NARRATOLOGY: AN INTRODUCTION

Edited and Introduced by SUSANA ONEGA AND JOS ANGEL GARCA LANDA
LONGMAN LONDON AND NEW YOR
!iii!
Publication Information: Book Title: Narratology: An Introduction. Contributors: Jos Landa Angel Garca -
editor !usana "nega - editor. #ublis$er: Long%an. #lace o& #ublication: London. #ublication 'ear: ())*.
Addi"on We"#ey Lon$%an Grou& Li%ited Edinbur$' Gate( )ar#o*( E""e+ CM,- ,JE( En$#and and a""ociated
co%&anie" t'rou$'out t'e *or#d.
Published in the United States of America by Longman Publishing, New York.
/ Lon$%an Grou& Li%ited 0112
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!i3!
Cont!nts
G!n!ral "#itors$ Pr!ac!
3ii
Not!s on "#itors i+
Ac%no&l!#g!'!nts +
Intro#uction 0
Pr!li'inari!s 0
Th! analysis o narrati(! structur!
<
An historical o(!r(i!& 0,
Conclusion =:
) ROLAND BART*"+
Intro#uction to th! +tructural Analysis o Narrati(!s <:
, CLAUD" BR"-OND Th! Logic
o Narrati(! Possibiliti!s 20
. A/-0/ GR"I-A+ R!l!ctions on
Actantial -o#!ls @2
1 0ONAT*AN CULL"R
2abula an# +3u4h!t in th! Analysis o Narrati(!: +o'! A'!rican Discussions 1=
5 -"IR +T"RNB"RG 6hat is
"78osition9 An "ssay in T!'8oral D!li'itation 0-=
: -I";" BAL 2ocali4ation
00:
< PAUL RIC=R Th! Ti'! o
Narrating >"r4?hl4!it@ an# Narrat!# Tun! >"r4?hlt! A!it@ 0,1
B 6AYN" C/ BOOT*
Ty8!s o Narration 0<:
C 6AL;"R GIB+ON AuthorsD
+8!a%!rsD R!a#!rsD an# -oc% R!a#!rs 0::
)E 2/ ;/ +TANA"L A N!&
A88roach to th! D!inition o th! Narrati(! +ituations 020
)) GFRARD G"N"TT" Goic!
0@,
), G"RALD PRINC"
Intro#uction to th! +tu#y o th! Narrat!! 01-
). LINDA *UTC*"ON -o#!s
an# 2or's o Narrati(! Narcissis': Intro#uction o a Ty8ology ,-=
!3!
)1 C"L"+TINO D"L"YTO
2ocalisation in 2il' Narrati(! ,0@
)5 "D6ARD BRANIGAN +tory
6orl# an# +cr!!n ,=<
): P"T"R BROO;+ R!a#ing or th! Plot
)< T"R"+A D" LAUR"TI+ D!sir! in Narrati(! ,:0
,2,
)B *AYD"N 6*IT" Th! Galu! o Narrati(ity in th! R!8r!s!ntation o R!ality ,@=
2
)C 0/ *ILLI+ -ILL"R Lin!
,;2
Not!s on Authors ,12
R!!r!nc!s an# 2urth!r R!a#ing =--
In#!7
G!n!ral "#itors$ Pr!ac!
7'e out#ine" o5 conte%&orary critica# t'eory are no* o5ten tau$'t a" a "tandard 5eature o5 a de$ree in #iterary "tudie". 7'e
de3e#o&%ent o5 &articu#ar t'eorie" 'a" "een a t'orou$' tran"5or%ation o5 #iterary critici"%. 8or e+a%&#e( Mar+i"t and
8oucau#dian t'eorie" 'a3e re3o#utioni"ed S'a>e"&eare "tudie"( and Adecon"tructionA 'a" #ed to a co%&#ete rea""e""%ent o5
Ro%antic &oetry. 8e%ini"t critici"% 'a" #e5t "carce#y any &eriod o5 #iterature una55ected by it" "earc'in$ critiBue". 7eac'er" o5
#iterary "tudie" can no #on$er 5a## bac> on a "tandardi"ed( recei3ed %et'odo#o$y.
Lecturer" and teac'er" are no* ur$ent#y #oo>in$ 5or $uidance in a ra&id#y c'an$in$ critica# en3iron%ent. 7'ey need 'e#& in
under"tandin$ t'e #ate"t re3i"ion" in #iterary t'eory( and e"&ecia##y in $ra"&in$ t'e &ractica# e55ect" o5 t'e ne* t'eorie" in t'e
5or% o5 t'eoretica##y "en"iti"ed ne* readin$". A nu%ber o5 3o#u%e" in t'e "erie" ant'o#o$i"e i%&ortant e""ay" on &articu#ar
t'eorie". )o*e3er( in order to $ra"& t'e 5u## i%&#ication" and &o""ib#e u"e" o5 &articu#ar t'eorie" it i" e""entia# to "ee t'e% &ut to
*or>. 7'i" "erie" &ro3ide" "ub"tantia# 3o#u%e" o5 ne* readin$"( &re"ented in an acce""ib#e 5or% and *it' a "i$ni5icant a%ount o5
editoria# $uidance.
Eac' 3o#u%e inc#ude" a "ub"tantia# introduction *'ic' e+&#ore" t'e t'eoretica# i""ue" and con5#ict" e%bodied in t'e e""ay"
"e#ected and #ocate" area" o5 di"a$ree%ent bet*een &o"ition". 7'e &#ura#i"% o5 t'eorie" 'a" to be &ut on t'e a$enda o5 #iterary
"tudie". We can no #on$er &retend t'at *e a## tacit#y acce&t t'e "a%e &ractice" in #iterary "tudie". Neit'er i" a laissez-faire
attitude any #on$er tenab#e. Literature de&art%ent" need to $o beyond t'e %ere to#eration o5 t'eoretica# di55erence"C it i" not
enou$' %ere#y to a$ree to di55er4 t'ey need actua##y to A"ta$eA t'e di55erence" o&en#y. 7'e 3o#u%e" in t'i" "erie" a## atte%&t to
dra%ati"e t'e di55erence"( not nece""ari#y *it' a 3ie* to re"o#3in$ t'e% but in order to 5ore$round t'e c'oice" &re"ented by
di55erent t'eorie" or to ar$ue 5or a &articu#ar route t'rou$' t'e i%&a""e" t'e di55erence" &re"ent.
7'e t'eory Are3o#utionA 'a" 'ad rea# e55ect". It 'a" #oo"ened t'e $ri& o5 traditiona# e%&irici"t and ro%antic a""u%&tion" about
#an$ua$e and #iterature. It i" not a#*ay" c#ear *'at i" bein$ &ro&o"ed a" t'e ne* a$enda 5or #iterary "tudie"( and indeed t'e 3ery
notion o5 A#iteratureA i" Bue"tioned by t'e &o"t!"tructura#i"t "train in t'eory. )o*e3er( t'e uncertaintie" and ob"curitie" o5
conte%&orary t'eorie" a&&ear %uc' #e"" *orryin$ *'en *e "ee *'at t'e be"t critic" 'a3e
!3ii!
been ab#e to do *it' t'e% in &ractice. 7'i" "erie" ai%" to di""e%inate t'e be"t o5 recent critici"% and to "'o* t'at it i"
&o""ib#e to re!read t'e canonica# te+t" o5 #iterature in ne* and c'a##en$in$ *ay".
RAMAN SELDEN AND S7AN SMI7)
7'e 6ub#i"'er" and 5e##o* Serie" Editor re$ret to record t'at Ra%an Se#den died a5ter a "'ort i##ne"" in May 0110 at t'e a$e o5
5i5ty!t'ree. Ray Se#den *a" a 5ine "c'o#ar and a #o3e#y %an. A## t'o"e 'e 'a" *or>ed *it' *i## re%e%ber 'i% *it' %uc'
a55ection and re"&ect.
!3iii!
Not!s on "#itors
SUSANA ONEGA i" 6ro5e""or o5 En$#i"' Literature at t'e Uni3er"ity o5 Dara$oEa. S'e i" a#"o t'e &re"ident o5 t'e S&ani"'
A""ociation 5or An$#o!A%erican Studie" FAEDEANG( and re&re"ent" S&ain on t'e board o5 t'e Euro&ean Society 5or t'e Study
o5 En$#i"' FESSEG.
3
S'e 'a" &ub#i"'ed nu%erou" artic#e" on En$#i"' and A%erican #iterature or #iterary t'eory and i" t'e aut'or o5 Anlisis
estructural, m!todo narrati"o y #sentido# de 7'e Sound and t'e 8ury( de Wi##ia% 8au#>ner F Dara$oEa( 01;1G( and anot'er
entit#ed $orm and %eaning in the No"els of &ohn $owles F Ann Arbor( 01;1G. S'e i" a#"o t'e editor o5 'studios Literarios
(ngleses (() *enacimiento y +arroco F Madrid( 01;2G and o5 ,elling -istories. Narrati"izing -istory, -istoricizing Literature
F A%"terda%( 011:G. S'e a#"o be#on$" to t'e editoria# board" o5 "e3era# Hourna#".
JOS ANGEL GARCA LANDA F6'.D. Dara$oEa( M.A. 9ro*n Uni3er"ityG i" Senior Lecturer in En$#i"' Literature and
Literary 7'eory in t'e En$#i"' and Ger%an De&art%ent at t'e Uni3er"ity o5 Dara$oEa. )e 'a" &ub#i"'ed nu%erou" artic#e" on
En$#i"' #iterature and on #iterary t'eory. )e i" t'e aut'or o5 Samuel +eckett y la narraci/n refle0i"a F Dara$oEa( 011,G and t'e
editor o5 %iscelnea. A &ournal of 'nglish and American Studies.
7'e editor" are %e%ber" o5 a re"earc' tea% *'ic' 'a" been doin$ *or> on narrato#o$y "ince 01;1. Se3era# re"earc' &roHect"
carried out by t'i" tea% 'a3e been 5inanced by t'e Uni3er"ity o5 Dara$oEa F1icerrectorado de (n"estigaci/nG and t'e S&ani"'
Mini"try o5 Education FDGICY7G.
Ac%no&l!#g!'!nts
Our intere"t in narrato#o$y $oe" bac> to t*o tea% re"earc' &roHect" 5inanced by t'e Uni3er"ity o5 Dara$oEa in 01;1 and 011-!0(
and 5urt'er de3e#o&ed in t*o *ider re"earc' &roHect" 5inanced by t'e S&ani"' Mini"try o5 Education F6S1-!-00@ and 6S1<!
--:@G.
We are $rate5u# to t'e aut'or" and ot'er co&yri$'t 'o#der" o5 t'e artic#e" re&rinted 'ere 5or &er%i""ion to re&roduce co&yri$'t
%ateria#( and to Stan S%it'( *'o "u$$e"ted t'e to&ic o5 t'i" reader. We *ou#d a#"o #i>e to t'an> Ce#e"tino De#eyto 5or
"&ecia#iEed ad3ice on 5i#% "tudie"( 9eatriE 6ena" and 7i% Coo&er( *'o read t'e introduction( and t'e Lon$%an co&y!editor(
*'o 'a" been %o"t 'e#&5u# and e55icient.
Su"ana One$a Jo"I An$e# GarcJa Landa 0112
7'e &ub#i"'er" are $rate5u# to t'e 5o##o*in$ 5or &er%i""ion to re&roduce co&yri$'t %ateria#C
7'e Editor o5 Atlantis 5or an edited 3er"ion o5 A8oca#i"ation in 8i#% Narrati3eA by Ce#e"tino De#eyto in Atlantis 23 F No3e%ber(
0110G &&. 0:1!@@4 9#ac>*e## 6ub#i"'er" Ltd? Corne## Uni3er"ity 6re"" 5or an edited 3er"ion o5 KALoiceAK by GIrard GenetteC
Narrati"e 4iscourse. An 'ssay in %ethod. 7ran"#ated 5ro% t'e 8renc' by Jane Le*in. Co&yri$'t / 01;- by Corne## Uni3er"ity
6re""4 Ca%brid$e Uni3er"ity 6re""? Landen'oec> M Ru&rec't 5or an edited 3er"ion o5 AA Ne* A&&roac' to t'e De5inition o5 t'e
Narrati3e Situation"A by 8. . StanEe# in A ,heory of Narrati"e. 7ran"#ated by C'ar#otte Goed"c'e( &&. <2!@; and dia$ra% &. +3i
F7ran"#ation o5 ,heory des 'rzahlens 5ottingen. 1andenhoek( 01@1G4 t'e aut'or( 7ere"a de Laureti" 5or an edited 3er"ion o5 'er
#4esire in Narrati"e# 5ro% Alice 4oesn#t. $eminism, Semiotics, 6inema. F 9#oo%in$ton( Indiana Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01;<G4
)ar&erCo##in" 6ub#i"'er" Ltd? 8arrar( Strau"" M Girou+ Inc. 5or an edited 3er"ion o5 KAAn Introduction to t'e Structura# Ana#y"i"
o5 Narrati3eAK by Ro#and 9art'e" in (mage, %usic, ,e0t. Edited M tran"#ated by Ste&'en )eat'. F Ne* Yor>( )i## M Wan$( 01@@(
&&. @1!0,<G. 7ran"#ation o5 Ro#and 9art'e"A #(ntroduction 7 l#analyse structurale due recit# in 6ommunications 8 F 0122G &&. 0!
,@4 t'e aut'or( Linda )utc'eon 5or an edited 3er"ion o5 'er #%odes and $orms ofNarrati"e Narcissism. (ntroduction of a
,y9ology#
Narrati3e Narci""i"%C Introduction o5 a 7y&o#o$yA in Narcissistic Narrati"e. ,he %etafictional Parado0. F Ne* Yor>( Met'uen
01;<( &&. 0@!=:G4 Internationa# 7'o%"on 6ub#i"'in$ Ser3ice"?t'e aut'or( Ed*ard 9rani$an 5or an edited 3er"ion o5 'i" KAStory
Wor#d and ScreenAK in Narrati"e 6om9rehension and $ilm. F London( Rout#ed$e( 011,( &&. ==!;2( note" ,=-!<2G4 Jo'n" )o&>in"
Uni3er"ity 6re"" 5or edited 3er"ion" o5 KA7'e Lo$ic o5 Narrati3e 6o""ibi#itie"AK by C#aude 9re%ond( tran"#ated by E#aine D.
Canca#on in New Literary -istory 22 F 01;-G and KAIntroduction to t'e Study o5 t'e NarrateeAK by 6rince Gera#d( tran"#ated by
8ranci" Mariner in *eader *es9onse 6riticism) $rom $ormalism to Post-Structuralism. Edited by Jane 6. 7o%&>in". 8ir"t
&ub#i"'ed in Po!ti:ue 2; F 01@=G4 A#5red A. no&5 Inc. 5or an edited 3er"ion o5 KAReadin$ 5or t'e 6#otAK by 6eter 9roo>" 5ro%
*eading for the Plot. 4esign and (ntention in Narrati"e. Co&yri$'t / 01;< by 6eter 9roo>" 4 Nationa# Counci# o5 7eac'er" o5
En$#i"' FNC7EG 5or an edited 3er"ion o5 KAAut'or"( S&ea>er" and Moc> Reader"AK by Wa#>er Gib"on( 5ir"t &ub#i"'ed in 6ollege
'nglish 2 F 8ebruary( 01:-G4 7e# A3i3 Uni3er"ity( 6orter In"titute 5or an edited 3er"ion o5 KA8abu#a and SHuE'et in t'e Ana#y"i" o5
Narrati3eAK( by Jonat'an Cu##er( 5ir"t &ub#i"'ed in Poetics ,oday 2C= FS&rin$( 01;-G &&. ,@!=@4 Uni3er"ity o5 C'ica$o 6re"" and
t'e aut'or"?editor )ayden W'ite( W. J. 7. Mitc'e##( Wayne 9oot' M 6au# RicNur 5or edited 3er"ion" o5 KA7'e La#ue o5
Narrati3ity in t'e Re&re"entation o5 Rea#ityAK by )ayden W'ite in <n Narrati"e edited by W. J. 7. Mitc'e##. F C'ica$o(
Uni3er"ity o5 C'ica$o 6re""( 01;-( &&. 0!,=. 8ir"t &ub#i"'ed in 6ritical (n:uiry =C0 FAutu%n( 01;-GG( KA7y&e" o5 Narrati3eAK by
4
Wayne 9oot' in ,he *hetoric of $iction. F C'ica$o( 0120( &&. 0<1!2:G( KA7'e 7une o5 Narratin$ FErEOb#EeitG and Narrated 7i%e
FErEO'#te DeitGAK by 6au# Ricceur in ,ime and Narrati"e >. 7ran"#ated by at'#een McLau$'#in and Da3id 6e##auer. F C'ica$o(
Uni3er"ity o5 C'ica$o 6re""( 01;2( note" 0;,!2G. 7ran"#ation o5 ,em9s et recit 22) La configuration dans le recit de fictionG4
Uni3er"ity o5 Nebra">a 6re"" 5or an edited 3er"ion o5 KARe5#ection" on Actantia# Mode#"AK by A.!J. Grei%a" in Structural
Semantics. At Attem9t at %ethod by A.!J. Grei%a" . 7ran"#ated by Danie#e McDo*e##( Rona#d Sc'#ei5er M A#an Le'e .
Co&yri$'t / Librairie Larou""e( 0122. 7ran"#ation co&yri$'t C 01;= by t'e Uni3er"ity o5 Nebra">a 6re""4 Uni3er"ity o5 7oronto
6re"" Inc. 5or an edited 3er"ion o5 KA8oca#iEationAK by Mie>e 9a# in Narratology. (ntroduction to the ,heory of Narrati"e.
7ran"#ated by C'ri"tine 3an 9o'ee%en. F 7oronto( 9u55a#o( LondonC Uni3er"ity o5 7oronto 6re""( 01;:( &&. 0--!0;G. 7ran"#ation
o5 ,heorie "an "ertellen en "erhalen. F Muiderber$( Countin'o( 01;-G4 Ya#e Uni3er"ity 6re"" 5or an edited 3er"ion o5 KALineAK by
J. )i#i" Mi##er in Ariande#s ,hread. Story Lines. Co&yri$'t / 011, by Ya#e Uni3er"ity 6re"".
We 'a3e been unab#e to trace t'e co&yri$'t 'o#der o5 KAW'at i" E+&o"itionP An E""ay in 7e%&ora# De#i%inationAK by Meir
Sterber$( and *ou#d a&&reciate any in5or%ation *'ic' *ou#d enab#e u" to do "o.
Introduction
Preliminaries
Definition of narratology
Narrato#o$y i"( ety%o#o$ica##y( t'e "cience o5 narrati3e. 7'e ter% *a" &o&u#ariEed( 'o*e3er( by "uc' "tructura#i"t critic" a"
GIrard Genette( Mie>e 9a#( Gera#d 6rince and ot'er" in t'e 01@-".
0
A" a re"u#t( t'e de5inition o5 narrato#o$y 'a" u"ua##y been
re"tricted to "tructura#( or %ore "&eci5ica##y "tructura#i"t( ana#y"i" o5 narrati3e.
7'e &o"t!"tructura#i"t reaction o5 t'e 01;-" and 011-" a$ain"t t'e "cienti5ic and ta+ono%ic &reten"ion" o5 "tructura#i"t
narrato#o$y 'a" re"u#ted in a co%&arati3e ne$#ect o5 t'e ear#y "tructura#i"t a&&roac'e". One &o"iti3e e55ect o5 t'i"( 'o*e3er( 'a"
been to o&en u& ne* #ine" o5 de3e#o&%ent 5or narrato#o$y in $ender "tudie"( &"yc'oana#y"i"( reader!re"&on"e critici"% and
ideo#o$ica# critiBue. Narrato#o$y no* a&&ear" to be re3ertin$ to it" ety%o#o$ica# "en"e( a %u#ti!di"ci&#inary "tudy o5 narrati3e
*'ic' ne$otiate" and incor&orate" t'e in"i$'t" o5 %any ot'er critica# di"cour"e" t'at in3o#3e narrati3e 5or%" o5 re&re"entation.
Con"eBuent#y( *'i#e our "e#ection o5 te+t" in t'i" reader $i3e" a%&#e re&re"entation to t'e ori$ina# "tructura#i"t core o5 t'e
di"ci&#ine( it a#"o inc#ude" "a%&#e" o5 a&&roac'e" *'ic' are narrato#o$ica# in t'e *ider i5 not in t'e "trict 5or%a#i"t "en"e o5 t'e
ter%.
6i#!r an# narro&!r #!initions
I" Ari"tot#e Poetics t'e 5ir"t narrato#o$ica# treati"eP
,
A#t'ou$' Ari"tot#eA" *or> 5ocu"e" on one "&eci5ic $enre( tra$edy( it o55er"
e+traordinary narrato#o$ica# in"i$'t" *'ic' are a&&#icab#e to a## $enre" t'at u"e &#ot". 8or Ari"tot#e( &#ot FmythosG i" t'e centra#
e#e%ent in a #iterary *or>( a narrati3e "tructure *'ic' i" co%%on to dra%atic and narrati3e $enre" &ro&er. 7'e conce&tua#
a%bi3a#ence o5 Anarrati3eA i" &re"ent( t'en( 5ro% t'e 3ery be$innin$ o5 t'e di"ci&#ine. A *ider Ari"tote#ian de5inition o5 Anarrati3eA
%i$'t be Aa
!0!
*or> *it' a &#otA Fe.$. e&ic &oetry( tra$edy( co%edyG4 a narro* one *ou#d be Aa *or> *it' a narratorA Fe&ic &oetry( but not( in
&rinci&#e( dra%a or 5i#%G. 7oday( narrato#o$y "tudie" t'e narrati3e a"&ect" o5 %any #iterary and non!#iterary $enre" and
di"cour"e" *'ic' need not be de5ined a" "trict#y narrati3e( "uc' a" #yrica# &oe%"( 5i#%( dra%a( 'i"tory( ad3erti"e%ent".
Narrati(! as '!#iat!# !nunciation
7'e di55erence bet*een narrati3e in t'e *ider "en"e Fa" Aa *or> *it' a &#otG and narrati3e &ro&er 'a" a &ara##e# in t'e di"tance
bet*een t'e &o#e" o5 dra%atic narrati3e and %ediated narrati3e FA"'o*in$A and Ate##in$AG. Lin$ui"tic narrati3e F'i"tory( t'e no3e#(
"'ort "torie"G *ou#d be narrati3e in *'at *e 'a3e ca##ed t'e narro* "en"e o5 t'e ter%( t'at i"( narrati3e %ediated in t'i" ca"e by
t'e di"cur"i3e acti3ity o5 a narrator. Sti##( t'ere %ay be ot'er 5or%" o5 %ediacyC in 5i#%( t'e ca%era i" a %ediatin$ de3ice( a#beit
non!3erba# Ft'e u"e o5 t'e *ord AenunciationA in t'i" ca"e i" t'ere5ore a ne*( ana#o$ica# de3e#o&%entG. Dra%a it"e#5( o5 cour"e( i"
a %ediated &re"entation *'ic' u"e" a 3ariety o5 #in$ui"tic and non!#in$ui"tic "trate$ie"( "o%e o5 *'ic' %ay be %ore Anarrati3eA
5
t'an ot'er" Fe.$. t'e c'oru" in c#a""ica# Gree> tra$edy( t'e de3ice o5 t'e %e""en$er *'o re&ort" o55"ta$e e3ent" or( at t'e
e+tre%e( 9rec'tA" Ae&icA t'eatreG.
Th! s8!ciicityD o !ach narrati(! '!#iu'
Eac' %ediu% and eac' $enre a##o*" 5or a "&eci5ic &re"entation o5 t'e 5abu#a( di55erent &oint!o5!3ie* "trate$ie"( 3ariou" de$ree"
o5 narratoria# intru"i3ene"" and di55erent 'and#in$" o5 ti%e. Con"eBuent#y( eac' narrati3e %ediu% reBuire" a "&eci5ic ana#ytica#
a&&roac' to narrati3e "tructure" and #e3e#" F"ee( 5or in"tance( c'a&ter 0<G.
7'e no3e#i"tic tradition i" one o5 continuou" rede5inition o5 t'e narrati3e 3oice( 5ro% 5a>e %e%oir" and #etter"( to intru"i3e and
o%ni"cient narrator"( to %oderni"t e+&eri%ent" *it' obHecti3e &re"entation or a #i%ited &oint o5 3ie*. So%e critic" 'a3e ar$ued
t'at inno3ati3e no3e#!*ritin$ i" in'erent#y re5#e+i3eC t'e di"cour"e o5 t'e no3e# i" "i%u#taneou"#y a re5#ection on &a"t and &re"ent
*ay" o5 te##in$ a "tory. 7'i" re5#e+i3ity #ead" bot' to a de5a%i#iariEin$ 5ore$roundin$ o5 tec'niBue and to e+&eri%enta# 3ariation"
on t'e "&eci5ic area" o5 narrati3e "tructure e+&#oited by a $i3en no3e#i"t Fe.$. te%&ora# "tructure( &er"&ecti3a# contro#G. It "'ou#d
be "tre""ed( 'o*e3er( t'at de5a%i#iariEation i" not nece""ari#y a c'aracteri"tic o5 narrati3e For t'e no3e#( or #iterature( 5or t'at
%atterGC t'ere are a#"o
e%inent#y ritua#i"tic $enre" in *'ic' narrati3e &#ea"ure deri3e" 5ro% "trict ad'erence to $eneric con3ention" Fe.$. Ho>e"(
neoc#a""ica# tra$edy( or noh dra%a in Ja&anG.
One o5 t'e %ain di55erentia# trait" o5 t'e no3e# i" it" abi#ity to %i+ re5#ection and narrati3e Ft'ence( in &art( it" re5#e+i3ityG. 7'e
c#a""ic no3e# beca%e t'e $enre *'ic' re3ea#ed t'e inner #i5e o5 c'aracter"( "'o*in$ not Hu"t t'eir be'a3iour but t'e re#ation"'i&
bet*een action and c'aracter. 9y contra"t( dra%a( in $enera#( i" %uc' %ore direct#y 5ocu"ed on action. It i" ea"y to "ee t'at t'e
5ore$roundin$ o5 action in dra%a and o5 c'aracter in narrati3e #ead" to a *'o#e array o5 con"eBuence" 5or t'e treat%ent o5 "uc'
a"&ect" a" ti%e or &"yc'o#o$ica# re&re"entation. Dra%a $enera##y tend" to 5ocu" on a "i$ni5icant and dear#y de5ined action( *it' a
"tron$ &#ot ba"ed on cau"e and e55ect. 7'e Aunity o5 ti%eA o5 neoc#a""ica# dra%a( *'ic' o5 cour"e *a" not %eant by neoc#a""ici"t
critic" to a&&#y to *ritten narrati3e( *a" a reco$nition o5 t'i" di55erence. It *a" a#"o a reco$nition( a#beit an e+a$$erated one( o5
t'e "&eci5icity o5 dra%atic i##u"ion.
7'e t'eatrica# e#e%ent o5 dra%a in3o#3e" a 5urt'er di55erenceC t'e *ritten( 3erba# te+t o5 a &#ay i" on#y t'e ba"i" 5or t'e actua#
&er5or%ance( *'ic' i" a di55erent and con"tant#y c'an$eab#e inter&retation o5 t'at te+t and in 5act on e3ery occa"ion a ne* te+t
5or t'e audience. In 5i#%( un#i>e dra%a( t'e 3i"ua#?aura# &re"entation beco%e" a 5i+ed te+t( *'ic' ne3ert'e#e"" re%ain" "ubHect to
t'e 3ie*erA" &erce&tua# acti3ity. Dra%a and 5i#%( #i>e narrati3e &aintin$"( co%ic boo>"( and "o on( 'a3e a 3i"ua# e#e%ent in
co%%on. I%a$e" %ay be u"ed to narrate Hu"t #i>e *ord"4 it i" 'ere &er'a&" t'at narrato#o$y "'o*" %o"t c#ear#y t'at it i" not Hu"t a
"ub"ection o5 literary t'eory( but rat'er o5 a general semiotic t'eory.
D!inition o narrati(!
A narrati3e i" t'e "e%iotic re&re"entation o5 a "erie" o5 e3ent" %eanin$5u##y connected in a te%&ora# and cau"a# *ay. 8i#%"(
&#ay"( co%ic "tri&"( no3e#"( ne*"ree#"( diarie"( c'ronic#e" and treati"e" o5 $eo#o$ica# 'i"tory are a## narrati3e" in t'i" *ider "en"e.
Narrati3e" can t'ere5ore be con"tructed u"in$ an a%&#e 3ariety o5 "e%iotic %ediaC *ritten or "&o>en #an$ua$e( 3i"ua# i%a$e"(
$e"ture" and actin$( a" *e## a" a co%bination o5 t'e"e. Any "e%iotic con"truct( anyt'in$ %ade o5 "i$n"( can be "aid to be a te+t.
7'ere5ore( *e can "&ea> o5 %any >ind" o5 narrati3e te+t"C #in$ui"tic( t'eatrica#( &ictoria#( 5i#%ic. Any re&re"entation in3o#3e" a
&oint o5 3ie*( a "e#ection( a &er"&ecti3e on t'e re&re"ented obHect( criteria o5 re#e3ance( and( ar$uab#y( an i%&#icit t'eory o5
rea#ity. Narrati3e "tructurin$ %ay beco%e %o"t
!=!
e#aborate in #iterary te+t"( but narrati3iEation i" one o5 t'e co%%one"t *ay" o5 a&&#yin$ an order and a &er"&ecti3e to e+&erience.
7'e ter% Anarrati3eA i"( t'en( &otentia##y a%bi$uou". A" *e 'a3e "een( it 'a" at #ea"t t*o %ain "en"e"C t'e broad one( *'ic' *e
'a3e Hu"t de5ined( and t'e narro* one( accordin$ to *'ic' narrati3e i" an e+c#u"i3e#y #in$ui"tic &'eno%enon( a "&eec' act(
de5ined by t'e &re"ence o5 a narrator or te##er and a 3erba# te+t. 7'i" de5inition *ou#d re"trict t'e area o5 ana#y"i" to ora# or
*ritten narrati3e( and in t'e ca"e o5 #iterary "tudie"( to "uc' #iterary $enre" a" t'e no3e#( t'e "'ort "tory( e&ic &oetry( ba##ad"(
Ho>e". )ere *e "'a## be concerned %ain#y *it' t'e narro*er "en"e( *it' t'e "tudy o5 3erba# narrati3e( and "&eci5ica##y *it'
6
5ictiona#?arti"tic narrati3e. 7'e contribution" *e 'a3e "e#ected dea# in t'e %ain *it' t'e narrati3e e#e%ent in t'e #iterary $enre"(
a#t'ou$' a 5e* ite%" dea# *it' non!3erba# narrati3e %edia "uc' a" 5i#%.
Narrato#o$ica# ana#y"i" concentrate" on t'o"e a"&ect" o5 te+tua# &roduction( "tructure and rece&tion *'ic' are "&eci5ic to
narrati3eC 5or in"tance( t'e "tudy o5 &#ot( or t'e re#ation"'i& bet*een action and c'aracter &ortraiture. Narrati3e %ay o5 cour"e be
a&&roac'ed in ot'er *ay"C 'i"torica##y( t'e%atica##y( "ty#i"tica##y( arc'ety&a##y( decon"tructi3e#y. In 5act( %o"t o5 t'e "tructure"
"tudied by narrato#o$i"t" do not e+i"t e+c#u"i3e#y in narrati3e *or>"( but in narrati3e t'ey are centra# and noticeab#y di"tinct.
7'i" i" t'e ca"e *it' re$ard to &oint o5 3ie* or enunciation( 5or e+a%&#e( *'ic' %ay be 5ound in a %editati3e "onnet a" *e## a"
in a no3e#.
Th! analysis o narrati(! structur!
Narrato#o$y in t'e "trict "en"e o5 t'e *ord i" u"ua##y a""ociated *it' "tructura#i"%. 7'u"( in "e#ectin$ re#e3ant contribution" 5or
t'i" reader *e 'a3e a""u%ed t'at "tructura#i"t a&&roac'e" con"titute t'e core o5 t'e di"ci&#ine. 7'e *or> o5 Sau""ure and t'e
Ru""ian 5or%a#i"t" ear#y in t'i" century &re&ared t'e $round 5or "tructura#i"t t'ou$'t. 7'e 5or%a#i"t" ar$ue t'at *ord" in &oetry
do not 5unction on#y a" "i$ni5ier"C t'ey are a#"o signifieds. Literature i" de5ined a" a 5unctiona# "y"te%( a" a "et o5 de3ice" *'o"e
3a#ue i" deter%ined by ot'er de3ice" *'ic' are &#ayed o55 a$ain"t t'e% Ft'o"e o5 ot'er $enre"( &a"t "ty#e"( and "o onG. A *or>
&re"u&&o"e" con3ention"( ot'er *or>"( "ty#e"( $enre"( "tructure" o5 %eanin$ *'ic' $o beyond t'e *or> it"e#5. Literature i" 5or
t'e"e ear#y "tructura#i"t" a >ind o5 langue o5 *'ic' eac' "&eci5ic *or> i" an in"tance o5 9arole. 8renc' "tructura#i"t" carried t'e"e
#in$ui"tic ana#o$ie" 5urt'er durin$ t'e 012-" and 01@-".
!<!
Structura#i"t" o5ten 'e"itate( 'o*e3er( *'en it co%e" to decidin$ t'e #e3e# at *'ic' t'e ana#o$y "'ou#d *or>C i" it #iterature a" a
*'o#e t'at *or>" a" a #an$ua$e( or i" it t'e indi3idua# *or> t'at doe" "oP Eac' *or> %ay be ar$ued to con"titute to "o%e e+tent
a langue o5 it" o*n( %ay be "een a" a "e#5!re$u#atin$ "tructure( "ince it create"( u& to a &oint( t'e condition" 5or it" o*n %eanin$
and 'e#&" de5ine t'e #an$ua$e in *'ic' it i" inter&reted. W'en t'e "tructura#i"t" o&t 5or t'i" "econd a#ternati3e and "ee> to
ana#y"e t'e 5unctionin$ o5 indi3idua# *or>"( t'ey are c#o"er to t'e Ne* Critica# ana#y"i" o5 *or>" a" Aor$anic *'o#e"A. I5( on t'e
ot'er 'and( t'ey c'oo"e t'e 5ir"t( t'at i"( t'e ana#y"i" o5 $enera# #iterary %ec'ani"%"( t'e indi3idua# *or> co%e" do"e to
di"a&&earin$. It beco%e" a %ere cro""road" o5 di55erent code"( t'e code" bein$ t'e rea# obHect o5 ana#y"i". A >ind o5 turnin$!
&oint a*ay 5ro% t'i" tendency i" re&re"ented by 9art'e" in S?@ F 01@-G( *'ic' reHect" t'e idea t'at a *or> can be reduced to t'e
code" t'at enab#e it" e+i"tence.
=
S?@ i" o5ten con"idered a" t'e o&enin$ "tate%ent o5 t'e &o"t!"tructura#i"t ana#y"i" o5 narrati3e(
*'ic' tend" to e%&'a"iEe t'e readerA" acti3e %ani&u#ation o5 "e%io"i".
7'e initia# Bue"tion a narrato#o$i"t *ou#d try to an"*er i"C in *'at "en"e can *e ana#y"e t'e "tructure o5 narrati3eP )o* can *e
be$inP 7'e 3ery de5inition o5 narrati3e *e &ro&o"e !! At'e re&re"entation o5 a "erie" o5 e3ent"A !! a""u%e" t'at narrati3e" are
co%&o"ite entitie" in a nu%ber o5 "en"e"( t'at a narrati3e can be ana#y"ed into t'e e3ent" t'at co%&o"e it( and t'at t'e"e e3ent"
can be "tudied accordin$ to t'eir &o"ition *it' re"&ect to eac' ot'er. In a "erie" o5 e3ent" "o%e are at t'e be$innin$( "o%e in t'e
%idd#e( "o%e at t'e end. A narrati3e t'ere5ore con"i"t" o5 a nu%ber o5 "ucce""i3e &art"C it 'a" a #on$itudina# "tructure o5 ti%e
and action". 7'i" A'oriEonta#A a&&roac' to narrati3e de"cri&tion i" ana#o$ou" to "yntactic ana#y"i" in #in$ui"tic "tudie". We "'a##
ca## it t'e syntagmatic a+i" in ana#y"i".
A narrati3e( t'en( i" in one "en"e a "ucce""ion o5 e#e%ent". 9ut it i" a co%&ound in ot'er "en"e"( too( and can be ana#y"ed in
%ore *ay" t'an one. In our de5inition( it "'ou#d be noted( a narrati3e i" not Aa "erie" o5 e3ent"A( but Athe re9resentation o5 a "erie"
o5 e3ent"A. )ere t'e co%&o"ite nature o5 narrati3e a&&ear" not a" a nu%ber o5 "ucce""i3e &art"( in #en$t' or 'oriEonta##y( but( a" it
*ere( 3ertica##y( in de9thC t'e narrati3e i" not *'at it "ee%" to be4 it i" a "i$n *'ic' re&re"ent" a "tate o5 a55air". 7'i" A3ertica#A
direction in ana#y"i" #ead" u" 5ro% t'e "i$n to it" "i$ni5ication. 7'e ba"ic acti3ity in t'i" "en"e i" inter&retation( and t'ere5ore *e
"'a## ca## t'i" t'e hermeneutic direction in narrati3e ana#y"i". W'at *e $et in a narrati3e te+t are not e3ent" a" "uc'( but "i$n"(
t'e re&re"entation" o5 e3ent". )ere an
in5inite co%&#e+ity %ay ari"e. In *'at *ay are t'e e3ent" re&re"entedP In *'at *ay i" t'e narrati3e "i%i#ar to or di55erent 5ro%
t'e e3ent" it re&re"ent"P Narrato#o$ica# t'eorie" *i## #ar$e#y con"i"t in t'e 5or%u#ation o5 &o""ib#e an"*er" to t'e"e Bue"tion".
We "ee( t'en( t'at t'e 3ery de5inition o5 narrati3e #ead" u" to t'e be$innin$ o5 ana#y"i"( and in "e3era# direction" at once. We
"'a## e+a%ine di55erent t'eorie" *'ic' ana#y"e narrati3e" eit'er 'oriEonta##y( or 3ertica##y( or bot'. A" 5ar a" 'oriEonta# ana#y"i"
i" concerned( *e 'a3e "&o>en "o 5ar o5 be$innin$( %idd#e and end. Ot'er conce&t" *i## co%&#icate t'i" "i%&#e account o5 &art".
A" 5ar a" 3ertica# ana#y"i" i" concerned( *e %ay "&ea> o5 le"els of analysis. Our de5inition di"tin$ui"'e" at #ea"t t*o ba"ic #e3e#".
7
I5 narrati3e i" a "e%iotic re&re"entation o5 a "erie" o5 e3ent"( one #e3e# o5 ana#y"i" *i## e+a%ine t'e e3ent" re&re"ented. Anot'er
#e3e# o5 ana#y"i" *i## e+a%ine t'e "tructure o5 t'e re&re"entation. We "'a## 5ind t'at narrato#o$ica# t'eori"t" o5ten di55er *'en it
co%e" to de5inin$ t'e"e #e3e#" o5 ana#y"i"C "o%e di"tin$ui"' t*o( *'i#e ot'er" "&ea> o5 t'ree or 5our. Mie>e 9a# te##" u" t'at
t'ere are t'ree ba"ic #e3e#" o5 ana#y"i" o5 narrati3eC 5abu#a( "tory and te+t4 7o%a"'e3">i on#y "&ea>" o5 t*o( 5abu#a and siuzhet.
<
En 5act( t'i" &rob#e% ari"e" in a## area" o5 #iterary "tudy. 7'eorie" *'ic' a&&ear to be "i%i#ar o5ten turn out to ori$inate in
entire#y di55erent critica# &roHect". 8or t'e &ur&o"e o5 t'i" di"cu""ion( *e a""u%e a 5ra%e*or> o5 t'ree #e3e#" o5 A3ertica#A or
'er%eneutic ana#y"i" o5 t'e narrati3e te+tC te+t( "tory and 5abu#a F"ee e.$. 9a#( NarratologyG. 7'u"( i5 *e ta>e a *or> "uc' a"
*obinson 6rusoe( *e *i## "ay t'at t'e te0t i" t'e #in$ui"tic arti5act t'at *e can buy and read( *ritten de facto by De5oe and
"u&&o"ed#y by Robin"on. 7'e fabula i" *'ate3er 'a&&ened to Robin"on in 'i" tra3e#" and on 'i" i"#and. 7'e story i" t'e &reci"e
*ay in *'ic' t'at action i" con3eyed( t'e *ay t'e 5abu#a i" arran$ed into a "&eci5ic co$niti3e "tructure o5 in5or%ation.
9a# 'a" de5ined t'e"e conce&t" a" 5o##o*"C
0. A 7EQ7 i" a 5inite and "tructured "et o5 #in$ui"tic "i$n".
0.0. A narrati"e te+t i" a te+t in *'ic' an a$ent relates a story
,. A story i" t'e "i$ni5ied o5 a narrati3e te+t. A story "i$ni5ie" in it" turn a fabula.
:

