Fair Trade and Global Justice: The Case of Bananas in St.

Vincent
Anna Torgerson
Last Modified: May 1, 2008
Issue: November 2007
1 Reommended t!is "ost
#omments $ Referenes 0
#offee !as been t!e fous of most s!o%ars!i& and &ub%i attention on fair trade' (o)ever, t!is
&a&er onentrates on fair trade banana &rodution, &artiu%ar%y in *t' +inent ,based on
fie%d)or- onduted in November 200./' *t' +inent and t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands are sma%% is%and
eonomies t!at !ave been de&endent on bananas as t!eir main e1&ort ro& sine t!e midd%e of
t!e 20t! entury )!en t!ey started &roduing bananas for e1&ort to 2ritain under a &referentia%
im&ort system for o%onies' T!is system of &referentia% aess ontinued into t!e 1330s unti% t!e
0or%d Trade 4rgani5ation ,0T4/ ru%ed in favour of a 6* om&%aint against t!e 76 regime'
*ine t!e 0T4 ru%ing in 1337 and a %ater agreement, rea!ed in 2001, t!at t!e 76 )ou%d
e%iminate its 8uota system and introdue a tariff9on%y system, numerous banana farmers in *t'
+inent !ave abandoned banana u%tivation' T!ose )!o !ave stayed in &rodution are main%y
fair trade &roduers' T!e &a&er fouses on t!e e1tent to )!i! fair trade !as !e%&ed &roduers
o&e )it! t!e &ressures of %ibera%i5ation'
:air trade is a res&onse to &rob%ems e1&eriened )it! t!e advane of g%oba% free mar-et
a&ita%ism;&artiu%ar%y to t!e instabi%ity of internationa% ommodity mar-ets and to !uman and
environmenta% &rob%ems of monou%tura% &rodution for e1&ort' T!e estab%is!ed body to ertify
fair trade &roduts, :air Trade Labe%ing 4rgani5ations Internationa% ,:L4/, see-s to regu%ate
trade in ertain ommodities, su! as offee and bananas, by setting minimum &ries and
&romoting means to strengt!en &roduer ommunities' 2y subordinating t!e mar-et to t!e needs
of ommunities, fair trade measures suggest t!e re%evane of t!e t!eoretia% )or- of <ar%
"o%anyi'
My &a&er )i%% re%y on "o%anyi=s -ey >one&tua% too%,? on )!at !e a%%s >t!e distintion bet)een
t!e embedded and t!e disembedded ondition of t!e eonomy in re%ation to soiety? ,13@7: 81/'
T!e !uman >eonomy is, as a ru%e, submerged in A soia% re%ations? ,"o%anyi 13@7: .@/'
(o)ever, in a &roess of disembedding, >an Beonomi s&!ere=? emerges and beomes >s!ar&%y
de%imited from ot!er institutions of soiety? in su! a )ay t!at t!ey beome >de&endent? on t!e
eonomy ,13C7: .D/' 0!ereas an embedded eonomy is integrated )it! soia% %ife, a
disembedded eonomy ma-es soiety somet!ing se&arate' (e furt!er dra)s attention to a
>doub%e movement?: t!e &roess of t!e disembedding of t!e eonomy from soiety meets )it!
efforts to subordinate t!e eonomy to t!e needs of soiety t!roug! an at %east &artia% re9
embedding'
2y using "o%anyi in t!is &a&er, I fo%%o) t!e )or- of ot!ers, )!o !ave suggested t!e re%evane of
a "o%anyian frame)or- to understand urrent neo%ibera% trends in t!e g%oba% eonomy as an
intensified &roess of disembedding' A%t!oug! "o%anyi be%ieved t!at !e !ad seen an end to t!e
>se%f9regu%ating mar-et? in t!e 13D0s, it !as been suggested t!at neo%ibera% deve%o&ments in
g%oba% finane invo%ve a revita%i5ation of t!e %ibera% mar-et idea% ,(e%%einerE 2enerFaE 2ura)oy/'
6nder "o%anyi=s inf%uene, moreover, Laura T' Rayno%ds ,2000/ !as e1&%iit%y desribed fair
trade as &art of a &roess of >re9embedding? t!roug! devies su! as regu%ating &ries, &roviding
soia% &remiums, and ma-ing diret %in-s bet)een &roduers and distributors' :air trade mig!t
t!us be seen as &art of a >ountermovement? to subordinate eonomi re%ations to soia% needs
and &roesses'
"o%anyi ontrasted >t!e &rini&%e of eonomi %ibera%ism? )it! >t!e &rini&%e of t!e soia%
&rotetion? ,13CC: 1D8/, a &rini&%e t!at invo%ves )!at Rayno%ds a%%s a &roess of re9embedding'
T!e &a&er )i%% argue t!at fair trade o&&oses t!e %ibera% free mar-et rationa%e and &resents an
a%ternative t!at tends to re9embed t!e eonomy in soia% re%ations' +ie)ed in t!is )ay, fair trade
an be onsidered &art of a %arger ountermovement;evident in ontem&orary strugg%es for
g%oba% Gustie t!at !a%%enge t!e se%f9regu%ating mar-et &romoted by eonomi %ibera%ism and
&ro&ose a%ternative, more e8uitab%e, mode%s of eonomi %ife, based on soia% &rotetion'
:air trade &oses a !a%%enge to t!e %ibera% vie) t!at free trade is fair by &ro&osing a form of
eonomi organi5ation t!at fo%%o)s an a%ternative %ogi in &rioriti5ing oo&eration and t!e )e%%
being of ommunities' Het, fair trade=s abi%ity to !a%%enge t!e %ogi of unrestrited a&ita%ism
u&!e%d by neo%ibera%ism de&ends, at %east in &art, on )!et!er t!e &rini&%es and standards of fair
trade are atua%%y being met in &ratie' I )i%% dra) on t!e ase of t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands and t!e
0T4 dis&ute to demonstrate tendenies of disembedding, and )i%% t!en turn to a disussion of
t!e ase of fair trade bananas in *t' +inent in order to demonstrate t!at, des&ite its &rob%ems, t!e
fair trade system t!ere !as often substantia%%y rea!ed its goa%s, t!ereby ontributing to
tendenies to)ard re9embedding among &roduer ommunities'
A%t!oug! %ear%y ontributing to t!e )e%% being of ommunities, fair trade is no doubt of %imited
signifiane if onsidered sim&%y on its o)n' Nonet!e%ess, t!roug! its &romotion of an
a%ternative eonomi %ogi, fair trade onverges )it! mu! of t!e %arger movement for g%oba%
Gustie' Indeed, fair trade &roduers often vie) t!emse%ves as &art of t!is movement and
&artii&ate diret%y in its strugg%es' T!is &a&er first turns to an e1amination, at a one&tua% %eve%,
of t!e eonomi %ogi of fair trade in re%ation to t!e movement for g%oba% Gustie' Attention t!en
turns to an e1tended e1amination of fair trade &raties, &artiu%ar%y in regard to banana
&rodution in t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands' :ousing es&eia%%y on t!e is%and of *t' +inent, t!e &a&er
s-et!es t!e !istoria% onte1t from )!i! fair trade banana &rodution arose, t!en e1amines fair
trade &raties on t!e is%and, and fina%%y on%udes )it! an ana%ysis of t!e signifiane of t!e fair
trade system bot! for t!e eonomy of t!e is%and and for t!e %arger &attern of resistane to
neo%ibera% g%oba%i5ation'
1. Fair Trade and Global Justice
T!e fair trade system resists t!e %ogi of unrestrited a&ita%ism by offering a mode% of trade t!at
subordinates eonomi %a)s of su&&%y and demand to minimum &ries )!i%e a%so advaning
soia% and eo%ogia% standards t!at &rioriti5e t!e needs of &roduer ommunities' :air trade an
t!us be re%ated to ot!er initiatives t!at see- to regu%ate, restrit, or by&ass t!e free mar-et' *u!
efforts in t!e g%oba% Gustie or anti9g%oba%i5ation movement an be onsidered under "o%anyi=s
frame)or- of t!e >doub%e movement?'
*evera% ontem&orary aut!ors !ave used a "o%anyian inter&retation to onsider trends to)ard
neo%ibera% g%oba%i5ation sine t!e 1370s, t!at is, t!e deregu%ation of nationa% mar-ets for t!e freer
movement of a&ita% in an integrated g%oba% mar-et' *u! an inter&retation )ou%d first &oint to
t!e reation of t!e neo%ibera% mar-et, and seond, to t!e ountermovement t!at emerges to
redue t!e soia% suffering &rodued under t!e free mar-et' (e%%einer, for instane, suggests
some emerging >ountermovements,?
1
in%uding transnationa% initiatives for a Tobin Ta1 as )e%%
as more %oa% initiatives for a%ternative %oa% urrenies ,1@791@3/' :air trade, anot!er su!
initiative, !a%%enges some -ey %aims of neo%ibera%ism, &artiu%ar%y t!e reviva% of t!e *mit!ian
idea% of t!e %ibera% se%f9regu%ating mar-et'
2
"o%anyi !as a%so !a%%enged t!is idea%, arguing t!at before t!e ear%y 13t! entury rise of
eonomi %ibera%ism in 2ritain t!e eonomy )as >submerged? in soia% re%ations' (o)ever, t!ere
ame a dramati !ange )!en t!e re%ations!i& )as reversed and soiety >)as submerged in t!e
eonomi system? ,13C7: .@/' T!e eonomy=s disembedding, t!e ause of mu! !uman
suffering, )as resisted by a >o%%etivist? ountermovement to re9embed t!e eonomy t!roug!
measures of soia% &rotetion' T!ese &roesses of disembedding and re9embedding are )!at
"o%anyi a%%s a >doub%e movement'?
