live, the more important it is for us to high concentrations of heavy metals such as
have access to, and make use of, good sanitation cadmium, lead, nickel and chromium. Heavy
facilities. metals concentrate in the tissues of many filter-
feeding shellfish, fish, and in some cases terrestrial
Excreta: Environmental Pollutant and Health plants. For this reason, consumers of these
Hazard products face significant health threats.
Excessive nutrients (primarily nitrogen and
The failure to properly treat and manage phosphorus) in wastewater, sludge, and excreta
wastewater and excreta is directly responsible for may contaminate surface waters and cause
numerous adverse health and environmental eutrophication. Eutrophication is a process
effects. Poor sanitation gives rise to high rates of whereby water bodies, such as lakes, estuaries, or
diarrheal diseases, to helminth (parasitic worm) slow-moving streams receive excess nutrients that
infections like ascariasis and hookworm, and to stimulate excessive plant growth (algae, nuisance
vector-borne diseases like malaria, dengue fever plants weeds). This enhanced plant growth, often
and Japanese encephalitis. Human excreta has called an algal bloom, causes other organisms to
been implicated in the transmission of many other die. The eutrophication of freshwaters sometimes
infectious diseases including cholera, typhoid, also causes the growth of toxin-producing
hepatitis, polio, cryptosporidiosis, and cyanobacteria. Toxins produced by cyanobacteria
schistosomiasis. can cause gastroenteritis, liver damage, nervous
Besides direct contact or ingestion, one of the system impairment, and skin irritation.
main pathways of disease is being spread by Other chemicals such as pharmaceutical
vectors, or other living creatures. Such creatures— residues and potential endocrine disrupting
e.g. flies, rats, cockroaches, etc.—are particularly substances have been identified in wastewater and
drawn to human excreta; and thus poor sanitary excreta, but the effects of these pollutants have not
facilities are often the breeding grounds for several yet been fully determined.
such creatures.
Human excreta-transmitted diseases Sewered Sanitation Technology: Problematic
predominantly affect children and the poor. Most and Unsustainable
of the deaths due to diarrhea occur in children
(accounting for nearly two million) and especially In an attempt to deal with the critical problems of
occur in the poorest regions. Every year, 2.5 sanitation, humans have developed and built
80
Chapter 4: Sanitation and Waste
sewerage systems, or networks of underground The real problem is that in the flush-and-
pipes, which are designed to convey human wastes discharge system feces are not handled on their
away from homes to a central outlet point. In own. They are mixed with urine. This means that
theory, a treatment plant is located at the outlet instead of 50 litres of a heavily polluted substance
point, ostensibly making the water safe again we have to take care of 550 polluted, dangerous
before being released into the environment. These and extremely unpleasant litres. One of the reasons
sewer networks require the use of ‘flush’ toilets behind the unpleasantness of the mixture of urine
which are basically machines for mixing human and feces is that feces contain a bacterium,
urine, faeces and water. Micrococcus ureae, which when mixed with urine
This technology has been considered the safest produces a very unpleasant smell.
and most effective means of sanitation, and has
been championed by numerous influential Outright shortage of water is often a major
organizations and people around the world. problem for Latin American cities.
Unfortunately humans have discovered that this A flush system does not work without water. To
technology is unsatisfactory, unsustainable, and a flush away the 550 litres of feces and urine in a
source of serious environmental damage. sewered toilet each person uses about 15,000 litres
Although well-intentioned, flush-and-discharge of pure water every year. In most cities in the world
systems compound the problems of sanitation. there is nowhere near enough water to provide that
With these systems a relatively small amount of amount for each of its inhabitants. The typical
dangerous material—human faeces—is allowed to response is to provide flush-and-discharge only to
pollute a huge amount of water. In spite of this, the rich, which of course means that there is even
flush-and-discharge is almost universally regarded less water available to the poor.
as the ideal option for urban areas. Almost without Globally, some 80 countries with 40 per cent of
question it is promoted in cities and town around the world’s population are already suffering from
the world, even in the pooreset regions where water shortages at some time during the year.
people cannot afford it and in arid areas where Chronic freshwater shortages are expected by the
there is hardly enough water for drinking. end of the decade in much of Africa, the Middle
This preference for flush-and-discharge is based East, northern China, parts of India and Mexico,
on a number of assumptions: the western United States, northeastern Brazil and
1. that the problem is one of ‘sewage disposal’ in the former Soviet Central Asian republics.
2. that fresh water is an unlimited resource China alone has 300 cities facing serious water
3. that at the end of the pipe the sewage is shortages.
treated
4. that the environment can take care of the Only a tiny fraction of all sewage produced in
discharge from the treatment plant Latin America is treated.
However, none of these assumptions is correct. A very high percentage of all sewage in Latin
America is discharged completely untreated into
The basic problem is the disposal of human surface waters. Many cities do not have any sewage
feces and urine, not ‘sewage’. treatment system at all, and of those that do, most
A human body does not produce ‘sewage’. Sewage serve only a small fraction of the population.
is the product of a particular technology. The Estimates suggest that less than 5% of all sewage in
human body produces urine and feces. These are Latin America receives any treatment before it is
often referred to as ‘human excreta’ but it is discharged into the environment.
important to remember that they are in fact two Even where there is treatment, the vast majority
different substances which leave the body through of sewage treatment technologies in use today still
separate openings and in different directions. Each contribute significant amounts of pollutants to the
person produces about 500 litres of urine and 50 environment. Even modern treatment facilities
litres of feces per year. Fifty litres of feces should usually do not cope with phosphates and nitrates.
not be too difficult to manage. It is not a very Nor are treatment plants designed to detoxify
pleasant product and may contain pathogenic chemical wastes. Primary treatment simply filters
organisms. But the volume is small: when out floating and suspended material; secondary
dehydrated it is actually no more than a bucketful treatment facilitates the biological degradation of
per person per year. feces and urine and other similar material; and
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Listening To The Earth
disinfection destroys infectious organisms. Most of and at the same time, closing the nutrient cycle
the industrial and household toxic wastes released and protecting limited fresh water sources and the
into sewers are either discharged into receiving environment.
waters, or remain in the sludge. The purpose of the following assessment is to
In addition to pathological pollution, other help guide you in evaluating the state of your
pollutants found in sewer effluent are heavy metals community’s sanitation practices, with the view of
and possible toxic household substances. Heavy molding your community’s practices into
metals include copper, zinc, cadmium, nickel, sustainable, ecological sanitation. In addition to
chromium and lead. The content and this assessment, refer to the ‘Drinking Water
concentration are dependent on the pipe materials Quality and Source Protection Assessment’ in
employed to convey drinking water, household Chapter 3 to evaluate water supply sanitation, and
cleaning agents used, and, for stormwater, the type to the other two assessments in this chapter to
of materials used for roofing and guttering. Toxic further evaluate your community’s waste handling
materials may also be disposed with household practices.
wastewater. In high enough concentrations these
heavy metals are toxic to bacteria, plants and
animals, and to people.
Community Excreta Handling
All over the world we can find examples of and Sanitation: Inventory
natural ecosystems destroyed by the discharge
of untreated or partly treated sewage. 1. Mix or No-Mix
In the past it was a common assumption that the
pollution which results from conventional Considering your sanitation facilities (latrines, lavatory,
sanitation technologies can be safely assimilated by etc), does your community combine or release feces and
the environment. This assumption is not correct. urine into the same receptacle (a ‘no-mix’ facility keeps
Some chemicals will decompose and be removed the urine and fecal matter separate)?
by natural processes, but most will remain in the Mix / No-Mix
environment.
The inevitable end products of a sewage system 2. Soil conditions
are polluted waters and toxic sludge. The four
conventional sludge disposal methods are ocean One of the most important environmental factors
dumping, landfilling, incineration and application to consider in your choice of excreta disposal is the
on agricultural land. From an environmental point depth of the water table in your area. The ‘water
of view all these methods are unacceptable and table’ refers to the underground depth at which
from all over the world we have reports of the freshwater is found.
degradation of the environment due to sewage
discharge and sludge disposal. 1) Rate the permeability or porosity of the soil in your
Thus, conventional sanitation in the form of area:
sewered flush-and-discharge offers no solution to 123456789
the global sanitation crisis. A different approach to stone or clay / humus / sand
sanitation is needed.
2) What is the depth to the water table in your location
Sustainable Approach to Sanitation, and this (meters):
Assessment
(can be estimated by determining the depth of local wells or
Environmentally sound practices in wastewater boreholes)
and stormwater management are practices that
ensure that public health and environmental 3. Characteristics of Sanitation System:
quality are protected. A range of technologies exist
that can achieve this objective. Nevertheless, more Identify which of the following apply to your
effort must be extended towards finding community’s sanitation system, or method of handling
sustainable approaches for reducing health hazards human excreta:
associated with wastewater, sludge and excreta,
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1) Does your sanitation system include the use of What form(s) of resource recovery does your community
plumbing? use to utilize excreta? Indicate all that apply
Yes / No c Compost solid waste
c Excreta-fed fish pond
If Yes then complete the following questions: c Use of urine to water plants
c Biogas digester
Is there someone in the community responsible for the c Other (specify):
maintenance of the community sanitatary plumbing? c None
Inspect the system’s integrity. Is all plumbing free of Does your community release its excreta into a
leaks? wastewater sewer network, or other system of plumbing
Yes / No that is designed to operate with flush water?
Identify the location of any leaks: Yes / No
If Yes then complete the following questions:
Do all toilets include a vapor lock, or ‘drain trap’ to
prevent the backflow of gases? Is your community’s sewer system:
Yes / No c Conventional (i.e. deep): consists of house
Is there a protocol in place for reporting problems? connections routed to main pipes that run along
Yes / No streets. System requires pipes, inspection
Describe the protocol: manholes, pumps and pumping stations
c Simplified (i.e. shallow, a.k.a
condominium): similar to deep sewering, except
2) Identify if your sanitation system includes any of the that houses or individual connections are made to
following components: each other, rather than to a the main line. The
c septic tank shared connector pipes are smaller in diameter
c soakaway and do not need to be buried as deep
c drainage field c Settled (a.k.a small bore): sewer system
c vault includes interceptor tanks, which are settlement
c not applicable tanks, and they require periodic emptying. In
them, solids that can potentially sediment in the
3) Does your sanitation system require periodic sewerage pipes are removed
emptying?
Yes / No Rate the quality or reliability of your sewer network
What method is used: (i.e. how often does it have major leaks or get clogged):
c Manual shoveling 0123456789
c Pump poor………excellent
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Listening To The Earth
Who is the party responsible for the administration, c Urban run-off (land drainage)
maintenance, and alteration of your community’s sewer c Other (specify):
network?
c collective/ cooperative/ neighborhood What treatments (if any) are used at the facility?
c municipality/ municipal goverment c Preliminary: this includes simple processes
c your religious community (owned/operated such as screening and grit removal to
by your religious community itself) remove the gross solid pollution
c corporate entity, or other business residue from the process:
c not organized c Primary: usually plain sedimentation;
simple settlement of the solid material in
If applicable, how do you contact this party? sewage can reduce the polluting load by
Name of responsible party: significant amounts
residue from the process:
Contact person: c Secondary: for further treatment and
removal of common pollutants, usually by a
Contact information: biological process
residue from the process:
c Tertiary: usually for removal of specific
Does your community share in this management pollutants e.g. nitrogen or phosphorous, or
responsibility? specific industrial pollutants
Yes / No residue from the process:
Does your community’s sewer system include a waste What pollutant(s) does the effluent contain?
water treatment process? c Chemical
Yes / No (specify):
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Chapter 4: Sanitation and Waste
Expert Public Health Information Source Does your community include expenses related to excreta
It would be helpful to contact a public health handling (sewer fees, operational, maintenance, or
protection or advocacy group that can provide improvement capital) as part of its regular budget?
reliable, expert data on the health effects of your Yes / No
sanitation system. If you don’t know of one, refer
to the List of Categorized References in the back of Does your community educate itself and others in the
this manual to help locate one. larger community about both dangers and best practices
pertaining to sanitation?
Name of organization: Yes / No
Name of contact person: Does your community educate others about the
productive and beneficial uses of excreta?
Contact information: Yes / No
1. Mix or No-Mix
7. Hygiene Behavior
To meet the requirement of ecological sanitation
Are the facilities (latrine, toilet, etc) that your we must have ecological toilets. ‘No-mix’ systems,
community uses kept clean (i.e. cleaned regularly) and if properly maintained, are ecological. By not
free of fecal matter and other refuse? mixing human excreta and flushing water the
Yes / No sanitation problem is limited to managing a
comparatively small volume of urine and faeces. As
If the toilet is located outdoors, is the door kept shut and a result, the problems of bad odours and fly-
the inside kept dark when not in use? breeding are reduced or even eliminated, and
Yes / No storage, treatment and transport are made easier. A
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Listening To The Earth
lot of water can be saved, expenditure on pipe 3. General Characteristics of Sanitation System
networks and treatment plants is reduced, jobs are
created and the environment is preserved. Evaluation statements for 3-3iii are found on page 101
If your community has ‘mix’ type facilities, you
may consider switching to a ‘no-mix’ system, A. Open Air Defacation
especially if you presently use some type of pit Where there are no latrines people resort to
latrine, or utilize some other on-site treatment. defecation in the open. This may be indiscriminate
Composting latrines are perhaps the most or in special places for defecation generally
ecologically sound device for handling excreta. accepted by the community, such as defecation
There is a brief discussion of them later, under fields, rubbish and manure heaps, or under trees.
question 3 (see ‘J’ in the table below), and more Open defecation encourages flies, which spread
information may be obtained about them from feces-related diseases. In moist ground the larvae
resources listed at the end of this chapter. of intestinal worms develop, and feces and larvae
If on the other hand your community is may be carried by people and animals. Surface
connected to a sewer system, a conversion may not water run-off from places where people have
be immediately feasible nor appropriate. It may be defecated results in water pollution. In view of the
more important in such a case to work at a regional health hazards created and the degradation of the
level to help innovate alternative practices that environment, open defecation should not be
both conserve water and take advantage of the tolerated in villages and other built-up areas. There
useful qualities of urine and feces. are better options available that confine excreta in
such a way that the cycle of reinfection from
2. Soil Conditions excrete-related diseases is broken.
The conditions of the land in your community are B. Overhung Latrine (direct entry into surface
the most important factors to consider in water)
evaluating or choosing the method of excreta A latrine built over the sea, a river, or other body
disposal. For example, if your soil is impermeable of water into which excreta drops directly, is known
or the water table high, then it may be necessary to as an overhung latrine. If there is a strong current
use a vault or a raised pit latrine rather than any in the water the excreta is carried away. Public
other form of pit latrine or septic system. It is should be warned of the danger to health resulting
recommended that you complete the water supply from contact with or use of water into which
sanitation inventories found in Chapter 3 to excreta has been discharged.
determine more about your community’s An overhung latrine usually consists of a
protection of water resources. superstructure and floor built over water. A squat
If the conditions of the soil and groundwater of hole in the floor allows excreta to fall into the
your area are unknown, it would be most advisable water. A chute is sometimes provided from the
to contact a geological service, organization, or floor to the water. Overhung latrines should never
associated govern-mental agency to request that be built in places where pit latrines can be
testing be performed. Some of the resources at the provided. However, they may be the only possible
end of this chapter may be able to help direct you form of sanitation for people living on land that is
to an appropriate agency.
In any case, you should verify, with the help of
qualified professionals, that your means of
sanitation does not contaminate the water that
you or anyone in your larger community uses as a
source of drinking water.
Overhung latrine
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Listening To The Earth
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Chapter 4: Sanitation and Waste
Regular Inspections
• Rainwater should drain away from the
latrine. Improper drainage should be
corrected.
• Every month the floor slab has to be checked
for cracks and, if applicable, the vent pipe
and fly screen must be inspected to ensure
they are not corroded or damaged. In
addition, the superstructure should be
inspected and repair undertaken, especially
in the case of light leaks (toilet structure
should be dark when door is fully closed).
• When the contents of the pit reach the level
of 0.5 metre below the slab, a new pit has to
be dug and the old pit covered with soil.
Another possibility is to empty the pit
mechanically. With double-pit systems, the Simple pit
second pit is used when the first is full. The
full pit can be emptied safely by hand after a and used as soil conditioner. The pit can be used
period of a year or longer and is then ready again when the second pit has filled up. This
for use again. alternating cycle can be repeated indefinitely.
In the case of pit latrines with double pits, each At least one person in your community should
facility has two shallow pits, but only one be educated about aspects of pit latrine sanitation
superstructure. The cover slab has two drop holes, such as the reasons for using only one pit at a time,
one over each pit. Only one pit is used at a time. use of excreta as manure, and the need to leave the
When this becomes full, its drop hole is covered full pit for about two years before emptying. This
and the second pit is used. After a period of, at the person also needs to know how to switch pits and
very least, one year—but most safely two years— how to empty the pit, even if they do not perform
the contents of the first pit can be removed safely these tasks themselves.
Clean drop hole, seat and Daily Water, soap Brush, bucket
superstructure
Clean fly screen and vent Every one to six months Water Twig or long bendable
inside if equipped brush
Repair slab, seat, vent pipe, Occasionally Cement, sand, water, nails, Bucket or bowl, saw,
fly screen or superstructure local building materials trowel, hammer, knife
Dig new pit and transfer Depending on size and Sand, possibly cement, Shovels, picks, saw
latrine slab and super- number of users bricks, nails and other local buckets, hammer, etc.
structure (if applicable) building materials
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Listening To The Earth
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Chapter 4: Sanitation and Waste
groundwater level is close to the surface. A slight system, more ecologically sound sanitation options
raising of the pit may prevent splashing of the user do exist. Nevertheless, the feasibility and
or blockage of the pit inlet pipe by floating scum. importance of changing your sanitation system is
for your community to decide.
G. Aqua-privy
An aqua-privy is a ‘mix’ type latrine set directly H. Pour-flush latrines
above or directly adjacent to a septic (collection A pour-flush latrine is a ‘mix’ type of pit latrine
and sedimentation) tank and is useful in situations where small volumes of water (commonly 1-3
where plumbing is required, but there is a limited litres) are used to flush feces into the pit. The
water supply. An aqua-privy is similar to a septic operation and maintenance of pit latrines is
tank; it can be connected to flush toilets and take covered in more depth above under the heading
most household wastewater. It consists of a large ‘Pit latrines (general).’
tank with a water seal which is connected to a Pour-flush latrines are most appropriate where
soakaway to dispose of effluent. Unlike a septic people use water to clean themselves after
tank, the aqua-privy tank is located directly below defecating (e.g. in Muslim cultures) and where
the house; but like a septic tank, it requires people have access to reliable water supplies close
periodic emptying and must be accessible to a to the home. However, pour-flush latrines are also
vacuum tanker. Since much of the technology is attractive because the problems of flies, mosquitos
the same or similar, see the discussion below under and odors in simple pit latrines may be overcome
3ii regarding septic tanks and leach beds to more simply and cheaply by the installation of a pan
fully assess the maintenance and operation of your with a water seal in the defecating hole. The pan is
aqua-privy system. cleared by pouring (or, better, throwing) a few litres
Aqua-privies are expensive and require the use of water into the pan after defecation.
of water, making them a rather unattractive option The flushed wastes flow through a section of
for communities short of money or water. Since pipe bent into a ‘U’ or ‘J’ shape which maintains a
water is required, water conservation principles water seal for reducing fly and odor problems. The
should be practiced. See the ‘Water Conservation pit of a pour-flush latrine may be located directly
Assessment’ in Chapter 3, for more information beneath the slab or set to one side, but offset pits
regarding water ccnservation. may require more water to prevent blockages. The
The tank will produce hazardous and pit is usually connected to a soakaway to allow
malodorous gases that should be vented and liquids to infiltrate the soil, leaving solid waste to
trapped in such a way that no gases escape up decompose.
through the latrine. Furthermore, the tank can The amount of water used varies between one
become a breeding ground for flies, mosquitoes, and four litres depending mainly on the pan and
and other vector insects if they are not prevented trap geometry. Pans requiring a small amount of
from entering (or exiting) the tank. For these
reasons, a necessary feature of an aqua-privy is
some form of water seal. Often this seal is formed
by the chute drop-pipe hanging below the squat
hole or latrine seat and into the water. As long as
the end of the pipe is submerged, this design
prevents gases from escaping into the latrine
superstructure, and it limits (but does not
eliminate) the access of flies and mosquitos to the
tank. It should be noted that water must be added
each day to maintain the water seal to compensate
for evaporation and effluent discharge.
Alternatively, the toilet may be fitted with a pan
with a water seal to prevent the escape of gases. If
the latrine is offset from or adjacent to the tank,
the water seal can be accomplished with the use of
a drain trap (‘U’ or ‘J’ section of pipe).
Since an aqua privy is necessarily a ‘mix’ type Pour-flush latrine
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Listening To The Earth
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Chapter 4: Sanitation and Waste
Clean toilet and super- Daily Water, lime, ashes Brush, water container
structure, empty urine
collection pot
Add ashes or other After each defecation and Wood ashes and organic Pot to contain the
organic material whenever available material material, small shovel
Repair floor, super- When necessary Cement, sand, water, Bucket or bowl, trowel,
structure or vaults nails, local building saw, hammer, knife
materials
Close full vault after Depending on size and Water, absorbent organic Shovel and bucket
levelling and adding soil, number of users material
empty other vault, open
its squat hole and add
absorbent organic material
before starting to use,
store humus (or use
directly)
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Listening To The Earth
and may attract insects that can spread diseases. It the liquid layer. The seal is formed because the
is greatly advantageous if the person doing the pipe is submerged. In this case, then, a minimum
repairs is at least somewhat experienced in liquid level must be maintained.
plumbing, and thus it is recommended that there The amount of liquid in the tank should be
be a person in your community that is charged kept high enough to keep the bottom of the drop
with maintaining the plumbing system. This pipe at least 75 mm below the liquid level. A
person should responsible for receiving reports of bucket of water should be poured down the drop
leaks and executing the repairs necessary. pipe daily in order to clear scum (in which flies
All openings in the plumbing (e.g. a toilet, a may breed) from the bottom of the drop pipe and
sink, or any drain) should have ‘drain traps,’ that to maintain the water seal.
are U-shaped sections of pipe, installed near the In other cases, the tank is located away from
opening. These traps form a water seal in the pipe the latrine, and thus require the use of a ‘U’-trap to
that prevents gases from escaping into the air. prevent gases from backing up.
These traps are commonly the location of The tank collects and digests solid waste. Some
obstructions, and so should be the first place of the solids float on the surface, where they are
checked if a clog is detected. known as scum, while others sink to the bottom
where they are broken down by bacteria to form a
3ii. Characteristics of Sanitation System: deposit called sludge. The sludge accumulating in
Components the tank must be removed regularly, usually once
every 1–5 years, depending on size, number of
Septic Tank users and kind of use.
A septic tank is a form of on-site sanitation that is Routine inspection is necessary to check
usually linked to flush toilets and can receive whether desludging is needed, and to ensure that
domestic wastewater (or sullage). It is designed to there are no blockages at the inlet or outlet. A tank
hold solids and is linked to a soakaway/leach bed needs to be desludged when the sludge and scum
or small-bore sewer to dispose of liquid waste, or occupy the volume specified in the design. A
effluent. The tank is offset from the dwelling simple rule is to desludge when solids occupy
structures and linked to the toilet and domestic between one-half and two-thirds of the total depth
wastewater by a short drain. between the water level and the bottom of the
If your community has a septic system and tank. Desludging is essential because septic tanks
piped water, water conservation principles should will continue to operate even when the tank is almost full
be practiced (see Chapter 3). of solids—in this situation the in-flow scours a
Septic tanks generally require relatively large channel through the sludge and may pass through
amounts of land and periodic emptying by vacuum the tank in a matter of minutes rather than
tankers. This makes a septic system expensive, and remaining in the tank for the required retention
further requires that trucks are afforded easy access time.
to the tank. It is important that your community When a septic tank is desludged it should not
include these expenses in the regular budget. be fully washed out or disinfected. A small amount
of sludge should be left in the tank to ensure
Operation and Maintenance continuing rapid digestion. Regular cleaning of the
Septic tanks and aqua-privies have a water-tight toilet with soap in normal amounts is unlikely to
settling tank with one or two compartments, to be harmful, but the use of large amounts of
which waste is carried by water flushing down a detergents or chemicals may disturb the
pipe connected to the toilet. These systems do not biochemical process in a tank, especially the use of
dispose of wastes; they only help to separate the chlorine bleach.
solid matter from the liquid. The systems need a The liquid effluent flowing out of the tank is,
means to discharge their liquid effluent, a means to from a health point of view, as dangerous as raw
vent gases released, and they also require some sewage and remains to be disposed of, normally by
form of seal that prevents gases from backing up soaking into the ground through a soakaway (leach
into the latrines or other drains. bed) or with a connection to small-bore sewers.