We %ay re&re"ent t'e"e #e3e#" o5 "i$ni5ication by %ean" o5 t'e 5o##o*in$ dia$ra%C
2

2igur! )
7'e 5abu#a i"( accordin$ to 9a#( a bare "c'e%e o5 narrati3e e3ent" *'ic' doe" not ta>e into account any "&eci5ic trait" t'at
indi3idua#iEe a$ent" or action" into c'aracter" and concrete e3ent". A de"cri&tion o5 t'e 5abu#a For actionG *ou#d a#"o o%it any
te%&ora# or &er"&ecti3a# di"tortion"C t'ere are no 5#a"'bac>" or 3ariation" in &oint o5 3ie* at t'i" #e3e# o5 ana#y"i". In ot'er
*ord"( in 9a#A" conce&tion t'e 5abu#a i" actua##y an action!"c'e%eC it i" a "ynt'etic ab"traction( not t'e concrete( 5u##!b#o*n
action t'at *e con"truct *'en readin$ or *atc'in$ a narrati3e. It %ay be con5u"in$ t'at ot'er t'eori"t" F In$arden( MartJneE
9onati( Rut'ro5G u"e t'e ot'er conce&t o5 dee& "tructure Fconcrete action and *or#d( not ab"tracti3e 5abu#aG. We "'a## retain bot'
conce&t"( "ince bot' are ana#ytica##y "i$ni5icantC t'e 5u##!b#o*n or concretiEed action can be %eanin$5u##y o&&o"ed to a %ore
ab"tract and reduced 5abu#a or action!"c'e%e.
It i" a#"o &o""ib#e to dra* u& "c'e%e" o5 t'e "tory and t'e te+t Ft'e AreducedA 3er"ion o5 t'e te+t bein$ be"t ca##ed a "u%%aryG. 9y
t'i" %et'od *e obtain t'e 5o##o*in$ critica# too#"C
7e+t Su%%ary
Story Story!"c'e%e F&#otG
Action Action!"c'e%e F5abu#aG
7'e ter% A&#otA a" u"ed in e3eryday #an$ua$e o5ten de"i$nate" a "tory"c'e%e or an action!"c'e%e( or a "tructure in bet*een(
%i+in$ trait" o5 bot'. )ere *e "'a## u"e it to re5er to a "c'e%e con"i"tin$ o5 t'e "tructure" o5 action and &erce&tion *'ic' "'a&e
t'e "tory. )o*e3er(
!@!
A&#otA i" a tric>y *ord becau"e o5 it" ric' %eanin$( and "e3era# t'eorie" ta>e into account ot'er &'eno%ena i%&#icit in t'e
e3eryday u"e o5 'e *ord.
@