:air trade standards e1!ibit a tendeny to)ard su! re9embedding' T!e means in%ude minimum
&ries and se&arate soia% &remiums for deve%o&ment &roGets !osen by ommunities,
oo&eratives )it! demorati organi5ation, t!e e%imination of midd%emen t!roug! diret and
%ong9term trading re%ations!i&s, observane of %abour regu%ations set by t!e Internationa% Labor
4rgani5ation, and met!ods of &rodution attuned to !ea%t! and environmenta% issues ,Ni!o%%s
and 4&a% .97, C8E 0aride% .@E Rayno%ds 2000: D00E :L4/' A%t!oug! fair trade is most ommon%y
assoiated )it! minimum &ries, t!e system a%so &rioriti5es t!e subsistene of sma%%9sa%e
&roduer ommunities by !anne%ing funds, in t!e form of a >soia% &remium,? to strengt!en
ommunity infrastrutures and basi servies' T!e fair trade system a%so &romotes ad!erene to
soia% and eo%ogia% standards' 4vera%%, t!e tendeny to re9embed t!e eonomi into t!e soia%
invo%ves entering ommodity &rodution around t!e &rimary goa% of &roviding for t!e )e%%9
being of &roduer ommunities' To onsider t!e re%evane of t!ese t!eoretia% onsiderations in a
&ratia% onte1t, %et us no) turn to t!e ase of fair trade banana &rodution in t!e 0ind)ard
Is%ands, beginning )it! attention to t!e !istoria% onte1t'
2. Historical Context of the Banana Industr in the !ind"ard Islands
2anana &rodution invo%ves a !istory based in o%onia%ism and t!e dominane of a fe)
om&anies t!at ontro% t!e maGority of t!e banana trade' T!e #aribbean started &roduing
bananas for e1&ort in t!e ear%y 20t! entury fo%%o)ing a de%ine of t!e sugar industries' Iamaia
)as t!e first ountry in t!e #aribbean to e1&ort bananas to t!e 6nited <ingdom, fo%%o)ed by t!e
0ind)ard Is%and ountries of Jominia, *t' Luia, *t' +inent and Krenada' *t' +inent and *t'
Luia )ere t!e %ast of t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands to gain forma% inde&endene, )!i! ame in 1373'
Indeed, t!e !istoria% emergene of bananas in t!e #aribbean and t!e de%ine of its sugar
&rodution deve%o&ed out of a o%onia% system of agriu%tura% &rodution t!at !ad de&ended on
%arge9sa%e monou%tura% &rodution and s%ave %abour'
T!is o%onia% %egay invo%ves bot! 2ritain=s !istoria% ommitment to &rovide &referentia%
mar-et aess to its o%onies and its &osto%onia% ommitment, as &art of t!e %arger 7uro&ean
#ommunity, to &rovide tariff9free 8uotas to former o%onies in t!e Afrian #aribbean "aifi
,A#"/ region' 2ritain and t!e 7uro&ean 6nion=s >2anana Regimes? !ave ta-en a regu%ated9
mar-et a&&roa!, &%aing tariffs and 8uotas on non9A#" or >do%%ar bananas? ,bananas gro)n in
Latin Ameria for 6* o)ned or&orations/' In ontrast, t!e 6nited *tates
D
!as ta-en a more
%ibera% free9trade a&&roa! to bananas, im&osing no tariffs or 8uotas and in fat !a%%enging su!
ontro% of banana im&orts by t!e 76 on t!e grounds t!at it ontradits t!e ru%es of free trade as
&romu%gated by t!e 0T4 and t!e Kenera% Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ,KATT/'
T!e o%onia% and &osto%onia% systems of &referentia% aess t!emse%ves e1!ibit !arateristis of
)!at "o%anyi a%%s an >embedded? eonomy' "referentia% aess ta-es aount of t!e fat t!at
banana &rodution on sma%% #aribbean farms is severa% times more e1&ensive t!an &rodution on
%arge Latin Amerian banana &%antations' #aribbean banana farmers !ave never been in a
&osition to om&ete )it! Latin Amerian e1&orts, and &referentia% mar-et aess ta-es aount
of t!e s&eifi needs of t!e #aribbean ommunities' As )e )i%% see, t!e regu%ated mar-et system
of 0ind)ard Is%and banana e1&orts to t!e 6< )as !a%%enged in t!e 1330s and sine t!en !as
undergone a &roess of %ibera%i5ation, or disembedding in "o%anyi=s terms' T!e 0ind)ard
Is%ands !ave resisted su! %ibera%i5ation, !o)ever, in a )ay t!at resemb%es )!at "o%anyi a%%ed a
>ountermovement? in t!e ase of 2ritain'
2ritain introdued me!anisms to enourage t!e e1&ort of bananas from Iamaia in t!e ear%y
1300s and %ater, fo%%o)ing 00II, from t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands' In t!e sear! for a%ternatives to
sugar &rodution, bananas beame a viab%e o&tion for sma%%9sa%e #aribbean farmers beause
bananas ou%d be &rodued and !arvested on a year9round basis' Juring t!e ear%y 20t! entury
t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands )ere not serious om&etitors )it! Iamaian bananasE !o)ever, fo%%o)ing
t!e end of 00II t!e sma%% Is%ands began &roduing signifiant 8uantities of bananas for e1&ort,
utting into t!e Iamaian s!are of t!e 6< banana mar-et and ta-ing &art in t!e regu%ated system
of &referentia% aess for o%onies' "rior to 00II t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands !ad su&&%ied a sma%%
amount of bananas for e1&ort to #anada' In 13DC Jominia, *t' Luia, and Krenada signed @9
year ontrats )it! t!e #anada 2anana #om&any Lo)ned by t!e 6nited :ruit #om&any ,6:#4/M
to su&&%y bananas for e1&ort to Montrea%' *t' +inent signed a @9year ontrat t!e fo%%o)ing
year' Large9sa%e banana e1&orts from t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands, !o)ever, ended in 13C2 due to
)ar9time s!i&&ing &rob%ems'
:o%%o)ing 00II t!e #aribbean banana industry signifiant%y !anged )it! 2ritain im&orting
redued 8uantities of Iamaian bananas )!i%e a%so im&orting bananas from t!e 0ind)ard
Is%ands' In onGuntion )it! &rivate enter&rise, t!e 2ritis! government &%ayed a %arge ro%e in t!e
gro)t! of 0ind)ard Is%ands banana industries in t!e 13@0s' :or instane, t!e 6< offered a
guaranteed mar-et to its o%onies by %imiting banana im&orts from Latin Ameria to a C000 ton
annua% 8uota ,Meyers 20/' :armers ou%d a%so get interest9free %oans to &ur!ase unu%tivated
%and for %earing and gro)ing bananas' Aording to "eter #%egg, t!e 6< government &rovided
signifiant assistane to)ard t!e deve%o&ment of banana industries in t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands, >in
t!e forms of grants and %oans for items su! as t!e im&ortation of banana su-ers, t!e reation of
nurseries, disease ontro%, ferti%i5ers, and for t!e training of agriu%tura% offiers in met!ods of
banana u%tivation? ,8/' In 13@. t!e 6< tri&%ed its im&ort tariff on non9#ommon)ea%t! bananas,
t!us strengt!ening t!e &roteted mar-et for #ommon)ea%t! bananas and enouraging t!e gro)t!
of t!e industries' Tota% e1&orts from t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands more t!an 8uadru&%ed in five years,
inreasing from 13,700 tons in 13@C to 88,@00 in 13@3'
T!e &osto%onia% ro%e of t!e 6< and t!e %arger 7uro&ean #ommunity in &roviding a regu%ated
mar-et for bananas !as deve%o&ed out of t!is ear%ier ommitment to assist t!e #aribbean o%onies
to inrease t!eir bananas e1&orts' T!e system of &referentia% aess, estab%is!ed in t!e ear%y 20t!
entury, %asted for most of t!at entury, ontinuing after forma% inde&endene in t!e #aribbean,
even after t!e advent of t!e 7uro&ean #ommunity=s 2anana "rotoo% under t!e first LomN
Agreement ,137@/'
C
T!e system of &referentia% aess a%so too- aount of t!e greater ost of
&rodution in t!e #aribbean om&ared to Latin Ameria' In t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands bananas are
&rodued on sma%% fami%y farms t!at average %ess t!an one !etare ,2'C ares/ and are %oated on
!i%%y terrain under t!reat of droug!ts and !urrianes' *!i&&ing osts are a%so &artiu%ar%y !ig!