In the case of an aqua-privy, there is a tank When sullage disposal is also in the tank, a larger
immediately under the latrine and excreta drop capacity is required for both the tank and the
directly into the tank through a pipe submerged in liquid effluent disposal system. Connection to
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Chapter 4: Sanitation and Waste
small-bore sewers may then be a necessity—where drainage trenches, into which the liquid effluents
high groundwater tables or rocky, impermeable coming from a septic tank are led through open-
ground exist, this may also be the case. jointed (stoneware) or perforated (PVC) pipes,
Many problems are due to inadequate allowing the effluents to infiltrate into the ground.
consideration being given to liquid effluent Soakaways and leach beds are similar but are of a
disposal. Large surges of flow entering the tank smaller scale, and can handle less effluent.
may cause a temporarily high concentration of Due to the hazardous nature of the liquid
suspended solids in the effluent due to disturbance effluent that they handle, these drainage areas
of the solids which have already settled out. must be sufficiently deep and must lie within soil
Leaking tanks may cause insect and odor problems that is sufficiently absorbent to prevent the liquids
in aqua-privies because the water seal is not from seeping up from the ground. Furthermore, the
maintained. risk of contaminating groundwater is high, and this
Every tank must have a ventilation system to fact must be taken into consideration, particularly
allow escape (or collection) of explosive methane if wells exist nearby.
and malodorous gases (generated when bacteria
decompose some of the sewage constituents) from Operation and Maintenance
the tank. It is important to regularly clean the septic tank
outflow and other integral plumbing and check if it
Leach bed/Soakaway/Drainage field is still in order. The plumbing must occassionally
Most septic systems drain their effluent into be cleaned to clear accumulated deposits.
underground water-absorption channels of various Initially the infiltration into the ground may be
designs. The most common examples of this high, but after several years the soil clogs and an
technology are called leach beds, soakaways, and equilibrium infiltration rate is reached. If the
drainage fields. Drainage fields consist of gravel- sewage flow exceeds the equilibrium rate of the
filled underground trenches called leachlines or soil, eventually the sewage will surface over the
Activity Frequency Human resources Materials and spare Tools and equipment
parts
Repair squatting pan Occasionally Household or local Cement, sand, water, Bucket or bowl, trowel,
or seat, U-trap or artisan nails, local building saw, hammer, knife
shelter materials
Empty tank Every 1-5 years Service crew Water, fuel, lubricants, Vacuum tanker (large
etc. or mini) or MAPET
equipment, if possible
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Listening To The Earth
drainage field. As a good practice, then, an area of ability of the soil to absorb liquids and break down
land equal to the size of the drainage area should waste.
be kept in reserve for possible extension or
replacement of the drain field if it becomes Vault
clogged. In areas where the groundwater level is high, the
The area over the waste water absorption area use of septic tanks and drainage areas is not suitable
should have a good cover of grass or other shallow- since such systems are likely to contaminate the
rooted vegetation. Control plant growth to prevent groundwater. In these areas, watertight tanks called
the roots from entering the pipes or trenches. vaults can be built under or close to latrines to store
Don’t plant trees or shrubs near the leaching bed. excrete until they are removed by hand (using
Such deeply rooted plants have roots that will buckets or similar receptacles) or by vacuum tanker.
travel significant distances to reach water and will Similarly, household sewage may be stored in larger
invade the drainage channels and thus impede or tanks called cesspits, which are usually emptied by
sabotage their function. vacuum tankers. Vaults or cesspits must be emptied
Good ventilation of the area and adequate when they are nearly full, or on a regular basis.
sunlight should also be maintained to promote There must be a water seal between the vault
evaporation. This means that you should avoid and any drains or latrines to prevent the backflow
constructing parking areas, patios, or structures of gases. Generally this is accomplished with a ‘U’-
over the area. The weight of such constructions shaped section of plumbing pipe being positioned
could crush the pipe in the leaching bed preventing near each drain.
it from working properly. Covering the drainage Vaults should be checked on a regular basis (at
area could also prevent oxygen from getting into least each time they are emptied) for structural
the soil. integrity. There should be no cracks, holes, or
The micro-organisms responsible for digesting faulty seams. Vaults must also be regularly checked
the waste material need oxygen to survive and to determine whether desludging is needed and to
function. Vehicles and machinery should not be ensure that no blockages exist at the inlet.
driven over the bed, as their weight could crush the Regular emptying is required, and thus there
pipe or compact the soil. If the soil over the pipes must be space enough for a truck or other
becomes compacted, it will be less able to absorb equipment to access the vault. This is a regular
the wastewater. expense which should be included in the regular
It is also important not to dispose of water onto budget.
the ground over the area—it may interfere with the
Switch to other Once every 6-12 Bricks or other Tools to open diversion
Household or caretaker
drainage field months material to block pipes box
Clean diversion boxes Every month Household or caretaker Water Shovel, brush
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Chapter 4: Sanitation and Waste
3iii. Characteristics of Sanitation System: Refer to Chapter 2 for more information about
Emptying outdoor air pollution.
• Management and supervision of emptying
The emptying of single pits containing fresh services is often ineffective, leading to poor
excreta presents problems because of the active work practices which expose the workers and
pathogens in the sludge. In rural areas, where land the public to health hazards.
availability is not a constraint, it is often advisable
to dig another pit for a new latrine. The original pit Evaluation of Sanitation Facilities (3-3iii)
may then be left for several years and when the
second is filled it may be simplest to re-dig the first
pit rather than to excavate a new hole in hard Our community is well-informed about the service
ground. If left for years, the sludge will not cause requirements of our sanitation systems.
any health problems and is beneficial as a fertilizer. 123456789
However, in urban areas, where it is not possible
to excavate further holes and where the investment Our community regularly implements all necessary
in pit-lining and superstructure has been operational and maintenance protocols required for
substantial, the pit must be emptied. Since the sustainable operation of our sanitation system.
sludge removed from a pit presents a risk of 123456789
transmission of diseases, care must be taken to
ensure that sludge is not spilled around the tank Our community strives to minimize the amount of water
during emptying . Thus, the most satisfactory used by our sanitation system (e.g. by choosing not to
method of sludge removal is by vacuum tanker. mix, fixing leaks, etc.)
The sludge is pumped out of the pit or tank 123456789
through a flexible hose connected to a vacuum
pump, which lifts the sludge into the tanker. If the Our community takes every necessary precaution to
bottom layers of sludge have cemented together prevent contamination of ground and/or surface waters
they can be jetted with a water hose or broken up by our sanitation system.
with a long-handled spade before being pumped 123456789
out. There are also high-powered vacuum trucks
that can handle solidified sludge; however, their 4. Resource Recovery
use is considerably more expensive.
Although from the public health point of view, Human excrete and urine can be regarded as
manual removal should be avoided, if a vacuum natural resources to be conserved and reused
tanker is not available, the sludge must be bailed provided they are handled with respect, rather
out manually using buckets or shovels. This is than being discarded. Especially if your sanitation
unpleasant work which exposes the workers and facilities are of the ‘no-mix’ type, the ‘wastes’ can
the community to health hazards. Careful work be transformed into very nutritious food for the
and disposal is therefore necessary. earth, for plants, and for particular types of
Emptying pits may also pose these problems: fisheries; in addition, the decomposition process
• The machinery may be too large to get to the can release gas that is useful as fuel.
latrines. Conventional vacuum trucks are too Urine and feces are both quite beneficial to
big to be driven into the centre of many ancient plants. Urine contains nitrogen and phosphates in
cities or urban/periurban unplanned or squatter forms that are easily absorbed by plants; as well,
settlements where pedestrian routes human excrete, or ‘nightsoil’ contains nitrogen,
predominate. phosphorus and potassium, all of which are
• Maintenance of vacuum tankers is often poor. valuable plant nutrients. Human excreta can also
Their engines must be kept running all day, be used in an aquatic environment to stimulate the
either to move the truck or to operate the pump growth of particular fish for consumption.
when stationary. This causes rapid wear and On the other hand, handling raw excreta is not
makes them particularly susceptible to only very unpleasant because of odors, but also it
breakdown if preventive maintenance is is considerably hazardous to human health. The
neglected. In addition, these vehicles add pathogens that live within the excreta pose serious
considerable amounts of pollution to the air. dangers to us as humans. The main risk is
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Listening To The Earth
infection, and this can be by any number of time is longer if the pit has been wet. However, this
bacteria, parasites, viruses, or other pathogenic time interval can be decreased if the
organisms that are present in excreta. Fortunately, decomposition of the feces is accelerated, and the
the knowledge and techniques exist which allow us temperature of the pile increased—which is what is
to transform raw excreta into safer, more pleasant, accomplished by composting.
and useful substances. Composting consists of the biological
Caution should be taken, and good hygiene breakdown of solid organic matter into a soil-like
practiced, when handling nightsoil—processed, substance called compost or humus. Compost is
decomposed or otherwise—from any source. quite valuable as a fertilizer and soil conditioner.
Before your community reuses sludge, health Composting has been practiced by farmers and
officials should be consulted about the minimum gardeners throughout the world for many
time for sludge decomposition. If possible, the centuries. Besides nitrogen, phosphorous, and
quality of the sludge should occasionally be tested. potassium, the humus formed by decomposed
However, testing for microorganisms such as feces also contains trace elements which reduce the
protozoa and helminths is expensive, and it may be susceptibility of plants to parasites and diseases.
more effective to use retention time to judge The humus improves the soil structure, enhances
whether the sludge will be safe to use. its water-retaining qualities and encourages better
When organic material sits and ages, nature root structure of plants. Soil containing humus is
decomposes the material, or breaks it down into less subject to erosion by wind and water and is
more elemental substances. The process of easier to cultivate. In China, the practice of
decomposition may be aerobic (requiring oxygen) composting human wastes with crop residues has
or anaerobic (not requiring oxygen). enabled the soil to support high population
Depending upon the product desired, you can densities without loss of fertility for more than
control the conditions to encourage one form of 4000 years. Composting is a beneficial way of
decomposition over the other. In either case, giving back to the Earth what we have taken in the
nightsoil or sludge is generally first combined with form of food.
other organic wastes. The mixture is then placed Composting can accelerate the decay process
into controlled conditions either: by ventilating and sterilize the excreta, but to do so requires
the mixture to stimulate aerobic digestion careful attention and the process must be
(composting); or by placing the mixture into an controlled by someone who understands it. If
airtight chamber to stimulate anaerobic digestion. performed correctly, however, the process generates
Aerobic digestion produces compost, or humus, enough heat to eradicate most and sometimes all
and is discussed below under the heading pathogens, and simultaneously eliminates
‘Composting.’ Anaerobic decomposition processes disagreeable odors.
produce a significant amount of methane, or
natural gas, making it useful as a renewable source Composting Process
of fuel. This process is discussed below under Aerobic bacteria combine some of the carbon in
‘Biogas Production.’ organic matter (excreta mixed with plant
Successful composting will completely sterilize materials) with oxygen from the air to produce
the mixture; however, while anaerobic digestion carbon dioxide and energy. Some energy is used by
does kill most pathogens, it will not necessarily kill the bacteria to reproduce; the rest, however, is
hookworm and roundworm eggs. converted to heat, often raising the temperature to
The use of excreta as an aquatic fertilizer is also more than 70°C. No objectionable odor should
discussed below under ‘Aqua-culture.’ given off if the material is not saturated with water
and is frequently turned.
Composting For optimum value to plants, the ratio of
Solid waste (sludge) from pit latrines and sewage- available carbon to nitrogen in compost should be
treatment plants can be a valuable resource for about 20:1. In the composting process carbon is
farmers as an organic fertilizer and soil conditioner, used by the bacteria, so the best raw material for
provided that it has been allowed to properly composting has a higher carbon:nitrogen ratio, say
decompose and contains no pathogens. Solids about 30:1. The carbon: nitrogen ratio of nightsoil
from a pit latrine should be innocuous if the latrine is about 6:1, of fresh vegetable waste around 20:1,
has not been used for two years or so; although this and of dry straw over 100:1. Thus, by
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Chapter 4: Sanitation and Waste
appropriately adjusting the mixture, the most pour-flush latrine serves several thousand people
optimum balance can be achieved. It is rarely and generates sufficient energy to light a 4-km
practical to determine the carbon:nitrogen ratio by length of road. However, most plants, of which
chemical analysis; a good operator learns to judge there are more than 7 million in China (Li, 1984),
what mix of materials will produce the best are dependent on animal excreta with which
compost. human excreta are processed. A medium-sized
Absence of an unpleasant smell and absence of buffalo or cow provides about twenty times as
flies also indicate satisfactory aerobic composting. much gas as a person. The minimum feed is that
An experienced operator can check that all is well from one cow and a family of people, although it is
from the appearance of the composting material. It more usual to add excreta from at least four cows.
should look moist, but not so wet that liquid seeps In China it is customary to produce biogas from
out. While aerobic stabilization is progressing the the excreta of pigs.
appearance will change from day to day. During Excreta are often mixed with straw or other
composting the volume is reduced by 40-80% and vegetable waste, such as that used for animal
the weight by 20-50%. bedding, and equal quantities of water added to
The key to successful sterilization is to raise the make a slurry. This is fed to the inlet side of the
temperature of the mixture sufficiently high to kill chamber. Effluent slurry is removed after a
any pathogens. At high temperatures there is rapid retention time of 30-50 days. Biogas production is
destruction of pathogenic bacteria and protozoa, greater at higher temperatures; for example, at
worm eggs and weed seeds. All fecal 30°C the rate of gas generation is about twice that
microorganisms, including enteric viruses and at 25°C, and little gas is produced if the
roundworm eggs, will die if the temperature temperature is below 15°C.
exceeds 46 °C for one week. Fly eggs, larvae and After processing, the effluent slurry can be
pupae are also killed at these temperature. dried in the open and used as a fertilizer.
Tests of compost during and after stabilization Retention of excreta in biogas tanks results in
show whether the process is going well and the death of many pathogens, including
whether the finished product is suitable for Schistosoma eggs. A few hookworm eggs survive,
agricultural use. Except in a large mechanical and there is high survival of roundworm eggs.
composting plant, the condition of the compost is Thus, proper care must be taken when handling
gauged by simple methods. It is reasonable to the effluent from the process.
assume that pathogenic organisms will be killed if
the temperature rises above 65°C. This can be Use in Aquaculture
confirmed by poking an iron bar or wooden stick The practice of depositing excreta into fish ponds
into the heap and pulling it out after about ten or tanks is also a common practice in some areas.
minutes. It should then be too hot to hold. The In some places, latrines are placed immediately
temperature falls when stabilization is complete. over or alongside ponds (not used for drinking
Once stable, the mixture has been aerobically water); elsewhere nightsoil is tipped from carts,
digested and has become humus and poses far tankers or buckets. Nutrients in excreta result in a
slighter health risks. rich algal growth, which encourages aerobic
conditions and provides food for certain fish.
Biogas Production Carp and tilapia are especially suitable for such
The search for alternative sources of energy has led ponds, but a variety of fish species may coexist,
to widespread use of organic waste to produce a some feeding on large algae, some on small algae,
combustible fuel which can be used for domestic some on zooplankton; some prefer the bottom
cooking. Basically, biogas production requires an layer, some the top. Fish are usually netted for
air-tight chamber in which excreta are fermented. human consumption, but in some places they are
The gas produced contains about 60% methane, dried and ground up for feed for poultry or
also known as natural gas. The ‘biogas’ is collected animals. Ducks may also be kept on the ponds.
at the top of the chamber, from which a pipe leads There are three health risks associated with fish
to domestic appliances or to flexible storage farming in ponds that receive excreta:
containers. • Pathogens may be transmitted on the body
A few biogas plants operate entirely on human surfaces or in the intestines of the fish without
excreta. For example, in Patna, India a 24-seat causing overt disease in the fish; the pathogens
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Listening To The Earth
may then be passed to people handling the fish. not be disposed with household wastewater. Refer
• Helminths, particularly flukes, may be to the last assessment in this chapter to evaluate
transmitted to people who eat infected fish that your community’s handling of hazardous
has not been properly cooked. chemicals and wastes.
• Helminths with intermediate hosts (such as
Schistosoma with water snails) may continue Conventional Deep and Shallow
their life cycle in ponds. (Condominium) Sewerage
(The WHO publication, ‘Guidelines for the Safe Use of These systems require a great deal of capital to
Wastewater and Excreta in Agriculture and Aquaculture,’ gives build and maintain. Similarly, they require that a
further useful information about utilizing this natural resource. large, relatively continuous volume of water flow
Further information may be found about using excreta as a through the system to function properly. Shallow
resource at the end of this chapter. In addition, several of the sewerage is a bit less capital intensive, but still
general resources found in the back of this manual contain requires ‘full flush’ toilets to keep the system from
technical and educational material regarding biogas digestion, clogging.
composting, and aquaculture.) If your community has such a sewer
connection, it is important to ascertain that each
Our community strives to recover the useful value of our drain is protected from receiving dry waste (i.e.
excreta. screens and drain covers) and that all toilets are
123456789 functioning correctly. No sewer gas or odors should
be present near any drain. All pipes should have
5. Sewer Network sealed threads and should not have any holes,
cracks, or other leaks. If your community is
Sewerage systems are designed to collect excreta responsible for underground sewer pipes that are
and domestic wastewater and transport them away on the property, these should be checked for leaks
from homes to a treatment and/or disposal point. or stoppages on a regular basis.
Sewer systems are an attractive option because
they can greatly improve the sanitary conditions of Small Bore/Settled Sewerage
a household while requiring little maintenance for Small-bore (or ‘settled’) sewerage is a system that
proper operation. Nevertheless, such flush-and- is designed to receive only the liquid fraction of
discharge systems make the problems of sanitation household wastewater. The small-bore sewer
much worse, as they allow relatively small amounts system consists of a house connection, an
of material to pollute large amounts of water. interceptor tank, sewers, cleanouts/manholes,
All sewerage systems require water for flushing vents, sewage treatment plant, and lift stations (if
waste away. Conventional sewerage requires the there is no gravity flow). The system is most
most. It is also a high-cost sanitation option; it is appropriate in areas that already have septic tanks
usually deep-laid and must be maintained by but where the soil cannot (or can no longer) absorb
professional staff. A small bore sewer works on the effluent, or where land-use is so great that there
different principles from conventional sewerage is no room for soakaways.
systems, and does not require high-volume flush The solid components of the waste, which
toilets to operatre. Nevertheless, these still require settle, are kept in an interceptor tank (basically a
water for proper function. single-compartment septic tank) which needs
All sewerage systems should end in a treatment periodic desludging. Because the sewers only
process or plant, as the raw faeces they carry receive the liquid sewage, they are designed
represent a significant public health risk. differently from conventional sewers and have the
In any sewerage system, care should especially following advantages:
be taken to not dispose of hazardous or toxic • the system needs less water because solids are
chemicals into the sewer drains. Such chemicals not transported;
could be medicines, pesticides and herbicides • excavation costs are reduced because the pipes
which are no longer used, excess solvents, paints can be laid at shallow depths and do not need
and other household chemicals. These substances to maintain self-cleansing velocity;
can corrode sewer pipes and seriously affect • material costs are reduced because the diameter
operation of treatment plants. They will also limit of the pipes can be small (peak flow is
the potential of water reuse, and therefore should attenuated by the interceptor tanks) and there
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Chapter 4: Sanitation and Waste
is no need for large manholes; untreated sewage. Unfortunately, this is not always
• treatment requirements are reduced because the the case, and far too often the raw sewage ends up
solids are kept in the interceptor tanks. being dumped straight into waterways. This
The main operational requirement for the practice wreaks havoc on both the wildlife and
community is to ensure that no solids can enter the human populations that depend upon the
system and that the interceptor tank functions downstream water. Thus, it would helpful to
properly. Maintenance of the system requires determine if your local sewage is treated before
regular removal of the sludge from the interceptor being released back into the environment.
tank; this regular expense should be included in It is common practice in many areas to release
your community’s main budget. sewage into the environment, untreated, as a
Systemic maintenance tasks may also include means of agriculture irrigation. Unfortunately, this
the removal of blockages, regular control of sewage practice is quite unacceptable. The use of untreated
pipes, and periodic flushing. The performance of wastewater in agriculture or aquaculture poses high
accessories in the pipeline system such as health risks to farmers and consumers alike. In the
cleanouts, manholes, (possible) lift stations, and interests of public health, only treated wastewater should
ventilation points should be regularly checked and ever be reused. Poor irrigation practices with
maintained (although these tasks are generally the untreated or partially treated wastewater severely
responsibility of the body in the larger community impact the quality and safety of groundwater in
which is responsible for the operation of the shallow aquifers and surface waters that may
system). supply drinking water.
If your community’s sewage is treated before
Party Responsible for Sewerage being released, this process may be overseen by the
If your community does not process its own same party that is responsible for the sewerage
wastewater, it is important that you be aware of the system, but it need not be. Thus, begin by
group who is responsible for the maintenance and determining who the party responsible for
administration of your sewer network. Since wastewater treatment is. By contacting them, you
sewage is both an environmental and health should be able to determine the strengths and
hazard, it would be helpful to assess the integrity limitations of the treatment process.
of your local sewerage system by contacting the Treated wastes should not contain pathogens
party responsible for its operation. (bacteria, viruses, helminths or protozoa). Properly
You should also be prepared to contact them if operated sewage-treatment plants should produce
your community discovers a leak or a blockage in treated effluent of good enough quality for use in
the system. Furthermore, your community can irrigation or fish-breeding ponds. The operator of
serve the larger community by being involved in the sewage-treatment plant or the local health
the workings of the sewerage system: as body should carry out regular monitoring to ensure
administrative help, as a source of ideas for that the quality of the treated effluent is safe. You
improvement, or in a variety of other ways. should be able to obtain the results of such tests, if
they are performed.
Our community regularly implements all necessary Of primary importance is the microbial quality
operational and maintenance protocols required for of any sewage effluent. That is, the microscopic
sustainable operation of our sewer system. pathogenic organisms pose the greatest danger to
123456789 public health.
Nutrient pollution is also a major concern; that
Our sewer system is managed with good governance is, the organic content of the wastewater greatly
principles, that reflect our community values. increases the nutrients available to aquatic plants.
123456789 This causes overgrowth conditions which choke
other life from the water. This process is called
6. Wastewater Treatment eutrophication and is signified by an explosion of
algae populations, often called an ‘algae bloom.’
All sewerage systems should end at a wastewater Chemical contamination is also a consideration.
treatment facility so that surface water and Industrial effluent may contain chemicals harmful
groundwater sources are not contaminated and to health or the environment, such as heavy
communities are not exposed to health risks from metals. If industrial sewage is mixed with domestic
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Listening To The Earth
sewage, the resultant effluent is a highly toxic mix, technologies can achieve protection of public
and is considerably more difficult to treat. health and the environment, and can recycle water
Industrial discharges should be pretreated by the and nutrients, which are beneficial to sustaining
industry itself to prevent toxic chemicals from ecosystems and life.
entering any treatment facility—or worse, from There are a variety of such treatment processes,
being released untreated into the environment. and the selection of them depends on the types of
Sometimes untreated sewage is used to irrigate pollutants found in the wastewater. Sewage
fields. Although this is quite a hazardous practice treatment options may be classified into groups of
in itself, the inclusion of hazardous chemicals in processes according to the function they perform
the effluent poses additional health risks to and their complexity:
consumers, and the repeated application of solid or • Preliminary treatment: this includes simple
liquid wastes to fields will cause chemical build-up processes such as screening (usually by bar
in soils, leading to long-term problems for water screens) and grit removal. (through
resources. constant velocity channels) to remove the
Wastewater treatment can be accomplished gross solid pollution.
either through high-cost ‘conventional’ treatment • Primary treatment: usually plain
systems, through a series of waste stabilization sedimentation; simple settlement of the
ponds (or lagoons), or a combination of methods. solid material in sewage can reduce the
In addition, there are some other rather polluting load by significant amounts.
experimental methods of treatment, like deep well • Secondary treatment: for further treatment
injection, but they are unrefined and won’t be and removal of common pollutants, usually
discussed further. (There is little that is by a biological process.