7'e conce&t o5 story need" 5urt'er e#ucidation. A "tory i" a 5abu#a *'ic' 'a" been $i3en a &re"entationa# "'a&eC a "&eci5ic &oint
o5 3ie* and te%&ora# "c'e%e 'a3e been introduced. We cou#d "ay t'at a "tory i" a fabula as it is 9resented in a te0t !! not t'e
5abu#a a" "uc'. 7'e te+t i" not t'e "tory( eit'erC A"toryA i" "ti## a "ynt'etic ab"traction *e &roduce 5ro% t'e te+t( ta>in$ into account
on#y it" narrati3e a"&ect"( con"iderin$ it on#y in "o 5ar a" it re&re"ent" an action. We %ay reca## t'at 5or Ari"tot#emythos *a"
%ere#y one o5 "e3era# Aa"&ect"A o5 a #iterary *or>. A te+t i" a #in$ui"tic con"truct( *'i#e a "tory i" a co$niti3e "c'e%e o5 e3ent".
7'e "a%e "tory can $i3e ri"e to a nu%ber o5 te+t"C 5or in"tance( *'en a5>a *rote ,he 6astle in t'e 5ir"t &er"on and t'en re*rote
it in t'e t'ird &er"on( t'e "tory re%ained e""entia##y t'e "a%e( but t'e te+t beca%e a di55erent one. 7'e "a%e "tory cou#d in
8
&rinci&#e be to#d by %ean" o5 di55erent te+t"C a 5i#%( a co%ic boo> or a no3e#. 9ut 5i#% ada&tation" o5 no3e#" u"ua##y te## 3ery
di55erent "torie"( e3en i5 t'e ba"ic e#e%ent" o5 t'e action are &re"er3ed. 7'e "tory( t'en( can be #oo>ed on a" a 5urt'er "tructurin$
o5 t'e action. It %ay be idea##y de5ined a" t'e re"u#t o5 a "erie" o5 %odi5ication" to *'ic' action i" "ubHected. 7'e"e
%odi5ication" can be re#ati3e to ti%e or to in5or%ationa# "e#ection and di"tribution F Genette A%oodA( Narrati"e 4iscourseG.
7e##in$ a "tory 5ro% a "in$#e c'aracterA" &oint o5 3ie* i" one o5 %any &o""ib#e %oda#iEation" o5 t'e action.
A narrati3e te+t i" a#"o an in"tance o5 di"cour"e( o5 #in$ui"tic action. 4iscourse i" t'e u"e o5 #an$ua$e 5or co%%unicati3e
&ur&o"e" in "&eci5ic conte+tua# and $eneric "ituation"( ca##ed discourse situations. 7'e"e can be de"cribed at di55erent #e3e#" o5
"&eci5icityC t'ere i" *ritten di"cour"e in $enera#( but a#"o "&eci5ic fictional *ritten di"cour"e. Increa"in$ "&eci5icity *ou#d ta>e
into account 'i"torica# or $eneric con"ideration". O5 t'e in5inite nu%ber o5 di"cour"e "ituation" *'ic' cou#d be de5ined in t'i"
*ay( *e %ay dra* attention to a 5e*C t'e *ritin$ o5 narrati3e di"cour"e *'ic' i" intended to be read a" #iterature( t'e Anai3eA
readin$ o5 t'e "a%e( t'e critica# Facade%icG di"cour"e on #iterature( *ritin$ 5actua# narrati3e" "uc' a" re&ort"( or %ore &er"ona#
narrati3e" "uc' a" diarie" and %e%oir".
A te+t cannot be reduced to it" #in$ui"tic codi5ication( e"&ecia##y i5 by A#in$ui"ticA *e %ean Are#ati3e to t'e ab"tract "y"te% o5
#an$ua$eA. 8ro% t'e "tand&oint o5 #in$ui"tic &ra$%atic" t'ere are %any cu#tura# code"( a&art 5ro% t'e Sau""urean langue(
"tructurin$ di"cour"e Finc#udin$ narrati3e di"cour"eG. 8or in"tance( t'e "ocia# interaction ritua#" *'ic' a##o* "&ea>er" to &o"ition
and identi5y t'e%"e#3e" in
!;!
con3er"ation re%ain acti3e *'en "ocia# interaction i" re&re"ented in a te+t. An aut'or u"e" a %u#ti&#icity o5 code" in "'a&in$ a
narrati3e( *it' 3ariou" de$ree" o5 de#iberatene"" or con"ciou"ne"". Many o5 t'e"e code" are to be reco$niEed and u"ed by a
recei3er in inter&retin$ t'e te+t( i5 t'e inter&retation i" to be "'ared and acce&ted by ot'er "&ea>er". 7'i" retrie3a# o5 t'e aut'orA"
%eanin$ can 'a&&en *it' 3ariou" de$ree" o5 a*arene"". 7'ere are no doubt %any code" or$aniEin$ t'e %eanin$ o5 te+t" *'ic'
'a3e not yet been identi5ied by t'eoretician"( a#t'ou$' reader" *i## u"e t'e% intuiti3e#y. Not a## t'e code" u"ed by t'e aut'or
need to be identi5ied or retrie3ed( e3en in t'i" intuiti3e *ay. A &ortion o5 t'e %eanin$ o5 t'e te+t i" u"ua##y enou$' 5or t'e
&ur&o"e" o5 %o"t reader" and critic"( *'o %ay( %oreo3er( inter&ret t'e te+t accordin$ to code" *'ic' *ere not u"ed by t'e
aut'or( and in t'i" *ay con"truct ne* %eanin$". 7'e #e$iti%acy and 3a#ue o5 t'e"e or any ot'er %eanin$" are de5ined in a
"&eci5ic di"cour"e "ituation !! t'ey cannot be deter%ined a 9riori.
7'e intrin"ic conte+t o5 a *or> i" a co%%unicati3e conte+t. It can be concei3ed a" a 3irtua# co%%unicati3e "ituation( in *'ic' a
te0tual author co%%unicate" *it' a te0tual reader. 7'e conce&t" o5 Ate+tua# aut'orA and Ate+tua# readerA deri3e 5ro% Ru""ian and
Ger%an 5or%a#i"%(
;
and %ore i%%ediate#y 5ro% Wa#>er Gib"onA" A%oc> readerA
1
and Wayne 9oot'A" Ai%&#ied aut'orA and
A%oc> readerA.
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7'e te+tua# aut'or i" a 3irtua# i%a$e o5 t'e aut'orA" attitude"( a" &re"ented by t'e te+t. 7'e te+tua# reader i" a 3irtua# recei3er
created by t'e aut'or in 5u## 3ie* o5 t'e actua# audience 'e or "'e &re"u%e" 5or 'i" or 'er *or>. 7'e te+tua# reader need not
coincide *it' t'e aut'orA" conce&tion o5 t'e audienceC t'i" reader!5i$ure %ay be a r'etorica# "trate$y( a ro#e *'ic' t'e aut'or
*i"'e" t'e audience to a""u%e For e3en to reHectG. Li>e*i"e( t'e readerA" te+tua# aut'or and t'e aut'orA" te+tua# aut'or need not
coincide any %ore t'an t'e %eanin$ o5 t'e *or> 5or aut'or and reader. 9ut i5 co%%unication i" to occur t'e"e 5i$ure" %u"t 'a3e
e#e%ent" in co%%on.
7'e #e3e#" o5 ana#y"i" Hu"t %entioned can be concei3ed a" a "erie" o5 "e%iotic "trata( in *'ic' eac' #e3e# i" t'e re"u#t o5 t'e
a&&#ication o5 a "et o5 tran"5or%ationa# ru#e" to t'e &re3iou" #e3e#. A reader *i## con"ider t'e F3erba#G te+t a" a $i3en( and *i##
u"e it to con"truct t'e "tory. In it" turn( t'e 5abu#a i" con"tructed on t'e ba"i" o5 t'e "tory( by Aundoin$A t'e tran"5or%ation" *'ic'
$a3e ri"e to t'e #atter.
7'e co%&#e+ity o5 t'i" enunciati3e "tructure can be e+&#oited ae"t'etica##y in #iterature. A 3ariety o5 di"&#ace%ent" are &o""ib#e.
7'e "ubHect reBuired by t'e narrati3e act( t'e narrator( need not coincide *it' t'e "ubHect o5 t'e 5ictiona# "tate%ent( t'e te+tua#
!1!
aut'or. 7'e narrator %ay be an entire#y 5ictiona# 5i$ure( a" in %o"t 5ir"t!&er"on no3e#"( or %ay coincide 5or%a##y
t'ou$' not ideo#o$ica##y *it' t'e te+tua# aut'or !! an unre#iab#e t'ird!&er"on narrator F 9oot'( R'etoricG.
9
Many co%bination" are &o""ib#e( and t'e di55erence" bet*een t'e 3ariou" te+tua# "ubHect" %ay be c#ear!cut or e+tre%e#y "'ady.
7'i" i" to be e+&ected( "ince t'e te+tua# aut'or( #i>e t'e narrator( i" not a "ub"tance but a di"cur"i3e ro#e. Di"cur"i3e "e#3e"(
&er%anent or &ro3i"iona#( &ro#i5erate in #iterature a" %uc' a" in ot'er %ode" o5 di"cour"e. W'en *e "&ea> in our &ro5e""iona#
ca&acity( 5or in"tance( *e u"e a "et o5 di"cur"i3e con3ention" to 5a"'ion an o55icia# &er"ona( a &ro3i"iona# "e#5 de"i$ned 5or u"e in
a $i3en "&'ere o5 action. Irony i" anot'er *ay a "&ea>er %ay %odu#ate t'e &re"entation o5 "e#5. 7'rou$' t'e u"e o5 irony( a
te+tua# aut'or create" a &ro3i"iona#( e3ane"cent enunciator F"ubHectG *'ic' doe" not coincide *it' t'e aut'orA" o3era## di"cur"i3e
"e#5. More "u"tained irony *i## &roduce "o%et'in$ #i>e a 'y&ot'etica# c'aracter( and by &u"'in$ t'i" a bit 5urt'er *e can create a
5ictiona# narrator con"i"tent#y di55erentiated 5ro% t'e aut'or by %ean" o5 ironic di"tance. Suc' narrator" %ay u"e 5ir"t! or t'ird!
&er"on narrati3e "trate$ie"4 t'ey %ay *rite a F"u&&o"ed#yG 5actua# narrati3e !! #etter"( %e%oir"( a diary !! or an e+&#icit 5iction.
7'e narratorA" utterance i" addre""ed to a 'earer FreaderG #ocated at t'e "a%e "tructura# #e3e#C t'e narratee.
00
Ju"t a" t'e 3ariou"
5ictiona# narrator" %er$e $radua##y into t'e te+tua# aut'or( t'e 3ariou" narratee" "'ade into t'e te+tua# reader. 7'i" %ean" t'at in
"o%e ta#e" t'e di55erence" bet*een t'e narratee and t'e i%&#ied reader are crucia# and dear!cut( *'i#e in ot'er" t'ey are on#y
#atent.
So 5ar *e 'a3e identi5ied a 3ariety o5 te+tua# 5i$ure"( ro#e" or "ubHect!&o"ition". 7'ey eac' &er5or% an acti3ity *'ic' 'a" a direct
obHect Fi5 it i" tran"iti3eG and an addre""eeC
0,

+ub3!ct Acti(ity >G!rb@ Dir!ct ob3!ct A##r!ss!!>In#ir!ct
ob3!ct@
Aut'or Writin$ Lit. *or> Reader
7e+tua# Literary Literary te+t 7e+tua# reader
aut'or enunciation
Narrator Narration Narrati3e Narratee
8oca#iEer 8oca#iEation 8oca#iEed I%&#ied "&ectator
F"toryG
A$ent 6er5or%ance Action FA$entG
!0-!
We can a#"o re&re"ent t'e "tructure o5 5ictiona# narrati3e dia$ra%%atica##yC
2igur! ,
8ro% t'e "ur5ace #e3e# o5 t'e #in$ui"tic te+t t'e reader con"truct" t*o >ind" o5 inter&reti3e "c'e%eC t'e di"cur"i3e "c'e%ata Ft'e
5ictiona# "&eec' "ituation( t'e te+tua# "ender" and recei3er"G and t'e narrati3e dee& "tructure" Ft'e narrati3e and t'e "toryG. An
inter&reter *i## u"ua##y end by con"tructin$ "o%e >ind o5 #iterary "tate%ent or inter&retation( *'ic' beco%e" 5or 'i% or 'er t'e
%eanin$ or "i$ni5icance o5 t'e "tory.
8i$ure = re&re"ent" t'i" &roce"" o5 con"truction in a "c'e%atic *ay. 7'e 3ertica# and "#antin$ doub#e arro*" indicate t'at t'e
&roce"" o5 inter&retation i" not #inear4 it doe" not &roceed neat#y 5ro% one #e3e# o5 t'e te+tua# "tructure to t'e ne+t. In"tead( t'ere
i" a con"tant 5eedbac> bet*een inter&retation o5 t'e action( o5 t'e narrati3e "tructure and o5 t'e te+tua# "ubHect". Di55erence" in
con"truction o5 t'e i%&#ied aut'oria# attitude t'ere5ore o5ten re"u#t in di55erent con"truction" o5 t'e action. We 'a3e u"ed one!
*ay arro*" in t'e 5ir"t
!00!
10
"te& o5 t'e &roce"" in 8i$ure = to e%&'a"iEe t'at t'e 5ir"t "ub"tantia# contact o5 t'e te+t re"t" on 3erba# denotation4 but it i" c#ear
t'at e3en t'e denoted %eanin$ o5 t'e te+t %ay be "ubHect to re3i"ion once con"truction o5 t'e ot'er narrati3e #e3e#" i" under *ay.
Not'in$ in t'e *or> i" 5u##y $i3en 5ro% t'e "tartC e3eryt'in$ i" "ubHect to re3i"ion and inter&retation.
An historical o(!r(i!&
*istory o narrati(! an# history o narratology
It i" not c#ear yet *'at a 'i"tory o5 narrati3e a" "uc' %i$'t be #i>e. 7'ere are o5 cour"e 'i"torie" o5 t'e no3e#( o5 5i#%( e3en o5
'i"torica# "tudy it"e#54 but a %ore $enera# 'i"tory o5 narrati3e 5or%" *ou#d 'a3e to be an interdi"ci&#inary ac'ie3e%ent. Mo"t
*or> in narrato#o$y con"i"t" o5 "ync'ronic 5or%a# ana#y"i"( and t'e di"ci&#ine "ti## need" to de3e#o& a co%&arati3e and 'i"torica#
&er"&ecti3e on narrati3e $enre" and "tructure". 7'e 'i"tory o5 t'e di"ci&#ine o5 narrato#o$y it"e#5 i" a#"o #ar$e#y un*ritten. W'at
5o##o*" ">etc'e" it" de3e#o&%ent t'rou$' t'e ear#y &re"cri&ti3e &oetic" o5 "&eci5ic $enre"( t'rou$' 5or%a# and "tructura#
ana#y"i"( to recent trend" *'ic' "tre"" t'e re#ation"'i& bet*een re&re"entation and "&eci5ic ideo#o$ica# or cu#tura# 5or%". A "tudy
in de&t' o5 t'e 'i"torica# de3e#o&%ent o5 narrati3e $enre" *ou#d re"u#t in a cu#tura# narrato#o$y( t'e "tudy o5 narrati3e 5or%" in
t'eir re#ation"'i& to t'e cu#ture *'ic' $enerate" t'e%. Cu#tura# "tudie"( deri3ed 5ro% neo!)e$e#ian( Mar+i"t( 5e%ini"t or
8oucau#dian "ource"( o&en u& a ne* "&ecu#ati3e area 5or narrato#o$y t'at #ie" beyond t'e c#a""i5ication o5 5or%a# de3ice" and t'e
&ur&o"e o5 t'i" boo>.
!0,!
Narrati(! th!ory b!or! )C5E
Classical an# 8ost-classical
In 6#ato *e9ublic *e 5ind t'e $round*or> o5 $enre t'eory and o5 t'e ana#y"i" o5 #iterary enunciation.
0=
A5ter e+&oundin$ a
t'eory o5 art a" %i%e"i"( 6#atoA" "&o>e"%an Socrate" di"cu""e" t'e style o5 &oetic co%&o"ition"C AA## %yt'o#o$y i" a narration o5
e3ent"( eit'er &a"t( &re"ent or to co%e. . . . And narration %ay be eit'er "i%&#e narration( or i%itation( or a union o5 t'e t*oA F&.
,@ G. 7'at i"( t'e &oet %ay "&ea> in 'i" o*n 3oice F"i%&#e narrationG or %ay "&ea> t'rou$' t'e 3oice o5 a c'aracter Fi%itation(
%i%e"i"G. 7ra$edy and co%edy are *'o##y i%itati3e( *'i#e in dit'yra%b( #yric &oetry and "i%i#ar $enre" t'e &oet i" t'e "o#e
"&ea>er( Aand t'e co%bination o5 bot' i" 5ound in e&ic( and in "e3era# ot'er "ty#e" o5 &oetryA F&. ,; G. 8ro% a narrato#o$ica#
3ie*&oint( t'i" i" t'e 5ir"t t'eoretica# a&&roac' to t'e &rob#e% o5 narrati3e "oice( &recedin$ a &ra$%atic a&&roac' to t'e te+t a"
utterance.
11
Ari"tot#e Poetics 5urt'er de3e#o&" t'e 5or%a# a&&roac' to #iterature. Ari"tot#e a&&arent#y ta>e" 5or $ranted t'at A"eriou"A #iterature
Fo5 *'ic' tra$edy i" t'e 'i$'e"t 5or%G i" narrati3e !! in t'e *ider "en"e o5 Ate##in$ a "toryA. )e rou$'#y &re"er3e" t'e 6#atonic
c#a""i5ication o5 $enre" on t'e ba"i" o5 enunciation( di"tin$ui"'in$ t'e *'o##y i%itati3e 5or% o5 dra%atic &er5or%ance 5ro% t'e
%i+ed &re"entation o5 e&ic narrati3e. Wit'in t'e $enre" ba"ed on incident and e3ent Fnarrati3e &ro&er and dra%aG( t'e %yt'o"(
A&#otA( or A"tructure o5 t'e incident"A i" 5or 'i% t'e ba"ic in5ra"tructure4 it i" 5ore%o"t a%on$ t'e a"&ect" o5 tra$edy F&#ot(
c'aracter"( diction( t'ou$'t( "&ectac#e( "on$GC
7'e %o"t i%&ortant o5 t'e"e i" t'e arran$e%ent o5 t'e incident"( 5or tra$edy i" not a re&re"entation o5 %en but o5 a
&iece o5 action( o5 #i5e( o5 'a&&ine"" and un'a&&ine""( *'ic' co%e under t'e 'ead o5 action( and t'e end ai%ed at i"
t'e re&re"entation not o5 Bua#itie" o5 c'aracter but o5 "o%e action. . . . And 5urt'er%ore( t*o o5 t'e %o"t i%&ortant
e#e%ent" in t'e e%otiona# e55ect o5 tra$edy( Are3er"a#"A and Adi"co3erie"A( are &art" o5 t'e &#ot. . . . 7'e &#ot i" t'en t'e
5ir"t &rinci&#e and a" it *ere t'e "ou# o5 tra$edyC c'aracter co%e" "econd.
F Poetics 1(( &&. ,:!@G
7'e %yt'o"( t'e &#ot o5 t'e tra$edy( i" de5ined a" At'e arran$e%ent o5 t'e incident"A( "o( "trict#y "&ea>in$( Ait i" t'e &#ot *'ic'
re&re"ent"
!0=!
t'e actionA F Poetics 1(( &. ,:G. We t'ere5ore 'a3e t*o &o""ib#e *ay" o5 #oo>in$ at a tra$edy( t*o &o""ib#e #e3e#" o5
ana#y"i" o5 t'e "tory *'ic' i" bein$ re&re"ented. On t'e one 'and( it i" an action F&ra+i"G( Hu"t a" our dai#y acti3itie" %ay be
de"cribed a" action". On t'e one 'and( it i" a &#ot FmythosG( an arti"tic "tructure *'ic' t'e &oet bui#d" out o5 t'e action. 7'at i"(
on t'e one 'and *e 5ind %ere incident"( on t'e ot'er( t'e di"&o"ition o5 incident". 7'e &oet i" t'e %a>er not o5 3er"e" or o5
incident" but o5 t'i" i%&ortant inter%ediate "tructure( t'e &#ot. We %ay note t'at Ari"tot#e did not inc#ude action a" a "e&arate
con"tituent o5 tra$edy4 'e &robab#y 5e#t t'at t'e &re"ence o5 &#ot in t'at #i"t o5 &art" accounted 5or bot' o5 t'e%.Critica# tradition"
in any cu#ture" u"ua##y be$in *it' 5oundationa# te+t" *'ic'( a" Miner 'a" noted( nor%a##y ta>e one "&eci5ic #iterary $enre( %o"t
5reBuent#y A#yricA &oetry( a" t'e %ode# or e&ito%e o5 a## #iterature.
0<
In "&ite o5 t'e centra#ity o5 narrati3e to a## cu#ture"( *e 5ind
t'at on#y one %aHor critica# tradition Ft'e Ja&ane"e one( deri3in$ 5ro% Mura"a>i S'i>ibu ,ale of 5enAiG ta>e" narrati3e a" t'e
centra# #iterary $enre. Si$ni5icant#y( Ari"tot#e Poetics i" ba"ed on dra%a( "&eci5ica##y tra$edy. Many a"&ect" o5 t'e ana#y"i" o5
narrati3e 5or% ">etc'ed in t'e Poetics re%ained #ar$e#y unde3e#o&ed unti# t'e t*entiet' century( *'en t'ey *ere ta>en u& by t'e
5or%a#i"t and "tructura#i"t critica# "c'oo#".7'e c#a""ica# di"ci&#ine o5 r'etoric *a" not &ri%ari#y concerned *it' narrati3e.
Ne3ert'e#e""( it &ro3ided %any in"i$'t" into t'e %ec'ani"% o5 "ty#e and co%&o"ition *'ic' *ere $radua##y incor&orated into t'e
ana#y"i" o5 narrati3e. 7'e %o"t in5#uentia# treati"e" on r'etoric 5o##o* a "tandard de3e#o&%ent o5 t'e di"ci&#ine( concentratin$ onC
7'e &o""ib#e >ind" o5 di"cour"e( t'e $enre" o5 r'etoric FgeneraG.
7'e "tructure o5 di"cour"e( t'e *ay it di3ide" into "ection"( it" interna# or$aniEation Fordo, materia or resG. Ari"tot#e 'ad
a#ready introduced t'e "ynta$%atic ana#y"i" o5 narrati3e at t*o di55erentiated #e3e#"C t'at o5 t'e te+t Ft'e "ection" o5 a tra$edy( 5or
in"tanceG and t'at o5 t'e "tory FmythosG !! t'e co%&#ication( turnin$!&oint and unra3e##in$ o5 t'e &#ot.
7'e "te&" *e %u"t 5o##o* in order to co%&o"e a di"cour"e Fo&u"G. Conce&t" "uc' a" in3entio( di"&o"itio and e#ocutio *ou#d
e3entua##y be a&&#ied to narrati3e a" *e## a" to oratory.
0:
7'e "tudy o5 di"&o"itio( 5or in"tance( a55orded t'e di"tinction bet*een
ordo natura#i"( t'e natura# and c'rono#o$ica# &re"entation o5 e3ent"( and ordo arti5icia#i"( t'e arti"tica##y intended di"tortion o5 t'e
c'rono#o$ica# arran$e%ent o5 e3ent". A ty&ica# "tate%ent o5 t'i"
!0<!
di"tinction i" 5ound in Geo55rey o5 Lin"au5 Poetria no"a.
02
7'e c#a""ica# di"tinction bet*een "i%&#e( co%&#e+ and %i+ed
narrati3e i" &re"er3ed in &o"t!c#a""ica# r'etoric( and t'e "tudy o5 narrati3e 3oice a#"o bene5ited 5ro% "y"te%atic "tudy o5 t'e
re"ource" o5 e#ocutio. Notion" "uc' a" t'e #e3e#" o5 "ty#i"tic treat%ent Ft'e rota 1irgiliiG( and t'e di55erentiation o5 c'aracter"A
3oice" F"er%ocinatioG( *ere to #ay t'e 5oundation" 5or t'e "tructura# "tudy o5 #iterature.
7'e Renai""ance and En#i$'ten%ent &eriod" de3e#o&ed t'eir o*n #iterary "y"te%atic" o5ten t'rou$' a re!readin$ and e+&an"ion
o5 c#a""ica# treati"e". 7'e Ari"tote#ian t'eorie" o5 Roborte##o( Sca#i$er and Ca"te#3etro con"titute a $i$antic "te& 5or*ard in ter%"
o5 t'e detai#ed di"cu""ion o5 5or%a# i""ue".
0@
Count#e"" ot'er treati"e" di"cu"" t'e &oetic" o5 tra$edy( e&ic &oetry( ro%ance( and
"o 5ort'. A#t'ou$' *e %ay di"&ara$e t'e neoc#a""ica# ob"e""ion *it' $eneric #a*" and ru#e"( a" *e## a" t'e &re"cri&ti3e nature o5
t'e"e treati"e"( *e "'ou#d not o3er#oo> t'eir increa"in$ ana#ytica# &o*er. 8or e+a%&#e( debate" on t'e 5a%ou" At'ree unitie"A o5
dra%a 'e#&ed to re5ine "uc' ba"ic conce&t" a" t'e o&&o"ition bet*een re&re"ented and re&re"entationa# ti%e( narrati3e e##i&"i"
and co%&re""ion( t'e u"e o5 &'y"ica# "&ace to "i$ni5y 5ictiona# "&ace( or t'e re#ation"'i& bet*een dra%atic i##u"ion and
con3ention. G. E. Le""in$ Laokoon( 5or in"tance( re%ain" *it'in t'e neoc#a""ica# and &re"cri&ti3e e9isteme( but it" ana#ytica#
"ubt#ety and it" *ea#t' o5 conce&tua# ab"traction 5ore"'ado* #ater de3e#o&%ent" in ae"t'etic" and "e%iotic". Le""in$ de5ine"
#iterature a" an art intrin"ica##y conditioned by t'e te%&ora# "eBuentia#ity o5 #in$ui"tic "i$n" F*'i#e t'e &#a"tic art" u"e "&atia#
"i$n"G. 7'i" ab"tract de5inition i" t'e "tartin$!&oint 5or &ractica# ana#y"i" o5 "uc' i""ue" a" t'e i%%ediacy e55ect( dra%atiEation
and t'e u"e o5 &oint o5 3ie*.
0;