sine s!i&s !ave to sto& at mu%ti&%e &orts' In om&arison, %arge Latin Amerian farms of severa%
tens or !undreds of !etors ou&y f%at %ands, !ave ri!er soi%, t!at gives !ig!er yie%ds, and
benefit from eonomies of sa%e' In a regime of o&en, unregu%ated om&etition )it! Latin
Amerian banana &roduers, t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands )ou%d sim&%y !ave no !ane of maintaining
an ade8uate mar-et s!are'
T!e 2ritis! and 7uro&ean systems of &referentia% aess for A#" bananas demonstrate
!arateristis of an embedded eonomy, at %east to t!e e1tent t!at t!e system &romotes t!e
maintenane of &roduer ommunities t!roug! diret intervention into eonomi re%ations!i&s'
Indeed, t!e deve%o&ment of banana &rodution in t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands !as been %ose%y %in-ed
)it! bui%ding infrastruture and >raising t!e 8ua%ity of %ife in t!e is%ands? ,Meyers 21/' *ine t!e
banana industries deve%o&ed out of !istories of s%avery and o%onia%ism, it is evident t!at t!e
eonomi system )as not submerged in soia% re%ations and )as not devoted to t!e needs of
&roduers' A%t!oug! t!e banana industries )ere &romoted by 2ritain to serve its o)n interests,
t!e tradition of &referentia% aess for A#" &roduers %ear%y runs ounter to t!e %ogi of t!e
%ibera% free mar-et'
A %as! bet)een t!e regu%ated and free trade systems deve%o&ed main%y in t!e 1330s )it! t!e
estab%is!ment of t!e 7uro&ean *ing%e Mar-et and t!e 0T4' T!e system of &referentia% aess
)as !a%%enged by a &roess of %ibera%i5ation in t!e 1330s t!at soug!t to fu%%y disembed t!e
eonomy, !anging it into a form t!at )as unres&onsive to t!e needs of &roduer ommunities'
T!is &roess of %ibera%i5ation !as signifiant%y undermined t!e %ive%i!oods of sma%%9sa%e
#aribbean &roduers in a )ay t!at %eads us to 8uestion t!e ru%es of free trade'
#. The $iberali%ation of the Banana Trade
T!e deade9%ong banana trade dis&ute bet)een t!e 6* and t!e 76 !as drastia%%y a%tered a
system of &referentia% aess and !as %ed to a signifiant redution in banana &rodution in t!e
0ind)ard Is%ands, &artiu%ar%y !arming sma%%9sa%e &roduers' T!e 0ind)ard Is%ands ma-e u&
about 1O of )or%d trade, but more t!an !a%f of t!e &eo&%e on t!e is%ands de&end on bananas for
t!eir %ive%i!ood' More t!an 70O of t!e &o&u%ation in *t' +inent a%one re%ied on inome from t!e
banana industry in 1338 ,"aggi and *&reen 11E *!e%%er 12/' #om&arative%y, t!e t)o %argest
banana om&anies, ea! !o%ding over 2@O of t!e )or%d mar-et, are t!e 6*9based Jo%e :oods
#om&any
@
and #!i8uita 2rands Internationa%
.
,2anana Lin-/'
T!e &roess of %ibera%i5ing t!e 6< banana mar-et )as enouraged by t!e deve%o&ment of t!e
*ing%e 7uro&ean Mar-et in 1332, )!i! invo%ved t!e formation of an 76 2anana Regime t!at
)ou%d e1ist )it!in a more %ibera% free trade system but sti%% maintain &ast ommitments of
&referentia% aess for former o%onies' T!e ne) 2anana Regime )as based on a regu%ated
system of 8uotas, tariffs and im&ort %ienes' T!e 12 >traditiona%? A#" &roduer ountries
,in%uding t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands/ )ere given tariff9free entry for t!eir bananas u& to a ountry9
s&eifi 8uota based on best annua% e1&orts &rior to 1332' (o)ever, 6* !a%%enges and t!e
estab%is!ment of t!e 0T4 and its Jis&ute *ett%ement "roess in 133C )ou%d t!reaten t!e 76
2anana Regime, and )ou%d start a ra&id &roess of %ibera%i5ing banana mar-ets'
A 0T4 dis&ute, initiated in 133@, main%y by t!e 6*, invo%ved t!ree maGor issues of onf%it over
t!e fairness of t!e 76 2anana Regime: tariffs, 8uotas, and im&ort %ienses ,Ios%ing 1789182/'
T!e 0T4 &ane% submitted its re&ort in May 1337, %arge%y su&&orting t!e om&%aint' T!e 0T4
deision )as, !o)ever, far from t!e end of t!e dis&ute' T!e 76 &ro&osed a ne) 2anana Regime
but it )as reGeted by t!e 6* and %ater t!e 0T4 &ane%, )!i! aut!ori5ed t!e 6* to introdue
im&ort duties on ertain 76 goods' In 2001 t!e 76 dramatia%%y a%tered its 2anana Regime in
order to fina%%y rea! an agreement )it! t!e 6*'
7
T!e ne) 76 2anana Regime !as signifiant%y a%tered t!e !istoria% &attern of regu%ated
&referentia% aess for former o%onies, estab%is!ing a more %ibera%i5ed system;one )it! fe)er
trade regu%ations;t!at !as negative%y affeted sma%%9sa%e #aribbean banana &roduers'
A%t!oug! t!ese &roduers %ear%y !ad t!e most to %ose t!roug!out t!e 0T4 dis&ute, t!ey )ere
not in%uded in t!e dis&ute &roess ,Ios%ing 178E Kodfrey/' T!e outome of t!e 0T4 dis&ute !as
reinfored t!e free trade idea% of t!e >se%f regu%ating mar-et? as t!e most effiient;and t!erefore
best;system of trade' In &ratie, t!e resu%t of trade %ibera%i5ation !as been to furt!er >dis9
embed? t!e eonomi system, ma-ing it inreasing%y unres&onsive to t!e needs of &roduer
ommunities'
T!e ne) regime !as ontributed to a mass )it!dra)a% of 0ind)ard Is%ands farmers from banana
&rodution beause t!ey annot afford to &rodue bananas )it!out a regu%ated mar-et granting
t!em &referentia% aess' Indeed, sine 1332 tota% annua% banana e1&orts from t!e 0ind)ard
Is%ands !ave dro&&ed &rei&itous%y from 27C,@D3 tonnes to .1,2.7 in 200. ,0I2J7#4/' T!is
200. 0ind)ard Is%ands tota% is %ess t!an t!e amount *t' +inent a%one e1&orted in 1332' 2anana
e1&orts from *t' +inent !ave fa%%en from 77,D.1 tonnes in 1332 to on%y 1@,7.1 tonnes in 200.
,0I2J7#4/'
*u! dramati !anges to t!e banana industries of t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands are signifiant t!reats to
t!e nationa% eonomies of t!ese is%ands, )!i! are !eavi%y de&endent on agriu%tura% e1&orts and
tourism as t!eir main soures of KJ"' 4f ourse, su! !anges are a%so most dramatia%%y fe%t by
t!e t!ousands of farmers )!o de&end on bananas as t!eir &rimary soure of inome' T!e tota%
number of banana gro)ers in t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands !as fa%%en from about 2C,000 in t!e 1330s to
about @000 in 200@ ,:air Trade Manager, 0IN:A/' :armers !ave fe) a%ternatives to banana
&rodution, and t!ose )!o !ave %eft !ave main%y moved into t!e ity, found em&%oyment in t!e
tourist industry, emigrated from t!eir ountry, beome unem&%oyed, or turned to &roduing ot!er
ro&s, &artiu%ar%y to i%%ega% mariGuana ,Meyers 1@0, Kodfrey 7/' Indeed, t!e s!ift to &roduing
mariGuana !as beome ommon in *t' +inent, )!ere it is no) >t!e mainstay for a signifiant
&art of t!e &o&u%ation? ,Myers 1@1/ bringing about t!irty times more &rofits t!an bananas
,Kodfrey 7/'
#onfronted by trade %ibera%i5ation sine t!e ear%y 1330s, farmers in t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands !ave
not been &assive vitims of t!e !ange, but instead !ave &artii&ated in %arge9sa%e &rotests and
efforts to estab%is! ne) a%ternative mar-ets for t!eir bananas' T!e ase of t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands
demonstrates, as )e )i%% see, a %oa% movement t!at &%aes itse%f )it!in t!e onte1t of t!e %arger
ountermovement' T!e a%ternative fair trade mar-et for bananas !as been introdued in t!e
0ind)ard Is%ands as a )ay to a%%o) some farmers to ontinue &roduing bananas and !as,
moreover, tended to re9embed t!e eonomy so as to diret%y serve t!e needs of &roduer
ommunities'
&. Fair Trade Bananas in St. Vincent
0e )i%% no) turn to a disussion of fair trade bananas in *t' +inent, )!i! is based on
fie%d)or- I onduted in *t' +inent in November 200., onsisting of intervie)s )it! 1@
&artii&ants in fair trade ativities' T!e &ur&ose of t!is resear! )as to gain an understanding of
!o) fair trade )or-s in &ratie and to see )!et!er t!e &eo&%e invo%ved be%ieve t!at fair trade is