‘conventional’ about the highly technical and • Tertiary treatment: usually for removal of
expensive means of sewage treatment labeled as specific pollutants e.g. nitrogen or
such, aside from the fact these processes have been phosphorous. In lakes and sensitive water
the favored responses of scientists and engineers in environments the removal of nutrients
places like the United States and Europe for should be undertaken with a tertiary
several decades now.) treatment process to prevent algae blooms
and eutrophication.
Below, conventional and stabilization pond
methods are each briefly reviewed. Stabilization Ponds
Waste stabilization ponds require more land, but
‘Conventional’ Sewage Treatment are cheaper, easier to operate and maintain, and
While the Earth has a natural purification process, need fewer trained staff than other treatment
the natural purification capacity of the systems. The final water from waste stabilization
environment is limited. For example, even when ponds can be very good if the ponds are properly
wastewater is disposed into the ocean, the area maintained, as wetlands are nature’s time-tested
surrounding the outfall can be sufficiently polluted and preferred method of purifying wastes and
and the pollutants (including pathogens) can be recycling nutrients.
washed towards the beaches. Thus, technical Without proper maintenance, however, the
processes have been developed to theoretically quality of the final effluent may be poor and still
augment and accelerate the natural purification pose considerable risks to health if it is used for
process. irrigation. Thus, it is most important that the
Conventional water treatment technologies operators of the ponds are well educated as to the
include physical, chemical and biological processes proper operation of the ponds and the biological
which fuction to remove pathogens and pollutants processing occuring within them.
from the water. These processes are somewhat akin In usual configurations, sewage flows through a
to the purification and recycling processes taking series of ponds where the solid and liquid wastes
place in nature, although they generally produce undergo natural breakdown processes, including
concentrated hazardous residues that are not microbial activity.
produced by nature (at least in concentrated Usually, at least two ponds are used, and more
form). Nevertheless, properly designed, commonly three. The ponds must be constructed
constructed, maintained and operated, these to a size that can handle the volume of wastewater
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Chapter 4: Sanitation and Waste
brought in by the sewer system by retaining it long location and may breed there, causing a health
enough for purification. hazard.
Wastewater in stabilization ponds tends to have Facilities should be located within a reasonable
a high organic content and can serve as breeding walking distance from common areas, and should
sites for Culex mosquitoes that transmit lymphatic be well marked so that their use is encouraged.
filariasis and other infections. The ponds should
therefore be sited well away from human Our community models hygienic behaviors by
habitation, at least beyond the flying distance of incorporating proper practices into our standard
the mosquitoes (over a kilometre with wind protocols.
assistance). 123456789
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Listening To The Earth
practices are tantamount to a global crisis, and If you found that problems exist, list them below:
alternatives must be created and implemented for Category (I-III)
a sustainable and healthy human and animal Problem 1
population. In the best case, many communities
will engage in this challenge and will create several
diverse and creative ways of overcoming this
problem.
Conclusions
Now enter the scores from each section in the column at Problem 3
right
score
3 Water conservation
4 Resource recovery
5 Sewer management
Now categorize each problem listed above into one
6 Waste water treatment of the following three categories:
I = Critically important. Currently dangerous,
7 Hygenic behaviors must be addressed immediately
II = Important, but not immediately dangerous.
8 Ecological and sustainable sanitation Must be addressed
III = Current practice should be improved, but is
not immediately needed
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Chapter 4: Sanitation and Waste
105
Listening To The Earth
Flies Rats
Their reproductive cycle varies according to the Rats have accompanied the human species over the
temperature. A fly can reach adulthood in 8-20 centuries, and have always been regarded as one of
days and it can fly up to 10 km in 24 hours. It the world’s worst pests. In addition to transmitting
reproduces in moist human and animal excreta serious diseases—eptospirosis, salmonellosis,
(farms, badly built latrines, open defecation, typhus, bubonic plague, and parasitism—they also
treatment sludge, garbage, etc.). It is estimated attack and bite human beings. Rats may seriously
that one kilogram of organic matter serves for the damage the electric and telephone urban
reproduction of some 70,000 flies. infrastructure by peeling and eating the network
Refuse is the main source of reproduction of the cables, thereby causing fires. They also contribute
housefly, which transmits diseases and is to the deterioration and contamination of food.
responsible for millions of deaths worldwide. The They reproduce quickly; they have from six to
key to protection against the housefly is, therefore, twelve pups per litter and a couple of rats may
the proper storage, collection, and final sanitary have up to 10 thousand offspring per year.
disposal of garbage in sanitary landfills.
Residential Kitchen waste, paper and cardboard, plastics, glass, metals, 50-75
textiles, garden trimmings, soil, etc.
Commercial: warehouses, offices, Paper, cardboard, plastics, wood, food wastes, glass, metals, 10-20
markets, restaurants, hotels, and others special and hazardous wastes
Industrial (small and cottage industries): Industrial waste, scrap iron, etc. This heading also includes 5-30
manufacturing, clothing and shoe inustries, food wastes, ashes, rubble from building and demolition
tailor’s shops, carpenter’s workshops, etc. work, and special and hazardous waste
Street sweeping Waste left in public areas by pedestrians, dirt, leaves, excreta, 10-20
etc.
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Chapter 4: Sanitation and Waste
The economic crises and institutional generally located in these areas where the poorest
weaknesses experienced by many governments in members of the community live, compounding the
the region have also had a negative influence upon deterioration of all conditions, and in consequence
waste management. Governments are pressured by causing property prices to drop, and jeopardizing
their debt obligations to reduce spending on the development of the town or city.
domestic services, while at the same time they are Of particular note regarding solid waste and the
pressured to maintain low tariffs for public poor, is the case of waste pickers (or informal
cleaning services by the population. In addition, recyclers) and their families that live in, on, and
insufficient education on hygiene and sanitation, around the garbage heaps found near urban areas.
and a lack of community involvement contribute Because of hard economic conditions and
to a great reluctance on the part of the population accelerated rural migration, many families struggle
to pay for waste management and disposal to cope by harvesting, utilizing, and selling the
services. The often poor quality of these services resources contained in the waste. These families
further aggravates the problem. This whole often live in extremely unsafe and degrading
situation places public health at risk, increases the conditions. Aside from the serious risks to their
pollution of natural resources, and leads to a health from the hazardous and medical wastes to
deterioration in the life quality of the population. which they are exposed, such environments are
Unlike the affluent areas wherein regular pick- particularly rife with violence, including fights with
up services routinely collect household refuse, knives and guns, as well as traffic accidents.
there are still many neighbourhoods where garbage Despite these grave risks, the recycling that they
is not collected. In poor neighborhoods it rots in do provides a valuable service to the economy and
the streets, thereby providing a breeding site for the environment. Thus, an improvement of their
flies, mosquitoes, rats and other disease-carrying conditions is in the interests of both environmental
pests, blocks street drains and causes flooding, or it and social justice.
is burned and increases urban air pollution levels.
Many of the affected households are located in Final Disposal
poor peri-urban communities where municipal The state of final disposal services at the present
trucks cannot enter because streets are too narrow. time in Latin America provides perhaps the most
These populations that have settled on the convincing evidence of the inadequacy of the
outskirts of large cities are usually affected by both current solid waste management situation in these
the absence of a refuse collection service, and the countries. Only about 60% of the solid waste
presence of garbage dumps. Open dumps are collected from the principal cities of Latin America
Vector-borne diseases associated with municipal waste
Bubonic plague
Bites, urine, feces
Rats Murine typhus
Fleas
Leptospirosis
Malaria Lishmaniasis
Mosquitoes Female mosquito bites Yellow fever Dengue
Filariasis
Cysticercosis Toxoplasmosis
Pigs Ingestion of contaminated meat
Trichinosis Taeniasis
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Listening To The Earth
is treated and/or disposed of in accordance with this case, the recycling bins were placed by a
modern technical and public health standards. specific glass manufacturer, which also carried out
This corresponds to only about 35% of the total a public education program. The other experiences
waste generated in the region. The rest normally have not been as successful, mostly because of the
ends up in unregulated open dumps which fail to lack of public education on the benefits of this
meet even the minimum criteria for environmental practice.
safety, and which are permanent sources of Only a few organisations, usually NGOs or
contamination and health risk. The situation in development aid organisations, act to support
small and medium-sized cities is worse: rough those involved in informal recovery or recycling.
estimates are that no more than 20% of the waste The municipalities usually take no responsibility
produced in these municipalities is being treated. for these activities despite the role which they
Again, it is usually the waste generated by the could be playing to stimulate source separation, to
poorest people which is handled improperly. reduce the volume of waste requiring disposal, and
Even where controlled landfills do exist, to conserve natural resources.
leachates from these landfills are generally allowed Nevertheless, in some cases the conditions of
to seep unrestricted into the ground, or to flow waste pickers have been improved through their
directly into irrigation ditches or surface streams organization and training. The most notable
without any treatment. experiences are found in Colombia, but a number
of other countries (Argentina, Brazil, Panama,
Recovery and Recycling Peru, and Venezuela) have followed suit. Recycling
Recovery and recycling are usually not considered organizations have led to the formation of
to be part of the formal waste management system cooperatives or small-scale enterprises. In all cases,
in Latin America, as they have come to be in some the organizations have been promoted by outside
countries, and as such they are still perceived as institutions such as NGOs or the local solid waste
being completely outside of public or municipal authority (the best cases for this can be observed
responsibility. In many cases, in an ostensible in Belo Horizonte and Porto Alegre, Brazil, and in
effort to protect the public’s health, these activities Mexico City). In the Brazilian cases, the waste
have been forbidden and the violators punished, authority has provided a site where those in charge
despite the fact that waste picking allows vast of recycling can carry out their work. This is also
sectors of the urban population to generate the case for Mexico City, where a recycling plant
subsistence income. Between 50,000-100,000 that processes more than 3,200 tons per year has
people, often assisted by their families, are been installed. In both cases, all revenues go to
estimated to be involved in largely informal those who separate the material, while the
recovery and recycling activities in the principal municipal authority benefits by increasing the
cities alone. lifetime of the landfill and reducing the
Nevertheless, there is a growing trend toward transportation time to the landfill.
resource recovery and recycling, particularly within
larger industries. Large scale recycling programs of Public Education
non-hazardous industrial solid wastes have been In spite of the general deficiencies in urban
established in Colombia, Mexico, and Venezuela. services, there are few existing educational
Wastes (mostly paper, cardboard, bottles, plastics programmes which seek to reduce, prevent, or
and ferrous metals) are separated in the industrial minimise the generation of solid waste at source.
premises and sold to specialized private recyclers. Unfortunately, product advertising actively
In Colombia, this program resulted from a promotes a shift to less recyclable products and
cooperative effort to find jobs for former landfill packages. Many supermarkets and commercial
waste pickers. Generally, except for plastics, this establishments seem to confuse the term ‘modern’
type of recycling is profitable and environmentally with ‘disposable packaging.’ Only a few
adequate. organisations have attempted to address this trend
In some large Argentine, Brazilian, Colombian, and to increase public understanding of and
and Mexican cities, recycling bins have been set up conduct towards a more environmentally sound
outside supermarkets, where glass and paper approach to ‘modernization.’
products can be deposited. The most successful Nevertheless, there is a trend toward the
experience is that of glass recycling in Colombia. In development of environmental awareness in
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children. The underlying concept here is that the inability to invest in and operate basic sanitary
most important target group in public education is landfills. Municipalities in Latin America generally
children, and that schools can be the avenue to lack the managerial, technical, and financial
teach them. Thus, environmental awareness, capacities necessary to adequately administer solid
including proper handling of solid waste, is waste services. Departments in charge of solid
increasingly incorporated as part of the elementary waste management are generally of lower rank in
school curriculum. The programs include the administrative hierachy, and staff lack the
development of textbooks, teacher training, and appropriate technical background, while resources
hands-on activities. The latter mainly concentrate for capacity enhancement (such as training) are
on recycling, but also deal with environmental slim. In addition, high staff turnover following the
health education. These activities also aim to be local elections contributes to these difficulties.
financially self-sustaining; income from the sale of Moreover, solid waste management generally ranks
recycled products is used to improve the sanitation as a lower priority than, for example, water supply
systems in the schools and, in some cases, to and sanitation services, and therefore receives even
purchase teaching materials. less attention and budget.
In general, one can say that far too many
Contributions to the Mismanagement of Waste municipalities have failed to reach minimum levels
of institutional, administrative and economic
Considered broadly, there are a number of root capacities, and are far behind in attaining
causes for the solid waste management crisis in technically adequate waste handling procedures.
general, and its acuteness in poor communities in Most municipal waste management or public
particular. The most important are: works organizations are severely limited in their
• accelerated urban growth, which outstrips the ability to offer service. It is not exaggerating to
capacity of the state (as represented by characterise as deficient virtually all the services
municipal government) to meet the needs of related to waste management in many Latin
the steadily increasing population for basic American countries.
urban services;
• the growing quantity of waste generated each What’s Being Done?
day;
• the economic crises of Latin America, which Solid waste management is a growing
result in the reduction of public expenditure, environmental and social problem in the urban
which in turn has a negative effect on municipal areas of Latin America, despite many well-
budgets; motivated attempts at solutions in recent decades.
• the structural inability of municipal There are only a few municipalities in the region
corporations to adequately offer this and other which have been able to adequately manage the
services, due in part to the obsolescence of the accelerated production of urban waste.
political systems which support them; Although a series of formal, largely imported
• the generally high cost of solid waste services, as solutions ostensibly aimed at technology transfer
they are normally conceived, compounded by and institutional capacity-building have been
inadequate or non-existent systems for tested in Latin America in the last fifteen years, the
collection of service fees, and the lack of products of these efforts—sewers, wastewater
willingness of the population to pay for solid plants, landfills, and etc.—have yielded little
waste management services. progress in spite of the large investments made,
• the population’s indifference to the problem, and debt incurred.
which is exacerbated by a lack of public health Despite these failures, or perhaps because of
education or access to civic or political them, significant sectors of the Latin American
participation. population are seeking to invent effective
The structural difficulties of the municipalities alternatives to waste management problems
stand out among these causes. While the through their own direct and active participation
municipalities theoretically fulfill the principal in solving the problems. They are opting to take
functions of operating, regulating, and supervising responsibility for urban waste management
the range of activities related to urban waste services into their own hands. This has led to an
management, shrinking budgets have led to an increase in the efforts of collectives, cooperatives,
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Cardboard
Organic
Styrofoam
Paper
Rubber
Rope
Glass
Iron/ Steel
Batterie
Alum. Cans
Fabric
Wood
Cigarrette butts
Etc.
total total
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Total waste generated weekly (kg): Has your community implemented a plan to
minimize the generation of this particular waste
Name of supervisor for this community unit: component?
Yes / No
Why is so much waste generated?
Describe plan:
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c Discarding on side of highway (without If so, who is the party responsible for this service? It
regular collection service) would be helpful to record this information below, and to
c Periodic collection (either communal or contact them for help in answering the following
individual property collection points) questions:
c Direct disposal into a managed
landfill/controlled community dump Name of collection service:
About how often does your community rid itself of its Contact information:
accumulated solid waste?
c Daily
c Weekly Contact person:
c Monthly
c Quarterly According to the Collection Service, what policies (if
c Longer any) does the Service have regarding what will and will
not be collected?
About how much weight is disposed at each interval
(kg)?
Is there a community member in charge of solid waste According to the Collection Service, what is expected of
disposal? residents; i.e. how are residents expected to cooperate
Yes / No with the Service (including payments)?
(e.g. municipality, private company, individual, etc.) If the recycling program is a service of your larger
community, who is the party responsible for this service?
Does your community include this expense in its regular It would be helpful to record this information below, and
budget? to contact them for help in answering the following
Yes / No questions:
Contact information:
Is there a collection service in your greater community
that collects rubbish from residences on a regular basis? Contact person:
Yes / No
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Are these waste components separated: Have the managers/supervisers of the landfill been
c directly by your community trained in operating practices for sanitary landfills?
c by others in your larger community Yes / No
c by the staff at the recycling center
What policies (if any) does the landfill service have
What limitations do(es) the recycling service(s) face regarding what wastes will or will not be accepted?
that restrict the materials that can be accepted for
recycling?
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If Yes, what design and/or operating features are in If not, has the landfill management done
place (e.g. use of impermeable layers at the base and anything to improve the situation? Please
sides of landfill, leachate collection and treatment, daily describe:
soil cover, etc.)?
What pollutants, if any, have been found in the It will be helpful to contact the workers who are
wastewater discharged by the landfill? involved in waste handling. Such employees
include but are not limited to: collection workers,
landfill employees, recycling service employees, or
an association or union of such employees.
Name of association:
Has a regulatory agency found the landfill to have
been in violation of applicable environmental Contact information:
regulations in the past three years?
Yes / No
Contact person:
What measures are in place to manage and/ or utilize
the gases produced by the decomposing wastes? Have these workers been provided personal health
and safety training to be able to perform their duties
safely?
Yes / No
Do waste pickers at the landfill use any personal What is the average wage that workers are paid for
protective equipment (e.g. gloves, aprons, etc.) their labor?
Yes / No
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What avenues exist for workers to influence the policies Name of organization:
that govern their working conditions?
Contact information:
Contact person:
6B. Governmental Regulatory Agency
According to these experts, what threats to the
Your government should have an agency/ministry surrounding environment does the landfill or dump
that is responsible for enforcing any environmental pose?
regulations that apply to the operation of the
landfill or dump in your area, as well as
administering other environmental regulations.
Consult such agency to answer the following If the present measures being taken to safeguard the
questions. environment are inadequate, what do these experts
recommend for improvement?
Name of agency:
Contact information:
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do your municipality’s present waste management Does there exist a public cleaning service that is charged
practices pose? with removing solid waste from such places as roads and
sidewalks, etc.?
Yes / No
According to these experts, what actions might your If the cleaning service does not satisfactorily maintain
religious community take to work toward public safety in clean public areas, what impediments or limitations are
these regards? affecting their service? (It would be most helpful to
contact the service or employees thereof to answer this)
Are there easily visible trash receptacles present in public Are the members of your religious community well
areas for people to dispose of their incidental trash? informed about the environmental dangers inherent to
Yes / No present waste handling practices?
Who is responsible for emptying or carting the Yes / No
accumulated trash away from the site?
Is your religious community engaged in any action to
change the present waste handling practices of your
Are the trash receptacles generally emptied before larger community?
they are overfilled? Yes / No
Yes / No
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waste stream produces the largest volume of waste. disposed of separately in a manner specific to the
Reduction efforts can then be directed toward type of waste. Refer to the next section
improvements in that specific area. The second (‘Hazardous Waste’) for more information
suggestion is to focus on the types of waste that are regarding hazardous waste management.
most frequently discarded. Here waste reduction Your community should keep track of waste
efforts can be applied more generally throughout disposal expenses, and include them in the regular
your entire community. budget. Furthermore, the staff that is involved in
The most challenging phase of assessment handling community waste should be interviewed
involves evaluating and prioritizing waste for information regarding any problems that they
reduction alternatives for immediate, short-term, encounter with present practices.
and long-term attention. The number of Community staff that handles waste should be
alternatives selected and their order of priority will well-informed about the hazards of being exposed
depend on the resources available and other to and working with waste. Heavy gloves, aprons,
priorities of your community. A clear boots, and other protective gear may be
understanding of the time and money that can be appropriate. See the information contained below
allocated for implementation of alternatives is under Seeking Expert Advice—Labor, page 134.
needed in order to make appropriate To keep your community and village/municipal
recommendations. environment clean, and to reduce health risks,
You must set some initial priorities. Some waste solid waste must be disposed of properly.
reduction options are obviously easier and less Untreated refuse is unsightly and smelly and
expensive to implement than others. For example, degrades both the quality of life in the community
planning to eliminate waste before it enters your and the quality of the environment. It also
community and other measures that require little, provides a breeding ground for disease vectors,
if any, capital expenditure, technical resources, or such as mosquitoes, flies and rats. If waste is not
disruption of operations should be readily properly disposed, animals can bring it close to
approved and implemented as soon as practical. homes and children especially can come into
If you or your team are not directly responsible contact with disease vectors and pathogens. Below,
for the implementation of new community policies the various methods of ultimately removing solid
and practices, and must instead present your ideas waste from your community are discussed with the
to another committee or community member, be intention of highlighting the most frequent
sure to spend adequate time preparing your problems with each method.
presentation. From the data collected in the
inventory it should be possible to generate visual A. Open pit/pile/dump located on community
aids such as charts and graphs, which may be grounds or in larger community
valuable additions to your presentation. The garbage ‘dump’ is one of humanity’s oldest
methods for getting rid of the waste matter
Our community is continually identifying and resulting from different activities. A place where
implementing new ways to reduce the amount of waste solid waste is thrown without any attempt at
we produce. sorting or treatment, that operates without
123456789 technical criteria—having no sanitary control, nor
measures to prevent environmental
2. Community’s Practice for Solid Waste contamination—is called a dump. Such sites
Collection and/or End-Disposal severely impact the air, water and soil with released
gases, leached liquids, smoke, dust, and nauseating
Before referring below to the specific method of odors; in addition they pose serious health hazards
rubbish removal, it should be stressed that the as they are breeding grounds for a number of
amount of, and types of waste discarded should be vectors, diseases, and if unguarded, they pose
minimized. Preferably nothing besides serious risks for physical injury.
unrecyclable waste should be discarded to a Because of these problems and their severity, if
dump/landfill. Waste minimization efforts should open dumping is your community’s practice, it
include composting of organic materials or should be discontinued—or at the very least,
recycling of items that can be reused or improved if possible.
remanufactured. Hazardous waste should be If a dump is being operated nearby, it is most
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important to ensure that the dump is not be D. Discarding on side of highway (without
located close to a water source, because toxic regular collection service)
chemicals and pathogens can leach into the water. In many areas, especially near cities, it is a
The dump absolutely should be fenced off to common practice to place small piles of refuse
prevent access by scavenging animals and children. alongside a highway or other well-traveled
At the end of each day, any new waste should be roadway. This practice certainly increases the
covered with a layer of clean soil 0.1 metre deep to visibility of items that may be reused or recycled to
prevent flies from breeding. While these measures citizens who are in that market; however, for the
may help to reduce some of the most immediate most part, the practice is a nuisance and
risks, it is most important that your community potentially dangerous. Aesthetically, it is very
work to change this prevailing practice. Refer to unappealing and contributes to increased vector
the List of Categorized References for information populations. Furthermore, the waste often scatters
regarding sanitary solid waste disposal practices. and becomes an injury hazard especially for
children. Thus, if this is the practice of your
B.Incineration /burning community, more suitable options should be
Disposal of household waste by burning outdoors, discovered and implemented.
commonly in 55-gallon barrels or sometimes
directly on the ground, occurs in urban, as well as E. Periodic collection (communal or
rural or agricultural areas, where feed bags and individual property collection points)
other commercial packaging are burned. Many In some communities where a periodic collection
view open burning as a low-cost, convenient service exists, there are a series of shared
solution to deal with household waste, especially in communal collection points that are emptied or
rural areas where waste management infrastructure cleared at regular intervals, usually by paid
is limited. Unfortunately, this practice is a employees; in others there is a regular (e.g. weekly
significant source of air pollution and has been or bi-weekly) collection service that picks up refuse
shown to be highly toxic to animals and humans. from individual properties. In either case, the
Hence, if this is your community’s practice, collected refuse is then taken (usually trucked) to
alternatives should be sought and implemented as its final disposal site, which is often a municipal
soon as possible. landfill, incinerator, or other facility.