12
7'e t'eory o5 t'e no3e# *a" ne$#ected durin$ t'e e%er$ence o5 t'e $enre in t'e "e3enteent' and ei$'teent' centurie". No3e#" or
Aro%ance"A are not to be 5ound in t'e c#a""i5ication" o5 9oi#eau or in t'e critici"% o5 Dryden. In t'e ei$'teent' and ear#y
nineteent' centurie" "uc' critica# "tate%ent" a" do e+i"t are u"ua##y 5ar be'ind t'e critici"% o5 &oetry in t'eoretica# de3e#o&%ent.
Ne3ert'e#e""( t'e a&&earance o5 t'e no3e# #ead" to a Bua#itati3e "te& 5or*ard in ana#y"i". 8ro% t'e &oint o5 3ie* o5 t'eory( t'e
ne* 5or% in3ite" a ne* &aradi$%( a">in$ ne* Bue"tion" and de%andin$ ne* an"*er". No3e#i"t" are a%on$ t'e 5ir"t to %a>e
"i$ni5icant "tate%ent" about t'eir cra5t. Inno3ati3e *or>" t'e%"e#3e" *ere "uc' "tate%ent"C t'e no3e# i" an intrin"ica##y &arodic
$enre( and t'e be"t no3e#" are 3ery o5ten a &arody o5( or at #ea"t a co%%entary on and inter&retation o5(
&re3iou" %ode" o5 5iction *ritin$. 4on Bui0ote i" o5ten de5ined a" a "atire on ro%ance"( and t'i" i%&#ied critiBue can be read
e3ery*'ere in 5iction( %ore e+&#icit#y t'an in dra%a or &oetry. Great no3e#" 'a3e a#*ay" been to "o%e e+tent %eta5iction"( or
anti!no3e#".
)enry 8ie#din$( t'e $reat 'eir o5 Cer3ante" in t'e 9riti"' "cene( inte$rate" co%%entary and 5ictiona# *ritin$( %o"t ob3iou"#y in
,om &ones( *'ere eac' boo> i" 'eaded by one introductory c'a&ter o5 co%%entary. 8ie#din$ ca##" 'i%"e#5 At'e 5ounder o5 a ne*
&ro3ince o5 *ritin$A *it' inde&endent #a*"(
01
t'e Aco%ic e&ic &oe% in &ro"eA
,-
!! a de#iberate#y &arado+ica# 5or%u#ation(
"tre""in$ bot' t'at t'e no3e# i" born out o5 t'e con3er$ence o5 di3er"e $enre" and t'at it i" e""entia##y &arodic in natureC a *ay o5
"ettin$ &re3iou" con3ention" o5 *ritin$ a$ain"t one anot'er. More "&eci5ica##y( t'e no3e# i" t'e &arodic $enre *'ic' re"u#t" 5ro%
"ettin$ t'e con3ention" o5 e&ic and ro%ance a$ain"t &ro"aic rea#ity.
Additiona# 3a#uab#e in"i$'t" are &ro3ided by Sa%ue# Ric'ard"on and Laurence Sterne.
,0
Dra*in$ on t'e c#a""ica# di"tinction
bet*een &ure( i%itati3e and %i+ed narrati3e( Ric'ard"on di"tin$ui"'e" bet*een 5ir"t!&er"on narration Fin *'ic' t'e *riter te##"
o5 'i" o*n ad3enture"G( e&ic narration Fcontro##ed by *'at *e *ou#d ca## an aut'oria# narratorG and a tec'niBue *'ic' i" %ore
dra%atic( introducin$ dia#o$ue and direct "&eec'. Ric'ard"on e"&ecia##y 3a#ue" t'i" dra%atic %ode( c#ear#y *it' 'i" o*n
e&i"to#ary tec'niBue in %ind. Sterne &u"'e" narrati3e e+&eri%ent to a #i%itC ,ristram Shandy can be read a" an entertainin$ and
o5ten tea"in$ co%%entary on t'e *ay narrati3e e+&ectation" are created and 5ru"trated.
Ger%an critic"( "uc' a" 8riedric' Sc'#e$e# and G. W. 8. )e$e#( &ro3ided "o%e o5 t'e ear#ie"t t'eoretica# a&&roac'e" to t'e no3e#.
In 'i" +rief Cber den *oman( Sc'#e$e# 3oice" in an e+&#icit *ay t'e notion o5 t'e no3e# a" a %ed#ey or con3er$ence o5 a##
&re3iou" #iterary $enre". 8or )e$e#( t'e no3e# i" t'e %odern 3er"ion o5 t'e e&icC bot' bour$eoi" and "ubHecti3e !! a re"u#t o5 t'e
turn o5 ro%antic #iterature to*ard" "ubHecti3i"% and re5#e+i3ity. )e$e#A" t'eorie" *ere de3e#o&ed in t'e t*entiet' century by t'e
youn$ Lu>Rc"( one o5 t'e %ain t'eori"t" o5 narrati3e rea#i"%( *'o "ee" t'e no3e# a" t'e &roduct o5 bour$eoi" de%yt'o#o$iEation
o5 ari"tocratic idea#".
,,

Th! a!sth!tics o r!alis'
7'e ear#y t'eory o5 t'e no3e# *a" 5or%u#ated 5or t'e %o"t &art under t'e rea#i"t ae"t'etic" o5 t'e nineteent' century. W'i#e in
t'i" century t'e t'eory o5 t'e #yric i" e+&re""i3e( t'e t'eory o5 t'e no3e# re%ain" #ar$e#y %i%etic. 7'at i"( t'e #yric i" de5ined a"
an e+&re""ion o5 t'e &oetA" 5ee#in$"( and it" re&re"entati3e e#e%ent i" "ubordinated
to t'i" e+&re""i3e 5unction F'ence t'e A&at'etic 5a##acyA( t'e &roHection o5 "ubHecti3e &a""ion" on to t'e #and"ca&eG.
Lictorian t'eori"t" o5 5iction o5ten dre* an o&&o"ition bet*een t'e $enre" o5 t'e ro%ance and t'e no3e#. Ro%ance *a" #i$'t
entertain%ent( %a>in$ 5ree u"e o5 5anta"y and "tirrin$ ad3enture. 7'e no3e#( on t'e ot'er 'and( *a" on t'e *ay to beco%in$
A"eriou"A narrati3e( t'rou$' it" ae"t'etic" o5 3eri"i%i#itude. 7'i" t'eory o5ten ori$inated *it' t'e no3e#i"t" t'e%"e#3e"( "uc' a"
9a#Eac in 8rance. In En$#and *e 5ind an e#oBuent de5ence o5 rea#i"% in t'e e""ay" o5 Geor$e E#iot and Geor$e )enry Le*e"(
*'o attac> &o&u#ar 5iction and contend t'at rea#i"% i" a no3e#i"tA" %ora# re"&on"ibi#ity.
,=

A%on$ t'e ba"ic ter%" o5 ana#y"i" in t'e rea#i"t ae"t'etic are 9lot, character, setting, theme, moral aim and "erisimilitude. 8or
rea#i"t critic"( a no3e# "'ou#d 'a3e a $ood con"truction( "tartin$ *it' a co'erent &#ot. 7'e di"tin$ui"'in$ trait o5 t'e no3e#(
'o*e3er( i" not t'e &#ot but it" %i%etic ai% in t'e de&iction and c'aracter" and "ettin$. Many rea#i"t critic" "ee de#iberate
&#ottin$ a" a "o%e*'at e+traneou" e#e%ent *'ic' %ay di"tort t'e "&ontaneou" re3e#ation o5 c'aracter. In t'e Lictorian a$e( t'e
ter% Ano3e# o5 c'aracterA i" o5ten u"ed a" a 'a##%ar> o5 narrati3e Bua#ityC t'e no3e# o5 c'aracter i" &ri3i#e$ed o3er t'e "i%&#e!
%inded Ano3e# o5 actionA or ro%ance. So%eti%e" it i" t'e re$iona# "&eci5icity o5 t'e c'aracter" and "ettin$ t'at i" e%&'a"iEed( a"
in t'e #ate nineteent'!century "c'oo# o5 A#oca# co#ourA. 7'e rea#i"t no3e#( in any ca"e( "'ou#d be a &"yc'o!"ocia# "tudy( one t'at
re3ea#" ne* trut'" about 'u%an 5ee#in$" and re#ation"'i&". Suc' a no3e# 'a" a t'e%e and i" #in>ed to a *e##!de5ined %ora#
intention( an aut'oria# "tance to*ard" t'at t'e%e( *'ic' i" ea"i#y identi5ied( *'et'er it i" con3eyed by direct or by indirect
%ean". It i" t'i" %ora# intention t'at %a>e" rea#i"% "o%et'in$ %ore t'an an atte%&t at co&yin$ nature.
13
9u#*er Lytton e""ay #<n Art in $iction# i" a ty&ica# nineteent'century a&&roac' to t'e narrati3e "&eci5icity o5 t'e no3e#.
,<
Lytton
$i3e" $reat *ei$'t to t'e aut'orA" intended e55ect and de#iberate %ani&u#ation o5 t'e %ateria#". It i" e""entia# to 'a3e a &#an in a
no3e#C an arti"tic "'a&e( a#t'ou$' t'i" "'a&e doe" not coincide *it' t'at o5 dra%a. 8or in"tance( t'e no3e#i"t u"e" de"cri&tion( not
u"ed by t'e &#ay*ri$'t( *'ic' a" Lytton note" i" inte$rated *it' &#ot and c'aracter. )e a#"o ar$ue" t'at "ince t'e &#ot o5 a no3e#
i" #e"" ti$'t and #e"" $uided by cau"e and e55ect t'an t'at o5 a &#ay( t'e ne* $enre "'ou#d be under"tood to 'a3e it" o*n
autono%ou" &oetic". 7'e no3e#i"t 'a" intere"t" ot'er t'an t'o"e o5 t'e &#ay*ri$'tC in c'aracter "tudy and ran$e o5 inti%ate
e%otion".
One o5 t'e %o"t in5#uentia# nineteent'!century a&&roac'e" to narrati3e con"truction i" 5ound in Ed$ar A##an 6oeA" t'eory o5 t'e
"'ort
!0@!
"tory. 6oe identi5ie" t'e unity o5 a *or> not "o %uc' in t'e "tructure o5 t'e *or> it"e#5 a" in it" e55ect on t'e readerC t'e unity o5
t'e readin$ e+&erience i" e""entia# 5or t'e unity o5 t'e *or>. )e "ee" t'e no3e# a" a $enre de3oid o5 a true unity o5 i%&re""ion(
*'i#e t'e "'ort "tory i" 5or 'i% t'e %o"t arti"tic &ro"e $enre( becau"e t'e unity o5 e55ect on t'e reader can be ca#cu#ated and
&re"er3ed.
,:
6oe ad3ocate" a 'y&er!con"ciou" t'eory o5 *ritin$C e3eryt'in$ i" contro##ed by aut'oria# intention. 7'e end o5 t'e
*or> %u"t be co%&#ete in t'e *riterA" %ind be5ore actua# co%&o"ition be$in"C t'ere i" to be no i%&ro3iEation or c'an$e o5 &#an
durin$ t'e *ritin$. 7'u"( 6oe "ituate" 'i%"e#5 in o&&o"ition to no3e#i"t" #i>e Dic>en" or 7ro##o&e( *'o o5ten *or>ed *it'out a
&re!e"tab#i"'ed &#an and i%&ro3i"ed t'eir &#ot" in t'e %a>in$. 6oeA" conce&tion o5 narrati3e i" centred on it" c#o"ureC AIt i" on#y
*it' t'e dInoue%%t con"tant#y in 3ie* t'at *e can $i3e a &#ot it" indi"&en"ab#e air o5 con"eBuence( or cau"ation( by %a>in$ t'e
incident"( and e"&ecia##y t'e tone at a## &oint"( tend to t'e de3e#o&%ent o5 t'e intention.A
,2

We 'a3e "een t'at ear#y t'eori"t" #i>e Lytton &#aced "o%e e%&'a"i" on de5inin$ t'e con3ention" o5 t'e no3e# a" "uc'( and on
di"tin$ui"'in$ t'e narrati3ity o5 5iction 5ro% t'at o5 dra%a. )o*e3er( %any no3e#i"t" 'a3e &rai"ed narrati3e tec'niBue" *'ic'
a&&roac' t'e e55ect" o5 dra%a. Certain co%%ent" on narrati3e tec'niBue by Ric'ard"on( Stend'a# or Dic>en" are intere"tin$
5orerunner" o5 )enry Ja%e"A" t'eorie" o5 5ictiona# 5or% becau"e o5 t'e 3a#ue t'ey "et on t'e dra%atic e#e%ent" o5 t'e no3e#C
*riter" "'ou#d not te## t'e *'o#e o5 t'e "tory in t'eir o*n &er"on( but "'ou#d "'o* it !! %a>e t'eir c'aracter" te## it by %ean" o5
dia#o$ue and action. Stend'a# &roud#y note" t'at a## ot'er no3e#i"t" te## t'e "tory( *'i#e on#y 'e "'o*" it to t'e reader.
Studie" o5 narrati3e tec'niBue de3e#o&ed &iece%ea#( in S*itEer#and *it' Ed%ond Sc'erer and in Ger%any *it' 8riedric'
S&ie#'a$en.
,@
S&ie#'a$en adu%brated a 5u##y!5#ed$ed t'eory o5 Adra%aticA narrati3e tec'niBue e"&ecia##y "uited to &"yc'o#o$ica#
rea#i"%.
Wit' )enry Ja%e"( #i>e*i"e( *e *itne"" t'e e3o#ution o5 rea#i"% to*ard" "ubHecti3i"% and &er"&ecti3i"%( in &art becau"e o5
Ja%e"A" &"yc'o#o$ica# bent. Accordin$ to Ja%e"( t'e no3e# Fun#i>e dra%aG can re3ea# to u" t'e inner #i5e o5 c'aracter"( and t'i" i"
t'e e""ence o5 t'e $enre( *'ic' ot'er*i"e %u"t 5o##o*( in 'i" o&inion( a dra%atic idea# o5 concentration.
,;
9ut t'e no3e# i" a 5ree
5or%( 'e "ay". It 'a" no $ra%%ar *'ic' can be de5ined( no ru#e" t'at can be tau$'t( becau"e it i" Aa &er"ona#( a direct i%&re""ion
o5 #i5eA F&. 22<G. E+ecution and inten"ity o5 i%&re""ion are t'e $round" o5 it" 3a#ue( and t'ey cannot be de5ined. 7'ey "te%
direct#y 5ro% t'e &er"ona# *ay eac' no3e#i"t "ee" #i5e. In Ja%e"A" e""ay" and &re5ace" to 'i" o*n no3e#"
!0;!
*e 5ind "o%e o5 t'e c#eare"t and %o"t in5#uentia# "tate%ent" o5 t'e &eriod on &oint o5 3ie* and narrati3e 3oice( a" *e## a" on
action and c'aracter.
Ja%e" %a>e" a di"tinction bet*een 3oice and &oint o5 3ie* in 'i" no3e#i"tic &ractice a" *e## a" in 'i" r'etorica# "tate%ent". 7'i"
di"tinction ari"e" 5ro% 'i" concern *it' t'e no3e#A" abi#ity to de&ict e+&erience and &"yc'o#o$ica# #i5e. 8ir"t!&er"on narrati3e i"
not adeBuate 5or 'i" &ur&o"e"( becau"e 'e i" not #oo>in$ 5or a con"ciou" re3e#ation o5 c'aracter( or 5or a no3e# ba"ed on
reco##ection o5 &a"t e+&erience( *'ic' i" *'at 5ir"t!&er"on narrati3e" are %o"t "uited to re3ea#. )i" no3e#" are u"ua##y *ritten in
t'e t'ird &er"on( *'ic' i" #e"" Aintru"i3eA( %ore Adra%aticA. 7'e "tory "'ou#d in any ca"e un5o#d in a tran"&arent *ay *it'out t'e
*riter "te&&in$ in to %a>e 'i" o*n co%%ent". Rat'er t'an bein$ "i%&#y Ato#dA( *e are A"'o*nA action and c'aracter a" t'ey
de3e#o& t'rou$' "i$ni5icant "cene". And t'ere i" an idea# *ay o5 A"'o*in$A in t'ird!&er"on narration *'ic' i" at once dra%atic
and &"yc'o#o$ica##y i%%ediate. 7'i" i" *'at Ja%e" ca##" narration t'rou$' Acenter" o5 con"ciou"ne""A F6re5ace to ,he Portrait of
a LadyG( A3e""e#" o5 "en"ibi#ityA or Are5#ector"A F6re5ace to ,he Dings of the 4o"eG( *'ic' %any narrato#o$i"t" no* ca## 5oca#iEer".
7'e "cene" u"ua##y act on a &ercei3in$ c'aracter( a re5#ector or 5oca#iEer( *'o"e &"yc'o#o$ica# reaction( t'e de3e#o&%ent o5 'i"
or 'er under"tandin$ o5 t'e action( contribute" to t'e or$anic unity o5 t'e &#ot. 7'i" i" t'e ro#e o5 Stret'er in ,he Ambassadors( or
o5 Mai"ie in Dhat %aisie Enew. Ja%e" doe" not con"ider it nece""ary( a" do "o%e o5 'i" 5o##o*er"( to a3oid c'an$e" o5
14
&er"&ecti3e durin$ t'e narrati3e( but 'e doe" "ee> to cut t'e "tory into &er"&ecti3a# b#oc>" t'at are interna##y co'erent. 8or
in"tance( in ,he Dings of the 4o"e( t'e "tory o5 Mi##y 7'ea#e i" "een %ain#y t'rou$' t'e eye" o5 t*o c'aracter"( Merton Den"'er
and ate Croy( a" *e## a" t'rou$' Mi##yA" o*n eye". E3ery c'an$e o5 &oint o5 3ie*( Ja%e" "ay"( 'a" it" ae"t'etic Hu"ti5ication( it"
dra%atic co'erence( but it i" e""entia# 5or a no3e# to e"tab#i"' a Are$i"terA( a "et o5 &er"&ecti3a# ru#e" to *'ic' it con"i"tent#y
ad'ere".
Ju"t a" Ari"tot#e ar$ued t'at an action or &ra+i" 'ad to be treated arti"tica##y be5ore it beca%e t'e &#ot or mythos( Ja%e"
di"tin$ui"'e" bet*een t'e A"ubHectA and t'e A*rou$'t %ateria#A or no3e#( t'u" &re5i$urin$ t'e Ru""ian 5or%a#i"t"A o&&o"ition
bet*een 5abu#a and "iuE'et. 7'e Are$i"terA de5ine" t'e re#ation"'i& bet*een t'e %ateria# and t'e 5ini"'ed no3e#. 8or% and
&"yc'o#o$y con3er$eC t'e dra%atic 5or% a##o*" t'e reader a ne* in"i$'t into t'e c'aracter"A &erce&tion and interiority. Ja%e"
concei3e" o5 t'e ru#e" $o3ernin$ &oint o5 3ie* a" or$anic and interna#( "&rin$in$ 5ro% t'e 3ery nature o5 t'e &"yc'o#o$ica#
%ateria# o5 t'e no3e#.
!01!
7'e in5#uence o5 Ja%e"A" idea" i" readi#y a&&arent in %o"t i%&ortant t*entiet'!century *riter" on 5ictiona# tec'niBue and &oint o5
3ie*C 6ercy Lubboc> F ,he 6raft of $iction( 01,0G( C#eant' 9roo>" and Robert 6enn Warren F Understanding $iction( 01<=G(
Jean 6oui##on F ,em9s et roman( 01<@G( R. . StanEe# F ,y9ische 'rzFhlsituationen( 01:<G( Nor%an 8ried%an F KA6oint o5 Lie*
in 8ictionAK( 01::G4 Wayne C. 9oot' F ,he *hetoric of $iction( 0120G( GIrard Genette F $igures (((( 01@,G( Mie>e 9a# F
Narratologie( 01@@G.
,1