!e%&ing to better sustain ommunities of banana &roduers' As )e )i%% see, des&ite %imitations
)it! t!e system, fair trade in *t' +inent a&&ears to !ave beome ruia% for &roduers' :air trade
re&resentatives in *t' +inent estimate t!at fair trade bananas aount for 80O of t!e e1&ort
mar-et' :air trade !as t!us !e%&ed res&ond to t!e effets of t!e ne) %ibera%i5ed 2anana Regime,
offering an a%ternative mar-et for t!ose banana &roduers )!o remain'
I visited *t' +inent for nine days and s&o-e )it! si1 re&resentatives of t!e organi5ations t!at
oordinate fair trade in *t' +inent and )it! nine fair trade farmers ,five men and four )omen/'
*evera% days )ere s&ent in <ingsto)n, t!e a&ita% of *t' +inent, intervie)ing re&resentatives
from t!e :air Trade Labe%ing 4rgani5ations Internationa% ,:L4/, t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands Nationa%
:armers= Assoiation ,0IN:A/, t!e *t' +inent 2anana Kro)ers Assoiation ,*+2KA/, and t!e
0ind)ard Is%and 2anana Jeve%o&ment and 71&orting #om&any ,0I2J7#4/' My intervie)s
)it! t!ese re&resentatives !e%&ed give me a &iture of !o) t!e fair trade system o&erates in *t'
+inent and )!o t!e -ey &%ayers are'
Internationa% fair trade standards are deve%o&ed by :L4, )!i! )as first estab%is!ed in 1337 and
is an assoiation of 21 nationa% %abe%ing initiatives su! as Transfair 6*A, Transfair #anada and
t!e :airtrade :oundation ,6</, )!i! are res&onsib%e for ertifying %iensees to dea% in fair trade
&roduts' :L4 is an umbre%%a body for t!e nationa% initiatives and is made u& of t)o
organi5ations: :L4 Internationa% e'v', t!e internationa% non9&rofit assoiation t!at deve%o&s fair
trade standards, and :L49#ert KM2(, a om&any estab%is!ed in 200D' :L49#ert is t!e
Internationa% #ertifiation 2ody for fair trade &roduers and traders and )as estab%is!ed by :L4
in order to at in om&%iane )it! t!e I*4 *tandards for #ertifiation 2odies ,I*4 .@/' :air trade
standards are designed to organi5e t!e trading system in a )ay t!at &rovides for t!e needs of
&roduer ommunities' *u! ommunities of sma%%9sa%e &roduers must be &art of an
organi5ation t!at ats t!roug! demorati &roedures to &romote t!e soia% and eonomi
deve%o&ment of its members, ad!eres to t!e Internationa% Labour 4rgani5ation=s standards, and
administers t!e use of a soia% &remium based on ommunity deve%o&ment &roGets deided u&on
by ommunity members'
T!e organi5ationa% struture of fair trade in *t' +inent and t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands starts, at t!e
internationa% %eve%, )it! :L4 Internationa%, )!i! !as ertified 0IN:A
8
as t!e fair &roduer
grou& for t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands ,see :igure 1/' 0IN:A is a non9governmenta% organi5ation
made u& of farmers t!at )as formed in 1382 as a grou& to >re&resent, &rotet and &romote t!e
interests of t!ousands of farmers in t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands? ,0IN:A &am&!%et/' 0IN:A !as
foug!t against t!e 0T4 !anges to t!e 76 2anana Regime and against 6< initiatives to sign a
free trade agreement )it! #aribbean ountries' 0IN:A a&&roa!ed :L4 in t!e %ate 1330s in
order to arrange t!e deve%o&ment of fair trade as )ay to &rovide an a%ternative mar-et for
0ind)ard Is%ands bananas, and by Iu%y 2000 !ad fai%itated t!e first s!i&ments of fair trade
bananas'
:igure 1: :air Trade *truture in 0ind)ard Is%ands
A%% banana e1&orts from t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands are s!i&&ed by 0I2J7#4, inor&orated as a
&rivate om&any in 133C )it! s!ares !e%d by a%% t!e governments and banana gro)ers=
assoiations of t!e four is%ands' 0I2J7#4 is res&onsib%e for managing t!e mar-eting, buying
and trans&ortation of 0ind)ard bananas and t!e &ayment of fair trade :42 &ries to t!e
*+2KA,
3
)!i! in turn, is res&onsib%e for &aying farmers t!e fair trade farmgate &rie and for
ot!er o&erationa% and te!nia% advie and monitoring' T!e soia% &remium of P1 6*Q18'1C -g
bo1 is &aid diret%y by 0I2J7#4 to t!e Nationa% :air Trade #ommittees of ea! of t!e is%ands'
:air trade banana farmers on ea! of t!e is%ands are divided into severa% fair trade grou&s, )!i!
meet ea! mont! in s!oo%s, ommunity enters, !ur!es, !omes, et' to disuss t!e !a%%enges
t!at t!ey are faing as )e%% as t!e use of t!e soia% &remium' In *t' +inent t!ere are 17 grou&s
of fair trade farmers )it! a&&ro1imate%y 2@ to 100 registered fair trade members &er grou&' 7a!
grou& !as its o)n set of organi5ationa% offiers, onsisting of a !air, a treasurer, a seretary and
a nationa% ommittee re&resentative, )!o are e%eted by t!e grou& ea! year' 0it! t!eir nationa%
re&resentatives, t!e fair trade grou&s a%so &artii&ate at t!e Nationa% #ommittee %eve%' T!e
Nationa% #ommittee, )it! offiia%s e%eted as in t!e sma%%er grou&s, meets at %east one a mont!
to deve%o& a )or- &%an for t!e use of t!e soia% &remium' T!e ommittee and grou& members
attend an annua% Kenera% Assemb%y, )!i! meets to vote on t!e Nationa% #ommittee=s )or- &%an
and to !ear a re&ort about t!e soia% &roGets underta-en in t!e &revious year'
In addition to s&ea-ing to re&resentatives of t!e grou&s and organi5ations t!at &%ay signifiant
ro%es t!e o&eration of fair trade banana &rodution, I )as ab%e to s&ea- )it! farmers at t!e main
%oading de&ot in <ingsto)n, on severa% farms in Keorgeto)n, and at t!e Lang%ey "ar- de&ot' I
s&o-e )it! t!e farmers rat!er informa%%y, as-ing t!em 8uestions about !o) %ong t!ey !ad
&rodued bananas, )!at !anges t!ey !ad e1&eriened over t!e years, )!at a ty&ia% day )as
%i-e, )!at fair trade !as meant for t!em, and )!et!er fair trade !ad, overa%%, made t!ings better
or )orse'
My disussions )it! t!e farmers and )it! re&resentatives %ed me to a %ear on%usion t!at t!ose
invo%ved in banana &rodution in *t' +inent onsider fair trade neessary for maintaining
e1&orts to t!e 6<' A%% &artii&ants &ointed to severa% advantages of fair trade to t!emse%ves, t!eir
fami%ies, and t!eir ommunities' *u! advantages;in t!e form of !ig!er &ries, finania%
seurity, ommunity deve%o&ment &roGets and better !ea%t! standards;a%% &rovide for t!e needs
of banana &roduing ommunities and onstitute )ays, moreover, in )!i! fair trade is
ontributing to)ard tendenies to re9embed eonomi %ife in soia% re%ations!i&s' T!e advantages
of fair trade &rodution in t!e ase of *t' +inent are simi%ar to benefits &ointed to in ot!er ase
studies onduted on fair trade bananas and offee' Nonet!e%ess, fair trade in &ratie a%so !as
severa% notab%e %imitations, evident in *t' +inent as )e%% as ot!er ases'
4ut of t!e nine farmers t!at I intervie)ed most of t!em said t!at t!eir fami%ies !ad been
&roduing bananas for t)o or t!ree generations' 4ne farmer !ad reent%y ta-en over !er mot!er=s
farm and !ad been &roduing bananas !erse%f for on%y five years' T)o of t!e farmers !ad been
&roduing for over 10 years, five for over 20 years, and one for over D@ years' T!e farmers a%%
u%tivated sma%% &%ots of %and of about 29@ ares, de&ended on banana &rodution as a main or
so%e soure of inome, and !ad %ong fami%y !istories in t!e &rodution of bananas' A%% of t!e
farmers desribed &rob%ems invo%ving inreased &ressures in banana &rodution t!roug!out t!e
1330s and t!e de%ine in &ries in t!at &eriod' A%t!oug! some of t!e farmers )ere not satisfied
)it! t!e &rie t!ey get no) as fair trade farmers, most em&!asi5ed t!at t!e fair trade &riing
system re&resents an im&rovement' 4ne farmer desribed !er de&endene on bananas by saying
t!at >As a farmer and as a )oman I !ave no ot!er a%ternative' I !ave to -ee& going' 7veryt!ing
de&ends on it?'