If either service is available in your area, you
C.Dumping into ocean or other nearby may want to assess the efficacy and safety of the
waterway service. It is also important to discover the final
Dumping refuse into waterways is a very poor disposal site that the service utilizes. Continue to
practice and should be avoided at all costs. This number 3 for further discussion of these practices.
practice contaminates both fresh waters and
oceans with a variety of toxins, some of which are F. Direct disposal into a managed landfill/
difficult or impossible to remove. This is an community dump
especially critical problem where the contaminated If your community disposes of its refuse directly
water is used for drinking. Refuse disposed in into a dump or landfill without the assistance of a
water also causes more direct health hazards to collection service, it is important that the
people who use the water for bathing and/or community members involved in this work be
recreation, like punctures, cuts, and infections. afforded means of protecting themselves from the
Aquatic wildlife are also negatively impacted by hazards of working with waste. Similarly
wastes of many sorts. Thus, in the interests of important is the maintenance of whatever
preserving waterways and water sources for this equipment is used to transport the waste from your
generation and the next, refuse should not be community to the disposal site. The site of end
disposed of in waterways. disposal should preferably be a sanitary landfill.
Unfortunately, a significant number of entities This topic is discussed more fully in number 4
(including industries, municipalities, and below.
individuals) use this as an end disposal method for
solid waste and sludge residues from incineration Our community strives to dispose of its waste in the
facilities. If this practice occurs in your area, you most environmentally benign manner possible
should help to work to find new alternatives. 123456789
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Our community works to increase (or sustain) the Thus, any recycling effort will generally involve
benefits of our waste collection service. both the collection and sorting of materials, as well
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 / not applicable as finding markets for the recyclable materials.
The most efficient means of separation is at the
4. Recycling source: i.e. by not mixing recyclable materials
together with other solid waste components in the
‘Recycling’ is a term that means returning products first place. However, even if recyclable materials
or materials back into productive use after they are separated from other solid waste components,
have lost their original value (to their original they are often collected as a mixture including
owner). In other words, ‘recycling’ means turning different types of material. Thus, some amount of
solid waste components into products with a sorting and separation is often required, which
value—financial or otherwise. Recycling may or adds expense to the recovery process. At a recycling
may not require a treatment or remanufacturing plant, either manual or mechanical means may be
processes; however there are considerable benefits employed for separating recyclable components;
in either case. (Often, the term ‘recycle’ is used to nevertheless, public cooperation in separating at
denote the use of solid waste components after a the source is critical for the optimum collection of
treatment or remanufacturing process, whereas materials for recovery.
‘reuse’ is used to denote their use without any Markets for recovered products often consist of
special processing.) the products’ original manufacturers. For example,
Compared to reducing the amount of solid aluminum manufacturers are generally interested
waste generated, recycling and/or reusing solid in purchasing recovered aluminum; similarly for
waste components is the next most important steel, plastic, and paper products. Nevertheless,
element for the sustainable management of solid diverse markets may exist for recovered materials;
waste. There are three primary reasons for this. for example, paper wastes can be compacted into
First, recycling is essential for the conservation of dense fuel briquettes and used for cooking to
natural resources, since it reduces the demand for supplement firewood. Municipal governments and
raw materials. Second, recycling has the potential local cooperatives may be involved in the
to significantly reduce the total volume of solid collection and composting of organic wastes for use
waste needing treatment and disposal, which by residents or farmers as valuable soil. In
preserves the land required for landfilling, reduces addition, public policy and laws may be instituted
costs, and reduces the associated discharges (gases that require product manufacturers to reclaim the
and leachates). Third, the use of recycled materials waste components that their products generate,
and products greatly reduces the amount of energy particularly if those waste components are
required in manufacturing processes, a topic which hazardous.
is covered in more detail in Chapter 5 of this An important aspect of recovery and recycling
manual. Consequently, recycling and productively activities in Latin America especially is the role
using ‘wastes’ are important activities for the that ‘scavengers’ play. Since many areas either have
sustainable management of solid waste no collection and separation program, or lack the
There are several solid waste components that resources for one with an adequate capacity, several
have the potential to be recycled. These include people earn their living by picking materials from
but are not limited to plastic, glass, metals, paper, the waste stream, (either from the roadside or from
and corrugated packaging; as well, organic wastes garbage dumps), and them finding the markets for
(which form a large percentage of the solid waste in the products themselves. The informal recovery of
Latin America), can be collected and composted recyclable materials represents a significant
rather than dumped. Fruit and vegetable waste, contribution to the amount of material recovered,
animal dung and even leaves from trees can break and as well they help to relieve the financial
down to form the valuable soil conditioner and burden of a municipalities and recycling centers
fertilizer called ‘compost.’ that must pay workers to separate materials.
At least two components are necessary for a Unfortunately, scavengers (or ‘waste-pickers’)
recycling program: 1) the material to be recycled often work under very poor conditions. They are
must be separate (or separated from) other solid often not well trained in personal safety which
waste components, and 2) there must be a useful makes their work particularly hazardous, and they
destination or a market for the recyclable material. are often public denigrated for the work, especially
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smelling black liquid, known as leached or of vermin and other vectors, access restrictions,
percolated liquid, that looks like domestic water and controls over what types of waste are accepted.
waste, but is much more concentrated. The volume A sanitary landfill is operated by trained and
of the leachate is greatly increased by rainwater knowledgable managers that use engineering
filtering through the layers of waste. Leachate is principles to confine the waste to as small an area
highly toxic, as it contains an abundance of as possible, and anticipate the problems that could
pathogens and dissolved substances. be caused by the liquids and gases produced by the
Gases: Once buried, organic waste decomposes wastes. Sanitary landfills incorporate both design
anaerobically—meaning without oxygen. As a features and operational procedures to maintain
result, the decomposing waste produces quantities high levels of environmental protection and public
of methane gas (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2), as safety, some of which are briefly described below:
well as traces of foul-smelling gases, such as
hydrogen sulfide (H2S), ammonia (NH3), and • To protect ground and surface waters from
other gases. Methane gas deserves the greatest the leachate, the sanitary landfill will be
attention because, although it is odorless and contained by an impermeable barrier
colorless, it is inflammable and explosive if it underneath and around the waste which
becomes concentrated. Since gases have a prevent leachate from seeping or flowing
tendency to accumulate in empty spaces inside a into the environment. The landfill should
landfill, explosions are possible if proper measures be designed so that the leachate can be
are not taken to prevent them. intercepted, collected and treated (on or off
Left unmanaged, these byproducts obviously site) before it is released. As part of
pose several environmental and health risks; operational policy, the surrounding ground
however, when managed properly the risks can be and surface waters will be regularly
greatly reduced. The most serious risk that land- analyzed to ascertain that no pollution is
disposal sites can pose to the environment is the occuring.
pollution of surface waters and groundwater by • A sanitary landfill will also incorporate
leachates. Air quality can also be negatively features which either vent, reclaim, or
impacted not only by bad odors, but by smoke utilize the methane gas generated by the
from burning waste and by wind-borne dust that decomposition process. Since methane gas
can spread harmful pathogens that irritate the nose can be used as a fuel, several options exist
and eyes, or cause respiratory infections. for its ultimate handling; however, for the
Land disposal can also pose several public purposes of safety it is most important that
health risks. Besides the possibility of explosions it be safely vented.
and other direct physical risks (e.g. punctures, cuts, • The operation of the landfill will use cover
other injuries) for those present in/on the disposal material (earth) to confine the waste at the
site, if proper operational measures are not taken, end of each working day, to prevent (or
land-disposal sites become the breeding ground greatly reduce) vector breeding.
and habitat of harmful animals and insects that • A sanitary landfill will restrict the accepted
can transmit many diseases. Any animals that visit waste to include only non-hazardous and
or live in disposal sites are a hazard for the health non-medical materials; as well, the accepted
and safety of local inhabitants, in particular for wastes will be compacted so that they
families who near (or on) the site. The health risks occupy less space in the landfill—items like
are particularly severe if medical wastes are rubber tires will not be accepted because
included in the acculumated wastes, since they they do not compact.
contain highly infectious materials combined with • Access to the site will be regulated so that
extremely sharp objects. only those who are knowledgable about the
A land-disposal site that operates without any hazards present may enter. All those who
regulations, controls or safety measures, and so are present are provided personal protective
poses the serious environmental and safety equipment.to protect themselves against
problems discussed above, is called an open dump. the hazards. (This does not imply that
In contrast, a sanitary landfill is a land-disposal waste pickers/ informal recyclers are to be
site that attains to high standards of air quality, excluded—on the contrary, efforts should
groundwater and surface water protection, control be made to improve their health and work
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community participation in this service; and when All waste from communal collection points
they do, the public response tends to be apathetic should be collected several times a week and taken
in response to the deficient quality of the waste to a designated disposal site. It can be transported
collection services, which leave the streets and in boxes, or by handcarts, animal carts, bicycles
surrounding areas littered and dirty. with box containers, tractors with trailers and skip-
Coverage by waste collection services averages trucks. The waste should preferably be collected by
about 70% in large Latin American cities having staff wearing protective clothing and masks, who
populations in excess of a million inhabitants; in are trained in safe disposal methods.
smaller cities this coverage is estimated to range If your area has a problem with litter, it is often
between 50% and 70%. Here too, it is normally the necessary that the attitude and habits of a
high and middle-income areas that enjoy regular significant portion of the population be changed,
service, while low-income neighbourhoods can and that the public become active participants in
count only on erratic service when they have any litter control. These undertakings require well-
at all. organized and energetic campaigns towards which
In many of the capital cities of Latin America, your religious community may contribute.
including Tegucigalpa, Managua, San Salvador,
Caracas, Lima and Asunción, waste collection Our community is doing all that it can to help
coverage remains below 40% for the low—income eliminate public litter.
areas. 123456789
Transport of waste to its final disposal site is
becoming increasing difficult and costly, given the 8. Education
lack of adequate or conveniently located final
disposal sites. Because of this, it is common for a Public Awareness and Education
large part of the solid waste which does get Sanitary and environmental education are
collected to end up in open dumps located along essential if populations are to effectively address
the road to the final disposal site. the problems caused by inadequate solid waste
The remoteness of final disposal sites has also management. Awareness is essential for a change of
caused an increase in the use of waste transfer attitude that will enable people to understand the
points or transfer stations as a more efficient and complexity of the problem and the requirements
cost-effective method of moving the waste to for a good collection, treatment, and final disposal
disposal. Notwithstanding, the use of transfer system. It is equally important that the public be
points or stations remains the exception, and these made aware of the costs involved and the
are in use in only a few cities. obligation of all citizens to pay for waste handling
Communal collection points are particularly services to ensure their sustainability.
important at places such as markets and bus Educational campaigns help citizens
stations, where large numbers of people congregate understand that the problem of waste disposal is a
and food is prepared, sold and eaten. Communal complex one, and that it is not going to be solved
containers (trash receptacles), such as empty oil by their dumping the garbage somewhere on the
drums, skips or concrete bunkers, can be located outskirts of their neighborhood. A community that
strategically, so that solid waste is collected at a perceives waste management as a matter of self-
single site. If communal concrete bunkers are interest should thus be willing to give cooperative
constructed, they should have holes at the base to and enthusiastic support, and similarly should be
encourage drainage away from the bunkers, but committed to long-term participation.
care must be taken not to cause contamination of An important context for community education
either groundwater or surface water sources. is the general tendency of many citizens to look
Ideally, water from the waste bunkers should flow down on the collectors of recyclables and other
into the drainage system and be treated before it waste workers. For this reason, cooperatives in
enters a river or stream. It is preferable that Brazil and Colombia pay a lot of attention to the
vegetable waste is not disposed of in communal organisation of educational campaigns which
collection points unless these are emptied on a feature the importance of recycling. In this way
daily basis. Vegetable matter decomposes rapidly, is they facilitate the public’s collaboration in
often very smelly and may cause significant recovery activities.
contamination of groundwater sources.
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Conclusions
Now enter the scores from each section in the column at Now categorize each problem listed above into one
right of the following three categories:
score I = Critically important. Currently dangerous,
must be addressed immediately
1. Waste reduction and monitoring II = Important, but not immediately dangerous.
practices Must be addressed
III = Current practice should be improved, but is
2. Ecological disposal practices not immediately needed
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How Hazardous Waste Affects Health How Hazardous Waste Affects the Environment
While the massive expansion in the availability Industrial accidents can be very severe
and use of chemicals during the past few decades catastrophes which destroy the vitality of entire
has led to increasing awareness by the public, the ecosystems, kill people, animals, and plant life; and
medical profession, and public authorities of the can leave the affected area ravished for decades.
risks to human health posed by exposure to these These large-scale releases of toxic chemicals poison
chemicals, the actual global incidence of chemical the life exposed to them, but the more lasting
poisoning is not known. Nevertheless, it is damage is due to the fact that the soil and
speculated that several hundred thousand people groundwater become contaminated, and it requires
die each year as a result of various kinds of a very long time for these to be purified.
poisoning. The World Health Organization Furthermore, as chemicals enter water, whether
conservatively estimates that the incidence of above ground or below, they are carried by the
pesticide poisoning, which is particularly high in current and thereby contaminate everything
Latin American countries, has doubled during the downstream. Contaminated groundwater also
past 10 years; however, the number of cases that means contaminated drinking water.
occur each year throughout the world, and the The severity of industrial spills is due to the
severity of cases that are reported, are unknown. highly concentrated nature of the chemicals
How health effects manifest and become released. Thus, one may be tempted to think that
noticeable depends upon the nature of the household hazardous waste, being much more
substance to which a person is exposed, as well as dilute and diffuse, is not a cause for concern,
both the concentration and duration of exposure. especially when compared to the dangers of
For instance, long-term low-level (‘chronic’) industrial wastes. However, the release of
exposure can be equally as dangerous as short-term household hazardous waste into the environment
high-level (‘acute’) exposure, although in the latter can actually have serious consequences, especially
case the effects would most likely manifest very for drinking water supplies. Indeed, the disposal of
soon after exposure, while in the former, effects household hazardous waste into landfills or sewer
often can only be seen after many years. systems directly contributes to major
Additionally, many substances can have both long environmental problems on the scale of those
and short-term effects, and the particular effects created by industry.
depend upon the substance to which a person has When hazardous chemicals enter a landfill, two
been exposed. Each substance affects the body very important and dangerous processes occur.
differently. First, as water and other liquids ‘leach’ through
Health effects of exposure can be more the wastes, different chemicals begin to react. The
dangerous if certain other factors exist. For reactions, of course, are highly varied depending
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Adapted from Household Hazardous Wastes, Fact sheet no. 88-3, University of Rhode Island, 1988
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upon the substances involved; these reactions can What needs to be done?
be explosive, let off poisonous gas, create heat, or
create a more toxic substance than either of the Unfortunately, there is no easy answer to this
original components. This poses serious hazards question. In some countries there are special
particularly to employees of landfills, recycling collection programs that are intended to keep
services, informal recyclers or scavengers, and hazardous components out of the main waste
anyone present in or around a waste disposal site. streams. However, it is rationally argued that this
However, the emissions resulting from these process further concentrates the toxic substances,
reactions are dangerous to everybody since they and thus is only staving off one problem to create
may be particularly poisonous forms of air and another, potentially more fatal problem elsewhere.
water pollution. Thus, as a second step to the segregation process, the
Secondly, the hazardous wastes concentrate in a chemicals are reacted in order to form less hazardous
landfill simply by design (as a landfill is a ‘central’ compounds. The expense of this procedure can be
depot for a wide geographic area), and also by the very high, and thus out of the reach of many
leachate action. The toxicity of a landfill’s leachate municipalities, states, and even nations.
is directly related to the quantity and toxicity of This fact, along with a few others, led the
hazardous materials mixed in with other solid United Nations Environmental Programme to
waste. This is a pernicious problem since most conclude, ‘There are no specific, cost-effective
landfills are not capable of containing nor treating sound practices that can be recommended for
this hazardous leachate. Thus landfill leachate is household hazardous waste management in [the
similar to the concentrated wastes of other Latin American region]. Rather, since concentrated
industries. The landfill leachate will naturally enter wastes tend to create more of a hazard, it is best to
and contaminate both surface waters and dispose of household hazardous wastes jointly with
groundwaters, as well as the surrounding soil. the municipal solid waste stream in a landfill...’
A similar situation occurs in a sewer network, Clearly, this weak advice is not adequate, as landfill
since the wastes of several sources are combined leachate and untreated, chemically contaminated
and often released to a single location, making this sewage are serious sources of environmental
a site of concentrated chemical waste. contamination.
Thus, it is important to keep household Simply put, hazardous wastes need to be
hazardous wastes out of landfills and sewers. So, eliminated, or at least drastically reduced. This
what should be done with such wastes? should be the goal of any hazardous waste
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E. Rate how well those who use this product adhere to Type of Waste: Estimated Quantity
the person protection measures recommended:
0123456789 ..................................................... ...................
(completely ignore… …adhere fully)
Considering the personal protection measures ..................................................... ...................
recommended for this product, does your community
possess all items that are necessary for safety (e.g. ..................................................... ...................
gloves, aprons, safety glasses, masks, foot coverings,
eye wash equipment, etc.)? ..................................................... ...................
Yes / No
If not, describe which supplies are recommended but ..................................................... ...................
not presently available in your community:
..................................................... ...................
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Listening To The Earth
Do any recycling programs exist in your country for Hazardous Products and Wastes
motor oil, automotive batteries, dry cell batteries, Handling: Evaluation
antifreeze, or any other hazardous material?
Yes / No At the end of each discussion section, there will be a
statement and a list of numbers from which to choose.
If so, are they accessible to your community? List Choose a number from 1-9 to indicate your assessment
any available programs below: of how well your community represents the statement
given. (1 = disagree, community practices unhealthy; 9
= agree completely, no change needed)
Does your country have laws that mandate labeling Although the checklist provided at the beginning
requirements for products containing hazardous of the inventory section (page 143) is by no means
components? an exhaustive list of hazardous products that may
Yes / No / Pending Legislation be present in your community, it is intended to be
Notes: a guide in your effort to identify the types of
products most likely to contain hazardous
compounds, as well as the areas of activity that
hazards are likely to be found.
In order to identify which products are
hazardous, check the product’s container.
Especially if your country has mandatory labeling
requirements for hazardous products, you will find
signal words on the label like ‘DANGER’, ‘TOXIC’,
Does your country have any laws pertaining to ‘WARNING’, or ‘CAUTION’ if the product is
manufacturer take-back policies for products which hazardous.
contain hazardous components? To learn what chemicals are included in the
Yes / No / Pending Legislation product, you may need to use an outside reference
Notes: if they are not listed on the product container.
Besides contacting the manufacturer directly, there
is a large database of products, their components,
hazards, and safe handling suggestions maintained
by the United States National Institute of Health,
called the Household Products Database. Although
this database is only available online in English
(http://hpd.nlm.nih.gov/), it contains a tremendous
amount of valuable information.
Safe handling suggestions for the product may
also be included on the manufacturer’s product
label, or found in the above database. However, if
you are unable to find safe handling instructions
from these sources, perhaps a call to your
Environmental Ministry or a Consumer Advocacy
organization could help. You may find these
resources in the List of Categorical References
found at the back of this manual.
As mentioned in the introductory material to
this section, safe disposal options for household
hazardous waste are limited or even non-existent
for much of Latin America at this present time.
Nevertheless, your community should seek out
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expert advice to learn what options are available in product, as explosive chemical reactions or
your area. It is most important that your toxic materials may result.
community protect your water and air resources by • Follow directions carefully. Use the amount
not burning or dumping any chemical. Certainly directed, under the conditions specified, for
the most important thing your community can do the purpose listed.
is eliminate the use of as many hazardous products • Do not smoke while working with
as possible, by substituting them with less flammable chemicals.
hazardous alternatives wherever possible. • Keep away from open flame.
Change in buying, storage and usage habits may • Provide adequate ventilation.
reduce your exposure to household hazardous
wastes. The general tips listed below are offered as Protection Devices
a guide for best practices concerning hazardous • Wear protective gloves, long sleeves and
products. goggles when indicated by contact hazards
• Use chemical cartridge respirators or other
Questions to Answer Before Purchasing Hazardous breathing masks when respiratory
Products protection is indicated by harmful vapors
• Do we really need this product?
• Does it contain an ingredient that is Additional information regarding each category of
hazardous to people or pets? products provided on the checklist is given below.
• Could we use a less hazardous substance?
• Are we keeping too many different Cleaning Products
chemicals in our community? Common Ingredients and their Hazards:
• Will we be able to properly dispose of this • Ammonia (glass cleaner)
product and its packaging? Lung and skin irritant. If mixed with
• Can we store this product safely in our chorine, releases toxic chloramine gas.
community? Short-term exposure to chloramine gas may
• Are we buying only as much as we will use? cause coughing, choking and lung damage.
Asthmatics may be particularly vulnerable
Read the Label to chloramine fumes.
Read all precautionary statements and warnings • Sodium hypochlorite (chlorine bleach)
Lung and eye irritant. Household bleach is
Buying Practices the most common cleaner accidentally
• Reduce the amount of HHW you generate swallowed by children. If mixed with
by buying less toxic or non-toxic ammonia or acid-based cleaners (including
alternatives. vinegar), releases highly toxic chloramine
• Buy only what you need. gas.
• Phenol and cresol (disinfectants)
Storage Practices Corrosive; can cause diarrhea, fainting,
• Keep unused products in original dizziness, and kidney and liver damage.
containers. • Petroleum distillates (metal polishes)
• Never store chemicals in food or beverage Short-term exposure can cause temporary
containers. eye clouding; longer exposure can damage
• Preserve labels for directions, disposal the nervous system, skin, kidneys, and
suggestions and warnings. eyes.
• Store in a cool, dry place. • Nitrobenzene (furniture and floor polishes)
• Never store household chemicals where Can cause shallow breathing, vomiting, and
small children and pets may reach them. death; associated with cancer and birth
• Store flammable products outside living defects.
quarters and away from ignition sources. • Perchloroethylene or 1-1-1 trichloroethane
solvents (dry cleaning fluid, spot removers
Handling Procedures and carpet cleaners)
• Avoid mixing different products and/or Eye, skin and lung irritant. Can cause liver
mixing different brands of the same and kidney damage if ingested;
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• Sulfuric Acid (Automotive Batteries): Batteries nervous sytem; are acutely toxic causing
contain lead and a solution of sulfuric acid. headache, dizziness; twitching, nausea; are
When activated, the electrolyte solution in carcinogenic; mutagenic (mutating genes),
the battery produces explosive gases which and cause birth defects.
are easily ignited. Sulfuric acid is extremely • Organochlorines: are typically very persistent in
caustic. Fumes are strongly irritating, and the environment, and are known for
contact can cause burning and charring of accumulating in sediments, plants and
the skin; it is exceedingly dangerous to the animals. Organochlorines have a wide range
eyes. Lead is poisonous in all forms and of both acute and chronic health effects,
accumulates in our bodies and in the including cancer, neurological damage, and
environment. birth defects. Many organochlorines are also
suspected endocrine disruptors. Several
Safer Alternatives common organochlorines have been banned
Unfortunately, automobiles and other vehicles for use in several countries including DDT,
require the use of these hazardous products. No aldrin, dieldrin, toxaphene, chlordane and
safer alternatives are generally in use. Indeed, the heptachlor. Those that still remain in use
normal use of a vehicle produces a number of include lindane, endosulfan, dicofol,
hazardous wastes, including solids (e.g. batteries, methoxychlor and pentachlorophenol.
metal parts, filters), liquids (e.g. motor oil, • Other naturally derived pesticides: Several
antifreeze) and gases (exhaust). The best way to naturally derived pesticides exist which, in
reduce automotive wastes, then, is to reduce the some cases, are less toxic to humans than the
use of vehicles. organophosphates, carbamates, or
The proper disposal of the liquid and solid organochlorines, but are still quite hazardous:
automotive wastes is essential to prevent • Nicotine is the most toxic, poisonous both
environmental contamination. At the present time, to humans and to other mammals, as well
however, there are few options for citizens of the as to birds and fish. It is not available
LAC region to exercise proper disposal methods. In commercially for home gardeners because
most cases of automotive waste, proper disposal of its hazards.
would mean recycling the used product. Used • Rotenone, moderately toxic to humans,
motor oil, transmission oil, batteries, and kills a wide range of insects; however, it
antifreeze can all be profitably recycled; however should never be used near a waterway, as it
few such facilities exist in the region. In the is very toxic to fish.
absence of recycling capacity, you may want to • Ryania kills only a few species, including
contact your Environmental Ministry or an the European corn borer, codling moth, and
Environmental NGO to ask them what disposal cranberry fruit worm.
options they would recommend as the best for • Pyrethrum is relatively nontoxic to humans
your location, as well as to become a voice to and only slightly toxic to aquatic life, so it
encourage the development of these capacities. may be the best choice for home gardens.