Since t'e ear#y &'a"e o5 %oderni"% F Ja%e" ConradG( t'eoretica# re5#ection on narrati3e 'a" con"i"tent#y been o&&o"ed to
e+&eri%enta#( a3ant!$arde or at #ea"t A'i$'bro*A narrati3e". 7'e 3ariou" $enre" o5 &o&u#ar 5iction continue to re#y 'ea3i#y on t'e
c#a""ica# narrati3e de3ice" o5 &#ottin$ and "tereoty&ed c'aracter". Sti##( critic" 'a3e o5ten 3a#ued t'e &#ea"ure" &ro3ided by
narrati3e" o5 action Fa" o&&o"ed to narrati3e" o5 c'aracter( o5 &oint o5 3ie* or o5 #in$ui"tic e+&eri%entationG. R. L. Ste3en"onA"
de5ence o5 t'e ro%ance( an an"*er to Ja%e"A" de5ence o5 &"yc'o#o$ica# 5iction( i" a ca"e in &oint.
=-

"arly 'o#!rnis'
A" *e 'a3e "een( )enry Ja%e" 'e#&ed t'eoriEe t'e tran"ition 5ro% Lictorian rea#i"% to %oderni"%. Critic" #i>e Jo"e&' Warren
9eac' and 6ercy Lubboc> *ere to "y"te%atiEe and &o&u#ariEe t'e"e idea".
=0

9eac' coined t'e &'ra"e Ae+it aut'orA to de"cribe t'e ne* dra%atic autono%y o5 t'e no3e#( *'o"e action *a" to un5o#d direct#y
under t'e eye" o5 t'e reader( *it'out t'e %ediatin$ 3a#ue Hud$e%ent" o5 t'e narrator. 6ercy Lubboc> boo> ,he 6raft of $iction
*a" "o%et'in$ o5 an uno55icia# te+tboo> o5 t'e %oderni"t ae"t'etic" o5 indirection. Lubboc> dra*" an o&&o"ition bet*een t*o
%et'od"( A"'o*in$A and Ate##in$AC A7'e art o5 5iction doe" not be$in unti# t'e no3e#i"t t'in>" o5 'i" "tory a" a %atter to be "'o*n( to
be "o e+'ibited t'at it *i## te## it"e#5.A
=,
7'e ai% o5 t'e no3e#i"t i" to create a *'o#e and 5u## i%&re""ion( to &roduce a contro##ed
e55ect on t'e reader t'rou$' t'e care5u# arran$e%ent o5 5or% and "ubHect %atter. 7'e ai% i" "ti## to te## a "tory *'ic' i" %ora##y
or %eta&'y"ica##y re#e3ant( but t'e &oint no* i" t'at t'e reader %u"t &ercei3e and 5ee# t'e "tory to$et'er *it' t'e c'aracter !! a"
an e+&erientia# &roce""( not a" a 5ini"'ed &roduct "een 5ro% t'e out"ide. Re#ated to t'i" ae"t'etic &o"ition i" Do" 6a""o"A and
)e%in$*ayA" conce&t o5 i%&er"ona# 5iction( a" *e## a" La*renceA" inHunction to Atru"t t'e ta#eA in"tead o5 t'e te##er or JoyceA"
i%a$e o5 t'e aut'or "tandin$ a&art 5ro% 'i" creation( A&arin$ 'i" 5in$ernai#"A.
Accordin$ to Lubboc>( *'at %a>e" t'e "tory be "'o*n rat'er t'an
!,-!
to#d i" a %atter o5 co%&o"ition( o5 t'e adeBuate treat%ent o5 t'e "tory %ateria# t'rou$' t'e u"e o5 "ubHecti3e &oint o5 3ie* and
"cenic &re"entation. 7'e no3e#i"t %u"t u"e a co'erent "ty#eC a con"i"tent narrati3e %ode. I5 t'e "ubHect %atter reBuire" tran"ition"
bet*een di55erent %ode" t'ey %u"t be %ade "%oot'#yC t'e "ea%" %u"t be in3i"ib#e. Not'in$ %u"t re%ind u" o5 t'e no3e#i"tA"
&re"ence. E3eryt'in$ t'at i" to#d in a "tory %u"t be %oti3ated4 t'at i"( it %u"t be t'ere on account o5 "o%e c'aracterA" e+&erience.
O5 cour"e( in ca##in$ 5or a #i%ited &oint o5 3ie* Lubboc> i" a#"o a""u%in$ a "ubHect %atter t'at i" &"yc'o#o$ica# in natureC "o%e
>ind o5 &er"ona# dra%a( in"tead o5 t'e 3a"t "ocia# 5re"coe" o5 t'e Lictorian". )i" %ode# i" )enry Ja%e" ,he Ambassadors.
Lubboc> ca##" 5or con"ciou" cra5t"%an"'i&( an attention to co%&o"ition( and t'e de3e#o&%ent o5 an adeBuate critica# 3ocabu#ary
15
to de"cribe it. Si%i#ar idea"( t'e "tre"" on c'aracter( &oint o5 3ie* and co%&o"ition rat'er t'an on &#ot( are a#"o 5ound in Orte$a y
Ga""etA" t'eory o5 t'e no3e#( and in 3ariou" ot'er %oderni"t critic".
==