:air trade guarantees a minimum farmgate &rie of P 7'.0 6*Q18'1C -g bo1, a ountry9s&eifi
&rie t!at a&&%ies to a%% t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands and t!at is intended to &rovide &rie stabi%ity for
farmers )!en mar-et &ries are %o)' T!e fair trade minimum &rie is determined by :L4 in
onsu%tation )it! &roduer organi5ations, su! as 0IN:A' T!is guaranteed &rie is a%%ed a
minimum beause if mar-et &ries are !ig!er or if im&orters an &ay !ig!er &ries, t!en farmers
are &aid t!e !ig!er &rie' T!e soia% &remium of P1 6*Qbo1, )!i! is entire%y se&arate from t!e
minimum &rie, is used to fund ommunity &roGets' #om&arative%y, t!e fair trade &ries &aid to
t!e farmers;varying aording to &a- ty&e;are signifiant%y !ig!er t!an &ries &aid to
farmers for generi &a- ty&es' Aording to t!e *+2KA=s &rie %ist in :ebruary 2007, banana
farmers )ere &aid, at most, 23O more &er bo1 for fair trade bananas t!an t!ey )ere &aid for t!e
%o)est &rie for generi bananas'
10
T!is tendeny for t!e fair trade &rie to be !ig!er is onsistent
)it! ot!er 0ind)ard Is%ands' In !is study of fair trade farmers in *t' Luia, Mar- Moberg
indiates t!at fair trade gro)ers )ere &aid, at most, C1O more for fair trade bananas t!an t!ey
)ere for t!e %o)est &rie generi bananas ,10/'
In addition to better &ries and better &rie stabi%ity, fair trade guarantees farmers a %ong9term
ontrat ,of at %east one year/ in )!i! im&orting om&anies ommit to buy t!eir bananas' T!e
Nationa% :air Trade #ommittee gives farmers a )ee-%y fair trade 8uota based %arge%y on )!at
farmers say t!ey an &rodue t!at )ee-' :armers !arvest and se%% t!e bananas )ee-%y and are
&aid fortnig!t%y' In addition to &reditab%e s!edu%es, farmers in finania% diffiu%ty !ave aess
t!roug! fair trade to a revo%ving sma%% %oan fund ,from )!i! t!ey an borro) u& to P1@00 7#/
to assist t!em )it! t!eir &rodution &rob%ems'
"rie stabi%ity and %ong9term ontrats offered in t!e fair trade system are !e%&ing !anne% funds
to banana &roduers and t!eir fami%ies' 0it!out a regu%ated mar-et *t' +inent &roduers sim&%y
ou%d not om&ete )it! Latin Amerian &roduers' Indeed, severa% of t!e offiia%s and farmers
t!at I s&o-e )it! during my visit em&!asi5ed t!e im&ortane of !aving t!e fair trade a%ternative
mar-et' T!ey to%d me t!at !ad it not been for t!e introdution of fair trade, t!e banana industry in
*t' +inent )ou%d !ave om&%ete%y o%%a&sed'
0!ereas !ig!er &ries !ave been good for individua%s and fami%ies, t!us indiret%y benefiting
&roduer ommunities on t!e )!o%e, t!e fair trade soia% &remium is designed to diret%y fund
ommunity deve%o&ment &roGets' Aording to 0IN:A=s :air Trade Manager, )!en 0IN:A
got invo%ved in fair trade t!e organi5ation >!ad to set u& t!e neessary strutures to fai%itate
farmers= &artii&ation in t!e deision9ma-ing &roess?' 0IN:A oordinated t!e estab%is!ment of
ommunity fair trade grou&s )it! annua% e%etions of its board and its nationa% re&resentative'
Juring t!e meetings, t!e farmers deide )!at ommunity &roGets are to be funded by t!e soia%
&remium' T!eir &artii&ation is ruia% for ensuring t!at su! &roGets are deided by t!e
&roduers'
11
T!e :L4 Liaison 4ffier e1&ressed ent!usiasm for t!e inreased &artii&ation of
gro)ers in deisions invo%ving t!eir futures' *!e said t!at, from !er &oint of vie), >t!e rea%
demoray, in terms of t!e &artii&ation of farmers, !a&&ens in t!e fair trade grou&s before t!e
Kenera% Assemb%y meetsA'T!ey vote for &roGets in t!e grou& meetings, and t!is is very
demorati from my &oint of vie)?' *!e a%so em&!asi5ed t!at su! grou&s !ave !e%&ed
enourage t!e &artii&ation of )omen in deision9ma-ing &roGets' 0omen !ave ta-en on an
inreasing%y im&ortant ro%e in banana &rodution, many being sing%e mot!ers in need of
!ea%t!are and dayare for t!eir !i%dren' 0omen=s invo%vement in t!e grou&s !as !e%&ed to
advane t!e deve%o&ment of &roGets t!at s&eifia%%y address t!eir needs as mot!ers' 4ut of t!e
17 re&resentatives on t!e Nationa% #ommittee, five are )omen'
T!e deisions made at t!e mont!%y meetings determine )!at soia% &roGets are most needed in
ea! ommunity, )it! &ossibi%ities ranging )ide%y from !airs for &eo&%e to sit on during t!eir
meetings to &res!oo%s and !ea%t! %inis' T!e soia% &roGets funded by t!e soia% &remium are
&er!a&s t!e %earest )ay in )!i! fair trade is diret%y !e%&ing to sustain ommunities' Reords
su&&%ied to me by t!e Nationa% :air Trade #ommittee during my time in *t' +inent s!o) t!at
P100,000 7#
12
)as budgeted for soia% &roGets in 200.' T!ese funds )ere a%%oated for D.
ommunity &roGets and nine nationa% &roGets'
In some ases t!ere )as more t!an one on9going &roGet in a ommunity' 4f t!e ommunity
&roGets, t!e maGority )ere for s!oo%s and &re9s!oo%s' T!ere )ere 22 s!oo% &roGets in tota%,
)it! t!e soia% &remium &aying for bui%ding materia%s, !airs, boo-s, om&uters, &rinters, ots,
fans, refrigerators, gas oo-ers, and ot!er su&&%ies' 4f t!e farmers I s&o-e )it!, severa% stressed
t!at t!e fair trade soia% &remium goes to)ard !e%&ing t!eir !i%dren and future generations'
*oia% &remium funds a%so )ent to)ard t!ree !ea%t! &roGets to &rovide media% e8ui&ment,
in%uding diabeti su&&%iesE to)ard five s&orts &roGets, &roviding uniforms for ri-et, footba%%,
and softba%% teamsE and to)ard one road &roGet' Indeed, t!e :L4 Liason 4ffier em&!asi5ed t!e
signifiane of t!e road &roGet in *t' #roi1'
1D
2efore t!e road &roGet some farmers !ad to )a%-
more t!at t)o mi%es to %oad t!eir bananas' T!is is no %onger neessary, and t!e &roGet !as t!us
signifiant%y im&roved t!e %ives of &eo&%e in t!e *t' #roi1 ommunity'
T!e nationa% &roGets t!at are funded by t!e soia% &remium main%y &rovide farmers )it! basi
soia% and media% servies' :or instane, t!e revo%ving %oan fund, mentioned above, is a nationa%
&roGet' 4t!er &roGets in%ude a s!o%ars!i& &rogram, a media% !ea%t! &rogram for farmers, a
retirement fund for farmers, a disaster re%ief fund, a &rogram to !ouse abandoned !i%dren
,Liberty Lodge/, and donations to t!e *a%vation Army' T!e 0IN:A :air Trade Manager
indiated t!e im&ortane of t!ese nationa% &roGets for t!e )e%% being of banana farmers' :or
instane, t!e media% fund goes to)ard subsidi5ing t!e ost of annua% media% !e-s for
farmers'
1C
*ine *t' +inent is subGet to tro&ia% storms, one of t!e grou&s &ro&osed t!e
deve%o&ment of a disaster re%ief fund, )!i! t!e Nationa% #ommittee in%uded its )or- &%an, and
t!e fund is no) a nationa% &roGet' T!us, even nationa% &roGets are inf%uened by t!e initia% ideas
of fair trade grou& members, )!ose suggestions are t!en ta-en to t!e Nationa% #ommittee by
t!eir re&resentative'
*oia% &roGets funded by t!e fair trade soia% &remium !ave signifiant%y !e%&ed in t!e
deve%o&ment of infrastruture and basi soia% and !ea%t! servies for banana &roduing
ommunities' *u! servies are !e%&ing fema%e &roduers by offering !i%d are as )e%% as
media% attention t!roug! a !ea%t! &rogram t!at &rovides regu%ar "A" *mear tests' :unds are
a%so a%%oated to regu%ar %ean9u& &rograms to remove )aste from streams' Indeed, in addition to
estab%is!ing s&eifi &rograms for !ea%t!are, fair trade sets environmenta% standards t!at ban t!e
use of ertain &estiides' :armers )!o o&erate ne1t to rivers are re8uired to !ave grass barrier
buffer 5ones of 1. feet )it!out !emia% a&&%iation to redue !emia% run9off into rivers ,:air
Trade Manager, 0IN:A/, and one informant em&!asi5ed t!at a signifiant !ange t!at !ad ome
from fair trade )as a redution in t!e use of &estiides' T)o farmers I s&o-e )it! said t!at fair
trade means t!at t!ey an do t!eir )or- )it! %ess onern for t!eir !ea%t!' Aording to one
farmer, fair trade means >gro)ing a mu! more !ea%t!y food sine, for e1am&%e, fair trade uses
%ess &estiides?' Anot!er farmer s&o-e about no) !aving to )ear an a&ron and g%oves )!en
using !emia%s and ommented t!at fair trade means >you=re ta-ing are of your !ea%t!?'
:air trade in &ratie !as t!us offered many advantages to farmers by im&osing me!anisms to
regu%ate t!e mar-et so t!at it serves t!e needs of &roduing ommunities' :air trade standards
!ave fai%itated t!e deve%o&ment of inreased &ries, %ong9term finania% stabi%ity, ommunity
&roGets, en!aned &artii&ation in deision9ma-ing, inreased aess to !ea%t! servies, and ne)
safety and environmenta% re8uirements for banana farmers in *t' +inent' Toget!er, su!
benefits !ave ontributed to a &roess of re9embedding t!e eonomy in soia% re%ations,
&romoting t!e >&rini&%e of soia% &rotetion? instead of re%ying strit%y u&on t!e %ibera% &rini&%e
of a distribution of benefits to individua%s t!roug! t!e mar-et me!anism'
4t!er ase studies on fair trade bananas and offee demonstrate simi%ar overa%% advantages;as
)e%% as ertain %imitations;of fair trade in &ratie' In !er study of fair trade banana &rodution
in t!e Jominian Re&ub%i, Aimee *!re- &oints to severa% benefits gro)ers !ave e1&eriened'
A%t!oug! initia%%y t!e e1&orter deided t!e use of t!e soia% &remium, t!e &roduers in t!e A5ua
+a%%ey %ater formed fair trade grou&s and no) deide t!e use of t!e soia% &remium, )!i! is
going to)ards reovery efforts after (urriane Keorge and to ot!er &roGets to strengt!en
&rodution &roesses ,2002: 17, 13920/' T!e most signifiant benefit, aording to *!re-, is t!e
mar-et aess and finania% seurity t!at fair trade &rovides' Indeed, mar-et aess for banana
&roduers in *t' +inent is a%so one of t!e most im&ortant benefits, sine )it!out fair trade more
&roduers )ou%d !ave abandoned &rodution a%toget!er' *!re- ma-es a simi%ar observation in
regard to !er ase: >t!e :air Trade mar-et is t!e on%y reason many farmers are ab%e to ontinue
!arvesting bananas at a%%? ,200@: 2D/' In !is ase study of *t' Luian fair trade banana
&rodution, Moberg identifies signifiant o%%etive benefits t!roug! t!e funding of >an array of
ommunity servies ot!er)ise beyond t!e rea! of most rura% residents? ,12/'
#offee )as t!e first fair trade ertified &rodut, and more ase studies !ave been onduted on
fair trade offee t!an on any ot!er &rodut' :or instane, t!e :air Trade Resear! Krou&
,#o%orado *tate 6niversity/ !as onduted seven detai%ed studies on offee oo&eratives in Latin
Ameria, five of t!em in Me1io' 0!i%e noting &rob%ems, a%% seven studies indiate t!at fair
trade !as !ad maGor ommunity benefits ,Rayno%ds 2002E Tay%or 2002E Nig! 2002/' In !is
overvie) of t!e re&orts on Me1io, Nig! states t!at fair trade !as %ear%y >!ad an im&ortant
&ositive im&at on sma%%!o%der offee organi5ations? ,1/' (e desribes t!e t!ree most signifiant
im&ats as inreased farmgate &ries, t!e >em&o)erment? of sma%% oo&eratives, and t!e
diversifiation of &rodution ,D97/' In a re&ort summari5ing and ommenting u&on t!e resear!