• Sabadilla controls lice, leafhoppers, squash
Lawn/Garden Products bugs, striped cucumber beetles, and chinch
Common Ingredients and their Hazards bugs. It has low toxicity to wildlife, but it
Pesticides (insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, may be toxic to bees.
etc.): There are over 1500 different chemical • Wood Preservatives: Wood preservatives are
agents used as the ‘active’ ingredients in pesticides, products containing pesticides which protect
in addition to several thousand more ‘inert’ wood from pests and rot. Three widely used
components which are also components of wood preservatives—creosote, inorganic
pesticide solutions and may also be hazardous. arsenic compounds (CCA), and
Below are three common categories of these pentachlorophenol (penta) are highly toxic.
products, although several more actually exist. Treated wood should never be burned, as the
• Organophosphates and carbamates: Carbamate fumes are toxic.
and organophosphorous insecticides, which • PENTACHLOROPHENOL: Toxic to fetus
act as neurotoxins, are among the most toxic and causes birth defects, toxic if inhaled,
classes of pesticides, as they: affect the absorbed, or ingested
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Other: .............................................................
Locations of product:
Storage instructions:
Personal protection:
Skin Contact:
Swallowing/Ingestion:
Inhalation:
Disposal procedure:
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• CREOSOTE: Vapors cause eye and nasal soaps, horticultural oils, desiccating dusts
irritation, it is a skin carcinogen and can be (e.g. diatomaceous earth), insect growth
absorbed through the skin. regulators (interrupt reproductive cycle; e.g.
• COPPER NAPHTHENATE: An eye, skin, methoprene for fleas), pyrethrin-based
and lung irritant, a possible carcinogen and products, etc. (Also, select the most pest-
affects the nervous system; combustible; specific chemical available; choose
harmful to aquatic life biodegradable rather than persistent
organochlorine insecticides; and choose
Best Practices and Safer Alternatives water-based formulations in place of
• Do not use any pesticide if not absolutely oil/solvent-based products.)
necessary for reasons of health or property
protection. Flammable Products
• Demand product stewardship from It is important to know which products are
manufacturers (e.g. select those that accept flammable and/or explosive, so that your
back empty product containers) community is sure to store and handle them safely.
• Triple-rinse containers and apply rinsewater Generally, any petroleum-based product is
on site just treated before disposing inflammable, including all fuels, some oils, stains,
• Purchase pesticides in packaging that is varnishes, and adhesives, as well as many aerosol
reusable, recyclable, or biodegradable (e.g. products. All aerosol cans are explosive if heated.
dissolvable packets) In addition to being flammable, many such
• Routinely check application equipment for products are hazardous in other ways such as being
leaks poisonous, corrosive, or reactive. Again, check
• Only mix what you can use and spray out product labels—if they exist—or an expert source
that day for a more complete listing of product hazards.
• Spot-treat pests whenever possible to reduce Below are some general guidelines for the safe
chemical usage, exposure, and expense handling of flammable products:
• Clean application equipment and vehicles at • Flammables are often explosive under the
site where chemicals are applied right conditions. Thus, propane cylinders, gas
• Dedicate application equipment systems to cans, charcoal lighter and automotive fluids
reduce rinsing (especially with herbicides) should NOT BE STORED INDOORS, but
• Use end-of-hose ‘proportioners’ to meter should instead be stored outside or in sheds
appropriate amount of pesticide that are very well ventilated. Never store
• For lawns: Herbicides are most often used to flammable liquids or gasses near sources of
kill ‘unsightly’ weeds in gardens and yards, heat or ignition.
and by lawn care companies to maintain the • Keep chemicals in original containers if
perfect appearance of turf around homes and possible, or in containers approved for
on lawns and golf courses. Basically, the safe flammable liquid or gas. (e.g. do not use
alternative to herbicides is simple: pull weeds empty soda pop bottles to store kerosene).
by hand. There are no really safe herbicides. • Make sure that lids and caps are tightly
• Reduce the use of pesticides by using sealed and childproof.
appropriate integrated pest management • Use hand pumps or dispensers to reduce the
(IPM) methods: risk of spilling liquids such as gasoline and
• Physical Controls: Barriers, traps, cleanliness, kerosene.
caulking, handpicking, and environmental • Store rags used with flammable products in a
manipulation (i.e. environmental controls sealed marked container.
such as climate regulation and limiting • Know where flammable materials are located
availability of pest habitat) and how to extinguish them. Keep a working
• Biological Controls: Establish populations fire extinguisher nearby.
of predatory and parasitoid insects that • Prevent leaks and spills by keeping metal
feed upon the problem pests. containers dry and cool, and handling them
• Cultural Controls: Planting disease/pest- with care. Keep clean-up materials close at
resistant plant varieties hand to quickly contain spills should they
• Least-toxic Chemical Controls: Insecticidal occur.
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• Use products only as they are intended; (e.g. Best Practices and Safer Alternatives
do not use gasoline as a cleaning solvent.) Against indoor pests, the best offense is a good
• Use all of the product on hand, or donate defense. The first step is to make the house—
remaining product to someone who can use it especially the kitchen—unattractive to insects by
to keep flammable products out of the waste cleaning up food spills immediately, keeping hard-
stream. to-reach areas reasonably clean, and removing
clutter that can hide pests. Store foods attractive to
Indoor Pesticides pests, such as flour, in the refrigerator, or another
Common Ingredients and their Hazards sealed location. Water attracts pests, so leaky
• Warfarin, strychnine (rodent poison): faucets and pipes should be promptly repaired.
poisonous if ingested, very toxic to aquatic Doors and windows should be well screened.
organisms, may cause long-term adverse Clothes should be regularly cleaned and aired, and
effects in the aquatic environment. Warfarin properly stored in paper or cardboard boxes sealed
is easily absorbed through the gastrointestinal against moths.
tract and skin, and can cause hemorrhaging, A number of nontoxic substances can be used to
excessive bruising, bleeding from nose and repel insects. Generally, they are highly fragrant or
gums, or paralysis. Strychnine is toxic if volatile herbs or spices. Powdered red chili pepper,
ingested or inhaled; can cause convulsions, peppermint, bay leaves, cloves, citrus oil, lavender,
paralysis—including breathing, lethal in small rosemary, tobacco, peppercorns, and cedar oil can
doses (30 to 100 mg). repel various types of insects.
• Baygon, dichlorvos, chlorpyrifos, propoxur, Insects can be trapped and killed without
diazinon (indoor insecticides): Harmful or resorting to dangerous chemicals: generally a
fatal if swallowed, inhaled or absorbed poison nontoxic to humans is mixed with a food
through skin. Most are organophosphates or that insects find attractive, and spread in the
carbamates. See above, under ‘Lawn/Garden infested area. Examples are oatmeal (attractive)
Products’ for more information about these and plaster-of-Paris (poisonous), and cocoa powder
hazardous products. and flour (attractive) and borax (poisonous). Old-
• Napthalene, paradichlorobenzene fashioned flypaper—not a hanging strip of
(mothballs): Napthalene can enter your insecticide—is an effective trap.
system through inhalation, skin absorption, For specific house pests, try these solutions:
ingestion, and eye and skin contact. • For ants: Sprinkle powdered red chilli pepper,
Napthalene may produce possible damage to paprika, dried peppermint, or borax where
eyes, liver, kidneys, skin, red blood cells, and the ants are entering.
the central nervous system. Hemolytic • For beetles: Kill manually when you see
anemia, caused by the breakdown of the red them.
blood cells, has been reported following • For cockroaches: Mix by stirring and sifting 1
immediate and long-term exposure. Infants ounce TSP (trisodium phosphate), 6 ounces
exposed to clothes, blankets, and diapers borax, 4 ounces sugar, and 8 ounces flour.
stored in naphthalene mothballs are at risk Spread on floor of infested area. Repeat after
for hemolytic anemia. Mild degrees of anemia 4 days and again after 2 weeks.
often cause only slight symptoms like a lack • For fleas: Feed pet brewer’s yeast in powder
of energy and fatigue. In more severe cases, mixed with food or by tablets.
hemolytic anemia can cause acute kidney • For moths: Air clothes well in the sun; store
failure. Paradichlorobenzene, if inhaled, may in airtight containers, and scatter sachets of
result in headache, swollen eyes, stuffy head, lavender, cedar chips, or dried tobacco in
anorexia (loss of appetite), nausea, vomiting, with clothing.
and throat and eye irritation; if ingested, • For rats and mice: Again, prevention may be
symptoms include include nausea, vomiting, the best cure. Holes in exterior or interior
diarrhea, liver and kidney damage, and walls should be closed off and storage spaces
methemoglobianemia (which interferes with kept orderly. Garbage should be kept tightly
the uptake of oxygen). covered, and food scraps should be made
unavailable. To catch rodents, the most
efficient system is the oldest: a cat. Next best
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are mouse and rat traps. Due to the high solvent content of oil-based
• For termites: Any wooden parts of the house paints and varnishes, women should avoid
should be at least 18 inches off the ground, using these products while pregnant.
as subterranean termites cannot tolerate • Paint thinners (may contain toluene,
being exposed to air and light. They have to turpentine, ethyl acetate, mineral spirits):
build easily visible mud tunnels to get at Turpentine and mineral spirits are commonly
available wood. Metal shields may help used in thinning paints and varnishes. Both
discourage termites, but they cannot prevent ingredients are flammable and toxic, though
infestations. mineral spirits are of lower toxicity. Mineral
spirits, a petroleum distillate, can be harmful
Workshop/ Painting Supplies through inhalation, skin and eye contact, and
Common Ingredients and their Hazards ingestion. Contact and inhalation can cause
• Glues and adhesives (may contain napthalene, eye, nose, and throat irritation, dizziness, and
phenol, ethanol, vinyl chloride, dermatitis. Ingestion can induce central
formaldehyde, acrylonitrile): Glues, rubber nervous system depression. Damage to lungs
cement, epoxy, and other adhesives contain a may result if mineral spirits are swallowed
solvent which, when applied, evaporates out and then vomited. Turpentine, a sticky
leaving the solid adhesive portion behind. mixture of resin and oil obtained from pine
Often this solvent is hazardous. Many trees, is an irritating substance that can cause
adhesives are extremely flammable. Some tissue death as well as damage to kidneys.
adhesives are skin and lung irritants and Intoxication from vapors produces central
allergy-sensitizers while others can cause nervous system depression with possible
burns to skin and eyes. Many of the solvents symptoms of headache, nausea, confusion
used in adhesives and glues have narcotic, and disturbed vision. Continued inhalation of
possibly fatal, effects when inhaled in high vapors can cause a predisposition to
concentrations. Inhalation of fumes from pneumonia and chronic kidney inflammation.
cured epoxy resins may result in coughing Vapors even in low concentrations can irritate
and bronchial spasms for several days. Vinyl eyes, nose, and throat.
chloride and acrylonitrile cause liver • Paint/varnish removers: Most paint and varnish
dysfunction, and are suspected carcinogens. removers contain organic solvents which are
Formaldehyde (preservative in many hazardous to human health. Most are highly
household products, glue in particle board flammable. Some nonflammable products will
and plywood furniture) is a probable human produce a toxic gas when in contact with
carcinogen. Levels of formaldehyde in air as flame. Paint and varnish removers may
low as 0.1 ppm (0.1 part formaldehyde per contain some of these hazardous ingredients:
million parts of air) can cause watery eyes, acetone, benzene, isopropyl alcohol,
burning sensations in the eyes, nose and methanol, methylene chloride, petroleum
throat, stuffy nose, nausea, coughing, chest distillates, toluene, trichloroethane, and
tightness, wheezing, rashes and allergic xylene. Although not presently used in paint
reactions. and varnish removers, benzene, a known
• Oil or enamel based paints and varnishes: With human carcinogen, was an ingredient in older
the exception of latex paint, which has water products. Hazardous ingredients in paint and
as a solvent, solvents commonly used in varnish removers can harm your body
paints include mineral spirits (naphtha), through skin contact, skin absorption,
toluene, xylene, and other petroleum ingestion, and inhalation. A common
distillate solvents. These solvents can irritate ingredient, methylene chloride, is a powerful
your eyes, skin, and lungs. Inhaling paint narcotic which break down in the body to
fumes can result in headaches, nausea, form carbon monoxide, potentially resulting
dizziness, and fatigue. Toxic fumes can in oxygen deprivation. The use of paint and
accumulate in closed spaces and areas with varnish removers containing methylene
poor ventilation. Acute and chronic chloride by people with heart conditions has
symptoms include muscle weakness, liver and resulted in fatal heart attacks. Methylene
kidney damage, and respiratory problems. chloride is also a known animal carcinogen
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and a suspected human carcinogen. solvent to clean up. Not only will you
• Photography chemicals: The most commonly eliminate the hazards from the solvents in
used solutions are developer, fixer, and stop the paint, you will eliminate the need to use
bath. Photography chemicals that require additional solvents to clean brushes. Wear
special handling include intensifiers, dyes, protective gloves. If you need to clean oil-
and toners, which may contain selenium, base paint from your skin, massage with a
uranium, iron, gold, and platinum. Color film few drops of baby oil, butter, or margarine.
processing is more complex. In particular, the Wipe dry and wash with soap and water.
developing baths of color transparency and Whenever possible, paint outdoors. When
color negative processing and home color painting inside make sure ventilation is
printing require special precautions. Many adequate. Use a fan to direct fumes away
chemicals used to develop photographs are from the area where you are working and to
corrosive and can cause skin, eye, and lung the out-of-doors. Take plenty of fresh air
irritation. Inhalation and skin contact are the breaks. Do not place flammable paints near
primary routes of hazardous exposure. These flames, sources of sparks, or areas of intense
chemicals are toxic if swallowed. Acids used heat. Never smoke around paints or while
in developing can burn and blind you. painting. Paint is usable if it will mix up
Products which contain benzene, a known when stirred. Oil paint can be usable for up
cancer causing agent in humans, can be to 15 years. The best way to dispose of paint
especially hazardous. Photography chemicals is to use it up. Some suggestions to use up
have a longer shelf life in a powder form than old paint are to paint boards, signs, dog and
in liquid concentrate, but the powder form bird houses, or use it as an under coat for
does produce dust when poured and can another project. If your paint has completely
possibly form vapor droplets. These droplets dried inside the paint can, can be placed in
are easily inhaled and can carry photography the trash destined for the sanitary landfill.
chemicals into the lungs. • Paint thinners: Dirty paint thinner can easily
Best Practices and Safer Alternatives be recycled at home for reuse. Pour the dirty
• Glues and adhesives: The safest glues on the paint thinner into a clearly labeled container
market are white glue, library paste, yellow with a good seal. Plastic jugs such as milk
wood glue, and glue sticks. White glue jugs may not be strong enough to withstand
effectively bonds most porous and semi- the vapor pressure in a warm environment.
porous materials such as paper, cloth, wood, Glass jars work well but never use a beverage
and pottery. White glue can also be used for container because it can be easily mistaken
big jobs such as laying hardwood floors. Use for something to drink. Clearly label the
white glue, glue sticks, or yellow glue when container with the type of solvent and the
ever possible. Never use toxic adhesives on date. Draw or write a clearly visible warning
laminated cutting boards, bowls, or a product (such as a skull and crossbones or the word
which contacts food. Carefully read the label. Danger). Store it away from sources of sparks
Wear protective gloves with adhesives and for several weeks to months until the paint
cements. If the glue contains solvents, use sludge settles on the bottom. Carefully pour
only in a well ventilated area with plenty of the clean solvent off the top. This solvent can
fresh air. Avoid wearing soft contacts, which be reused. Allow the remaining paint sludge
may absorb solvent vapors. If the adhesive is to dry completely in a well-ventilated area,
flammable be certain to extinguish sources of outside of your home and away from pets
ignition (such as pilot lights) if you will be and children. When all of the liquids have
using a large quantity of the solvent in a evaporated, the hardened sludge can be
room where a source of flame is located. Keep discarded in the trash. Small amounts of
the lid tightly closed when the glue is not in dirty paint solvent can be poured into a paint
use. However, if the glue or adhesive has can of the same color and mixed well. This
hardened, it may be thrown in the trash thinned paint can then be used for a second
destined for the landfill. coat or another project. The best way to get
• Paints: If possible, use latex paint rather than rid of left over paint thinners is to use them
oil-based or other paints that require a as intended or find someone else who will.
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Listening To The Earth
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Chapter 4: Sanitation and Waste
extensively studied, the presence of for approximately two days to assure the
pharmaceutical compounds in the area is completely ventilated.
environment (particularly drinking water x DO NOT use household cleaning products
supplies) has been causing a greater concern to clean the spill, particularly products that
around the world. As the prevalence and contain ammonia or chlorine. These
consumption of medications continues to chemicals will react violently with mercury,
increase, so to does their concentration in the releasing a toxic gas.
environment, albeit in very sub-therapeutic x DO NOT use a broom or paint brush to
concentrations. The effects of this ‘new’ form clean up mercury. It will break the mercury
of pollution are not presently known, into smaller beads and spread them around.
although it is agreed that aquatic life is x DO NOT use an ordinary vacuum or shop
affected the most. It should be noted that, vacuum. The vacuum will put mercury
unlike other chemicals which enter the vapor into the air and increase the
environment, medications are created to be likelihood of human exposure.
maximally biologically active, meaning they x If possible, exchange any mercury
are designed to affect living things. thermometers with non-mercury containing
thermometers to prevent the possibility of
Best Handling and Disposal Practices spills in the future.
• Mercury spills: If a mercury spill (as from a • Infectious waste: Since household hazardous
broken thermometer) is not promptly and waste programs and mail-back programs are
thoroughly clean up, then the mercury will likely to be unavailable or unaffordable to
eventually volatilize and might reach your community, needles and other sharps
dangerous levels in indoor air. The risks can be placed into a strong plastic or metal
increase if a vacuum cleaner is used (as the container with a tight cap or lid, such as a
mercury will be vaporized and broadcast), or plastic bleach jug, plastic liquid detergent
if the mercury is heated for some reason. The bottle, coffee can, or etc. Seal the container
danger of significant mercury exposure is with strong tape and clearly label it to
greatest in a small, poorly-ventilated room. indicate that infectious sharps are enclosed.
Thus, even small mercury spills must be Dispose of the container with the rest of your
cleaned up properly. The following procedure community’s solid waste. Be sure that this
should be followed as closely as possible: container is not sent to be recycled! Soiled
i) Increase ventilation in the room with bandages, dressings and disposable sheets
outside air and close the room off from should be placed in securely fastened plastic
the rest of the house. If available, use fans bags before being placed in your regular
for a minimum of one hour to help trash.
ventilate the room. • Medications/pharmaceuticals: Pharmaceuticals,
ii) Pick up the mercury with an eyedropper including over-the-counter drugs and
or scoop up beads with a piece of heavy prescription medicines, can usually be
paper (e.g., playing cards, index cards). disposed of safely without presenting a threat
iii) Place the mercury, contaminated to the environment, as long as they are kept
instruments (dropper/heavy paper) and out of water. Out-of-date or otherwise
any broken glass in a plastic zipper bag. unusable or unwanted household medicines
Place this zipper bag in a second zipper may be disposed of in the trash if the
bag and then in a third zipper bag (triple materials are securely wrapped to minimize
bag), tightly sealing each bag. Place the tampering. Your community might check to
bags in a wide-mouth, sealable plastic see if there are any medication collection or
container. exchange programs available that could help
iv) Call your local health department for the keep the drugs out of the environment.
nearest approved mercury disposal Flushing even small quantities of household
location. If disposal at such a location is medicines down the drain is discouraged.
not possible, dispose of the plastic Some medicines can disrupt or destroy the
container with the solid waste. useful microorganisms in the sewage
v) If weather permits, leave windows open treatment system (especially septic tanks)
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Listening To The Earth
and/or may pass through the system intact Lighting Equipment: Fluorescent tubes, sodium
and potentially contaminate downstream lamps etc. (Except: Incandescent or halogen
water resources. bulbs)
Electric and Electronic Tools: Drills, Electric saws,
Electronic Products (e-Waste) Sewing Machines, Lawn Mowers etc.
Hazards of Electronic Waste
Electronic waste results when products containing Computers and other electronic equipment are
electrical components such as wiring, circuit made from hundreds of different materials, both
boards, motors, transformers, cathode ray tubes, found naturally as well as synthetic. While some
etc., are disposed. Thus, products such as these naturally occurring substances, such as chromium,
below are considered components of electronic are harmless in nature, their use in the
waste (e-waste): manufacture of electronic equipment often results
Household Appliances: Washing machines, in compounds which are hazardous. These highly
Dryers, Refrigerators, Air-conditioners, Vacuum toxic compounds are especially harmful to human
cleaners, Coffee Machines, Toasters, Irons etc. health and the environment if not disposed of
Office, Information & Communication Equipment: carefully. The table below lists some of the most
Personal Computers, Latops, Telephones, Fax common hazardous materials that are found in
Machines, Copiers, Printers etc. electronics waste. Televisions and CRT monitors
Entertainment & Consumer Electronics: Televisions, contain four pounds of lead, on average (the exact
VCR/DVD/CD players, Hi-Fi sets, Radios, etc amount depends on size and make). Mercury from
TBBA (tetrabromo-bisphenol-A) Fire retardants for plastics (thermoplastic components, cable insulation).
PBB (polybrominated biphenyls) TBBA is presently the most widely used flame retardant in printed wiring
PBDE (polybrominated diphenyl ethers) boards and casings.
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Chapter 4: Sanitation and Waste
electronics has been cited as a leading source of whether any such program is being developed or
mercury in municipal waste. In addition, advocated in your country or region, and join in
brominated flame retardants are commonly added the effort to successfully implement the program.
to plastics used in electronics. If there are no environmentally safe recycling
If improperly handled, all these above toxics options available, your community may try to
can be released into the environment. contact the manufacturer directly to ask what take-
Landfilling e-waste, one of the most widely used back options they offer.
methods of disposal, is prone to hazards because of
leachate which often contains heavy water Now, review and consider the information presented
resources. Older landfill sites and uncontrolled above for the various types of hazardous products that
dumps pose the greatest danger of releasing your community uses and disposes of in order to evaluate
hazardous emissions. Mercury, Cadmium and Lead your community’s practices with the questions below:
are among the most toxic leachates. Mercury, for
example, will leach when certain electronic devices Our community strives to continually have identified all
such as circuit breakers are destroyed, or when the hazardous products that are in use in our
fluorescent light tubes are broken. Lead has been community.
found to leach from broken lead-containing glass, 123456789
such as the cone glass of cathode ray tubes from
TVs and monitors. When brominated flame Our community strives to eliminate the use of hazardous
retarded plastics or plastics containing cadmium products.
are landfilled, both PBDE and cadmium may leach 123456789
into soil and groundwater. In addition, landfills are
also prone to uncontrolled fires which will release Our community strives to label, safely handle, and store
toxic fumes if these electronic components are all hazardous products in our community.
burned. Thus, to the extent possible, electronics 123456789
waste should be prevented, and older electronics
should be reused and recycled. Our community strives to educate all its member about
the dangers and proper handling of products used in our
Best Handling and Disposal Practices community, especially those members who use them
Because there are many valuable substances regularly.
(mostly metals) in electronic devices, recycling 123456789
operations are increasingly being established
throughout Latin America. Nevertheless, many Our community strives to keep hazardous products out
recyclers are not operating in a sustainable manner; of our local landfills and/or dumps.
in fact recyclers can easily increase the amount of 123456789
pollution produced by the waste being processed.