Ot'er 3a#uab#e ae"t'etic a&&roac'e" to t'e $enre in t'e En$#i"'"&ea>in$ *or#d are E. M. 8or"ter e3er!&o&u#ar As9ects of the
No"el and Ed*in Muir ,he Structure of the No"el.
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8or"ter "tudie" t'e ba"ic narrati3e e#e%ent" o5 rea#i"t 5iction( under "uc'
'eadin$" a" A"toryA( A&#otA( A&eo&#eA( A&attern and r'yt'%A. )i" e%&'a"i"( 5o##o*in$ *'at i" &er'a&" t'e %ain"trea% 9riti"'
tradition( 5a##" on t'e de&iction o5 A&eo&#eA4 t'at i"( o5 c'aracter. )i" c#a""i5ication o5 c'aracter" into A5#atA Fba"ed on one trait and
t'ere5ore &redictab#eG and AroundA Fco%&#e+ and #i5e#i>eG beca%e uni3er"a##y acce&ted Fincidenta##y( t'i" conce&tion *a" 5ar 5ro%
ne* !! t'e e""entia#" can be 5ound in neoc#a""ica# critic"( "uc' a" DrydenG. Ed*in MuirA" *or>( #e"" &o&u#ar *it' #ater reader"(
trie" to e"tab#i"' di55erent ty&e" o5 no3e# on t'e ba"i" o5 t'eir e+&erientia# treat%ent o5 ti%e( action and &oint o5 3ie*C t'e
c'aracter no3e#( t'e dra%atic no3e# ba"ed on con5#ict( or t'e c'ronic#e( t'e *ide!ran$in$ %u#ti&#ot no3e# o5 "ocia# &anora%a.
*igh 'o#!rnis' an# N!& Criticis'
)enry Ja%e"A" idea" Fa" *e## a" t'o"e o5 Lubboc>( 8or"ter and MuirG *ere re&re"entati3e o5 t'e tran"ition bet*een t'e c#a""ica#
rea#i"t no3e#( *it' it" e%&'a"i" on "tory( "ettin$ and c'aracter( and t'e %oderni"t no3e# *it' it" "tre"" on *ritin$ and
co%&o"ition. In t'e 01,-" and 01=-" t'ere *a" a *ide"&read critica# re3o#ution a$ain"t t'e ae"t'etic" o5 #ate Ro%antici"%. In
#iterature t'i" re3o#ution i" ca##ed %oderni"% and i" identi5ied *it' a "e#5!con"ciou" a3ant!$arde4 in critica# t'eory it *a"
identi5ied a" Ne* Critici"% or a" 5or%a#i"%. 7'e %oderni"t?5or%a#i"t re3o#ution 'ad dee&
con"eBuence" 5or t'e *ritin$ and critici"% o5 a## #iterary $enre". 7'e Ne* Critic" %o3ed 5urt'er a*ay 5ro% %i%etic
con"ideration". 7'ey di"%i""ed t'e Ro%antic" and 5a3oured #yric &oetry t'at *a" co%&#e+( ironic and inte##ectua#iEed. 7'ey
criticiEed #iterature in ter%" o5 it" "tructura# co%&#e+ity( not in ter%" o5 it" i%%ediate 5ide#ity to #i5e. 7'at i"( t'e ae"t'etic
Hud$e%ent" o5 t'e Ne* Critic" tend to be intrin"ic rat'er t'an e+trin"ic. A *or> i" abo3e a## a &attern o5 *ord"( a "e#5!"u55icient
entity *'ic' con"truct" and %ani&u#ate" e%otion" and t'ou$'t" t'at 'a3e on#y an ana#o$ica# re#ation"'i& to rea#ity. It i" a "e#5!
enc#o"ed "tructure( %eanin$ t'at any e#e%ent 'a" to be Hud$ed *it'in t'e &attern( ta>in$ it" 5unction into account( rat'er t'an
bein$ identi5ied in an i%%ediate *ay *it' it" eBui3a#ent" in t'e 'i"torica# *or#d. Ori$ina##y t'e Ne* Critic" did not &ay %uc'
attention to 5iction( a#t'ou$' #ater *e 5ind readin$" o5 5iction in ter%" o5 tone( &attern( irony and ba#ance.
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Wit' t'e Ac#o"e
readin$A de3e#o&ed by Wi##ia% E%&"on and 8. R. Lea3i"( t'e no3e# "udden#y beca%e a Adra%atic &oe%A !! it" #an$ua$e beca%e
"i$ni5icant in ter%" o5 ten"ion and i%a$e( #i>e t'e #an$ua$e o5 &oetry.
=2
Lir$inia Woo#5 c#ai%ed t'at %odern 5iction *ou#d
a""u%e t'e Bua#ity o5 a &oe%( and o&&o"ed 5iction %ode##ed on 5act or re&ort F#i>e t'at o5 t'e natura#i"t"G. 8or 'er( a" 5or ot'er
%oderni"t"( 5iction %u"t *or> t'rou$' &oetic "u$$e"ti3ene"" rat'er t'an t'rou$' narrati3ity.
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6#ot and c'aracter a" critica# ter%" "ee%ed to 5ade into t'e bac>$round( a## e%&'a"i" 5a##in$ on #an$ua$e and i%a$ery( and on t'e
o3era## &attern *o3en by a## t'e"e e#e%ent". 7'i" intrin"ic turn in critica# t'ou$'t e3entua##y 5a3oured t'e de3e#o&%ent o5 a
re5#e+i3e t'eory o5 5iction( a#t'ou$' it too> "o%e ti%e 5or t'i" to be e+&#icit#y 5or%u#ated in t'e An$#o!Sa+on *or#d. 8or t'e ti%e
bein$( %i%etic concern" "ti## occu&ied t'e 5ore$round( but %i%e"i" 'ad beco%e interna#iEed F Eric' a'#er "&o>e in t'i" re"&ect
o5 an Ain*ard turnA o5 t'e no3e#G.
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Critic" 5ro% t'e 01=-" to t'e 01:-" &aid &articu#ar attention to t'e %ode" o5 re&re"entation o5
inner #i5e de3e#o&ed by t'e %oderni"t no3e#( by Joyce( Woo#5 or 8au#>ner. 7er%" "uc' a" A5ree indirect "ty#eA( Ainterior
%ono#o$ueA( Aca%era eyeA narrati3e or A"trea% o5 con"ciou"ne""A occu&y t'e centre o5 t'e critica# "ta$e.
=1
We "'a## not d*e## #on$
on t'i" &'a"e4 our %ain concern 'ere i" *it' t'e ne+t "ta$e o5 t'eoretica# de3e#o&%entC t'e t'eory o5 t'e no3e# a" it "tood in t'e
012-" and 01@-". It *a" *it' t'e "econd *a3e o5 5or%a#i"%( in ot'er *ord" *it' "tructura#i"%( t'at narrato#o$y under*ent a
*'o#e"a#e e+&an"ion. 9ut 5ir"t *e need to con"ider additiona# 5or%a#i"t a&&roac'e" *'ic' &re&are t'e $round 5or t'i"
de3e#o&%ent.
2or'alis's
Continenta# critici"% *itne""ed an increa"e in 5or%a#i"t ana#y"i" o5 5iction( *it' t'e ad3anced *or> o5 Ger%an and 6o#i"' critic"
and t'e *or> o5 t'e Ru""ian 5or%a#i"t" in t'e 01,-". It i" true t'at ae"t'etic "tudie" "i%u#taneou"#y a&&eared in t'e En$#i"'!
"&ea>in$ *or#d(
<-
but in $enera# t'eoretica# "&ecu#ation *a" %ore co%%on in continenta# Euro&e. 7'e tradition o5 t'eoretica#
re5#ection de"cendin$ 5ro% Sc'#e$e# to S&ie#'a$en and Wa#Ee# inc#ude" "uc' intere"tin$ &ractitioner" a" Ote 8riede%ann. )er
boo> 4ie *olle des 'rzFhlers in der '9ik i" a 5u##y!5#ed$ed narrato#o$ica# treati"e *ritten %any year" be5ore t'e a&&earance o5
%ain"trea% narrato#o$y.
<0
S'e ana#y"e" t'e tec'niBue o5 ear#y %oderni"t Adra%aticA narration a" 5or%u#ated by S&ie#'a$en
F*'o% *e cou#d u"e5u##y co%&are to Ja%e" in t'e An$#o!Sa+on "&'ereG and contend" t'at ot'er ty&e" o5 narrati3e 3oice *'ic'
a##o* 5or t'e narratorA" intru"ion" or co%%entary are eBua##y Aarti"ticA and u"e5u# 5or t'e no3e#i"t.
W'i#e Ger%an ae"t'etic" i" one o5 t'e %ain in5#uence" on t'e Ru""ian 5or%a#i"t "c'oo#( t'e "y"te%atic and 5unctiona# a&&roac'
to 5or% de3e#o&ed by S'>#o3">i( 6ro&& or 7o%a"'e3">i i" con"idered by %any a" t'e inau$ura# "tate%ent o5 narrato#o$y &ro&er.
<,
7'e 5or%a#i"t" react a$ain"t bot' i%&re""ioni"t and 'i"torici"t a&&roac'e" to #iterature( and "u&&#e%ent t'eir ae"t'etic
bac>$round by ret'in>in$ Ari"tote#ian in"i$'t"( *'ic' t'ey enric' *it' conce&t" borro*ed 5ro% t'e ne* de3e#o&%ent" in
t'eoretica# #in$ui"tic" F 9audouin de Courtenay( Sau""ure( Ja>ob"onG. ey narrato#o$ica# conce&t" in'erited 5ro% t'e Ru""ian
16
5or%a#i"t" are t'e o&&o"ition fabula?siuzhet Ft'e "ource o5 t'e o&&o"ition 5abu#a?"tory? te+t %entioned abo3eG( or t'e conce&t o5
&"eudo!ora# narrati3e 3oice( skaz. Suc' conce&t" are not to be a&&#ied in a %ec'anica# *ayC t'e ai% o5 t'e 5or%a#i"t" i" to
account 5or t'e or$anic e55ect o5 t'e *or> and t'e interaction o5 a## it" e#e%ent". 8or in"tance( in t'eir di"cu""ion o5 Area#i"tic
%oti3ationA t'ey ar$ue t'at a tec'niBue "uc' a" e&i"to#ary narrati3e 'a" a "&eci5ic in5or%ati3e 5unction "is-G-"is t'e reader( *'i#e
it i" "i%u#taneou"#y AHu"ti5iedA or %oti3ated by t'e "tory( t'ere5ore actin$ a" a "i$n o5 rea#i"%. 7'e *or> o5 L#adi%ir 6ro&& on t'e
Ru""ian 5o#>ta#e( in5#uentia# in bot' ant'ro&o#o$y and #iterary t'eory( introduced "uc' >ey ana#ytica# too#" a" t'e conce&t o5
Anarrati3e 5unction"A and t'eir or$aniEation into A"eBuence"A. 6ro&&A" *or> i" a $ra%%ar o5 narrati3e *'ic' identi5ie" t'e ba"ic
Adee&A "tructure under#yin$ any nu%ber o5 A"ur5aceA %ani5e"tation".
7'e %o"t i%&ortant contribution o5 t'e 5or%a#i"t"( t'en( i" one o5 $enera# %et'odC t'ey ai% at de3i"in$ a $enera# "cience o5
#iterature Fnarrati3eG ca&ab#e o5 de"cribin$ t'e "y"te%atic" o5 #iterary 5or%" and
!,=!
Part 2i(!
2or'alis's
Continenta# critici"% *itne""ed an increa"e in 5or%a#i"t ana#y"i" o5 5iction( *it' t'e ad3anced *or> o5 Ger%an and 6o#i"' critic"
and t'e *or> o5 t'e Ru""ian 5or%a#i"t" in t'e 01,-". It i" true t'at ae"t'etic "tudie" "i%u#taneou"#y a&&eared in t'e En$#i"'!
"&ea>in$ *or#d(
<-
but in $enera# t'eoretica# "&ecu#ation *a" %ore co%%on in continenta# Euro&e. 7'e tradition o5 t'eoretica#
re5#ection de"cendin$ 5ro% Sc'#e$e# to S&ie#'a$en and Wa#Ee# inc#ude" "uc' intere"tin$ &ractitioner" a" Ote 8riede%ann. )er
boo> 4ie *olle des 'rzFhlers in der '9ik i" a 5u##y!5#ed$ed narrato#o$ica# treati"e *ritten %any year" be5ore t'e a&&earance o5
%ain"trea% narrato#o$y.
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S'e ana#y"e" t'e tec'niBue o5 ear#y %oderni"t Adra%aticA narration a" 5or%u#ated by S&ie#'a$en
F*'o% *e cou#d u"e5u##y co%&are to Ja%e" in t'e An$#o!Sa+on "&'ereG and contend" t'at ot'er ty&e" o5 narrati3e 3oice *'ic'
a##o* 5or t'e narratorA" intru"ion" or co%%entary are eBua##y Aarti"ticA and u"e5u# 5or t'e no3e#i"t.
W'i#e Ger%an ae"t'etic" i" one o5 t'e %ain in5#uence" on t'e Ru""ian 5or%a#i"t "c'oo#( t'e "y"te%atic and 5unctiona# a&&roac'
to 5or% de3e#o&ed by S'>#o3">i( 6ro&& or 7o%a"'e3">i i" con"idered by %any a" t'e inau$ura# "tate%ent o5 narrato#o$y &ro&er.
<,
7'e 5or%a#i"t" react a$ain"t bot' i%&re""ioni"t and 'i"torici"t a&&roac'e" to #iterature( and "u&&#e%ent t'eir ae"t'etic
bac>$round by ret'in>in$ Ari"tote#ian in"i$'t"( *'ic' t'ey enric' *it' conce&t" borro*ed 5ro% t'e ne* de3e#o&%ent" in
t'eoretica# #in$ui"tic" F 9audouin de Courtenay( Sau""ure( Ja>ob"onG. ey narrato#o$ica# conce&t" in'erited 5ro% t'e Ru""ian
5or%a#i"t" are t'e o&&o"ition fabula?siuzhet Ft'e "ource o5 t'e o&&o"ition 5abu#a?"tory? te+t %entioned abo3eG( or t'e conce&t o5
&"eudo!ora# narrati3e 3oice( skaz. Suc' conce&t" are not to be a&&#ied in a %ec'anica# *ayC t'e ai% o5 t'e 5or%a#i"t" i" to
account 5or t'e or$anic e55ect o5 t'e *or> and t'e interaction o5 a## it" e#e%ent". 8or in"tance( in t'eir di"cu""ion o5 Area#i"tic
%oti3ationA t'ey ar$ue t'at a tec'niBue "uc' a" e&i"to#ary narrati3e 'a" a "&eci5ic in5or%ati3e 5unction "is-G-"is t'e reader( *'i#e
it i" "i%u#taneou"#y AHu"ti5iedA or %oti3ated by t'e "tory( t'ere5ore actin$ a" a "i$n o5 rea#i"%. 7'e *or> o5 L#adi%ir 6ro&& on t'e
Ru""ian 5o#>ta#e( in5#uentia# in bot' ant'ro&o#o$y and #iterary t'eory( introduced "uc' >ey ana#ytica# too#" a" t'e conce&t o5
Anarrati3e 5unction"A and t'eir or$aniEation into A"eBuence"A. 6ro&&A" *or> i" a $ra%%ar o5 narrati3e *'ic' identi5ie" t'e ba"ic
Adee&A "tructure under#yin$ any nu%ber o5 A"ur5aceA %ani5e"tation".
7'e %o"t i%&ortant contribution o5 t'e 5or%a#i"t"( t'en( i" one o5 $enera# %et'odC t'ey ai% at de3i"in$ a $enera# "cience o5
#iterature Fnarrati3eG ca&ab#e o5 de"cribin$ t'e "y"te%atic" o5 #iterary 5or%" and
!,=!
a#"o o5 #iterary e3o#ution. 8or% and 5unction are intrin"ica##y re#atedC #iterary 5or%"( 5or in"tance( %ay beco%e *orn
and $i3e ri"e to ne* 5or%" F&arodyG *'i#e t'eir &re3iou" "ocia# 5unction i" ta>en u& by ori$ina##y %inor 5or%" t'at e3o#3e and
co%e to t'e 5ore.
7'e "y"te%atic "tudy o5 #iterary 5or%" i" c'aracteri"tic o5 t*entiet'century critici"%. 7'e "y"te%atic" %ay deri3e 5ro%
#in$ui"tic" and ae"t'etic"( but a#"o 5ro% &'i#o"o&'y a" *e## a" 5ro% co%&arati3e "tudie" o5 ant'ro&o#o$y( re#i$ion and %yt'.
A#t'ou$' t'ere are a 3ariety o5 &'i#o"o&'ica# a&&roac'e" re#e3ant 5or t'e "tudy o5 narrati3e( *e %ay "in$#e out &'eno%eno#o$y
a" t'e %o"t a>in to narrato#o$y stricto sensu. 6'eno%eno#o$y i" a "y"te%atic "tudy o5 e+&erience. It a&&roac'e" rea#ity a" a
5or%a# "y"te% o5 re#ation"'i&"( "o #eadin$ natura##y to t'e &rob#e% o5 additiona# "ub"y"te%" "uc' a" #iterary *or>" and 5ictiona#
obHect"( and con3er$in$ *it' "e%iotic" in t'e "tudy o5 "i$n "y"te%" and re&re"entation". Ro%an In$arden ,he Literary Dork of
Art( *'ic' a&&#ie" )u""er#A" &'eno%eno#o$y to t'e de"cri&tion o5 #iterary *or>"( i" a 5oundationa# te+t in t'i" #ane(
<=
u"e5u##y
17
co%&#e%entin$ "tructura#i"t de"cri&tion" o5 narrati3e 5or%. In 'i" #ater *or> In$arden antedate" %any a"&ect" o5 t'e reader!
re"&on"e a&&roac'e" o5 t'e 012-" and 01@-".
<<
Critic" "uc' a" Wo#5$an$ I"er 'a3e 5urt'er de3e#o&ed t'e &'eno%eno#o$ica#
"tudy o5 rece&tion and readin$ in c#o"er con3er$ence *it' t'e "tructura#i"t".
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7'ere i"( in addition( a rat'er *e##!de5ined
&'eno%eno#o$ica# a&&roac' to narrati3e *'ic' i" a""ociated *it' e+i"tentia#i"t &'i#o"o&'y( re&re"ented by t'e *or> o5 Jean!6au#
Sartre or Jean 6oui##on.
Li>e #iterary &'eno%eno#o$y( A%yt'!and!ritua#A "tudie" o5 narrati3e 'a3e a 5or%a# Fnarrato#o$ica#G di%en"ion. Many #iterary
critic" 'a3e dra*n in"&iration 5ro% Sir Ja%e" 8raEer ,he 5olden +ough( Car# Jun$A" "tudie" on co##ecti3e &"yc'o#o$y or Jo"e&'
Ca%&be## ,he -ero with a ,housand $aces.
<2
8raEerA" boo> i" an atte%&t at 5indin$ a co%%on narrati3e "tructure beneat' a
*ide ran$e o5 %yt'" and ritua#". Ca%&be##A" boo> identi5ie" t'e ba"ic "ta$e" o5 arc'ety&a# narrati3e" "i%i#ar to t'o"e "tudied by
6ro&&. A co%&ari"on o5 t'e"e boo>" re3ea#" "tri>in$ "i%i#aritie" not on#y in t'e obHect o5 "tudy but a#"o in t'e ab"tracti3e nature
o5 t'eir a&&roac'e"( a#t'ou$' eac' i" $rounded in a tota##y di55erent di"ci&#ine and inte##ectua# tradition.
Nort'ro& 8rye Anatomy of 6riticism i" yet anot'er %aHor treati"e on arc'ety&a# &#ot "tructure".
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Indeed( 8rye con"truct" a
co%&#e+ inter&retation o5 a## #iterature in *'ic' t'e di55erent $enre" and %ode" are or$aniEed a" &'a"e" in a narrati3e "tructure
a""ociated *it' t'e cyc#e o5 #i5e. 7'e creati3ity( #earnin$ and "ubt#ety e3inced in t'i" *or> 'a3e been re*arded by it" i%%en"e
in5#uence. Li>e %any ot'er
!,<!
*or>" not "trict#y narrato#o$ica#( 8rye Anatomy i" e""entia# readin$ 5or any "tudent o5 narrati3e.
Myt' critici"% i" o5ten co%bined *it' ear#y &"yc'oana#ytic a&&roac'e". Si$%und 8reud 'i%"e#5 de3oted "o%e attention to t'e
&"yc'oana#ytica# inter&retation o5 narrati3e #iterature a" *e## a" to t'e narrati3e di%en"ion o5 &"yc'oana#y"i".
<;
Ear#y ana#y"e"
ba"ed on 8reudA" *or> #ay %ore e%&'a"i" on t'e 5or%er( t'at i"( on %ec'ani"%" o5 identi5ication in readin$( t'e *riterA"
5anta"ie" o5 "e+ua#ity and &o*er( or t'e A&at'o#o$ica#A ori$in o5 &#ot "tructure" and &attern" o5 i%a$e" or %oti5". 9y contra"t(
&re"ent!day &"yc'oana#ytic critici"% o5ten &ri3i#e$e" t'e "econd &er"&ecti3e( t'at i"( t'e 5anta"tic e#e%ent in t'e ana#y"tA" For t'e
criticA"G inter&reti3e acti3itie"( t'e 5or%a# and in"titutiona# con"traint" o5 t'e dia$no"i"( and "o on.
Cont!'8orary narratology
Co'8arati(! narratology
Interdi"ci&#inary "tudie" o5 narrati3e a55ord a &ro%i"in$ area 5or 5uture de3e#o&%ent. A Aco%&arati3e narrato#o$yA !! in t'e "en"e
o5 Aco%&arati3e #iteratureA !! addre""e" "uc' %atter" a" t'e "tructura# di55erence" o5 $i3en narrati3e $enre" or "ub!$enre"( t'e
&'eno%eno#o$ica# di55erence bet*een narrati3e and ot'er #iterary and arti"tic &'eno%ena( and t'e co%&arati3e &oetic" o5
di55erent cu#ture" and tradition". Interdi"ci&#inary narrato#o$ica# "tudie" a#"o try to "tren$t'en t'e tie" bet*een narrato#o$y and
ot'er critica# endea3our"( "uc' a" t'e t'eory o5 inter&retation or rece&tion( *o%enA" and $ender "tudie"( decon"truction. 7'e
interdi"ci&#inary direction o55er" t'e %o"t intere"tin$ a3enue" 5or de3e#o&%ent( a#t'ou$' it o5ten #ead" beyond narrato#o$y
&ro&er.
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8ro% a "trict#y narrato#o$ica# &er"&ecti3e( *e %ay c#a""i5y t'eorie" o5 narrati3e accordin$ to t'eir %ain obHect o5 "tudy *it'in
t'e narrato#o$ica##y de5ined "tructure o5 t'e te+t. A t'eory i" a#*ay" a #i%ited %ode# *'ic' i"o#ate" or $i3e" &re5erence to certain
5eature" o5 t'e obHect o5 "tudy. Mo"t t'eorie" o5 narrati3e( t'ere5ore( &ri3i#e$e eit'er narrati3e a" &roce"" or narrati3e a" &roduct(
t'e #e3e# eit'er o5 t'e 5abu#a( o5 t'e "tory( or o5 te+tua# re&re"entation.
Th!ori!s o authorshi8
Aut'or"'i& and #iterary &roduction 'a3e been a traditiona# area o5 #iterary re"earc'. In t'e nineteent' century( 'i"torica#
"c'o#ar"'i& de3e#o&ed a#on$"ide t'e bour$eoi" conce&tion o5 t'e *riter a" a
!,:!
detac'ed ob"er3er o5 "ociety. 7'e 'i"torici"t orientation( to$et'er *it' an indi3idua#i"t conce&tion o5 *ritin$( are "ti## #ar$e#y
do%inant today. Rou$'#y "&ea>in$( *e can di"tin$ui"' t*o tendencie". One i" to*ard" i%&re""ioni"tic critici"%( o5ten
bio$ra&'ica# in tone and intere"ted in t'e &er"ona#ity o5 t'e aut'or"( t'eir #i3e" and at be"t t'e Bua#ity o5 t'eir i%a$ination and
"ty#e( t'e co%&ari"on o5 di55erent *or>" and t'e "tudy o5 in5#uence. 7'i" >ind o5 critici"% 'ad it" acade%ic 'eyday in t'e *or>
o5 Wa#ter Ra#ei$' or Da3id Ceci#(
:-
and i" &er'a&" t'e tone %o"t o5ten a""ociated no*aday" *it' Hourna#i"tic re3ie*" and
18
inter3ie*". 7'e ot'er i" %ore concerned *it' #iterary 'i"toryC t'e de%arcation o5 #iterary &eriod" and t'eir de5inin$
c'aracteri"tic"( t'e "tudy o5 "c'oo#" and %o3e%ent"( t'e inter&#ay bet*een #iterature and ot'er cu#tura# &'eno%ena F5ro%
Saint"bury( er and Lan"on to conte%&orary t'eori"t" o5 &o"t%oderni"%.G
:0
8renc'( Ger%an and o5ten A%erican critic" are
%ore &rone t'an t'e 9riti"' to $roundin$ #iterary "c'o#ar"'i& on conte%&orary t'eorie" o5 'i"tory( *'et'er &o"iti3i"t F 7aineG(
e3o#utioni"t F 9runetiSreG( c#a""ici"t F 7. S. E#iotG( )e$e#ian Ft'e ear#y Lu>Rc"G( Mar+i"t Ft'e #ater Lu>Rc"( Wei%annG( Weberian F
WattG or "tructura#i"t F W'iteG.
:,
7'e "&eci5ica##y narrato#o$ica# a"&ect o5 t'e"e t'eorie" o5ten #ie" in t'e #in>" t'ey e"tab#i"'
bet*een t'e narrati3e &roce"" and t'e A%a"ter narrati3eA o5 'i"tory t'ey u"e a" t'eir ba"ic 5ra%e*or>.
6"yc'oana#y"i" i" anot'er %aHor "ource 5or t'eorie" o5 aut'or"'i&. We "'ou#d >ee& in %ind 'ere t'at 8reudian t'eorie"( too(
&ro3ide a %a"ter narrati3e o5 t'e de3e#o&%ent o5 t'e "e#5. 7'e criticA" ai% i" u"ua##y to re#ate "ty#i"tic or t'e%atic &attern" in t'e
*or> to t'e "tructure o5 an aut'orA" &er"ona#ity( e3a#uatin$ t'e inter&#ay bet*een con"ciou" and uncon"ciou" in5#uence". 7'e
in5#uence o5 &"yc'oana#y"i" on "tudie" o5 narrati3e i" too &er3a"i3e to atte%&t e3en a #i%ited o3er3ie*. 7'ere i"( be"ide"( t'e
c#o"e#y re#ated i""ue o5 &"yc'oana#ytic treat%ent con"idered a" a narrati3e &roce"" *'o"e &attern" and "y%bo#i"% can be
a&&roac'ed %uc' #i>e t'o"e o5 a #iterary te+t.
Th!ori!s o !nunciation
7'eorie" *'ic' 5ore$round t'e "tudy o5 enunciation and it" &rotoco#" are re#ated to t*entiet'!century 5or%a#i"t critici"%
F"ty#i"tic"( Ru""ian 5or%a#i"%( Ne* Critici"%( t'e C'ica$o "c'oo#( "tructura#i"% and #iterary &ra$%atic"G. 7'ey try to identi5y
di55erent "trand" or #e3e#" in t'e 3oice o5 t'e te+tC it i" no #on$er( or not on#y( t'e 3oice o5 t'e aut'or *'ic' i" ana#y"ed( but a#"o a
nu%ber o5 5ictiona# %a">" o5 &er"onae *'ic' %ediate bet*een t'e aut'oria# 3oice and t'e c'aracter". Suc' t'eorie" di55erentiate
t'e 'i"torica# aut'or 5ro%
!,2!
t'e narrator and t'e i%&#ied aut'or4 Wayne 9oot' ,he *hetoric of $iction i" a "e%ina# te+t in t'i" re"&ect. Lin$ui"tic t'eorie"
"tudyin$ t'e articu#ation o5 "ubHecti3ity in #an$ua$e F 9en3eni"te( Au"tin( 9a>'tinG are o5ten a&&#ied to t'e ana#y"i" o5 narrati3e
enunciation.
:=
Narrati3e &ra$%atic" %ay a#"o 5ocu" on t'e enunciati3e &ecu#aritie" o5 5ictiona# and non!5ictiona# narrati3e. 7'e
"&eci5ic r'etorica# de3ice" o5 eac' o5 t'e te+tua# 3oice" 'e#& de5ine t'e "ty#e o5 t'e te+t.
8ro% t'e &oint o5 3ie* o5 #iterary &ra$%atic"( 5ictiona# narrati3e i" a "econd!de$ree di"cour"e acti3ity For co%&#e+ "&eec' actG(
*'o"e under"tandin$ &re"u&&o"e" t'e under"tandin$ o5 %ore &ri%iti3e or #itera# di"cour"e "ituation" 5ro% *'ic' it deri3e". In
t'e ear#y c#a""i5ication" o5 "&eec' act" t'ere *a" no &#ace 5or 5ictiona# narrati3e. 7'i" i" not "ur&ri"in$( "ince t'e"e c#a""i5ication"
*ere not rea##y concerned *it' actua# "&eec' act"( but *it' idea#iEed or nor%ati3e "&eec'!act ty&e". 7'at i" *'y Au"tin or
Sear#e cou#d a55ord to &o"it a "entence!$ra%%ar a" t'e ba"i" o5 t'eir "tudie" o5 "&eec' acti3ity. 7'e "tudy o5 rea# di"cour"e(
'o*e3er( %u"t &er5orce be ba"ed on a te+tua# $ra%%ar( and i" bound to yie#d "o%e*'at #e"" c#ear!cut re"u#t". Writin$ a no3e# i"
ob3iou"#y a >ind o5 "&eec' act( but it" "&eci5icity 'a" to be ca&tured by a t'eory o5 di"cour"e *'ic' *ou#d ta>e into account t'e
rea# circu%"tance" and conte+t" in *'ic' no3e#" are *ritten. Writin$ a no3e#( or *ritin$ 5iction( i" not a A"tate%entA( t'ou$' it i" a
deri3ed act o5 a >ind *'ic' 'a" "tate%ent" a" it" re%ote ance"tor in a "tructura#i"t?$enetic conce&tion o5 "&eec' acti3ity. 8or
&ractica# &ur&o"e" o5 ana#y"i"( *ritin$ a no3e# i" t'at >ind o5 "&eec' act ca##ed A*ritin$ a no3e#AC #in$ui"tic" at t'i" &oint "'ade"
o55 into t'e #iterary t'eory o5 $enre". 9et*een t'e #in$ui"tic "&eec' act ca##ed A"tate%entA and t'e #iterary "&eec' act ca##ed
Ano3e#*ritin$A "e3era# conce&tua# "te&" cou#d be di"tin$ui"'ed( a%on$ t'e% a "tudy o5 t'e 5ictiona# "tate%ent a" deri3ed 5ro% t'e
#itera# "tate%ent and a "tudy o5 t'e narrati3e a" an e+tended "tate%ent deri3ed 5ro% t'e "i%&#e "entence.
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Th!ori!s o action or abula
7'e t'eory o5 action i" a &'i#o"o&'ica# di"ci&#ine( *it' *or> ran$in$ 5ro% traditiona# et'ica# treati"e" F Ari"tot#e Nicomachean
'thicsG to %odern a&&roac'e" in t'e 5ie#d" o5 5or%a# #o$ic FLon Wri$'tG( 'er%eneutic" F RicNurG or co$niti3e &"yc'o#o$y
F Go55%anG.
::
Suc' t'eorie" 5ocu" on t'e "tudy o5 e3ent"( action "eBuence" and "c'e%e"( 5unction"( actant"( c'aracter"( "ettin$"
and t'e interna# #a*" o5 narrated *or#d". In t'e rea#% o5 #iterary narrato#o$y *e 5ind "o%e in5#uentia# de3e#o&%ent" in t'e
Ru""ian 5or%a#i"t "c'oo#. L#adi%ir 6ro&& de3e#o&" a %ode# 5or t'e 5unctiona# c#a""i5ication o5 e3ent" and
!,@!
t'e de"cri&tion o5 action "eBuence" at 5abu#a #e3e#. )e dra*" a c#ear di"tinction bet*een( on t'e one 'and( t'e te+t it"e#5( *'ic' i"
t'e %ani5e"t #e3e# and( on t'e ot'er( t'e ab"tract #e3e# o5 5unction "eBuence" and "&'ere" o5 action o5 t'e c'aracter" F"i%i#ar to
Grei%a"A Aactant"AG.
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Dra*in$ on Le"e#o3">iA" de5inition o5 &#ot or narrati3e FsiuzhetG a" a "ucce""ion o5 ba"ic unana#y"ab#e
unit"( t'e A%oti5"A Fa "ubHect &#u" a "tandardiEed actionG( 7o%a"'e3">i di"tin$ui"'e" t*o %ean" o5 c#a""i5ication.
:@
8ir"t( 'e
19
di55erentiate" #in>ed %oti5" 5ro% 5ree %oti5". Lin>ed %oti5" are indi"&en"ab#e 5or t'e identity o5 t'e 5abu#a4 5ree %oti5" are not
i%&ortant and can be a#tered *it'out any "i$ni5icant c'an$e in t'e 5abu#a. Second#y( 'e o&&o"e" "tatic to dyna%ic %oti5".
De"cri&tion"( 5or in"tance( or uni%&ortant action"( are "tatic( *'i#e "i$ni5icant action" are dyna%ic. 9art'e" and ot'er
"tructura#i"t" 5urt'er re5ined t'e"e conce&t". W'i#e t'e e""ay by 9art'e" inc#uded in our "e#ection o5 te+t" i" intere"tin$ in %any
ot'er re"&ect"( it 'a" been e"&ecia##y in5#uentia# a" a %ode# 5or t'e ana#y"i" o5 narrati3e action". Se3era# 5or%a#iEed %ode#"(
dra*n by ana#o$y *it' #in$ui"tic" or 5or%a# #o$ic( *ere de3i"ed by "tructura#i"t critic" "uc' a" 9re%ond( Grei%a"( 7odoro3 and
6rince. We inc#ude "e#ection" 5ro% t'e *or> o5 9re%ond and Grei%a". Many additiona# 5or%a#i"t t'eorie" a&&roac' t'e ana#y"i"
o5 action "tructure"( t'eir $eneration( 3ariation"( and &o""ib#e c#a""i5ication".
:;
A%on$ recent de3e#o&%ent" o5 action t'eorie"(
t'e %o"t 5ruit5u# contribution" are t'o"e *'ic' brid$e t'e $a& bet*een #iterary narrato#o$y and co$niti3e &"yc'o#o$y Fe.$. in
Go55%an( 9ord*e##( 9rani$anG.
:1
7'e "tudy o5 action &attern" in ter%" o5 "c'e%ata( "cri&t" or 5ra%e" a##o*" 5or t'e
5or%u#ation" o5 a co%%on %ode# 5or a## narrati3e action" Fbot' Ain"ideA t'e 5abu#a and Aout"ideA( at t'e #e3e#" o5 "tory con"truction
and t'e &roce"" o5 readin$G. It a#"o &er%it" #in>" to be e"tab#i"'ed bet*een narrato#o$y and arti5icia# inte##i$ence.
2-