onduted by t!e grou&, "eter Leig! Tay%or dra)s &artiu%ar attention to benefits su! as
deve%o&ment &roGets from soia% &remium funds, aess to redit, im&roved organi5ationa%
a&abi%ities of oo&eratives, and en!aned se%f9esteem among ommunity members'
Kenera%%y s&ea-ing, t!ese ase studies tend to oinide )it! my findings on t!e fair trade
e1&eriene in *t' +inent' (o)ever, ertain %ear advantages from fair trade offee &rodution in
Me1io, su! as diversifiation &roGets and re8uirements from oo&eratives t!at members
s)it! to organi &rodution, are not as evident in *t' +inent'
1@
:air trade &rodution in *t'
+inent is not organi and !as, indeed, e1&eriened &rob%ems in t!e transition to)ards banning
ertain &estiides' 0!en I as-ed t!e farmers if t!ey ou%d identify any &rob%ems )it! fair trade,
severa% of t!em s&o-e of an inrease of >)atergrass? fo%%o)ing a ban on ertain &estiides' T!us,
)!ereas a ou&%e of t!e farmers onsidered t!is !ange a &ositive one for t!eir !ea%t!, most of
t!e farmers &ointed to it as a signifiant &rob%em sine it reated diffiu%ties in &rodution'
Moberg simi%ar%y identifies t!e deve%o&ment of a )atergrass &rob%em in *t' Luia ,11/' T!e grass
gro)s )i%d and is a !ost for nematodes, )!i! invade t!e root system of banana &%ants' :L4 !as
granted 0IN:A tem&orary &ermission to use a !emia% a%%ed 2asta to !e%& ontro% t!e
)atergrass &rob%em, on t!e ondition t!at t!e 6niversity of t!e 0est Indies ontinues to )or-
)it! 0IN:A on resear! and deve%o&ment for an a%ternative )ay to ontro% t!e &rob%em )it!out
re%ying on t!e use of !armfu% !emia%s'
In regard to environmenta% im&ats, t!e farmers in *t' +inent !ave to &a- bun!es of bananas
in different &%asti bags de&ending on t!e &a- ty&e of t!e su&ermar-et ,A*JA and *ainsbury/'
A%t!oug! t!is &a-aging distinguis!es fair trade &roduts, it reates &a-aging )aste' T!e need
to &a-age t!e bananas a%so demands inreased %abour from farmers' T!e 0IN:A administrator
remar-ed t!at t!ere used to be &a-ing!ouses in 7ng%and but t!at no) farmers !ave to &a- t!e
bananas in t!e s&eia% bags' In !is study, Moberg raises t!is same &rob%em ,1D/ and adds t!at
im&%ementation of t!e fair trade environmenta% riteria a%so means more %abour in&ut from
farmers, in terms of me!ania% )eeding ,12/'
*!re- &oints to severa% %imitations of fair trade banana &rodution in t!e Jominian Re&ub%i,
some simi%ar to ones in *t' +inent and some not' :or instane, s!e indiates ear%y &rob%ems
regarding )!o deides !o) t!e soia% &remium is to be s&ent, a%t!oug! s!e says t!e &rob%em !as
no) been reso%ved' T!e soia% &remium is an issue t!at ame u& during my onversations )it!
t!e farmers in *t' +inent, t!oug! t!e 8uestion of )!o deides )as not identified as a &rob%em'
T)o farmers e1&%ained t!at, )!i%e t!e soia% &remium used to go diret%y to t!em as a bonus at
t!e end of t!e year, it no) goes to)ard ommunity &roGets' A%t!oug! most farmers intervie)ed
)ere su&&ortive of t!e o%%etive )ay t!e soia% &remium is used, t!ese t)o indiated t!at t!ey
)ou%d &refer to sti%% benefit individua%%y' T!e differene of o&inion onerning t!e use of t!e
soia% &remium undersores !o) t!e fair trade system in%udes a tendeny to)ard re9embedding
of eonomi re%ations in t!e ommunity rat!er t!an fo%%o)ing t!e strit a%%oation of benefits to
individua%s t!at mar-et %ibera%ism &romotes'
T!e offee ase studies a%so re&ort severa% %imitations t!at oinide )it! findings in t!e ase
studies on bananas' (o)ever, some of t!ese %imitations )ere not evident in t!e ase of *t'
+inent' :or instane, *!re- suggests t!at )omen do not !ave enoug! inf%uene on !o) t!e
soia% &remium is used ,2002: 20/, and t!is &rob%em is a%so identified in t!e offee ases' Tay%or
indiates t!at in some of t!e offee studies )omen did not &%ay a %arge ro%e in governane, but
t!at t!e soia% &remium did go to)ard some deve%o&ment &roGets for )omen ,Tay%or 11/' T!e
issue of gender ame u& often during my disussions )it! offiia%s and farmers in *t' +inent,
but t!ese disussions a%)ays em&!asi5ed t!e gro)ing invo%vement of )omen in deision9ma-ing
sine t!e emergene of fair trade' T!e ase studies on offee found t!at gro)ers tended to !ave
%itt%e -no)%edge about !o) fair trade )or-s ,Nig! 1., Tay%or 17/ and *!re-=s study on fair
trade bananas indiates a simi%ar &rob%em ,2002: 13/' Nonet!e%ess, &roduers in *t' +inent
s!o)ed a good overa%% understanding about fair trade standards'
:ina%%y, a signifiant %imitation
1.
identified in a%% t!e ases is t!at, a%t!oug! fair trade brings
materia% benefits to &artii&ating farmers, some are not &art of t!e system, and even t!ose )!o
are do not neessari%y !ave t!e o&&ortunity to se%% a%% of t!eir ro&s at t!e fair trade &rie' In *t'
+inent, a%t!oug! t!e vast maGority of &roduers are registered to &rodue fair trade, not a%% are'
A%so, if registered &roduers e1eed t!eir )ee-%y 8uota for fair trade, t!ey t!en !ave to se%% t!e
remainder at a %o)er &rie' *u! e1ess bananas are so%d as >fair trade %oose? ,beause t!ey are
not &a-aged in bags/ and farmers are &aid a %o)er &rie for t!em, t!oug! one t!at is sti%% !ig!er
t!an t!e generi &rie'
17
*ine fair trade o&erates as an a%ternative mar-et )it!in t!e %arger onte1t of a g%oba% mar-et
funtioning %arge%y on t!e &rini&%e of eonomi %ibera%ism, fair trade is %imited to a sma%% s!are
of t!e onventiona% mar-et and annot in%ude a%% &roduers or even se%% at t!e fair trade &rie a%%
t!at is &rodued by t!ose )!o are &art of t!e system' Nonet!e%ess, in *t' +inent, farmer
&artii&ation in t!e fair trade system, begun in 2000, !as gro)n ra&id%y' :air trade banana sa%es
from t!e is%and no) ma-e u& about 80O of tota% banana e1&orts, and t!ere are indiations t!at
fair trade &rodution )i%% ontinue to inrease in t!e future' In Jeember 200., *ainsbury, one of
2ritain=s %argest food retai%ers, announed &%ans to inrease its su&&%y of fair trade bananas from
t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands in order to e1%usive%y offer fair trade bananas by Iu%y 2007 ,2ut%er 200.E
:airtrade :oundation 200./' *ara! 2ut%er suggests t!at t!is !ange is %i-e%y to resu%t in *t'
+inent s)it!ing entire%y to fair trade &rodution of bananas' In addition, aording to t!e !air
of t!e Nationa% :air Trade #ommittee, t!ere are emerging &%ans for fair trade diversifiation into
ot!er &roduts, su! as fres! Guies'
Jes&ite some %ear %imitations of fair trade in &ratie fair trade !as, overa%%, %ear%y onferred
benefits on &roduer ommunities in *t' +inent' 0it!out fair trade, banana gro)ers t!ere )ou%d
%i-e%y !ave no viab%e )ay to ontinue se%%ing t!eir bananas' Aording to t!e :L4 re&resentative:
>T!e 0IN:A story and t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands= story is rea%%y a suess story in t!e fair trade
)or%d?' 2anana farmers, des&ite &ointing to severa% %imitations, a%so genera%%y em&!asi5ed t!e
im&ortane of fair trade for t!eir ontinued %ive%i!ood' In t!e )ords of one )oman, )!o !ad
&rodued bananas for about D@ years, fair trade offers >a %itt%e bit of !o&e?'