For example, some recyclers will burn the PVC 3. Quantities and Priorities
insulation off wires in order to isolate the metal
(e.g. copper). Burning PVC however, releases The intention of this question is simply to
corrosive gases when burnt and also induces the facilitate your community’s prioritization of goals
formation of dioxins. Thus, if your community is regarding household hazardous waste. As well, the
able to locate an electronics recycler, some collection of this information will aid in the task of
preliminary questions regarding the sustainability presenting this information to the membership or
of their operation would help to assure you that leadership of your community. Those wastes that
utilizing their services is indeed an advisable are produced most, and/or those products which
decision. have caused noticable harm should be considered
Some countries, most notably Switzerland and the highest priority.
the European Union members, have implemented
Producer Responsibility plans which guarantee 4. Legislative Policy Framework and Regional
that consumers can return electronic products to Resources
collection points so that the manufacturer can
resume responsibility for the product’s disposal, re- Perhaps the most powerful means of improving
use, or remanufacture. You may want to discover society’s hazardous waste disposal practices is to
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Listening To The Earth
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Chapter 4: Sanitation and Waste
Acknowledgements for Chapter Four household batteries, photographic materials and used
motor oil. Editted by I. Lardinois and A.v.d. Klundert.
The information contained in this chapter has been WASTE - Urban Waste Expertise Programme, 1995.
adapted from the following sources: Available online: http://www.waste.nl.
Andrews, Richard N; Lord, w.B.; O’Toole, L.J.; and United Nations Environment Programme. International
Requena L.F. Guidelines for Improving Wastewater and Sourcebook on Environmentally Sound Technologies
Solid Waste Management. Environmental Health (ESTs) for Municipal Solid Waste Management
Project, 1993. WASH Reprint: Technical Report No. (MSWM). Technical Publication No. 6.
88. EHP, Arlington, Virginia, U.S.A. Available online. UNEP/DTIE/IETC. November 1996. Available online.
Arroyo, J; F. Rivas; I. Lardinois. SOLID WASTE UNEP/DTIE/IETC. International Source Book on
MANAGEMENT IN LATIN AMERICA: The Role of Environmentally Sound Technologies for Wastewater
Micro- and Small Enterprises and Cooperatives. IPES, and Stormwater Management. International
ACEPESA, WASTE (Urban Waste Series, 5), 1999. Environmental Technology Centre; United Nations
ACEPESA: Apartado 1257-1002, San Jose, Costa Rica. Environmental Program, 2000. Available online:
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry. http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/Publications/TechPublications
ToxFAQs. Center for Disease Control. Available online /
(also in Spanish) at WHO. Healthy Villages: A guide for communities and
http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxfaq.html. 2005. community health. World Health Organization, 2002.
Brikké, François. Operation and Maintenance of rural Available online from:
water supply and sanitation systems. IRC International http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/sett
Water and Sanitation Centre, 2000. Available online: ings/healthvillages/
http://www.irc.nl. WHO/ILO/UNEP. Guidelines on the prevention of
Franceys, R, J Pickford & R Reed. A guide to the toxic exposures: Education and public awareness
development of on-site sanitation. World Health activities. International Program on Chemical Safety,
Organization, 1992. Available online: World Health Organization, 2004. Available online:
http://www.who.int/docstore/water_sanitation_health/on http://www.who.int/ipcs/publications.
sitesan.
Jaramillo, Jorge. GUIDELINES FOR THE DESIGN, Resources for Chapter Four
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION OF
MANUAL SANITARY LANDFILLS: A solution for the Internet Resources
final disposal of municipal solid wastes in small Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry
communities. Pan American Center for Sanitary (ATSDR) http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxfaq.html
Engineering and Environmental Sciences, 2003.
Part of the mission of the Agency for Toxic Substances
Available online at http://www.cepis.ops-oms.org. and Disease Registry (ATSDR), as an agency of the
Kleinau, Eckhard (EHP) and David F. Pyle (JSI). U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, is to
Strategic Report 8: Assessing Hygiene Improvement, serve the public by providing trusted health
Guidelines for Household and Community Levels. information to prevent harmful exposures and disease
Environmental Health Project. Prepared under EHP related to toxic substances. Their ToxFAQs (TM) is a
Project 26568/CESH.TOOLS.HIQAT, August 2004. series of summaries about hazardous substances that
Available online. are easy to understand guides about exposure and its
health effects. These are available in Spanish. The
Purdue University, Agricultural and Biological Agency can be contacted toll free at: 1-888-422-8737.
Engineering Department. ‘HOUSEHOLD WASTE
MANAGEMENT.’ Computer program available for Asociación de Entidades de Aseo Municipal (ASEAM)
download at http://www.purdue.edu/dp/envirosoft, or Telephone: 591-2-431946
available in an online version at Email:gtzaseam@ceibo.entelnet.bo
http://www.purdue.edu/dp/envirosoft/housewaste/src/titl The main mission of ASEAM is to strengthen
e.htm. 2003. municipal waste agencies and to promote the
Santa Clara County Materials Advisory Committee. establishment of small-scale enterprises for difficult-
HAZARDOUS WASTE SURVIVAL GUIDE: A Small access areas. This mission is accomplished through
& Medium Business Resource for Hazardous Waste training and provision of information of personnel in
Reduction Management. Available online: municipal agencies. ASEAM is also working on
http://www.westp2net.org/hazwaste/. strengthening the, fee collection system. ASEAM also
produces videos and pamphlets on public consciousness
Simpson-Hebert M & Wood S, eds. (1998) Sanitation development on the need to pay waste collection fees,
Promotion. Geneva, World Health Organization/ Water as well as the need to improve MSW handling
Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (Working behaviour.
Group on Promotion of Sanitation) (unpublished
document WHO/EOS/98.5). Available online: Asociación para la Promoción del Saneamiento
http://www..who.int. Ambiental en Comunidad (APROSAC)
Winblad, Uno. ‘Towards an ecological approach to http://www.pananet.com/aprosac/. Telephone: 507-263-
sanitation.’ Ibid. 3370
WSSCC. ‘The Challenge-—A sanitation revolution.’ APROSAC, an NGO established in 1995, develops
Ibid integrated solid waste management projects and
promotes the development of small-scale basic
UWEP. Hazardous Waste: Resource recovery of
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Listening To The Earth
sanitation enterprises. APROSAC organises workshops, 700. As a result of this success, a number of
provides professional services, and develops training cooperatives have been created in other cities in
programs on this subject. Colombia. Recuperar publishes information on its
Compromisso Empresarial para Reciclagem (CEMPRE) activities as well as public information and education
materials.
http://www.cempre.org.br/ http://www.cempre.org.uy/
Red de Accion en Plaguicidas http://www.rap-al.org/
CEMPRE surge con el fin de constituir una institución Pesticide Action Network (PAN) is a network of over
que colabore con la promoción de proyectos educativos 600 participating nongovernmental organizations,
y de investigación, y en el establecimiento de vínculos institutions and individuals in over 90 countries
entre la comunidad científica, autoridades, instituciones working to replace the use of hazardous pesticides with
públicas y privadas, contribuyendo a la búsqueda de ecologically sound alternatives. The international
caminos posibles hacia el manejo integral de los internet page is http://www.pan-international.org. The
residuos, en particular del reciclaje de los mismos. Latin American regional center, coordinated by the
Centro Panamericano de Ingeniería Sanitaria y Ciencias Alianza por una Mejor Calidad de Vida, can be
del Ambiente (CEPIS) http://www.cepis.ops-oms.org/ contacted by telephone at 562-3416742.
CEPIS is a specialised centre of the Pan American Sanitation Connection: An environmental sanitation
Health Organisation, which provides technical network http://www.sanicon.net/ Sanitation Connection
assistance, training, and information to countries in the is an Internet-based resource that provides access to
Latin American region on several topics, including accurate, reliable and up-to-date information on
MSW. A very large document library. Telephone: 51-1- technologies, institutions and financing of sanitation
437-1077 systems around the world. Institutions of international
standing contribute to the information base by
Companhia Municipal de Limpeza Urbana providing and maintaining a topic of their
http://www.rio.rj.gov.br/comlurb/ Telephone: 55 21- specialization. It is a World Wide Web-based resource
2204-9999 intended to facilitate access to information on
COMLURB is part of the Municipality of Rio de sanitation. It aims to extend its reach through paper
Janeiro, but it functions as a private enterprise. It is and telephone-based services in selected locations. In
responsible for solid waste collection and disposal in the first phase of its development, it is predominantly
this city. COMLURB also does research in landfill English language in orientation. Information in other
development and gas use. As part of this program, it is languages will be increasingly available as it develops
presently using landfill gas to power light further.
transportation equipment. It has also developed Silicone Valley Toxics Coalition-—E-Waste
compost and recycling systems on a pilot level. The Backgrounder http://www.svtc.org/ Silicon Valley Toxics
enterprise also manufactures waste collection Coalition (SVTC) is a diverse grassroots coalition that
equipment. It evaluated the implementation of an engages in research, advocacy, and organizing around
incinerator, but determined that it was not feasible. the environmental and human health problems caused
COMLURB has an open library specialising in solid by the rapid growth of the high-tech electronics
waste. industry. Available in English only.
Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Software for Environmental Awareness
Countries http://www.sandec.ch/ http://www.purdue.edu/dp/envirosoft/
SANDEC is involved in applied research, capacity Alternative link: http://www.epa.gov/seahome. Free
building, and training to contribute towards integrated, interactive software on environmental topics. These
and sustainable solid waste management systems, new programs are produced by Purdue University in
concepts, transdiciplinary approaches and cross- cooperation with US EPA. Included here are programs
sectorial technologies. on Household Waste Management. Some information
Instituto Brasileiro de Administração Municipal available in Spanish.
http://www.ibam.org.br/ IBAM is an NGO working on WASTE: Advisors on Urban Environment and
the improvement of municipal management in Brazil. Development: http://www.waste.nl/ WASTE advises in
It has a group that works on solid waste, providing sustainable improvement of the urban environment.
technical assistance on technologies and management, The focus of activities is on low-income urban areas in
training courses and documents on the subject. IBAM order to develop, together with local residents, tools
has developed a Manual on Public Cleansing and a and means for their own development, enabling them
Manual on Recycling, focusing on the role of to improve their living conditions, the environment and
municipalities. IBAM carries out studies for to create employment as a sound economic base for
municipalities and other organisations on MSW. their future. Another important focal point for WASTE
Recuperar Telephone: +57-4-372-0720 Email: the role of small-scale entrepreneurs and their
recuperar@epm.net.co Recuperar is a recycling (potential) contribution to the provision of urban
cooperative that has had a significant impact on the services and their integration in the municipal services
perception of recycling in Colombia. It has shown that e.g. in resource recovery and the removal of urban
recycling can have significant social and economic, as waste.
well as environmental, benefits. Recuperar initiated its Water, Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC):
activities as a result of the need to provide jobs for http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/ WEDC is concerned with
landfill waste pickers who had been displaced as a seeking solutions to the serious problems associated
result of the closure of the Medellín city dump. The with inadequate collection and poor disposal of waste
organization trains and provides health and life in low- and middle-income countries where
insurance benefits to its members, who number over indiscriminate dumping of waste creates serious health
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Chapter 4: Sanitation and Waste
and environmental hazards and blocks drains and regional division of the WHO. National office listings
sewers. can be found at the end of the previous chapter.
World Health Organization - division of Water, zoomZap: Resources from Chiapas, Mexico
Sanitation and Health: http://www.zoomzap.com/
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/ The aim of The goal of ZoomZap is to provide practical ideas and
the WSH division is the reduction of water- and waste- tools for achieving a more just and sustainable world
related disease and the optimization of the health and for living freer, more fulfilling and more
benefits of sustainable water and waste management, independent lives in healthy communities. Their
with an objective of assisting citizens to understand ‘Manuals Project’ features a very detailed manual on
and act on the health impacts of their actions. WHO dry composting toilets.
has hundreds of full text manuals available on-line and
by order. The Pan American Health Organization is the
153
Listening To The Earth
154
Chapter 5
Energy Assessment
Energy: The Animation of the the result of nuclear fusion reactions taking place
billions of kilometers away. The nuclear bomb is
Universe one of the only earthly uses of nuclear fusion. An
nergy is the force behind movement. It is example of nuclear fission, or the splitting an atom,
155
Listening To The Earth
Humans also use steam energy, which is using the converting an energy source into mechanical shaft
force of pressurized steam to do work, like to power, which in turn drives a generator which
power a locomotive, or to turn a turbine. produces electricity. The energy source can vary
Truly, energy is a Sacred Gift, and we have depending on the available resources. Typical
many uses for it. A few of the most important uses sources include fossil fuels, nuclear fuels (rare in
include the basic services of cooking, heating, Latin America), hydro power (very prevalent in
lighting, space conditioning, and safe storage of Latin America), solar power, wind power,
food. In addition, the provision of clean water and geothermal, etc.
sanitation, which is facilitated by energy, affects Traditional thermal power generation uses oil,
public health in cities as well as rural areas. coal or gas to produce heat which in turn is used to
Societies also require services such as create steam which drives a steam turbine. The
transportation, power for industry and agriculture, turbine provides the mechanical power for the
and heat for materials processing. generator. Similarly, nuclear power generation uses
Energy is essential to economic and social nuclear fuels such as uranium, which undergo
development and improved quality of life. Much of nuclear fission in a reactor, to provide heat to drive
the world’s energy, however, is currently produced the turbine. Hydropower uses the stored or
and consumed in ways that could not be sustained potential energy of water which has a ‘head’ or
if technology were to remain constant and if height above a certain point. The water is dropped
overall consumption continues to increase through a turbine which provides shaft power for
substantially. directly driving a generator. Windpower uses a
similar principle but the energy is extracted from
Electricity, a Special Form of Energy the wind to drive the turbine. Geothermal energy
is heat energy stored in the earth’s crust which can
Electricity is the flowing of electrons, or negatively be tapped to heat water for driving a turbine. Solar
charged particles through a medium. The medium energy for providing electricity can be derived
is then said to be ‘conducting’ electricity; or, in using one of two methods.
other words, it has electrons flowing through it. Heat from the sun can be concentrated to drive
Electricity occurs naturally, for example, as a steam turbine, or the more popular method uses
lightning. Lightning is an electric charge traveling the photovoltaic (PV) principle to convert sunlight
through the atmosphere. Electricity also can be directly into electricity. Solar and wind
produced by humans. Electricity is an extremely technologies are not used on a widespread basis for
versatile, clean and ‘user-friendly’ form of energy. producing electricity which is fed into large grid
There is an almost limitless range of applications systems, though examples do exist.
for electricity. Electrical motors provide shaft In the Latin American region, as far as
power that can be used for a multitude of electricity is concerned, the predominant source is
industrial and agricultural activities, as well as for hydro (i.e. water) energy. The region holds 19% of
transport. Lights allow us to peer into the dark, total world hydropower potential, with Brazil
which has greatly impacted the lives of humans. having the largest share and the largest installed
Batteries allow electricity to be stored for periods capacity.
when it will be required for any of these purposes. Mexico has the most conventional fossil fuel
The social impact of introducing electricity to a electricity generation in the region. Nuclear power
region is enormous. There are the obvious benefits is a reality in only three countries: Argentina,
of improved social services; lighting at health Brazil and Mexico. Geothermal electricity
centres, hospitals and schools, refrigeration of generation only contributes marginally to the total,
vaccines, etc. There are other social gains such as with Mexico having the largest installed capacity.
street lighting, cinema and television, community Sugar cane biomass is the most important source
services such as milling of grain, sawmills or of commercial biofuels. Non-commercial biomass
battery charging (often an alternative to grid (e.g. dung, agricultural residues, wood, etc.) as a
connections). direct fuel is very important in rural areas; it is
estimated that it contributes about 8% of the
Electricity: Modern ‘Utility’ energy supply of the region.
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Chapter 5: Energy
The Grid and Social Inequality urbanisation continues. The utilities often find it
difficult to cope with the existing demand, let
Latin America has the highest electricity coverage alone to think about catering for an increased
(84%) of any region in the South. This high demand from rural areas.
electricity service coverage disguises the fact that Positive political will and subsidies or loan
approximately 75 million people still lack it, schemes for rural electrification can remove some
mostly in the countryside. Indeed, about 60% of of these obstacles but often neither are
the rural population has no access to electricity. forthcoming. It seems, therefore, in many
Much of the energy consumed in the countryside countries, that little progress will be made if rural
is still ‘traditional’ (mainly burning of biomass communities are to wait for the grid to reach them.
materials in cooking). These traditional practices, In conclusion we can see that an alternative is
which involve unsustainable consumption of required. One such alternative is found in the form
resources, not only cause major damage to the of decentralised power generation using renewable
environment by reducing vegetation and forest energy technologies. Another alternative, which is
cover; but also cause severe respiratory health used widely, is to utilise small diesel generating sets
problems, particularly in women and children. to provide electricity for local networks.
Despite the fact that the rural population without
access to electricity has been dropping in absolute Producing Electricity, Creating Catastrophes?
terms over the past 20 years in Latin America, the
shift to modern forms of energy is not occurring as What catastrophes?—Hidden Costs of
rapidly as it could be. Electricity
Often, the cost of electricity is relatively small
Cost of Rural Grid Connection when compared to other household expenses. That
There are many constraints to rural grid based is because the real costs of generating electricity are
electrification. Firstly there is the question of cost. usually hidden and unaccounted for. The electric
The cost of grid connection is influenced by the power industry is the largest toxic polluter in the
voltage and proximity of the grid and whether world. Producing electricity from coal and oil
there is a step down transformer already serving releases a wide range of pollutants into the
the area in question. Capital cost of the environment. In addition to toxic air pollution
distribution system is very high and demand in from power plant smokestacks, large volumes of
rural areas is very low. Households can be widely toxic chemicals are produced at coal and oil-fired
dispersed and often rural consumers will want to power plants and include millions of tons of solid
use only a few light bulbs and a radio in the and liquid wastes that are typically disposed of at
evening. The cost-benefit relationship shows that or near the power plants that generate these
there is little incentive for an electricity producing wastes. Unfortunately, soot emissions from coal-
utility to extend the grid into remote rural areas. burning power plants, diesel fumes emitted by
Often rural regional centres will be electrified but portable generators, and other pollution emitted
the network will usually stop there or bypass the by generation are ‘social costs’ that usually are not
more remote villagers as high voltage cables passing incorporated into the cost of the service.
overhead. For example, an old coal-fired power plant
might produce cheaper electricity than a new
Other barriers to grid connection natural gas-burning plant, because the plant
Although introduction of electricity to a requires more expensive equipment and more
community often stimulates income generating expensive fuel; but if the coal emissions are fouling
activities and hence a gradual increase in the the local town’s air, and the cost of that pollution
uptake of electricity use, the conditions for is included in the electricity pricing structure,
introducing electricity do not normally exist in electricity from the coal-burning plant would
rural areas, since most commercial and industrial actually be more expensive than the new plant. It
activities are concentrated at the regional centres. is a frequent situation in which energy is priced
In many countries the existing generating below its actual social cost.
capacity is unable to cope with demand. Burning ‘fossil fuels’ (coal, gas, oil) is one of the
Blackouts are a common occurrence in many most common methods of generating electricty.
major cities, especially as the process of rapid Burning any fossil fuel releases a great deal of CO2
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Listening To The Earth
(carbon dioxide) into the atmosphere, which have. Most generally, an environmental assessment
directly contributes to the global warming of the is conducted before a dam is contructed to assess
Earth. Of the fossil fuels used, natural gas burns the negative environmental and social impacts of
the cleanest, meaning that it only emits water and the project, and to recommend mitigation
CO2; however, other fossil fuels do not burn as measures. Neverthless, most Latin America dams
purely. Coal is the ‘dirtiest’ fossil fuel used for that are constructed are massive structures erected
power generation. In addition to CO2, it releases with little regard to the ecological effects that their
particulate matter (PM), sulfur dioxide (SOx), construction will cause. All too often the
nitrogen oxide (NOx), and carbon monoxide (CO), mitigation efforts suggested by environmental
as well as soot, sludge, and wastewater discharges. assessements are ignored or their implementation
The environmental discharges of these is not funded.
pollutants can be controlled through selection of Nuclear (fission) energy is currently utilized to
the fuel and its properties (such as low sulfur coal) produce electricity in about thirty countries,
as well as operation of the fuel burning process including a few in Latin America. The waste
(e.g. use of low-NOx burners reducing nitrogen products of this reaction are of the most
oxide emissions) and end of process controls such dangerous, most poisonous, and toxic substances
as use of particulate control equipment known on earth. Aside from being used as
(electrostatic precipitators or baghouses) for flue ammunition for weapons of war (nuclear weapons,
gases or settling tanks for process wastewaters. In for example), there are very few known uses for the
addition, ash generated from fuel burning can be radioactive residues leftover from nuclear
managed and disposed of properly so as not to reactions. Thus, the accumulation of nuclear
contaminate surface or ground waters. waste, both in dump sites and in armaments of the
Nevertheless, it is often the case that these controls weapons made from it, is a very serious
are not utilized, and even when they are, many environmental concern. The radiation from
produce a large volume of very concentrated, often nuclear waste causes a staggering array of
toxic substances. This is known as toxic waste. mutagenic effects to occur in the world of biology.
Toxic waste disposal practices are another severe Besides burns and other direct tissue damage, it
environmental problem in many areas. can cause disruptions in a living cell’s genetic code;
Besides the environmental reasons that make thus radiation causes cancer, birth defects, and
the use of fossil fuels unsustainable, it is important other chronic conditions. Often nuclear energy is
to recognize that fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and portrayed as ‘clean energy’ because the direct
gas are non-renewable natural resources, which atmospheric pollution is considerably less than
take millions of years to form. Therefore, we need that of a fossil-fuel burning plant. Nevertheless,
to be very mindful if and/or when we consume one can easily question the ‘cleanliness’ of nuclear
these fuels so that future generations may continue power.
to enjoy these gifts of the earth. The environmental impacts of a host of energy-
Hydroelectric dams, the most common form of linked emissions – including those listed above–
generation in Latin America, do not release any contribute to local, regional, and global air
chemical pollution into the air or water. Despite pollution and ecosystem degradation. Human
this fact, dams are often the cause of critical and health is threatened by high levels of pollution
catastrophic effects to the ecosystem in which they resulting from particular types of energy use at the
are built. Dams can effectively block all upstream household,community, and regional levels. The
movement by any form of aquatic species. effects of this pollution result in significant human
Furthermore, they disrupt the habitats and illness, like lung diseases, allergies, cancers, as well
patterns of behavior of the wildlife that once as having destructive effects on habitats and
occupied the land area that becomes a reservoir. wildlife.