:air trade in *t' +inent )as introdued %arge%y t!roug! 0IN:A=s efforts to resist t!e
%ibera%i5ation of t!e 2anana Regime and to !e%& farmers sustain t!emse%ves t!roug! an
a%ternative regu%ated mar-et' T!e regu%ated fair trade mar-et !as &rovided &roduers )it! better
inomes, more finania% stabi%ity, better standards of !ea%t!, &rograms of soia% deve%o&ment,
and o&&ortunities to diret%y &artii&ate in deisions affeting t!eir ommunities' *u! a form of
re9embedding t!e eonomi re%ations in soiety, )!i%e diret%y &roviding for t!e needs of
&roduer ommunities, onstitutes a notab%e !a%%enge to t!e &rini&%es of eonomi %ibera%ism'
Indeed, t!e fair trade system in *t' +inent offers an e1am&%e of a %oa% strugg%e t!at is &art of a
%arger strugg%e against re%iane u&on a %ibera%i5ed g%oba% mar-et' :air trade &roduers in t!e
0ind)ard Is%ands !ave been su&&orted by 2ritis! onsumers o&&osed to t!e outome of t!e
0T4 banana dis&ute, reating )!at *!e%%er refers to as a mar-et for >Bet!ia%= bananas? ,1@/'
T!e vast maGority of fair trade bananas from t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands goes to t!e 6< mar-et, )it!
four 2ritis! su&ermar-ets aounting for a&&ro1imate%y 7@O of 0ind)ard Is%ands fair trade fruit
,Moberg 10/'
:air trade in t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands needs to be onsidered )it!in t!e frame)or- of a %arger
ountermovement t!at invo%ves %arge9sa%e &rotests against free trade agreements and
organi5ations, efforts to &romote a Tobin ta1 on finania% mar-ets, initiatives to ane% T!ird
0or%d debt, and net)or-s t!at su&&ort %oa% mar-ets' In addition to &artii&ation in fair trade,
banana farmers in *t' +inent and t!e ot!er 0ind)ard Is%ands !ave made de%iberate onnetions
)it! t!e %arger movement against neo%ibera%ism, &artiu%ar%y engaging in &rotests against
&ro&osa%s for a free trade 7onomi "artners!i& Agreement ,7"A/ bet)een t!e #aribbean
nations ,#ARI:4R6M/ and t!e 76' A mar! )as organi5ed in *t' Luia in *e&tember 200@,
and some 2000 farmers mobi%i5ed under t!e s%ogan >Ket 6&, *tand 6&R? to oinide )it! a visit
of t!e 76 Trade #ommissioner to disuss an 7"A for t!e region ,2anana Lin- 200.E *+ Min' of
Agriu%ture *e&t' 200@/' (undreds of farmers gat!ered t!ree )ee-s %ater in Lauders, *t' +inentE
and in Jeember 200@ anot!er demonstration )as !e%d in Jominia against t!e 7"A' 2anana
farmers, %i-e ot!er ativists t!roug!out t!e )or%d, are ta-ing to t!e streets to o&&ose furt!er
&roesses of %ibera%i5ation in t!e region' :air trade is t!us &art of a %arger &attern of resistane'
18
Indeed, t!e re%ative%y suessfu% e1&erienes of fair trade farmers in *t' +inent, &osing a
signifiant !a%%enge to t!e &romotion of t!e free trade idea%, is a%igned )it! ot!er efforts in
onstituting )!at "o%anyi a%%ed a ountermovement'
'eferences
2anana Lin-' >2anana Trade Ne)s 2u%%etin?' No' DC92@ ,Ianuary 200./: 1920'
)))'banana%in-'org'uA
2anana Lin-' >T!e 2anana Trade: Nationa% Im&ort Regimes 2efore 133D?'
)))'banana%in-'org'uA
2anana Lin-' >T!e 2anana Trade: 2anana #om&anies?' )))'banana%in-'org'uA
2enerSa , Lourdes' >K%oba%i5ation, Kender and t!e Javos Man'? :eminist 7onomis @:D ,1333/:
.198D'
2ura)oy, Mi!ae%' >:or a *oio%ogia% Mar1ism: T!e #om&%ementary #onvergene of Antonio
Kramsi and <ar% "o%anyi'? "o%itis and *oiety D1:2 ,200D/: 20892@1'
2ut%er, *ara!' Times 4n%ine' >*u&ermar-ets *)it! to :airtrade 2ananas?' ,Jeember 1D, 200./'
business'timeson%ineA
#%egg, "eter' >T!e Jeve%o&ment of t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands 2anana 71&ort Trade: #ommeria%
4&&ortunity and #o%onia% Neessity?' T!e *oiety for #aribbean *tudies Annua% #onferene
"a&ers' 1 ,2000/: 1911' r0'untad'orgQinfooA
7uro&ean #ommission' Agriu%ture and Rura% Jeve%o&ment' >4&ening of Tariff Tuota for 2007
for 2ananas from A#" #ountries?' ,November 1@, 200./' e'euro&a'euQagriu%A
:airtrade :oundation' >:airtrade :oundation *tatement: *ainsbury=s :airtrade banana s)it! is
t!e )or%d=s biggest ever ommitment to :airtrade?' ,Jeember 12, 200./'
)))'fairtrade'org'u-A
:L4 Internationa%' >:airtrade *tandards for 2ananas for *ma%% :armers= 4rganisations?'
,November 200./: 191C' )))'fairtrade'netQfiA
:L4 Internationa%' >Keneri :airtrade *tandards for *ma%% :armers= 4rganisations?' ,Jeember
200@/: 1922' )))'fairtrade'netQfiA
:L4 Internationa%' Ne)s 2u%%etin' ,4tober 200./: 191D' )))'fairtrade'netQu&A
:L4 Internationa%' Annua% Re&ort 200@9200.' ,Iune 200./: 192C'
:ra5ier, Martin' >#aribbean 2anana 0or-ers (it by :ree Trade?' T!e Kuardian' August 10,
200@' )))'&a'org'auQgar!A
(e%%einer, 7ri' >Kreat Transformations: A "o%anyian "ers&etive on t!e #ontem&orary K%oba%
:inania% 4rder'? *tudies in "o%itia% 7onomy C8 ,Autumn 133@/: 1C391.C'
Isaas, "!i%emore' >2anana "rodution in *t' +inent and t!e Krenadines ,*+K/? in 4rgani
2anana 2000: To)ards an 4rgani 2anana Initiative in t!e #aribbean' (o%derness et a%' ,7ds/'
Re&ort of t!e Internationa% 0or-s!o& on t!e &rodution and mar-eting of organi bananas by
sma%%!o%der farmers' :rane' ,1333/: .19.C' )))'i&gri'giar'orgQA
Ios%ing, Tim' >2ananas and t!e 0T4: Testing t!e Ne) Jis&ute *ett%ement "roess? in Ios%ing,
T'7' and T'K' Tay%or ,7ds'/' 2anana 0ars: T!e Anatomy of a Trade Jis&ute' #ambridge: #A2I
"ub%is!ing, 200D' 1.3913C'
Moberg, Mar-' >:air Trade and 7astern #aribbean 2anana :armers: R!etori and Rea%ity in t!e
Anti9K%oba%i5ation Movement?' (uman 4rgani5ation' .C:1 ,*&ring 200@/'
sfaa'meta&ress'om'&A
Myers, Kordon' 2anana 0ars: T!e "rie of :ree Trade' London: Ued 2oo-s, 200C'
Ni!o%%s, A%e1 and #!ar%otte 4&a%' :air Trade: Mar-et9Jriven 7t!ia% #onsum&tion' London:
*age, 200@'
Nig!, Rona%d' >"overty A%%eviation t!roug! "artii&ation in :air Trade #offee Net)or-s:
#omments on t!e Im&%iations of t!e Me1io Re&orts'? ,August 2002/' )))'o%ostate'eduQJeA
Kodfrey, #%aire' >A :uture for #aribbean 2ananas: T!e Im&ortane of 7uro&e=s 2anana Mar-et
to t!e #aribbean?' 41fam K2 "o%iy Je&artment' ,Mar! 1338/' )))'o1fam'org'u-Q)!aA
"aggi, Me!e% and Tom *&reen' >4vervie) of t!e 0or%d 2anana Mar-et? in Ios%ing, T'7' and
T'K' Tay%or ,7ds'/' 2anana 0ars: T!e Anatomy of a Trade Jis&ute' #ambridge: #A2I
"ub%is!ing, 200D' 791.'
"o%anyi, <ar%' >Aristot%e Jisovers t!e 7onomy? ,13@7/' "rimitive, Ar!ai, and Modern
7onomies: 7ssays of <ar% "o%anyi' Ne) Hor-: An!or 2oo-s, 13.8'
"o%anyi, <ar%' >4ur 4bso%ete Mar-et Menta%ity? ,13C7/' "rimitive, Ar!ai, and Modern
7onomies: 7ssays of <ar% "o%anyi' Ne) Hor-: An!or 2oo-s, 13.8'
"o%anyi, <ar%' T!e Kreat Transformation: T!e "o%itia% and 7onomi 4rigins of 4ur Time'
2oston: 2eaon "ress, 13CC'
Rayno%ds, Laura T' >"overty A%%eviation T!roug! "artii&ation in :air Trade #offee Net)or-s:
71isting Resear! and #ritia% Issues'? #ommunity Resoure Jeve%o&ment "rogram' Ne) Hor-:
T!e :ord :oundation, Mar! 2002' )))'o%ostate'eduQJeA
Rayno%ds, Laura T' >Re9embedding K%oba% Agriu%ture: T!e Internationa% 4rgani and :air
Trade Movements'? Agriu%ture and (uman +a%ues 17 ,2000/: 2379D03'
*!e%%er, Mimi' *T* +isiting *&ea-er *eries' 6niversity of 41ford' >T!e 7t!ia% 2anana:
Mar-ets, Migrants and t!e K%oba%isation of a :ruit?' ,:ebruary 2C, 200@/: 1920'
)))'sbs'o1'a'u-QNRQA
*!re-, Aimee' >Resistane, Redistribution, and "o)er in t!e :air Trade 2anana Initiative?'
Agriu%ture and (uman +a%ues' 22:1 ,Mar! 200@/: 17923'
*!re-, Aimee' >Iust 2ananasV :air Trade 2anana "rodution in t!e Jominian Re&ub%i?'
Internationa% Iourna% of *oio%ogy of Agriu%ture and :ood' 10:2 ,2002/: 1D92D'
*%oum, <ar%a' >Jisourses and #ounterdisourses on K%oba%i5ation and t!e *t' Luian 2anana
Industry? in 2anana 0ars: "o)er, "rodution, and (istory in t!e Amerias' *teve *triff%er and
Mar- Moberg ,7ds/' Jur!am: Ju-e 6niversity "ress, 200D' 2@D928@'
*teger, Manfred' K%oba%ism: Mar-et Ideo%ogy Meets Terrorism' Lan!am, MJ: Ro)man and
Litt%efie%d, 200@'
*t' +inent Ministry of Agriu%ture, :orestry and :is!eries' >Ne)s: Ket 6&Q*tand 6&?'
*e&tember 27, 200@' )))'gov'vQKovtQKoveA
*ut!er%and, <at!ryn' >Introdution? in Adam *mit!, An In8uiry into t!e Nature and #auses of
t!e 0ea%t! of Nations' <at!ryn *ut!er%and, 7d' 41ford 6niversity "ress, 133D' i191%v'
*+2KA' )))'svbga'omQinde1A'
Tay%or, "eter Leig!' >"overty A%%eviation T!roug! "artii&ation in :air Trade #offee Net)or-s:
*ynt!esis of #ase *tudy Resear! Tuestion :indings'? #ommunity Resoure Jeve%o&ment
"rogram' Ne) Hor-: T!e :ord :oundation ,*e&tember 2002/' )))'o%ostate'eduQJeA
0aride%, Laure' #offee )it! "%easure: Iust Iava and 0or%d Trade' 2%a- Rose 2oo-s: Montrea%,
2002'
0I2J7#4' )))'geest9bananas'oA
0IN:A' >:airtrade in t!e 0ind)ard Is%ands?' :ebruary 200D' )))'fairtradetorontoA
0IN:A' >:airtrade Ne)s?' A&ri% 2001' )))'fairtradetorontoA
0IN:A' 0ind)ard Is%and :armers Assoiation' )))'aribbeanngos'neA
0IN:A' 0IN:A Ne)s%etter' November 200D' )))'fairtradetorontoA

Inter(ie"s "ith 'e)resentati(es of *r+ani%ations in St. Vincent
13
2obb, Art!ur' 0IN:A :air Trade Manager, November 8, 200.'
A%%en, "!i%emon' #!air of t!e Nationa% :air Trade #ommittee and :ie%d 4ffier for t!e *+2KA,
November ., 200.'
Amarsy, *!emina' Liason 4ffier for :air Trade 4rgani5ation Internationa%, November 7, 200.'
Jefreitas, Keorge' 0I2J7#4 "rodut #ontro%%er in *t' +inent, November 8, 200.'
Rose, Ane%ma' 0IN:A Administrative *eretary and *eretary for Kender Affairs, November
8, 200.'
Rose, Ren)i-' 0IN:A #oordinator, November 8, 200.'
Notes:
1' "o%anyi does not use t!e term >ountermovements? in t!e &%ura% but does say t!at t!e ountermovement in 13t!
entury 7ng%and too- a >great variety of forms? ,13CC: 1@1/' (e%%einer=s use of t!e term ountermovements
&er!a&s &oints to t!e diversity of attem&ts to regu%ate t!e mar-et, but in strit "o%anyian terms a%% su! efforts are
&art of one ountermovement in a &roess of doub%e movement' LM
2' *ee *ut!er%and i1 and *teger 3 for more on t!e onnetion bet)een Adam *mit! and neo%ibera%ism' LM
D' Toget!er;at 1DO;t!e 76 and t!e 6* are t!e biggest onsumers of t!e )or%d=s bananas ,"aggi and *&reen 3/'
LM
C' T!e o%onia% system of &referentia% aess )as maintained after inde&endene under t!e 2anana "rotoo%s of t!e
LomN Agreements signed bet)een A#" ountries and t!e 7uro&ean 7onomi #ommunity ,%ater t!e 76/' T!e
first LomN Agreement )as signed in 137@E t!ree ot!ers )ere signed after t!at, %asting unti% 2000E and t!e
#otonou agreement in 2000 e1tended LomN &referenes unti% 2008' T!ese agreements guaranteed &referentia%
aess for former o%onies in t!e form of duty free entry and ot!er advantages for ertain agriu%tura% &roduts
su! as bananas, sugar, rum and rie' LM
@' T!e Jo%e :oods #om&any )as former%y *tandard :ruit' LM
.' #!i8uita 2rands Internationa% )as former%y t!e 6nited :ruit #om&any and 6nited 2rands' LM
7' T!e regime )ou%d move to a tariff9on%y system by Ianuary 200. and )ou%d fo%%o) a four9year transitiona%
regime )it! &referentia% tariff rate 8uotas and %ienes for A#" &roduers' 6nti% 200. t!e 76 maintained a
&referentia% tariff98uota system for A#" &roduers, but starting in Mar! 200. introdued t!e ne) sing%e9tariff
system, )!i! !as been e1tended for 2007' 6nder t!is system t!e 76 offers a sing%e duty9free tariff annua% 8uota
of 77@,000 tonnes for A#" ountries, 81O of )!i! is determined on a >first ome, first served? basis and 13O
of )!i! is under %ienes for o&erators t!at im&orted bananas from A#" ountries in 200. ,7uro&ean
#ommission/' Non9A#" ountries, main%y from Latin Ameria, are subGet to an im&ort tariff of 17. euros &er
tonne' LM
8' 0IN:A=s !ead8uarters is in *t' +inent' LM
3' In 13@D t!e o%onia% government estab%is!ed t!e *t' +inent 2anana Kro)ers Assoiation ,*+2KA/ as a
statutory or&oration )it! t!e mandate of fai%itating t!e gro)t! of t!e banana industry' Today t!e *+2KA is
se&arate from but inf%uened by t!e government and maintains simi%ar funtions, regu%ating t!e &rodution and
mar-eting of bananas and registering and &aying farmers' T!e *+2KA maintains ontro% of t!e banana industry
under t!e 2anana Industry At W10 of 1378, At WD0 of 133., and At W D. of 2001 ,*+2KA and Isaas .2/' LM
10' 4n average, fair trade &ries )ere 13'D O !ig!er t!an generi &ries' T!e !ig!est fair trade &rie )as 23O !ig!er
t!an t!e %o)est generi &rie, and t!e %o)est fair trade &rie )as 3O !ig!er t!an t!e !ig!est generi &rie' LM
11' In fat, if a farmer misses more t!an t!ree onseutive meetings sQ!e an be deregistered' T!is re8uirement is
&art of 0IN:A=s o)n monitoring &roess to maintain om&%iane of individua% farmers )it! :L4 standards'
0IN:A )ou%d be t!e organi5ation to deide to deregister any member )!o is not attending meetings' LM
12' 0!i! is a&&ro1imate%y PCD,.@1'70 #anadian ,a%u%ated in :eb' 2007/' LM
1D' *t' #roi1 is a grou& )it! C8 members and is %oated in t!e enter of *t' +inent in t!e Marri8uia +a%%ey' LM
1C' :armers !ave aess to fu%% media% !e-s by dotors to ma-e sure t!e !ave no om&%iations from t!e use of
!emia%s' If om&%iations are found, furt!er media% assistane is overed by t!e fund' LM
1@' *evera% of t!e farmers I s&o-e )it!, !o)ever, do &rodue ot!er ro&s for t!eir o)n onsum&tion and for sa%e to
%oa% mar-ets' LM
1.' Anot!er %imitation of fair trade;)!i! invo%ves t!e ro%e of %arge or&oration;)as identified in a%% of t!e ase
studies on offee and bananas, in%uding my study of *t' +inent' :air trade is su&&osed to !e%& s!orten t!e
su&&%y !ain, but t!is is &artiu%ar%y diffiu%t in t!e ase of bananas from t!e #aribbean beause fair trade sa%es
de&end on %arge 6< su&ermar-ets as )e%% as refrigerated s!i&&ing' #offee &roduers !ave a%so &ointed to t!e
&rob%em of gro)ing or&orate invo%vement in fair trade, suggesting t!at %arge firms ou%d >green)as! t!eir non9
:air Trade offee and eventua%%y undermine t!e :L4 system? ,Tay%or 10/' Indeed, t!ere is gro)ing %iterature on
t!e &arado1ia% ro%e of %arge or&orations in t!e fair trade system' LM
17' T!e 0I2J7#4 offiia% I s&o-e )it! to%d me t!at &aying a !ig!er &rie ,t!an generi/ for e1esses of fair trade is
0I2J7#4=s ommitment to t!e farmers' LM
18' *u! resistane ou%d a%so be ana%y5ed in terms of t!e emergene if a >ounterdisourse?' *ee *%oum 2@D928@'
LM
13' T!e names and &ositions of t!e &eo&%e intervie)ed )i%% be %isted on%y for re&resentatives of organi5ations' T!e
farmers )ere intervie)ed anonymous%y' LM