Humans are often forced off their ancestral land by Furthermore, while economic and social
governments eager to supply their cities with cheap analyses are conducted prior to investments in
and ‘efficient’ electricity. conventional energy generation, with the vision to
Dams can be built to a size and in a manner reach as many as possible, there are still those who
that would produce minimal damage to an fall outside this vision. Wide disparities in access
ecosystem, and attempts can be made to mitigate to affordable commercial energy and energy
the environmental and social impacts that they do services in both urban centres and rural areas are
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inequitable, run counter to the concept of human energy technologies (such as diesel motors and
development, and threaten social stability. hybrids) are important options for poverty
Investments in centralised, capital-intensive alleviation, particularly technologies that are
conventional energy enterprises such as coal-fired locally made and that operate using locally
power-generation and large dams in practice largely available fuels (e.g., hydro power, wind power, solar
benefit high- and middle-income urban power, and modern biomass resources).
communities, commercial establishments, and Decentralisation of generation also allows control
industries through electricity distributed through of the system to remain in the hands of the users
power grids. Poor, dispersed rural communities and removes the dependency on external supplies
that are often far from the grid rarely benefit from and market forces. These decentralised energy
such investments. Even in urban areas, low-income technologies can be a source of enterprise creation
neighbourhoods and shantytowns are often not and employment for both the rural and urban
connected to the grid. poor, and can be competitive and affordable in
The production and consumption of energy isolated areas and other markets. Access to
causes serious economic crises in many countries decentralised small-scale energy technologies is an
that are dependent upon fuel provided by other important element of successful poverty
countries. Dependence on imported fuels leaves alleviation.
such countries vulnerable to disruptions in supply,
which can cause physical hardships and economic Keeping Energy Sacred
burdens; however, it is the relative weight of fossil
fuels imports on the balance of payments, that is The assessments that follow will help your
absolutely unbearable for many poorer countries. community evaluate its policies and practices
Thus, while electricity may be a very desirable regarding energy use, most especially the
utility, the current methods used to generate it are production and use of electricity.
causing many critical environmental and social The first assessment, is meant to help you
problems. evaluate your community’s productive capacity,
and your community’s relationship to the Earth
Sustainable Alternatives via your electricity provider. If your community
uses diesel or gas-powered generators, completing
Finding ways to expand energy services while the Outdoor Air Quality Assessment is
simultaneously addressing the environmental recommended. Similarly, if your community uses
impacts associated with energy use represents batteries, it is recommended that you complete the
critical challenge to humanity. Major changes are Waste Handling Assessment as well. This
required in energy system development world- assessment should be applicable to your
wide. Resources and technology options exist and community whether you live in an urban area or a
are available that meet these challenges—energy rural area, and as well, whether you have grid
efficiency, renewable energy sources, decentralized electricity or not.
networking—but they require the creativity, The second assessment is meant to help you
advocacy, and implementation by communities evaluate your community’s energy consumption
like yours to make sustainable energy use a reality. practices. The content of this section applies
As mentioned earlier, one of the main obstacles mostly especially to communities that are within
to national grid connection in remote rural areas is an urban area, or are otherwise connected to grid
the prohibitive cost of the distribution network. electricity. Nevertheless, it may still be helpful to
One way of avoiding these costs are to decentralise review the assessment even if your community is
the power generating capacity and install local rural.
small scale, low voltage grids, otherwise known as Each question is discussed in the sections
micro-grids. Localised grid networks allow local, following the inventories, where you will be
renewable resources to be exploited. Energy sources provided a means to evaluate your responses, and
such as small-scale hydropower, solar directed to resources to help your community
(photovoltaic), wind power and biogas are all being improve its energy sustainability.
employed successfully in rural electrification
projects. A growing number of studies find that
renewable and other decentralised small-scale
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Listening To The Earth
If your community consumes non-rechargeable batteries Considering your community’s electricity consumption,
for use, about how much money is spent each month on estimate or specify the percentage of the energy that is
purchasing batteries? self-produced, i.e. generated by your community by
means of a generator, water, solar or wind energy:
2 Community Generative Potential %
(Portion of self-generated electricity)
Consider your community’s geographical location
and property. Assess the following characteristics: If your community generates electricity, which
technology(s) do you use?
c Wind energy
Rate the amount of direct sunlight that is available on c Active (PV) Solar Panel
c Passive Solar
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Does the community have a maintenance plan for Notice before continuing
the equipment? If your community purchases, or electricity is
Yes / No otherwise provided by, an ‘outside’ source such
Does your community include these maintenance as an electric utility corporation or cooperative,
expenses as part of the budget? governmental or otherwise, continue on to
Yes / No complete this assessment. Otherwise, if your
Does your community share its productive technology greater community does not have electrical
with the larger community (either by directly sharing infrastructure, or your religious community
the electricity produced, or by educating about energy does not use any ‘outside’ electricity, skip the
production) rest of this inventory, and start the evaluation
Yes / No process on page 175, Electricity Production
Practices Evaluation.
If batteries are used by your community, especially as
components of a generative system, what types of
batteries are used (see page 177-180 for descriptions)? 4. Sources of Expert Information
Primary cells or dry batteries:
c standard zinc-carbon Electricity Utility Provider/Generation Network
c alkaline or heavy duty It will be helpful to contact the Provider directly to
Secondary cells or rechargeable batteries: help answer the questions that follow. Thus, record
c lead-acid battery below information specific to your Provider:
c vented lead-acid
c automotive (car Name of Provider:
c deep-discharge or traction
c stationary Contact information:
c low-antimony solar battery
c sealed or valve-regulated
Nickel-Cadmium batteries: Contact Person:
c vented
c sealed
When there is a problem with your electricity
Describe the quantity and frequency of replacement supply, who do you contact, and how?
(life span) for the batteries that your community
consumes:
Governmental Regulatory Agency
Battery type Quantity Life span (weeks/mo/yrs) Your government should have an agency/ministry
that is responsible for enforcing environmental
regulations. If you don’t know of one, refer to the
List of Categorized References in the back of this
manual to help locate one.
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Do you know of a public/consumer protection/advocacy Does the Provider have a governing body, such as a
group that can provide reliable, expert data on the committee or an elected assembly to make management
safety of generation plants? decisions?
Yes / No Yes / No
Name of Organization: Does your religious community have a member that
serves on this governing body, if one exists?
Contact information: Yes / No / Not Applicable
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According to the governmental regulatory agency, is your How well is your community informed about ways in
Electricity Provider in compliance with all which to conserve electricity?
environmental statutes? 123456789
Yes / No (1= not at all, 9= experts)
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Listening To The Earth
Electricity Production Practices: network outages, inflationary utility costs, and the
Evaluation lack of control over the generation process itself.
There are numerous grants available from the
At the end of each discussion section, there will be a international community for sustainability
statement and a list of numbers from which to choose. projects, and grants for the use or implementation
Choose a number from 1-9 to indicate your assessment of renewable fuels. See the List of Categorized
of how well your community represents the statement references for some further grant opportunities. It
given. (1 = disagree, community practices unhealthy; 9 is very helpful for your community to make
= agree completely, no change needed) consistent efforts to solicit funds, both from
benefactors and grantors, for your sustainability
1. Community Consumption efforts.
If constructing an electricity generating
The purpose of this first question is to provide apparatus of any sort is beyond the means of your
your community with indicators that you can use religious community, it may still be possible within
to assess your electricity consumption. The total your larger community. With the right amount of
electricity used in your community would be equal cooperation within your larger community, small-
to the sum of the amount you purchase from a grid scale generating facilities can be constructed and
source, plus the amount you generate, plus the governed locally.
amount of primary-cell (i.e. disposable) batteries The questions here are meant to focus on the
that you use. environmental conditions that would favor the
More simply, however, this question is meant generation of electricity by your community in
only to provide a measurable way of assessing your manners that are ecologically sound.
community’s electricity use, especially in terms of If your location receives a great amount of
the dependencies that its use requires. It may direct sunlight, solar arrays and collectors are
depend upon money, fuel, and/or the availability of certainly indicated as viable options. Solar energy
an electrical network. can be captured and used in a variety of manners,
If your community is committed to reducing but can be generally grouped into either (a) passive
their demand for energy, indicators like these can systems, or (b) active systems. Passive systems
be used to track your progress; at the same time, simply collect the sun’s energy, concentrate it, and
they can provide a record of the economic savings apply it to something that needs to be heated. This
that result from conservation practices. may be an oven, an apparatus for heating water, or
even for the boiling of liquid for steam generation.
Our community monitors our energy consumption (or at Steam may be used to turn a turbine to produce
least how much of our resources we expend upon fuel). electricity. Active systems rely upon photo-voltaic
123456789 cell arrays, or solar panels, to convert sunlight into
electricity. The intensity of the light determines
2. Community Generative Potential the amount of power generated, and thus,
collecting and focusing the sun’s rays toward the
Generating your own electricity has many benefits. solar panel will help to maximize the generative
The less your community has to depend upon potential of an active system.
outside sources for electricity, the more power your If your location has reliable and steady amounts
community has over the cost and environmental of wind, converting this energy into electricity is an
effects of its generation. Although the initial option that would require the construction of one
capital expense of generation equipment is often form of windmill or another. There are many
high, the equipment usually pays for itself within a different designs in use today, and some are much
reasonable amount of time. Nevertheless, there are more efficient than others. Beside generating
benefits besides financial savings. As discussed in electricity, windmills can be used to convert wind
the introduction to this assessment chapter, the energy into a mechanical form that can turn water
most equitable, sustainable and secure type of pumps, corn grinders, paddle wheels, etc.
electrical grid (or network) is one that is If your community produces a large amount of
decentralized with numerous independent organic waste, as would be the case if your
generation points. By generating your own community farmed animals, for example, the
electricity, you safeguard your community from organic waste can be collected and ‘digested,’ or
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the manufacturer or expert who helped to design generally all that is available. Their high cost
the system should provide you with a written or makes them only suitable for powering small
printed maintenance plan for the life of the appliances that can only be used economically for
system. This plan should be executed by the short periods or emergencies.
person responsible for the system’s maintenance. Primary cells are based on an irreversible
Such a plan or the experience of the person electrochemical reaction, and consequently cannot
responsible for maintenance should provide an be recharged. Once the chemicals inside the
indication of what parts or accessories are battery are exhausted the battery is useless and
necessary for the upkeep of the system. In order to must be disposed of. In recent years primary cell
obtain sustainable functioning of your generation technology has improved dramatically, and two
system, the community should allocate part of its distinct qualities of cell are usually available in any
budget towards paying for these needed expenses. size: standard zinccarbon, and alkaline (also called
Lastly, if your community does utilize some ‘heavy duty’ or ‘long life’).
form of sustainable energy production, the The electrical capacity of a cell is the total
technology (including both the actual quantity of electricity that a cell can deliver. The
infrastructure or product and the technical potential electrical capacity of fresh cells of the
knowledge) should be shared with those in your same size and type is the same, but the true
larger community, if possible. If your community capacity is not fixed, it depends on many factors,
produces enough energy, it may be able to share the such as cell size, cell type, rate of discharge,
energy with its neighbors directly. However, if your temperature, and mode of use.
capacity is not that large, your community can In order to optimise the use of dry cells, it is a
help to educate others about how it would be common practice to use them in radios and
possible for them to build and maintain a similar cassette players until their voltage falls (most
system themselves. electronic devices need a minimum voltage to
function at all), and then the cells are finished off ’
Our community strives to find creative and sustainable in flash-lights, where a battery with low voltage
ways to utilize our generative potential, if it exists. simply results in a rather dim and yellow light.
Answer ‘0’ if not applicable.
0123456789 Factors affecting useful life
The capacity of dry cells, like most other batteries,
Our community takes care to keep all generative increases at higher temperatures. The capacity is
equipment well maintained. usually given at 20°C; above this temperature the
123456789 capacity is increased, and below this temperature
capacity is decreased, so warming the batteries
About Batteries before use will result in extra power.
As many small-scale methods of electricity Primary cells are stable in terms of self-
generation are available only intermittently, some discharge. Some of the alkaline ‘heavy duty’ types
form of electricity storage or battery is needed if can be kept for several years with no more than a
people want to have electricity available at all few per cent loss of capacity.
times. The cheaper zinc-carbon type deteriorate more
quickly, but even so they retain their capacity
Primary cells—Dry batteries better than any other type of portable electrical
The familiar flashlight battery is perhaps the most power source. The self-discharge rate is adversely
commonly used battery. This type of battery affected by high temperature, so store the cells at
comes in standard sizes of AAA, AA, C, and D. between 10 and 25°C and at a relative humidity of
Although the purchase or first cost of dry cells below 65 per cent.
is relatively low, it is one of the least cost effective
electrical power sources in terms of the cost per Cost
unit of useful energy delivered. Furthermore, only The cost of electricity from primary cells varies
a limited energy yield can be obtained before the widely between US$140 and $1300 per kWh, and
battery has to be thrown away. Dry batteries are is about 700 to 6500 times more expensive than
used in especially large numbers by the poor, as grid electricity taken at $0.2 per kWh. The initial
they are convenient, just about affordable, and cost of primary cells is low, but the unit cost of
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electricity from them is extremely high. Despite useful for occasionally used loads than for regularly
this, the use of primary cells remains common, used ones. They are particularly well suited for
partly because the cost is spread over a period of small photovoltaic application where they are
time, partly because they are convenient, but being charged with daily sunshine.
mainly because they are often the only source of
power available, particularly in rural areas. Memory effect of ni-cad batteries
The memory effect is the tendency of a battery
Secondary cells: Rechargeable cells and batteries to adjust ‘its electrical properties to a certain duty
There are two main types of secondary cell in cycle to which it has been subjected for an
general use: lead-acid and nickel-cadmium (NiCd). extended period of time. Vented pocketplate
batteries do not develop this effect, but sealed
Nickel-cadmium batteries cells, such as the AAA, AA, C, and D sizes do. To
The main alternative to the lead-acid battery is the remedy this problem, they need to be ‘awakened’
nickel-cadmium or ‘ni-cad’ battery. Like lead-acid, by being fully charged and discharged for three or
ni-cad batteries are available either vented or four cycles before their memory is ‘stretched’
sealed. Vented ni-cad are designed for applications enough to hold a full charge.
which require robust energy storage with long
operating lifetimes and minimal maintenance. Costs
Sealed and usually small (i.e. sized AAA, AA, or The small ni-cad batteries have a higher initial cost
D), ni-cad batteries are used as an economical than a primary cell, but work out much less
replacement for dry cells. expensive in the long run since they can be
The nominal voltage of a ni-cad cell is 1.2 volts, recharged and re-used from 100 to 1000 times
so a nominal 12V ni-cad system needs 10 cells. Ni- before they lose their capacity and need to be
cad cells can withstand a greater depth of discharge replaced. Obviously, a suitable power source is
than lead-acid batteries, and so generally a smaller necessary to recharge them, which could be a
capacity can serve a given duty. They also tend to special low-voltage charger powered by the mains
last longer, 10 to 20 years for the larger ones. Ni- or a generating set, or by solar photovoltaics. Large
cads are less easily damaged by over-discharge or nickel-cadmium batteries can also be financially
overcharging, and so simpler and cheaper charge competitive with large (over 100Ah) lead-acid
control systems can be used to compensate for batteries, bearing in mind that they can be 100 per
their extra unit costs. They are also more tolerant cent discharged while a lead-acid battery generally
of extreme temperature variation than lead-acid should be limited to 50 to 70 per cent discharge of
batteries, and can operate at sub-zero its rated capacity.
temperatures.
Although ni-cad batteries are robust and Lead-acid
reliable, they do have a few shortcomings that can The least expensive option for any significant size
cause problems. One major problem is that of electrical battery storage is the lead-acid battery.
reversing the polarity when recharging a ni-cad cell Lead-acid batteries have a nominal fully charged
usually destroys it completely. This can sometimes voltage of 2V per cell, so a 12V battery typically
happen, not because a cell was reversed by has six cells in series. A lead-acid battery will only
carelessness when wiring it up for recharging, but withstand a certain number of charge-discharge
when one cell in a battery of ni-cad cells is weaker cycles, before it fails and needs to be replaced. The
than the rest: then the good cells can cause reverse greater the depth of discharge (that is the more on
charging of a weak one in certain circumstances, average that the battery is ‘flattened’}, the fewer
destroying the weak one completely. This is one cycles it will survive. For example a battery that is
reason why it is not a good policy to mix old cells discharged regularly by 80 per cent of its total
and new ones either for recharging or for actual capacity may last 800 cycles, but if it is discharged
use. by only 20 per cent each time it may last 6000
Another characteristic of ni-cad batteries is a cycles. If the battery were discharged at 20 per cent
tendency to self-discharge rather more quickly rather than 80 per cent, the rated capacity will
than lead-acid cells and much more quickly than have to be four times larger to deliver the same
primary cells. Ni-cad primary cell substitutes energy, but will last at least four times as long. The
therefore need regular recharging and are less size of the battery is therefore a compromise
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same reason, battery storage areas should be well committee, management committee, or the like
ventilated whose function it is to make the operational
decisions affecting the ways in which the Provider
Sealed Batteries: These contain the electrolyte in generates and distributes its electricity. Although in
‘dry’ from so that no electolyte can be spilt, and so many regions the energy providers are private
there is less of a hazard. Even so, care must be corporations which are closed to public
taken not to damage the casing. management, others may not be. They may be
governmental operations, which may have a
Disposal/Recycling: Both types of batteries should be citizens advisory panel, managers that are voted
deposed of safely. Where practical, it is a good idea into office, or some other connection between the
to give away lead-acid batteries to local battery public and the management. Frequently, smaller
manufactures for lead and plastic-casing recycling. and more local Providers may be cooperatives in
Ni-cad batteries should be disposed of carefully to which every member has a vote. Having power
avoid cadmium pollution. over the operational decisions being made can be
an effective means of reducing the environmental
(Refer to the Hazardous Products and Waste costs of energy production.
Handling Assessment in Chapter 4 of this manual Similarly, even if your community does not
to learn more about the proper disposal of have the ability to directly influence the decisions
batteries) being made, it is still possible that the public is
able to give advisory input for, or even organized
Our community is well educated about the hazards of resistance against policies or practices of the the
battery use and disposal practices. Provider. Since air pollution resulting from energy
123456789 production is a major environmental concern, it is
important to know of such avenues of influence.
Our community strives to protect ourselves and the As with any public service that is used by a
Earth from these hazards by disposing of our batteries majority of the population, the public should be
in a manner that is safe for humans and the given the opportunity to express their opinions
environment. regarding the fees demanded for continued service
123456789 as well as those regarding the environmental
impacts of the operation. As we know from above,
4. Sources of Expert Information the generation of electricity does require some
amount of capital expense, and it is the
Much of the information that is useful for your beneficiaries of the utility that are ultimately
community to know about the adverse responsible for the generation of this capital.
environmental impacts of energy production in Nevertheless, in many cases, fee structures are
your area is generally available from non- determined by an internal source whose primary
governmental organizations that are concerned concern it is only to generate profits for
with the health of the environment or the health of shareholders. The shareholders may not be, and
people. The Energy Provider itself should be often are not, the stakeholders or end-users. Thus,
contacted to learn of specific technical overly expensive rates sometimes result which
information, in the case of problems, or to preclude a large portion of society from utilizing
advocate for changes in the Provider’s policies or this basic utility. In the interests of social equality
practices. and justice, it is important for your religious
community to be sensitive to the organizational
Our community has developed relationships with the structure of utility providers, and to understand
parties relavent to electricity production, and frequently how this structure affects the utility’s
use them to stay informed about current issues. responsiveness to public input. If the utility
123456789 consistenly ignores the needs of its consumers
despite well-organized efforts, your community
5. Electricity Provider Governance might well decide to campaign for an alteration of
the utility’s structure.
Depending upon the organizational structure of
your Electricity Provider, there may be a regulation
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8. Community energy management Now categorize each problem listed above into one
practices of the following three categories:
I = Critically important. Currently dangerous,
must be addressed immediately
Now that you have comprehensively examined your II = Important, but not immediately dangerous.
electricity producation capabilities and practices, how Must be addressed
would you rate, overall, your community’s practices in III = Current practice should be improved, but is
these regards? not immediately important
Excellent / Satisfactory / Poor / Critically
deficient
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Energy average
Device energy use of
Usage Rating
Appliances Quantity Type of Fuel Class (I, II, common
(hours/day) (Watts or appliances
III, or IV) (Watts)
Liters/day)
Air
Air
Conditioner 750
conditioning
(Room)
Heating Air
(stove/furnac Conditioner 3500
e) (Central)
Refrigerator/
Refrigerator-
freezer/ 600
Freezer
food storage
Lighting
Motors/pum
ps (includes Fan 60
fans)
Radio Radio 25
Stove or
Electric stove 7500
oven
Flashlights
Outdoor
lighting
Computer,
Computer monitor & 200
printer
Sewing Sewing
75
machine Machine
Other
(specify):
Other
(specify):
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Listening To The Earth
Is the heater used only when absolutely necessary? v. Does your community take care to minimize the
Yes / No period of time the door or lid of the appliance is left
Is the unit positioned as close as possible to where open?
the heat is needed? Yes / No
Yes / No
vi. If your community has a freezer, are the coils and
4. Refrigeration and Freezing fins inside the appliance free of built-up ice (less than
0.5cm)?
Does your community use one or more refrigerators or Yes / No
freezers? Is the freezer regularly defrosted before the ice is
Yes / No 0.5cm thick?
If Yes please answer the following questions: Yes / No
iii. Is the appliance maintained according to the If water is heated by a flame, is the flame vented by a
prescribed maintenance schedule by the manufacturer? chimney?
Yes / No Yes / No
Does the storage container seal tightly all around the
edges of the door or lid? Is the chimney in good repair and cleaned regularly?
Yes / No Yes / No
Is the storage container well insulated?
Yes / No Is the output water temperature setting minimized to the
Are all vents around the compressor regularly lowest practical temperature?
cleaned (at least once per year)? Yes / No
Yes / No Temperature setting:
Are all exposed coils clean and regularly cleaned?
Yes / No Are water conservation practices followed in your
community, especially for heated water?
iv. Is the size, or capacity, of the storage space within Yes / No
the appliance well matched to the volume of items placed (see Chapter 3, page **)
in it (i.e. it is neither over-full, nor mostly empty)?
Yes / No Is the water tank insulated?
Is care taken to rotate stock, so that food is used in a Yes / No
‘first in, first out’ order, and spoiled food is routinely
disposed of? Are all water pipes that carry heated water insulated?
Yes / No Yes / No
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Number of fluorescent fixtures: For any other electric appliances not specifically
mentioned above, answer the following questions:
Number of fuel based flame lamps:
Other (specify): Is your community well informed about both the
Quantity: economic and environmental benefits of energy
conservation (especially electicity)?
Do the members of your community make a concerted 123456789
effort to use lighting only when necessary, turning lights (1= not informed, 9= most informed and continually
off when not being used? updated)
Yes / No
Do all community members make a concerted effort to
Are lighted rooms painted or otherwise colored with shut off electric devices when not in use (1= no effort,
reflective colors (e.g. yellow, white, other light colors)? 9= excellent efforts by everyone)?
Yes / No 123456789
7. Electric Motors and Pumps Does the community rank energy efficient performance
as an important criteria when making purchasing
If your community uses any sort of electric motors decisions (1= not at all, 9= most important
(fans, pumps, etc.), observe each motor in consideration)?
operation, and answer the following questions: 123456789
Rate the performance of the motor by the sounds that it Does the community incorporate energy conservation as
makes: a criteria for in policy making (1= not at all, 9= most
12345 important consideration)?
(1= very noisy, uneven ‘clunking’, sounds strained, nearly 123456789
inoperable)
(3= intermittent noises, rattling, but motor seems to have full
power)
(5= near noiseless operation, motor is well lubed and fully
functional)
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was expanded to improve comfort in homes and weather, when most units are operating under
automobiles. heavy load. Unfortunately, many air conditioners
The most common types of air conditioners are not very efficient, and much of the energy used
employ a working fluid called a refrigerant in a does not actually go towards cooling, but instead is
cycle where the refrigerant repeatedly changes state wasted as heat. This means that there is a huge
from liquid to vapor and back to liquid. The opportunity to conserve energy by making wise air
refrigerant is condensed to release heat in one part conditioning choices. Air conditioner use should
of the cycle and is boiled (or evaporated) to absorb be minimal and efficient. The inventory questions
heat in another part of the cycle. ‘Freon’ is a trade here are meant to help reduce the energy that your
name for a family of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) community expends on air conditioning.
refrigerants manufactured by DuPont and other While most units are electrically powered, some
companies. Although these refrigerants were use liquid or gaseous fuel to power the refrigeration
initially used due to their superior stability and cycle. These units may or may not be more
safety properties, unfortunately, evidence has efficient and polluting, depending upon the fuel
accumulated that these chlorine-bearing used and the design of the unit. In general, the
refrigerants reach the upper atmosphere when they following advice applies to these models equally.
escape. A decline in performance over time may Along with electric models, use of gas-fueled
indicate a refrigerant leak. models should also be minimized and made
The chemistry is poorly understood, but a efficient.
consensus is growing that chlorine atoms of these In addition, geothermal energy is often used for
CFC refrigerants are released in the presence of air conditioning. Advantageously, most of Latin
strong ultraviolet radiation (UV)and these chlorine America is in an area where geothermal energy can
atoms cause severe damage to the ozone layer that be utilized relatively easily. See the resources listed
shields the earth’s surface from the strong UV at the end of this chapter for more information
radiation. The ozone layer is extremely important about geothermal air conditioning systems.
in terms of human health, particularly for our skin Furthermore, although the technology is not in
and eyes. The intense UV rays from the sun, if widespread use, solar energy can also be used to
unblocked by the ozone layer, greatly contribute to drive air conditioners. While this option seems to
premature skin aging, are a contributing factor to make the most sense, implementing it at this time
skin cancers (melanomas), degenerative eye would most likely involve a capital investment
problems like cataracts, and UV radiation has been greater than the other options would require.
found to suppress the function of our immune It might surprise you to know that buying a
systems. Thus, the use of CFC refrigerants should bigger room air-conditioning unit won’t necessarily
be eliminated if possible. make you feel more comfortable during the hot
The Montreal Protocol, officially the Protocol on summer months. In fact, a room air conditioner
Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer, is a treaty that’s too big for the area it is supposed to cool will
that was signed on Sept. 16, 1987, at Montreal by perform less efficiently and less effectively than a
25 nations. 168 nations are now parties to the smaller, properly sized unit. This is because room
accord. The protocol set limits on the production units work better if they run for relatively long
of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, and related periods of time than if they are continually,
substances that release chlorine or bromine to the switching off and on. Longer run times allow air
ozone layer of the atmosphere. According to the conditioners to maintain a more constant room
phase-out schedule set by the treaty, Latin America temperature.
should have completely phased out CFC usage by Sizing is equally important for central air-
2010. Any appliance purchased today should not conditioning systems, which need to be sized by
contain CFC’s. professionals. If your community has a central air
Contact the manufacturer of your air system, the fan should be set to shut off at the
conditioner to find out if CFCs are used in your same time as the cooling unit (compressor). In
unit, and what options exist for refrigerant other words, don’t use the system’s central fan to
replacement. It is important that only a trained provide circulation, but instead use circulating fans
technician perform such internal maintenance. in individual rooms.
The use of electric air conditioning puts a major Air conditioners are manufactured with various
demand on many electrical power grids in warm degrees of efficiency. Usually the energy efficiency
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normal when you turn on your air conditioner. It will notice that most of the same advice applies to
will not cool your home any faster and could heating systems.
result in excessive cooling and, therefore, However, you may disregard the information
unnecessary expense. regarding refrigerants, as heating systems obviously
• Consider using an interior fan in conjunction with do not use them. Instead, heating systems often
your window air conditioner to spread the cooled burn some type of fuel. Refer to the section on
air more effectively through your home without Indoor Air Pollution, Chapter 2, for more
greatly increasing your power use. information regarding proper exhaust venting and
• Don’t place lamps or TV sets near your air- choice of fuels. It is important that adequate safety
conditioning thermostat. The thermostat senses measures are in place if inflammable fuels are used.
heat from these appliances, which can cause the (e.g. storage away from heat/flame, sealed
air conditioner to run longer than necessary. containers made from material appropriate for the
• Plant trees or shrubs to shade air-conditioning type of fuel used, etc.)
units but not to block the airflow. A unit operating
in the shade uses as much as 10% less electricity Our community strives to use the least amount of energy
than the same one operating in the sun. on air heating as possible, using clean, efficient, and
• Trees that lose their leaves in the fall (i.e., sustainable practices and equipment.
deciduous) are the most effective at reducing 123456789
heating and cooling energy costs. When selectively
placed around a house, they provide excellent 4. Refrigeration and Freezing
protection from the summer sun but permit winter
sunlight to reach and warm your house. The Refrigeration is generally the cooling of a body by
height, growth rate, branch spread, and shape are the transfer of a portion of its heat away from it.
all factors to consider in choosing a tree. Applications include preservation, especially of
• Vines provide shading and cooling. Grown on food, and lowering the temperature of drinks to
trellises, vines can shade windows or the whole one that is more agreeable for consumption. One
side of a house. of the first uses of ‘home’ refrigeration was
• Install white window shades, drapes, or blinds to installed around 1895. Domestic refrigerators are
reflect heat away from the building. common in kitchens, with separate sections or
• Close curtains on windows that face the sun separate machines for cooling and freezing. Most
during the day. units are electrically powered, but the gas
• No matter what kind of heating, ventilation, and absorption refrigerator, which cools by the use of a
air-conditioning system you have in your source of heat is used in homes that are not
community, you can save energy and increase connected to the electrical grid, and in vehicles.
comfort by properly maintaining and upgrading Refer to the information regarding refrigerants
your equipment. By combining proper equipment found above under the discussion of Question 2:
maintenance and upgrades with appropriate Air Conditioning, as much of the technology is the
insulation, weatherization, and thermostat same in these two applications. Similarly, the
settings, your community may be able to cut your capacity of the unit is one of the most important
energy consumption and your pollution output in factors to consider to obtain the most efficient use
half. of the appliance, as it is for choosing
heating/cooling systems.
Our community strives to use the least amount of energy
on air conditioning as possible, using clean, efficient, Energy Efficient Refrigerator/Freezer Practices
and sustainable practices and equipment. • Look for a refrigerator with automatic
123456789 moisture control. Models with this feature
have been engineered to prevent moisture
3. Air/Space Heating accumulation on the cabinet exterior
without the addition of a heater. This is not
In the interests of brevity and avoiding the same thing as an ‘anti-sweat’ heater.
redundancy, refer to the discussion of the previous Models with an anti-sweat heater will
question (regarding air conditioning), simply consume 5% to 10% more energy than
substituting the concept of cooling by heating. You models without this feature.
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Listening To The Earth
• Don’t keep your refrigerator or freezer too Water Conservation Assessment, found in Chapter
cold. Recommended temperatures are 3ºC 3, is highly recommended. Furthermore, if your
to 5ºC for the fresh food compartment of water heater burns fuel, review the Indoor Air
the refrigerator and -15ºC for the freezer Quality Assessment found in Chapter 2.
section. If you have a separate freezer for
long-term storage, it should be kept at - Energy Efficient Water Heating Practices
18ºC. • Repair leaky faucets promptly; a leaky
• To check refrigerator temperature, place an faucet wastes gallons of water in a short
appliance thermometer in a glass of water period.
in the center of the refrigerator. Read it • Insulate your electric hot-water storage
after 24 hours. To check the freezer tank and pipes, but be careful not to cover
temperature, place a thermometer between the thermostat.
frozen packages. Read it after 24 hours. • Insulate your gas or oil hot-water storage
• Regularly defrost manual-defrost tank and pipes, but be careful not to cover
refrigerators and freezers; frost buildup the water heater’s top, bottom, thermostat,
increases the amount of energy needed to or burner compartment; when in doubt, get
keep the motor running. Don’t allow frost professional help.
to build up more than one-quarter of an • Install aerating low-flow faucets and
inch. showerheads.
• Make sure your refrigerator door seals are • Buy a new energy-efficient water heater.
airtight. Test them by closing the door over While it may cost more initially than a
a piece of paper or money note so it is half standard water heater, the energy savings
in and half out of the refrigerator. If you will continue during the lifetime of the
can pull the paper or note out easily, the appliance.
latch may need adjustment or the seal may • Although most water heaters last 10-15
need replacing. years, it’s best to start shopping for a new
• Cover liquids and wrap foods stored in the one if yours is more than 7 years old.
refrigerator. Uncovered foods release Doing some research before your heater
moisture and make the compressor work fails will enable you to select one that most
harder. appropriately meets your needs.
• Rotate foods on a first-in, first-out cycle to • Lower the thermostat on your water heater;
prevent spoilage and to prevent the water heaters sometimes come from the
unnecessary accumulation of food. factory with high temperature settings, but
• Move your refrigerator out from the wall a setting of 46ºC provides comfortable hot
and vacuum its condenser coils at least water for most uses.
once a year unless you have a no-clean • Drain a quart of water from your water
condenser model. Your refrigerator will run tank every 3 months to remove sediment
for shorter periods with clean coils. that impedes heat transfer and lowers the
efficiency of your heater. The type of water
Our community strives to use the least amount of energy tank you have determines the steps to take,
on refrigeration and freezing as possible, using clean, so follow the manufacturer’s advice.
efficient, and sustainable practices and equipment. • If you heat with electricity and live in a
123456789 warm and sunny climate, consider installing
a solar water heater. The solar units are
5. Water Heating environmentally friendly and can now be
installed on your roof to blend with the
Again, with this technology the most important architecture of your community’s
points to consider for energy efficiency are building(s).
insulation, system integrity, and temperature • Take more showers than baths. Bathing
minimization. See the above discussions for uses the most hot water in the average
further rationale about these points. household. You use 15-25 gallons of hot
Water conservation practices are especially water for a bath, but less than 10 gallons
important for heated water, so performing the during a 5-minute shower.
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Chapter 5: Energy
Our community strives to use the least amount of energy electro-luminescent night lights. Both lights
on water heating as possible, using clean, efficient, and are much more efficient than their
sustainable practices and equipment. incandescent counterparts. The luminescent
123456789 lights are cool to the touch.
• For spot lighting, consider CFLs with
6. Lighting reflectors. The lamps range in wattage from
13-watt to 32-watt and provide a very
In general, the best piece of advice for using directed light using a reflector and lens
lighting efficiently is simply to turn lights off when system.
not in use. Take advantage of natural lighting as • Take advantage of daylight by using light-
much as possible, and maximize the reflectivity of colored, loose-weave curtains on windows
lighted areas to reduce the needed luminescence of to allow daylight to penetrate the room
the bulb. while preserving privacy. Also, decorate
If your community has electricity, compact with lighter colors that reflect daylight.
fluorescent (CFL) bulbs are an excellent • Use outdoor lights with a photocell unit or
replacement for incandescent bulbs (the kind that a timer so they will turn off during the day.
have a small wire filament that glows). Although • Exterior lighting is one of the best places to
their initial expense is considerable greater than use CFLs because of their long life. If you
incandescent bulbs, CFLs last much longer and live in a cold climate, be sure to buy a lamp
consequently are usually cheaper, especially when with a cold-weather ballast.
energy costs are also considered.
If your community does not have electricity Our community strives to use the least amount of energy
and uses fuel based lanterns, remember to use on lighting as possible, using clean, efficient, and
them only when necessary, extinguishing them sustainable practices and equipment.
when light is no longer needed. It is also important 123456789
to make sure that wick and vents are adjusted
properly so that the flame burns efficiently. No 7. Electric Motors and Pumps
soot should be visible around the lantern, nor
should black smoke be emitted from the flame. In general, an electric motor or pump that is
(This presumes the use of liquid or gaseous fuel.) functioning efficiently will have a steady, smooth
sound. There should be no whining, clunking,
Energy Efficient Lighting Practices dinging, etc, and the running rythym should be
• Compact fluorescent (CFL) bulbs are four steady and not uneven. Any of these noises, or an
times more energy efficient than uneven operation indicate that there is a
incandescent bulbs and provide the same mechanical problem with the motor. Mechanical
lighting. problems require the motor to work harder than it
• Turn off the lights in any room you’re not would otherwise, and thus such problems imply
using, or consider installing timers, photo that energy is being wasted.
cells, or occupancy sensors to reduce the Likely problems may include need for
amount of time your lights are on. lubrication, worn bearings, worn bushings, poor
• Use task lighting; instead of brightly electrical contacts, shaft slippage, and many
lighting an entire room, focus the light others. If your community has a handy person
where you need it. For example, use around, often small motors can be repaired quite
fluorescent under-cabinet lighting for easily. And, as with most equipment, a little bit of
kitchen sinks and countertops under preventative maintenance generally goes a long
cabinets. way towards preserving the quality and integrity of
• Consider three-way lamps; they make it the equipment. Thus, if your community has a
easier to keep lighting levels low when capable person, it is very helpful and wise to have
brighter light is not necessary. this person perform routine maintenance on
• Use 4-foot fluorescent fixtures with equipment like motors and pumps.
reflective backing and electronic ballasts for If your community uses any fans, it is
work areas, garage, and laundry areas. important to have freely ventilated air both in
• Consider using 4-watt mini-fluorescent or front of and behind the fan. If air flow is impeded,
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Chapter 5: Energy
United Nations Development Program. World Energy Enersol: Solar energy serving people:
Assessment: Overview 2004 Update. Edited by José http://www.enersol.org/
Goldemberg and Thomas B. Johansson. UNDP; New Enersol is a non-profit charitable organization
York, USA, 2004. Available online: developing and introducing sustainable energy
http://www.undp.org/energy. solutions for rural communities, especially supporting
the use of clean, renewable solar energy for health and
Resources for Chapter 5 education applications in Latin America. Telephone:
978-251-1828
Internet Resources
GREENTIE: http://www.greentie.org/
African Energy Policy Research Network
(AFREPREN): http://www.afrepren.org/ GREENTIE was an international directory of suppliers
whose technologies help to reduce greenhouse gas
AFREPREN, brings together 106 African energy emissions. GREENTIE, and its sister program
researchers and policy makers from Africa who have a CADDET, ceased collecting new information at the end
long-term interest in energy research and the attendant of March 2005. Nevertheless, the information will
policy-making process. Its mission is to develop feasible remain available through this web site’s search facilities
policy options for the delivery of affordable and cleaner as it represents one of the World’s most detailed
energy services to the poor in Africa, with a vision of repositories of such information.
ensuring more sustaibable energy services for all in
Africa. Mexican Renewable Energy Program (MREP):
http://www.re.sandia.gov/
CADDET - Energy Efficiency and Renewable
Energy at your fingertips: http://www.caddet.org/ The Mexico Renewable Energy Program’s objective was
to promote the appropriate and sustainable use of
CADDET stands for Centre for Analysis and renewable energy technologies in Mexico. MREP
Dissemination of Demonstrated Energy Technologies. assisted Mexican program partners in implementing
It is an international information source pertaining to large-scale renewable energy replication and new
renewable energy and energy-saving technologies that application programs, worked to increase the technical
have worked in other countries. Along with its sister and operational capacity of partners to carryout
programme, GREENTIE, CADDET ceased collecting renewable energy based projects & programs, and
new information at the end of March 2005. provided technical assistance and conduct
Nevertheless, the information will remain available workshop/trainings on renewable energy technologies,
through this web site’s search facilities as it represents applications, financing, and project implementations.
one of the World’s most detailed repositories of such MREP is now integrated into the U.S./Mexico Bilateral
information. Agreement for Energy Cooperation (Annex 1 -
Centro de Informacion en Energias Renovable: Renewable Energy); however, their internet page stores
http://www.ciner.org/ numerous publications, both instructional and
CINER busca contribuir a la conservación de los technical. For more information, Tel: 1 (505) 844-3301
recursos naturales con miras al uso racional de la INFORCE: International Network for Sustainable
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Listening To The Earth
INFORSE is a worldwide network consisting of 140 WADE was established in 2002 as a non-profit research
Non Governmental Organisations working in about 60 and promotion organisation whose mission is to
countries to promote sustainable energy and social accelerate the worldwide development of high
development, so that energy services that are necessary efficiency cogeneration (CHP) and decentralized
for a just and human-centred development, are renewable energy systems that deliver substantial
provided in a sustainable way using renewable energy. economic and environmental benefits.
Telephone: 45 86 22 70 00 World Energy Council (WEC):
Organizacion Latinoamericana de Energia: http://www.worldenergy.org/
http://www.olade.org.ec/ The World Energy Council (WEC) is the foremost
OLADE es la organización política y de apoyo técnico, multi-energy organisation in the world today. The
mediante la cual sus Estados Miembros realizan organisation covers all types of energy, including coal,
esfuerzos comunes para la integración y el desarrollo oil, natural gas, nuclear, hydro, and renewables, and is
del mercado energético regional. Mision: promover UN-accredited, non-governmental, non-commercial and
acuerdos entre sus Estados Miembros y realizar non-aligned. WEC’s Mission: “To promote the
acciones para satisfacer sus necesidades energéticas, sustainable supply and use of energy for the greatest
mediante el desarrollo sustentable de las diferentes benefit of all people” by collating data about and
fuentes de energía. undertaking and promoting research into the means of
supplying and using energy having, short and long
Renewables for Sustainable Village Power (RSVP): term, the greatest social benefit and the least harmful
http://www.rsvp.nrel.gov/ impact on the natural environment, and publishing or
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (US Dept of otherwise disseminating the useful results of such
Energy) resources for practical and renewable power research.
sources for rural areas. World-wide Information System for Renewable
REPP-CREST : Renewable Energy Policy Project Energy (WIRE): http://wire.ises.org/
and Center for Renewable Energy and Sustainable The World-wide Information System for Renewable
Technology http://www.repp.org/ Energy is a service provided by the International Solar
REPP’s goal is to accelerate the use of renewable energy Energy Society (ISES - http://www.ises.org/). The
by providing credible information, insightful policy purpose of this service is to facilitate and accelerate the
analysis, and innovative strategies amid changing flow of knowledge among renewable energy
energy markets and mounting environmental needs by professionals worldwide.
researching, publishing, and disseminating information, Printed Resources
creating policy tools, and hosting highly active, on-line,
renewable energy discussion groups. Allerdice, April; John Rogers. Renewable Energy for
Microenterprise. National Renewable Energy
Universal Sustainable Energy Services: Laboratory, 2000. Full text available online:
http://www.uses.net/ http://www.rsvp.nrel.gov/vpconference/vp2000/handboo
Universal Sustainable Energy Services assists ks/microenterprise_handbook.pdf. Order from: National
developing nations in their transitions to a sustainable Technical Information Service, Telephone: 800-553-
energy paradigm by offering expert knowledge and 6847
communications to practitioners of sustainable energy Jimenez, Antonio; Ken Olson. Renewable Energy for
worldwide Rural Health Clinics. National Renewable Energy
Windustry: http://www.windustry.com/ Laboratory, 1998. Spanish version available: Energia
Renovable para Centros de Salud Rurales. Full text
Windustry is a non-profit organization working to available online:
create an understanding of wind energy opportunities http://www.rsvp.nrel.gov/vpconference/vp2000/handboo
for rural economic benefit by providing technical ks/health_clinic_handbook_spanish.pdf. Order from
support and creating tools for analysis. Web page National Technical Information Service, Telephone:
contains links to several print and web-based resources. 800-553-6847.
(English only)
186
Chapter 6
After the Audit: Developing an Action Plan
his brief chapter is intended to help your You may begin by collating the identified
187
Listening To The Earth
Evaluating Options
Converting your problem into potential solutions Proposed Criteria: [example only]
is a necessary step before choosing an action to
correct your selected problem. Beginning with the
Category I problems, your team should brainstorm
about what actions could solve the problems; this • Other communities have successfully
is done at first without much or any regard for the done it (i.e. high probability of success)
feasibility of the actions proposed. The main idea • Expected cost is within community
here is simply to create a list of options. Your team means (Affordable)
should explicitly list all options generated, as • Technology is understandable to
shown below: everyone within the community
(explainable)
• Will not cause other environmental or
health hazards (safe)
Problem: contaminated well water • Is energy efficient
(latrine is most likely source) [example • Can produce measurable results
only] • Requires little maintenance
• Requires only materials produced
locally
• Can be salvaged for another use
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Chapter 6: After the Audit
Solution
Safety Likely. Afford. Effic. Expl. Maint. Meas. TOTAL
[example only]
Excavate pit
contents, build
4x3=12 1x2=2 3x2=6 4 4 2 4 34
above-ground
latrine/toilet
implement chemical
2x3=6 4x2=8 2x2=4 2 3 2 4 29
treatment process
Attach to piped
5x3=15 3x2=6 1x2=2 0 2 4 4 33
water
being the worst and 5 best), the option of digging a goal for the length of time until completion as
a new well a safe distance away from the latrine well as intermediate achievements; a plan for
was the solution identified as the best choice, as assessing the results, and a maintenance plan to
shown in the table opposite. ensure the solution does not itself become a future
problem. These elements of the action plan should
Generating an Action Plan be made explicit and recorded so the plan can
function as a blueprint for the implementation of
Once your team has decided upon an action, a the action. After the plan has been developed, the
detailed plan should be developed before elements can be mobilized to achieve the desired
attempting to execute the solution. As discussed in ends. Hopefully by using this process your
the introduction, the action plan should detail environmental program can achieve many
what resources are needed and how they will be successes, and continue to lead your community
obtained; how the project will be communicated to into a sustainable future.
the rest of the community and who shall explain it;
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Listening To The Earth
190
Appendix
non-profit organization created for the purpose of cooperation. The Skat Foundation produces and
researching promising new technologies that can distributes publications and provides other resources
benefit humanity in environmentally friendly ways. for development cooperation, hosts international
The philosophy of the Institute is that emerging networks for knowledge sharing. The Foundation
technologies that link the world together are not regularly launches and carries out innovative projects.
ethically neutral, but often have long-term implications TERI: The Energy and Resources Institute:
for viability of natural systems, human rights and our http://www.teriin.org/ TERI works for global sustainable
common future. development, with particular application to the diverse
Green Pages - The Global Directory for challenges faced by India, focusing on equity, efficiency
Environmental Technology: http://www.eco-web.com/ and optimal utilization of natural and human
Features 7000 leading suppliers and environmental resources.
organisations from 145 countries. The Alliance for Sustainability:
GreenTreks Network, Inc.: http://www.greentreks.org/ http://www.mtn.org/iasa/ The mission of the Alliance is
GreenTreks Network has a wealth of educational to bring about personal, organizational and planetary
resources, perfect for your classroom, community group sustainability through support of projects that are
or home. Materials convey important messages in ecologically sound, economically viable, socially just
engaging and easy to understand ways. and humane. The Alliance for Sustainability is a
IRDC: International Development Research Minnesota-based, tax-deductible nonprofit supporting
Centre: http://www.idrc.ca/ IDRC is a Canadian Crown model sustainability projects on the local, national and
corporation that works in close collaboration with international levels.
researchers from the developing world in their search The World Wide Web Virtual Library: Sustainable
for the means to build healthier, more equitable, and Development:
more prosperous societies. http://www.ulb.ac.be/ceese/meta/sustvl.html
OneWorld Network: http://www.oneworld.net/ The A comprehensive list of internet sites dealing with
OneWorld network spans five continents and produces sustainable development, including organizations,
content in 11 different languages, published across its projects and activities, electronic journals, libraries,
international site, regional editions, and thematic references and documents, databases, directories or
channels. Many of these are produced from the South metadatabases
to widen the participation of the world’s poorest and Trees, Water & People
most marginalised peoples in the global debate. http://www.treeswaterpeople.org/ TWP is helping
Peace Corps Master’s International Program: communities sustainably manage their natural
Resources and Links: resources.
http://www.cee.mtu.edu/peacecorps/resources.html United Nations Development Programme:
Contains technical information on several topics, http://www.undp.org/ The UNDP offers a tremendous
especially focused on water and sanitation. number of resources in both English and Spanish, on
Red Ambiental Latino America - CLAES:Centro topics such as energy, sustainable development,
Latino Americano de Ecología Social: ecological sanitation, and other environmental topics.
http://www.ambiental.net/ Informaciones ambientales Vitae Civilis - Institute for Development,
para América Latina. Environment and Peace: http://www.vitaecivilis.org.br/
Renewable Energy Policy Project: Vitae Civilis is a not-for-profit non-governmental
http://www.repp.org/ REPP’s goal is to accelerate the organization that has been working to contribute to the
use of renewable energy by providing credible construction of sustainable societies – an expression
information, insightful policy analysis, and innovative that covers at least five basic pillars: social justice,
strategies amid changing energy markets and mounting environmental conservation and integrity, diversity
environmental needs by researching, publishing, and (cultural, ethnic, religious, etc.), democracy and
disseminating information, creating policy tools, and economic viability. To promote sustainable
hosting highly active, on-line, renewable energy development through supporting the participatory
discussion groups. development and implementation of integrated public
Resources for the Future: http://www.rff.org/ RFF is a policies; generation and dissemination of knowledge
nonprofit and nonpartisan organization that conducts and practices in the areas of climate, energy, water and
independent research on environmental, energy, and environmental services; and strengthening civil society
natural resource issues. organizations and initiatives in these areas. Tel.: +55
(11) 4686-1814
Skat Foundation: Swiss Resource Center and
Consultancies for Development: http://www.skat- World Resources Institute: http://www.wri.org/ World
foundation.org/ The Skat Foundation is a not-for- Resources Institute (WRI) is an environmental think
profit organization that promotes the exchange of tank that goes beyond research to find practical ways
knowledge and experiences in development to protect the earth and improve people’s lives
191