Th!ori!s o story an# narration
Many t'eori"t" dea# *it'( and %any &#ace t'eir %ain e%&'a"i" on( t'e inter%ediary "tructure" o5 "tory con"truction and
narration. Suc' t'eorie" con"titute t'e traditiona# narro* core o5 narrato#o$y. 7'ey de3i"e %ode" o5 ana#y"i" o5 t'e ti%e "tructure
o5 t'e "tory Forder o5 e3ent"( te%&ora# di"tortion" "uc' a" 5#a"'bac>" or 5#a"'5or*ard"( duration and "e#ection o5 "cene"( narrati3e
r'yt'%( etcG. 7'e "tudy o5 &oint o5 3ie* F5oca#iEation( dra%atic irony( "u"&en"e( o%ni"cienceG and o5 &re"entationa# %ode
F"'o*in$?te##in$G a#"o 5a## *it'in t'e "co&e o5 t'eorie" o5 "tory "tructure( a" doe" t'e ana#y"i" o5 c'aracter"A di"cour"e F5ree
indirect "ty#e( dia#o$ue &re"entationG and narrati3e 3oice. 7'e %o"t in5#uentia# a&&roac'e" to "tory con"truction and
narrati3e 3oice *ere de3e#o&ed by 5or%a#i"t critic" FRu""ian 5or%a#i"t"( "tudent" o5 "ty#i"tic"( Ne* Critic"( "tructura#i"t"G.
A#t'ou$' t'ey are too nu%erou" 5or a 5air "e#ection( *e %ay re5er t'e reader to >ey conce&t" coined or de3e#o&ed by )enry
Ja%e" Fre5#ector"( re"tricted &oint o5 3ie*G( Lubboc> F"cenic or &anora%ic &re"entation( "'o*in$?te##in$G( 9a##y F5ree indirect
"ty#eG( 9oot' Fre#iab#e and unre#iab#e narrator"( %ora# or inte##ectua# di"tanceG( Genette F5oca#iEation( narrati3e #e3e#"(
anac'ronie"( 'o%odie$etic and 'eterodie$etic narrator"( t'e narrateeG( 9a# Ft'e 5oca#iEer( #e3e#" o5 5oca#iEationG( 9a>'tin
Fdia#o$i"%( &o#i&'ony( 'etero$#o""iaG( DuHardin( )u%&'rey or Co'n F"trea% o5 con"ciou"ne""G( 8o*#er F%ind!"ty#eG.
20
A" t'e"e
"tudie" %a>e u& t'e %ain body o5 our "e#ection( *e re5er t'e reader to t'e te+t" in Bue"tion( *'ere %any o5 t'e centra#
narrato#o$ica# conce&t" are ana#y"ed in detai#. We 'a3e inc#uded e+tract" 5ro% *or>" by Cu##er( Sternber$( 9a# and RicNur
*'ic' ana#y"e t'e re#ation"'i& bet*een t'e re&re"ented "eBuence o5 e3ent" and t'e re&re"entationa# "tructure" o5 t'e "tory 5ro%
t'e &oint o5 3ie* o5 cau"a#ity( te%&ora#ity and &er"&ecti3a# &re"entation. 7'e t*o e+tract" in our brie5 "ection on 5i#%( by
9rani$an and De#eyto( a#"o 5ocu" on "uc' re&re"entationa# "tructure". 7'e "e#ection" $rou&ed under A7e+tA( on t'e ot'er 'and(
5ocu" on t'e #in$ui"tic "ur5ace o5 narrati3e and t'e co%%unicati3e acti3ity o5 t'e narrati3e "ubHect" Faut'or( reader( narrator(
c'aracter"G. In t'i" "ection *e inc#ude >ey contribution" 5ro% 9oot'( Gib"on( StanEe#( Genette( 6rince and )utc'eon.
Th!ori!s o r!c!8tion
Narrati3e i"( a%on$ ot'er t'in$"( a co%%unicati3e "&eec' act( a %e""a$e tran"acted bet*een a "ender and a recei3er.
6o"t"tructura#i"t critica# "c'oo#" 'a3e de3e#o&ed t'e ana#y"i" o5 t'e readerA" ro#e in #iterary co%%unication( "tre""in$ t'e acti3e
and creati3e nature o5 readin$ and( $enera##y "&ea>in$( o5 under"tandin$. Ear#y narrato#o$ica# t'eorie" u"ua##y too> t'e readerA"
ro#e 5or $ranted( but "ucce""i3e e#aboration" 'a3e a&&roac'ed t'e readerA" ro#e 5ro% di55erent &er"&ecti3e"( and reader!5i$ure"
'a3e &ro#i5erated. Wa#>er Gib"on "&ea>" o5 t'e A%oc> readerA( a readeri%a$e *'ic' i" in"cribed in t'e te+t by %ean" o5
&re"u&&o"ition and ideo#o$ica# a""u%&tion".
2,
No*aday" t'e ter% Ai%&#ied readerA i" %ore co%%on#y u"ed. 7'e te+t %ay a#"o
5eature a 5ictiona#iEed 3er"ion o5 t'e reader( a AnarrateeA.
2=
Narratee" %ay ran$e 5ro% 5ictiona# c'aracter" to #e"" obtru"i3e
5ictiona# addre""ee" to t'e A%oc>A or i%&#ied reader.
A di55erent #ine o5 inBuiry con"i"t" in ana#y"in$ t'e te+t 5ro% t'e
!,1!
readerA" 3ie*&oint. 7'e "tatic "tructure o5 %eanin$" beco%e" "udden#y ani%atedC 5or% beco%e" a "eBuentia# &roce"" o5
con"truction( a "erie" o5 &ro3i"iona# 'y&ot'e"e" in t'e %ind o5 t'e reader. 7ota# 5or% i" not t'e 5ina# A5i$ure in t'e car&etA t'e
reader %a>e" u& once t'e boo> i" 5ini"'ed( but rat'er t'e &ro$re""i3e 5or%u#ation and di"cardin$ o5 "tructura# 'y&ot'e"e" durin$
t'e readin$ &roce"".
2<

7'e creati3e a"&ect o5 readin$ beco%e" %ore and %ore &ro%inent a" *e %o3e 5ro% t'eorie" t'at dea# *it' t'e con"truction o5
action and "tory "tructure" to t'eorie" *'ic' try to ana#y"e t'e ideo#o$y or t'e "i$ni5icance o5 t'e te+t con"idered a" a #iterary
"tate%ent. Conte%&orary t'eorie" o5 readin$ Fdecon"truction( 'er%eneutic"( reader!re"&on"e critici"%( rece&tion t'eoryG 'a3e
20
"y"te%atica##y Bue"tioned t'e &o""ibi#ity o5 an obHecti3e( 5or%a#iEed ana#y"i" o5 t'i" ideo#o$ica# #e3e#. 7'eir contention i" t'at t'e
ideo#o$y or "i$ni5icance o5 a te+t i" not a "tructure( but a &roce""( t'e re"u#t o5 t'e interaction o5 te+t and reader. 9roo>"A" te+t in
our "e#ection re#ate" t'e readerA" con"truction o5 t'e &#ot to t'e &#ay o5 de"ire and ba"ic &"yc'ica# dri3e" a" de5ined by 8reudian
&"yc'oana#y"i". So%e o5 t'e"e enBuirie" #ead to*ard" "ocia#( &o#itica# and cu#tura# "tudie". Mar+i"t and 5e%ini"t &o"t!
"tructura#i"% trie" to "'o* 'o* readin$ i" a &o#itica# act in3o#3in$ t'e acce&tance or Bue"tionin$ o5 &ree+i"tin$ re&re"entation"(
ideo#o$ica##y c'ar$ed %ode#" o5 inter&retation and &re"u&&o"ition". De Laureti"A te+t in our "e#ection i" a re!readin$ o5 "o%e
&re3iou" 5or%a#i"t %ode#" in t'i" #i$'t( a" *e## a" a $ood in"tance o5 t'e con3er$ence o5 &"yc'oana#y"i"( narrato#o$y and
5e%ini"t ideo#o$ica# critici"%. Ot'er "c'oo#" #ay %ore e%&'a"i" on t'e &'eno%eno#o$y o5 under"tandin$. 7'ey ana#y"e t'e
"i$ni5icance o5 te+t" a" it re#ate" to t'e 5i$ura# nature o5 #an$ua$e Fdecon"tructionG( to t'e e+&erience o5 ot'erne"" and tradition
F'er%eneutic"G or to conte%&orary de3e#o&%ent" in &"yc'o#o$y( arti5icia# inte##i$ence( #in$ui"tic" and co$niti3e "cience.
2:

Th!ori!s o s!l-r!!r!ntiality an# int!rt!7tuality
7'eorie" o5 #iterary re5#e+i3ity can be traced bac> to t'e Ger%an ro%antic"(
22
and 'a3e beco%e increa"in$#y i%&ortant in t'e
"econd 'a#5 o5 t'e t*entiet' century. Muc' "tructura#i"t and &o"t!"tructura#i"t critici"% i" concerned *it' e+&eri%enta# 5iction(
t'e ana#y"i" o5 re5#e+i3e 5iction or %eta5iction &er'a&" bein$ t'e %o"t c#o"e#y re#ated to narrato#o$ica# concern".
2@
9y
%eta5iction *e %ean 5iction *'ic' e+&eri%ent" *it' it" o*n 5or% a" a *ay o5 creatin$ %eanin$. We u"ua##y a""ociate t'e no3e#
*it' rea#i"%( Hu"t a" *e u"ua##y a""ociate art *it' re&re"entation. 9ut rea#i"%( t'e %i%etic &u##( i" a#*ay"
!=-!
counterba#anced by t'e 5ictiona#ity o5 t'e no3e#( e"tab#i"'in$ a c'aracteri"tic ten"ion bet*een t'e "trate$ie" o5 5iction and t'e
dri3e to*ard" rea#i"%. 7'e ten"ion bet*een rea#ity and %i%etic re&re"entation i" &er'a&" t'e be"t "tartin$!&oint 5or a di"cu""ion
o5 %eta5iction. In"tead o5 ta>in$ rea#ity or rea#i"% 5or $ranted( t'e re5#e+i3e no3e# e+&#ore" t'e e&i"te%o#o$ica# 5oundation" o5
bot'( #ay" t'e% bare( o&enin$ t'e *ay eit'er 5or a %ore "e#5!con"ciou" rea#i"%
2;
or 5or "o%et'in$ e#"e. Meta5iction( t'en( can be
de5ined a" a *ay o5 *ritin$( or %ore &reci"e#y a" a *ay o5 con"ciou"#y %ani&u#atin$ 5ictiona# "tructure"( o5 &#ayin$ $a%e" *it'
5iction. Meta5iction a" *ritin$ *ou#d con"titute a "&eci5ic "ub!$enre in *'ic' t'e re5#e+i3e e#e%ent i" t'e do%inant one. Robert
A#ter "ee" a di55erence bet*een "e#5!con"ciou" no3e#" and no3e#" *'ic' contain "e#5!con"ciou" %o%ent".
21
7'e "e#5!con"ciou"
or re5#e+i3e no3e# %u"t be in5or%ed by a con"i"tent e55ortC "e#5!con"ciou"ne"" %u"t be centra# to it" "tructure and &ur&o"e. 7'e
ter% Are5#e+i3eA ca##" our attention bot' to %irror "tructure" Fdoub#in$"( ana#o$ie"( 5ra%e"( mise en abymeG
@-
and to t'ou$'t(
con"ciou"ne""( re5#ection( a*arene"" acco%&anyin$ action. Indeed( %eta5iction i" re5#e+i3e 5iction in t'e "en"e not on#y t'at
%irror i%a$e" are 5ound in it( but a#"o t'at t'e"e %irrorin$" and re5#e+i3e "tructure" are u"ed a" a %editation on t'e nature o5
5iction. A#ter de5ine" t'e "e#5!con"ciou" no3e# a" Aa no3e# *'ic' "y"te%atica##y 5#aunt" it" o*n condition o5 arti5ice and by "o
doin$ &robe" into t'e &rob#e%atic re#ation"'i& bet*een rea#!"ee%in$ arti5ice and rea#ityA.
@0

9ut t'i" de5inition o5 %eta5iction i" a te+t!centred oneC it #ea3e" out %any re5#e+i3e &'eno%ena in t'e #iterary &roce"".
Meta5iction %ay a#"o be de5ined a" a *ay o5 readin$. 7'e Are5#e+i3e readin$A o5 te+t" i" a critica# &aradi$% *'ic' &ro3ide" a ne*
*ay o5 e+&#orin$ %eanin$ in #iterary *or>"( uneart'in$ "tructure" o5 %eanin$ *'ic' %ay be auto%atic( not de#iberate#y &#anned
by t'e *riter but rat'er reac'ed by t'e reader t'rou$' t'e "&ontaneou" &#ay o5 %eanin$ or t'e inter&#ay bet*een *ritin$ and
readin$.
Meta5iction c'a##en$e" a co%%on critica# a""u%&tionC t'at t'e *or> i" "i#ent about it"e#5 and *ait" 5or t'e critic to inter&ret it. A
%eta5ictiona# *or> *i## o5ten be out"&o>en enou$' about it" ai%" and tec'niBue. It criticiEe" &re3iou" #iterary con3ention" Fto
"o%e e+tent a## #iterature doe" t'i"G( but a#"o it" o*n con3ention". A## %odern art "'are" t'i" "e#5!con"ciou" attitude to t'e &a"t(
t'i" an+iety deri3in$ 5ro% it" be#atedne"". Jo"i&o3ici ar$ue" t'at A7'ere i" no better *ay o5 de5inin$ t'e ac'ie3e%ent o5 6ica""o(
Stra3in">i or E#iot t'an to "ay t'at it i" an e+&#oration bot' o5 t'e %ediu% in *'ic' t'ey are *or>in$ and o5 t'e traditiona#
e+&#oration o5 t'at %ediu%.A
@,
7'e arti"tA" e+&#oration o5 t'e &o""ibi#itie" o5 art i" &er'a&" t'e %ain c'aracteri"tic o5 t'e
t*entiet' centuryC it i" not "ur&ri"in$ t'at t'e"e
!=0!
e+&#orer" tran"$re""ed %any border" and reac'ed %any dead end". )utc'eonA" ty&o#o$y o5 re5#e+i3e de3ice"( inc#uded
in t'i" reader( i" a $ood in"tance o5 t'e "tructura#i"t a&&roac' to re5#e+i3ity.7'e "tructura#i"t concern *it' re5#e+i3e te+t" i" bot'
Bue"tioned and de3e#o&ed by t'e decon"tructi3e "c'oo#. Genera##y "&ea>in$( a decon"tructi3e readin$ o5 a te+t Fany te+tG *i##
trace it" "ta$in$ o5 it" o*n %eta&'y"ic" on#y to under%ine t'i" by "'o*in$ 'o* it #ead" to contradiction( &arado+ and a&oria !!
t'at i"( 'o* t'e te+t e55ect" it" A"e#5!decon"tructionA. )i##i" Mi##erA" contention in ALineA F&&. ,;2 !1: be#o*G i" "o%e*'at %ore
a%bitiou"( a" it atte%&t" to trace t'e a&oria under#yin$ any u"e o5 narrato#o$ica# ter%ino#o$y.Meta5iction o5ten a%ount" to an act
o5 critici"% o5 &re3iou" tradition"( becau"e o5 it" #in>" *it' &arody and "e#5!con"ciou"ne"". A di"cu""ion o5 re5#e+i3ity t'ere5ore
cannot be i"o#ated 5ro% interte+tua#ity( t'e t'eory o5 *'ic' a""ert" t'at no te+t e+i"t" a" an autono%ou" and "e#5!"u55icient
21
*'o#eC t'e *riterA" and t'e readerA" e+&erience o5 ot'er te+t" condition" it" 5or% and inter&retation. C#a""ica# account" o5
narrati3e F Ari"tot#e( )oraceG u"ua##y a""u%e t'at t'e &oet a" a &#ot!%a>er *i## u"e traditiona# "torie"( rat'er t'an in3ent t'e
action o5 t'e *or>. 6#ot con"truction *a" traditiona##y di"cu""ed *it'in t'e conte+t o5 interte+tua# tran"5or%ation"( "o t'at
interte+tua# "tudie" are anyt'in$ but ne*. 7'e ter% it"e#5( 'o*e3er( *a" coined by Ju#ia ri"te3a( *'o deri3ed it 5ro% Mi>'ai#
9a>'tinA" *or> on "ocia# #in$ui"tic".
@=
9a>'tin de5ined t'e "e#5 and "ociety a" bein$ in a dia#o$ica# re#ation"'i&. Indi3idua# and
"ocia# #an$ua$e" de5ine eac' ot'erC any indi3idua# di"cour"e i" tra3er"ed by "ocia# di"cour"e" Fa "tate o5 a55air" 9a>'tin ca##"
A'etero$#o""iaAG. So%e %ode" o5 di"cour"e( "uc' a" t'e no3e#( are e"&ecia##y o&en to t'i" &#ay o5 co%&etin$ ideo#o$ica# 3oice"(
'ence t'e A&o#y&'onicA nature o5 t'e no3e# 5or 9a>'tin. Interte+tua# ana#y"i" #ead"( t'ere5ore( bot' to t'e ana#y"i" o5 $enre
con3ention" and to ideo#o$ica# and cu#tura# "tudie".In "u%( *e can di"tin$ui"' "e3era# ty&e" o5 interte+tua# re#ation"'i&(
accordin$ to t'e readerA" &erce&tion o5 t'e re#ation" e+i"tin$ bet*een a $i3en te+t andC
0. Ot'er #iterary te+t". 7'i" a&&roac' $oe" bac> to t'e traditiona# F'i"torici"tG "tudy o5 co%&arati3e #iterature( "ource and
in5#uence "tudie"( *'ic' can be inte$rated *it'in a %ore $enera# %ode# o5 interte+tua# re#ation"'i&".
@<

,. Generic con3ention"( &attern" o5 %oti5" and &#ot"( arc'ety&e". A *or> "uc' a" Nort'ro& 8ryeA" Anato%y o5 Critici"% %ay
no* be read a" a %onu%enta# "tudy o5 interte+tua# $eneric con3ention".
@:

!=,!
0. Ot'er "ocia# di"cour"e" and di"cur"i3e con3ention". 7'i" a&&roac'( *'ic' o*e" %uc' to 9a>'tin( 'a" been e"&ecia##y
de3e#o&ed by conte%&orary &o"t!"tructura#i"%( abo3e a## by t'e ne* Mar+i"t and 5e%ini"t "c'oo#". It 'a" beco%e e"&ecia##y
"i$ni5icant o5 #ate( in 3ie* o5 t'e &re"ent!day tendency to inte$rate #iterary and cu#tura# "tudie".
,. 7'e critica# co%%entary o5 t'e te+t F*'ic' 5reBuent#y incor&orate" ty&e" 0( , and =G. 7'e %o"t "o&'i"ticated ana#y"e" o5
t'i" ty&e o5 interte+tua#ity 'a3e been carried out by conte%&orary t'eori"t" o5 inter&retation Fdecon"tructi3i"t"( reader!re"&on"e
t'eori"t"( etcG( *'o 'a3e "y"te%atica##y &rob#e%atiEed t'e re#ation"'i& bet*een a te+t and it" "ub"eBuent readin$".
A88li!# narratology
Under t'i" 'eadin$ *e co3er t'eorie" t'at 5or%u#ate re#ation" bet*een narrati3e( "ociety( 'i"tory and ideo#o$y. W'i#e
narrato#o$y 'a" u"ua##y been con"idered an Aintrin"icA a&&roac' to #iterature( it i" &o""ib#e( in a *ider &er"&ecti3e( to "ee a
re#ation"'i& bet*een t'e "tudy o5 narrati3e "tructure and e+trin"ic a&&roac'e" to #iterature *'ic' a""e"" it" re#ation" to 'i"tory(
"ocia# "tructure"( in"titution" and cu#tura# &'eno%ena in $enera#. 7'ere are %any di55erent "c'oo#" o5 cu#tura# critici"%C
Weberian( Mar+i"t( 8oucau#dian( $ender "tudie"( %u#ticu#tura# "tudie". A## o5 t'e% in one *ay or anot'er u"e t'e conce&t o5
ideo#o$y a" a critica# too#. Ideo#o$y i" a &rob#e%atic ter%( "ince it" de5inition de&end" in &art on t'e ideo#o$y o5 t'e &er"on
de5inin$ it. 7'e ori$ina# Mar+i"t de5inition under"tood Aideo#o$yA a" 5a#"e con"ciou"ne"" !! a "et o5 "u&er"tructura# re&re"entation"
o5 "ociety and cu#ture *'ic' tried to &er&etuate t'e "tatu" Buo. Ideo#o$y *a" t'ere5ore a conce&t o&&o"ed to t'e "cienti5ic "ocia#
de"cri&tion &ro3ided by Mar+i"%. Later a&&roac'e" F"tartin$ *it'in Mar+i"% it"e#5 in t'e *or> o5 9a>'tinG conce&tua#iEe
ideo#o$y a" a nece""ary net*or> o5 "e%iotic re&re"entation"C *e cannot 'a3e acce"" to rea#ity in an ideo#o$y!5ree *ay. A
coro##ary o5 t'i" 3ie* i" t'at ideo#o$y i" not a "ub"tance o5 "o%e >ind *e 5ind in a te+t( but rat'er a re#ationa# 5unction bet*een
t'e te+t and t'e reader.
In ,he *ise of the No"el F 01:@G Ian Watt e+&#ain" t'e a&&earance o5 t'e no3e# on t'e ba"i" o5 ideo#o$ica# c'an$e" brou$'t about
by bour$eoi" 'e$e%ony in t'e ei$'teent' century. )e re#ate" "ocia# c'an$e to "uc' "tructura# e#e%ent" a" increa"in$ accuracy in
t'e de&iction o5 indi3idua# c'aracter( and concrete "ocia# "ettin$" and &#ot circu%"tance" *'ic' bui#d u& rea#i"% a" a %ode o5
re&re"entation.
Mar+i"t critic" 'a3e "tudied t'e ideo#o$ica# 5unction o5 narrati3e $enre" in t'e "e#5!re&re"entation o5 "ocia# c#a""e" and a" an
!==!
ideo#o$ica# %ani5e"tation o5 "ocia# con5#ict". We %i$'t "in$#e out 8redric Ja%e"onA" *or> on narrati3e.
@2
Ja%e"on incor&orate"
and reinter&ret" "tructura#i"t narrato#o$y in order to "tudy narrati3e a" a A"ocia##y "y%bo#ic actA( a" an i%a$inati3e Fand
ideo#o$ica##y %oti3atedG re"&on"e to c#a"" "tru$$#e. 8or 'i%( narrati3e i" t'e %ain "tructurin$ &rinci&#e in t'e articu#ation o5
de"ire a" *e## a" o5 &o#itica# and cu#tura# re&re"entation".
7'e Bue"tion o5 narrati3e and de"ire i" a#"o centra# to &"yc'oana#ytic a&&roac'e". 8reud 'i%"e#5 inau$urated t'e &"yc'oana#ytic
"tudy o5 narrati3e 5unction". In #6reati"e Driters and 4aydreaming# 8reud ana#y"e" t'e 5unction o5 t'e 'ero and o5 &oint o5 3ie*
a" 5anta"ie" o5 &o*er and de"ire. )e a#"o ana#y"ed indi3idua# *or>".
@@
9ut &er'a&" 'i" %o"t 5unda%enta# contribution to t'e
ana#y"i" o5 narrati3e i" an indirect oneC 'e concei3e" t'e *'o#e &roce"" o5 t'e de3e#o&%ent o5 t'e "e#5( a" *e## a" t'e &roce"" o5
&"yc'oana#ytic t'era&y( a" narrati3e#y "tructured. Innu%erab#e critic" 'a3e bui#t on 8reudA" in"i$'t" in *ay" *'ic' are re#e3ant
to narrato#o$ica# ana#y"i". 6eter 9roo>" *eading for the Plot F 01;<G( an e+tract 5ro% *'ic' i" re&rinted 'ere( i" an e+a%&#e o5
t'e &re"ent!day con3er$ence o5 &o"t!"tructura#i"t reader!re"&on"e critici"% and &"yc'oana#y"i".
22
Anot'er e+trin"ic a&&roac' to narrati3e i" $ender "tudie". A%on$ t'e"e( 5e%ini"t critici"% 'a" undoubted#y been t'e %o"t
in5#uentia#. 7'ere i" an i%%en"e 3ariety o5 5e%ini"t a&&roac'e" to #iterature( and %o"t o5 t'e% 'a3e %ade "i$ni5icant
contribution" to t'e ana#y"i" o5 narrati3e. 8e%ini"t ana#y"i" o5 t'e con"tructedne"" o5 $ender 'a" 'ad 5ar!reac'in$ e55ect" on t'e
"tudy o5 aut'or"'i&( c'aracter re&re"entation and &#ot "tructure". So%e >ey *or>" in t'i" conte+t inc#ude ate Mi##ettA" Se0ual
Politics F 0121G( E##en Moer"A Literary Domen F 01@2G and Sandra M. Gi#bert and Su"an Gubar ,he %adwoman in the Attic
F 01@1G.
@;
8e%ini"t critic" 'a3e a#"o &ointed out t'at narrati3e 3eri"i%i#itude and co'erence are $ender!conditioned cate$orie"(
@1
and 'a3e denounced t'e &atriarc'a# ideo#o$y in'erent in &#ot &attern"( i%&#ied aut'oria# attitude" and i%&#ied reader"( ca##in$ 5or
a 5e%ini"t Are"i"tin$ readerA F8etter#eyG. 7ere"a de Laureti"A Alice 4oesn#t F 01;<G de3e#o&" %any o5 t'e"e tenet" 5ro% t'e
&er"&ecti3e o5 &o"t"tructura#i"t &"yc'oana#y"i" and a&&#ie" t'e% to t'e "tudy o5 5i#%ic narrati3e. An e+cer&t 5ro% t'i" *or> 'a"
been inc#uded in our reader.
7'ere are count#e"" ot'er "i$ni5icant e+ten"ion" or a&&#ication" o5 narrato#o$y to a nu%ber o5 di"ci&#ine". A &'i#o"o&'ica#
3ariety o5 narrato#o$y i" to be 5ound in t'e *or> o5 6au# Ricceur.
;-
A *riter in t'e tradition o5 &'i#o"o&'ica# 'er%eneutic"
inau$urated by )eide$$er Sein und @eit( RicNur de3e#o&" 'i" t'ou$'t a" a critiBue o5 %odern rationa#i"t a&&roac'e" "uc' a"
&'eno%eno#o$y and
!=<!
"tructura#i"%. )e in"i"t" t'at %yt' i" an e""entia##y te%&ora# &'eno%enon( and cannot be reduced to a "e%antic %atri+ a"
LI3iStrau"" contend". )e con"ider" narrati3e orderin$ a" a 5unda%enta# 'u%an e+&erience( a *ay o5 "tructurin$ 'u%an
e+i"tence in ti%e and o5 o&enin$ u& t'e &o""ibi#ity o5 %eanin$5u# action. RicNurA" *or> i" a $ood e+a%&#e o5 narrato#o$y
a&&#ied to &'i#o"o&'ica# and re#i$iou" FC'ri"tianG 'er%eneutic".
7'e t'eory o5 'i"tory 'a" a#*ay" 'ad to account 5or i""ue" o5 re&re"entation( *it' t'e Bue"tion o5 narrati3e a" a centra# &rob#e%.
7'e rea#iEation t'at %oderni"t 'i"tory #ea3e" out o5 it" account %any 5act" t'at re%ain un$ra"&ab#e or untran"#atab#e in5or%" t'e
&o"t%oderni"t conce&t o5 'i"tory( *'ic' t'u" beco%e" At'e &rob#e% o5 t'e &a"t a" unre&re"entab#e burdenA.
;0
Con"i"tent#y *it'
t'i"( t'e conte%&orary t'eory o5 'i"tory "et" out to Bue"tion t'e co$no"cibi#ity o5 t'e &a"t and t'e ideo#o$ica# 5unction o5 'i"tory
*ritin$ in t'e "e#ection o5 &a"t e3ent" era"ed or recorded. Accordin$ to t'e %oderni"t inter&retation( 'i"tory i" not a te+t at a## but
rat'er an idea *'ic' beco%e" acce""ib#e in te+tua# 5or%. 9y contra"t( &o"t"tructura#i"t t'eori"t" o5 'i"tory "uc' a" )ayden W'ite
or Do%inic> LaCa&ra 'a3e Bue"tioned t'e 3a#idity o5 t'e %oderni"t a&&roac'.
;,
8ro% t'eir &o"t%oderni"t &er"&ecti3e( 'i"torica#
%eanin$ i" t'e re"u#t o5 t'e ine+tricab#e unity o5 idea and te+tua# en3e#o&e( o5 content and 5or%( "o t'at t'e "tudy o5 t'e rea# can
on#y be t'e ana#y"i" o5 t'e te+tua# 5or% rea#ity ta>e" *'en a&&re'ended by "ubHect". In Meta'i"tory F 01@=G( 5or e+a%&#e(
)ayden W'ite "tudie" t'e tec'niBue" o5 'i"torica# *ritin$ a" 3er"ion" o5 #iterary or %yt'ica# &#ot". )i" e""ay in our "e#ection i"
a#"o a $ood in"tance o5 t'e a&&#ication o5 "tructura# ana#y"i" o5 narrati3e to 'i"torica# *ritin$.
Conclusion
Muc' %i$'t be "aid about t'e &o""ib#e de3e#o&%ent" o5 a "cience o5 narrati3e( becau"e( a" *e 'a3e tried to "'o*( narrati3e i" a
co%&#e+ &'eno%enon *'o"e ana#y"i" a##o*" in5inite &er"&ecti3e". Many critic" *ou#d ar$ue t'at narrato#o$y "'ou#d be
under"tood a" e+c#u"i3e#y re5errin$ to 5or%a#i"t and "tructura#i"t ana#y"i". Ot'er critic" en3i"ion narrato#o$y a" an u%bre##a ter%(
t'e %eetin$!&#ace o5 %u#ti&#e a&&roac'e" to narrati3e( 5ro% t'e "tand&oint o5 a 3ariety o5 di"ci&#ine"C 'i"tory( ant'ro&o#o$y(
&"yc'o#o$y( co$niti3e "cience( 'er%eneutic &'i#o"o&'y( ideo#o$ica# critici"%( and "o on. In t'i" introduction *e 'a3e atte%&ted
to ">etc' an a%&#e t'eoretica# and 'i"torica# conce&tion o5 narrati3e t'eory. In our "e#ection o5 te+t"( 'o*e3er( *e 'a3e
de#iberate#y 5o##o*ed %ore re"tricti3e criteria. 8ir"t(
!=:!
*e 'a3e on#y inc#uded te+t" 5ro% 01:- on*ard". Second#y( t'e bu#> o5 our "e#ection i" ba"ed on "tructura#i"t
narrato#o$y( a#t'ou$' *e 'a3e a#"o inc#uded a 5e* e+a%&#e" o5 t'e %o"t in5#uentia# a#ternati3e t'eoretica# a&&roac'e" to
narrato#o$y in t'e *ider "en"e o5 t'e *ord. We are a*are( 'o*e3er( t'at t'e di55erin$ narrati3e" on narrato#o$y *'ic' *e
&ro&o"e in t'e introduction and content" o5 t'i" reader are Hu"t t*o o5 t'e count#e"" &o""ib#e &#ot" in a $arden o5 5or>in$ &at'".
Not!s
0. GRARD GENE77E( Narrati"e 4iscourse F 01@,G tran". Jane E. Le*in F It'aca( NYC Corne## Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01;-G4
MIEE 9AL( Narratologie. 'ssais sur la signification narrati"e dans :uartre romans modernes F 6ari"C #inc>"iec>( 01@@G and
Narratology. (ntroduction to the ,heory of Narrati"e F 01@;G tran". C'ri"tine 3an 9o'ee%en F 7orontoC Uni3er"ity o5 7oronto
6re""( 01;:G4 GERALD 6RINCE( Narratology. ,he $orm and $unctioning of Narrati"e F 9er#inC Mouton( 01;,G.
23
,. ARIS7O7LE( ,he Poetics( tran". W. )a%i#ton 8y5e. In Aristotle. ,he Poetics. #Longinus#. <n the Sublime. 4emetrius. <n
Style F Ca%brid$e( Ma"".C )ar3ard Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01,@G.
=. ROLAND 9AR7)ES( S?D F 01@-G tran". Ric'ard Mi##er F Ne* Yor>C )i## and Wan$( 01@<G.
<. 9AL( Narratology4 9ORIS 7OMAS)ELSI( KA7'e%atic"AK F 01,:G in *ussian $ormalist 6riticism. $our 'ssays( ed. and
tran". Lee 7. Le%on and Marion J. Rei" F Le+in$tonC Uni3er"ity o5 Nebra">a 6re""( 012:G( &&. 20!1;.
:. A0. Un ,'H,' est un ensemble fini et structur! de signes linguisti:ues. 0.0. Un te0te narratif est un te0te dans le:uel une
instance raconte un r!cit . . . ,. Un *I6(, est le signifi! d#un te0te narratif) Un r!cit signifie G son tour une histoire.A F 9a#(
Narratologie( &. <. Our tran"#ation.G
2. A "i%&#i5ied 3er"ion o5 t'e one in Narratologie( &. ==.
@. See( 5or in"tance( 8RAN ERMODE( ,he Sense of an 'nding F O+5ordC O+5ord Uni3er"ity 6re""( 012@G( and 6E7ER
9ROOS( *eading for the Plot. 4esign and (ntention in Narrati"e F O+5ordC C#arendon 6re""( 01;<G.
;. See 9ORIS EI)EN9AUM( #,heory of the J$ormal %ethodJ# F 01,2G in Le%on and Rei" Fed" and tran"G( *ussian
$ormalist 6riticism( &&. 11!0<-4 WOL8GANG AYSER ( 4ie 1ortragsreise F 9erneC 8ranc>e( 01:;G.
1. WALER GI9SON( #Authors, S9eakers, *eaders, and %ock *eaders# F 01:-G in *eader-*es9onse 6riticism( ed. Jane 6.
7o%&>in" F 9a#ti%oreC Jo'n" )o&>in" Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01;-G( &&. 0!2.
0-. WAYNE C. 9OO7)( ,he *hetoric of $iction F 0120G( re3. edn F)ar%ond"*ort'C 6en$uin( 01;@G( &&. @:( 0=;.
00. GENE77E( Narrati"e 4iscourse4 6RINCE( #(ntroduction to the Study of the Narratee# F 01@=G( in 7o%&>in" Fed.G( *eader-
*es9onse 6riticism( &&. @!,:.
0,. C5. 9AL %ore #i%ited Sc'e%e F Narratologie( &. =,G.
0=. 6LA7O( ,he *e9ublic Ftran". 9enHa%in Jo*ettG( "e#ect. in 6ritical ,heory since Plato( ed. )aEard Ada%" F San Die$oC
)arcourt( 01@0G( &&. 01!<2.
!=2!
0<. EARL MINER( #Narrati"e#( in 6om9arati"e Poetics. An (ntercultural 'ssay on ,heories of Literature F 6rincetonC
6rinceton Uni3er"ity 6re""( 011-( &&. 0=:!,0,.
0:. 8or in"tance( by JO)N DRYDEN( #An Account of the 'nsuing Poem KAnnus %irabilisL in a Letter to the -onourable Sir
*obert -oward# F 022@G( in &ohn 4ryden. Selected 6riticism( ed. Ja%e" in"#ey and Geor$e 6ar5itt F O+5ordC O+5ord Uni3er"ity
6re""( 01@-G( &&. @!0:.
02. GEO88REY O8 LINSAU8( Poetria No"a Fc. 0,--G( tran". Mar$aret 8. Ni%" F 7orontoC 6onti5ica# In"titute o5 Medie3a#
Studie"( 012@G.
0@. 8. RO9OR7ELLO( (n librum Aristotelis 4e arte 9oetica e09licationes?Para9hrasis in Librum -oratii, Bui 1ulgo 4e Arte
Poetica Ad Pisones (nscribitur F 0:<;G4 LUDOLICO CAS7ELLE7RO ( Poetica d#Aristotele "ulgarizzata e s9osta F 0:@2G in
6astel"etro on the Art of Poetry. An Abridged ,ranslation of Ludo"ico 6astel"etro#s Poetica d#Aristotele "ulgarizzata e s9osta(
ed. A. 9on$iorno F 9in$'a%&ton( NYC Medie3a# and Renai""ance 7e+t" and Studie"( 01;<G4 JULIUS CAESAR SCALIGER(
Poetices libri se9tem F 0:20G in Select translations from Scaliger#s Poetics( ed. and tran"( 8. M. 6ade#5ord F Ne* Yor>( 01-:G.
0;. G. E. LESSING( Laocoon. An 'ssay on the Limits of Painting and Poetry F 0@22G tran". Ed*ard A. McCor%ic>
F 9a#ti%oreC Jo'n" )o&>in" Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01;<G.
01. )ENRY 8IELDING( ,he -istory of ,om &ones, a $oundling FWareC Word"*ort'( 011,G( 3o#. 0( &. =;.
,-. 8IELDING( &re5ace to ,he -istory of &ose9h Andrews F LondonC )utc'in"on( 01-<G( &. ;.
,0. SAMUEL RIC)ARDSON( e+cer&t 5ro% No"elists on the No"el( ed. Miria% A##ott F LondonC Rout#ed$e and e$an 6au#(
01:1G( &. ,:;.
24
,,. 8RIEDRIC) SC)LEGEL( Schriften und $ragmente F Stutt$artC rTner( 01:2G4 G. W. 8. )EGEL ( 'sthetics F 0;=:G tran".
7. M. no+ F O+5ordC C#arendon( 01@:G4 GEORG LUUCS ( ,he ,heory of the No"el F 0102G tran". Anna 9o"toc>
F Ca%brid$e( Ma"".C MI7 6re""( 01@0G.
,=. GEORGE ELIO7( #Silly No"els by Lady No"elists# F 0;:2G( r&t. in 1ictorian 6riticism of the No"el( ed. Ed*in M. Ei$ner
and Geor$e J. Wort' F Ca%brid$eC Ca%brid$e Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01;:G( &&. 0:1!;-4 GEORGE )ENRY LEWES( #6riticism in
*elation to No"els# F 0;2:G( r&t. in ibid.( &&. 0;0!1,.
,<. EDWARD 9ULWER LY77ON( #<n Art in $iction M((N# F 0;=;G( r&t. in ibid.( &&. ,,!=;.
,:. EDGAR ALLAN 6OE( #Nathaniel -awthorne#( in Poems and 'ssays F LondonC Dent( 01,@G( &&. 0@@!1<.
,2. 6OE( #,he Philoso9hy of 6om9osition# F 0;<2G( in ibid.( &. 02<.
,@. EDMOND SC)ERER( @ur ,echnik der modernen 'rzFhlung F 0;@1G4 8RIEDRIC) S6IEL)AGEN ( +eitrFge zur ,heorie
und ,echnik des *omans F Lei&Ei$C Staac>%ann( 0;;=G.
,;. )ENRY JAMES( #,he Art of $iction# F 0;;<( re3. edn 0;;;G( in Ada%" Fed.G( 6ritical ,heory since Plato( &&. 22-!@-.
,1. JAMES e""ay" and &re5ace" are co##ected in ,he Art of 6riticism. -enry &ames on the ,heory and the Practice of $iction(
ed. Wi##ia% Leeder and Su"an M. Gri55in F C'ica$oC Uni3er"ity o5 C'ica$o 6re""( 01;2G.
=-. R. L. S7ELENSON( #A -umble *emonstrance# F 0;;<G( in 1ictorian 6riticism of the No"el( ed. Ei$ner and Wort'( &&.
,0=!,,.
=0. 6ERCY LU99OC( ,he 6raft of $iction F LondonC Ca&e( 01,04 01,2 ednG4 JOSE6)WARREN 9EAC)
!=@!
WARREN 9EAC)( ,he %ethod of -enry &ames F 010;4 re3. ed.( 6'i#ade#&'iaC A#bert Sci#er( 01:<.G
=,. LU99OC( 6raft of $iction( &. 2,.
==. JOS OR7EGA Y GASSE7( ,he 4ehumanization of Art and <ther 'ssays on Art, 6ulture, and Literature F 01,:( etc.G
tran". )e#ene Wey# F 6rincetonC 6rinceton Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01<;G.
=<. E. M. 8ORS7ER( As9ects of the No"el F LondonC Arno#d( 01,@G4 EDWIN MUIR( ,he Structure of the No"el F LondonC
)o$art' 6re""( 01,;G.
=:. CLEAN7) 9ROOS and RO9ER7 6ENN WARREN( Understanding $iction F 01<=4 En$#e*ood C#i55"( NJC 6rentice
)a##( 01:1G.
=2. 8. R. LEALIS( KA7'e No3e# a" Dra%atic 6oe%C )ard 7i%e"AK( Scrutiny 2; F 01<2!@GC 0;:!,-<4 re3. 3er"ion in ,he 5reat
,radition F LondonC C'atto( 01<;G.
=@. LIRGINIA WOOL8( #%odern $iction# F 0101G( in ,he 6ommon *eader V0"t "erie"W 01,: F LondonC )o$art'( 01,1G( &&.
0;<!1:.
=;. ERIC) A)LER( ,he (nward ,urn of Narrati"e F 01@-G tran". Ric'ard Win"ton and C#ara Win"ton F 6rincetonC
6rinceton Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01@=G.
=1. C)ARLES 9ALLY( #Le style indirect libre en franOais moderne#( 5ermanisch*omanische %onatschrift ; F 010,GC :<1!
:2( :1@!2-24 MARGUERI7E LI6S( Le style indirect libre F 6ari"C 6ayot( 01,2G4 L. E. 9OWLING( #Dhat (s the Stream of
6onsciousness ,echni:ueP# P%LA QR F 01:-GC ===!<:4 MELLIN J. 8RIEDMAN( Stream of 6onsciousness. A Study of Literary
%ethod F Ne* )a3enC Ya#e Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01::G4 NORMAN 8RIEDMAN( KA6oint!o5!Lie* in 8ictionC 7'e De3e#o&%ent o5
a Critica# Conce&tAK( P%LA =S F 01::GC 002-!;<.
<-. 8or in"tanceC LERNON LEE( ,he -andling of Dords and <ther 'ssays in Literary Psychology F 01,=4 Linco#nC
Uni3er"ity o5 Nebra">a 6re""( 012;G4 9LISS 6ERRY( A Study of Prose $iction F 01-,4 9o"tonC )ou$'ton Mi55#in( 01,-G4
JOSE6) WARREN 9EAC) ( ,he ,wentieth-6entury No"el. Studies in ,echni:ue F Ne* Yor>C A&&#eton( 01=,G.
<0. X7E 8RIEDEMANN( 4ie *olle des 'rzFhlers in der '9ik F 010-4 4armstadt. Dissenschaftliche +uchgesellschaft(
012:G.
25
<,. See t'e "e#ection" 5ro% e""ay" by LI7OR S)LOLSI and 9ORIS 7OMAS)ELSI in Le%on and Rei" Fed" and
tran".G( *ussian $ormalist 6riticism( and LLADIMIR 6RO66A" %or9hology of the $olktale F 01,;G tran". Laurence Scott. ,nd
edn( re3. and ed. Loui" A. Wa$ner F Au"tinC Uni3er"ity o5 7e+a" 6re""( 012;G.
<=. ROMAN INGARDEN( ,he Literary Dork of Art. An (n"estigation on the +orderlines of <ntology, Logic, and ,heory of
Literature F 01=04 =rd edn 012:4 E3an"ton( I##.C Nort'*e"tern Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01@=G.
<<. INGARDEN( ,he 6ognition of the Literary Dork of Art F 012;4 E3an"ton( I##.C Nort'*e"tern Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01@=G.
<:. WOL8GANG ISER( ,he (m9lied *eader. Patterns of 6ommunication in Prose $iction from +unyan to +eckett F 01@,4
9a#ti%oreC Jo'n" )o&>in" Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01@<G.
<2. JAMES G. 8RADER( ,he 5olden +ough Fabrid$ed edn 01,,C Mac%i##an( 01:2G4 JOSE6) CAM69ELL( ,he -ero with a
,housand $aces F 01<14 6rincetonC 6rinceton Uni3er"ity 6re""( 012;G4 CARL G. JUNG( 6ollected Dorks F 01 3o#"G( ed. )erbert
Read ( Mic'ae# 8ord'a% and Gerard Ad#er F LondonC Rout#ed$e( 01;0G.
<@. NOR7)RO6 8RYE( Anatomy of 6riticism. $our 'ssays F 6rincetonC 6rinceton Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01:@G.
<;. See( 5or in"tance( #4er 4ichter und Phantasieren# F 01-@G( or #4as Unheimliche# F 0101G. ,he Standard 'dition of the
6om9lete Psychological Dorks of Sigmund $reud F ,< 3o#"G( tran". Ja%e" Strac'ey F LondonC )o$art' 6re""?In"titute o5
6"yc'o#o$y( 01:=!22G.
<1. See 5or in"tance C)RIS7O6)ER NAS) Fed.G( Narrati"e in 6ulture. ,he Use of Storytelling in the Sciences, Philoso9hy,
and Literature F LondonC Rout#ed$e( 01;1G.
:-. DALID MASSON( +ritish No"elists and ,heir Styles F LondonC Mac%i##an( 0;:1G4 Sir WAL7ER RALEIG)( ,he 'nglish
No"el F 0;1<G4 Lord DALID CECIL( 'arly 1ictorian No"elists F LondonC Con"tab#e( 01=<G.
:0. GEORGE SAIN7S9URY( ,he $lourishing of *omance and the *ise of Allegory F Edinbur$'C 9#ac>*ood( 0;1@G4 W. 6.
ER( '9ic and *omance F 0;12G4 GUS7ALE LANSON ( -istoire de la litt!rature ftanOise F 0;1<G( re3. edn 6au# 7u55rau
F 6ari"C )ac'ette( 01:0G4 E. A. 9AER( -istory of the 'nglish No"el F 1 3o#"4 LondonC Wit'erby( 01,<!=;G.
:,. )I66OLY7E 7AINE( -istory of 'nglish Literature F 0;2=!<G tran". ). Lan Laun F Ne* Yor>C Un$ar( 012:G4
8ERDINAND 9RUNE77IYRE( L#I"olution des genres dans l#histoire de la litt!rature F 0;1-4 6ari"C )ac'ette( 01;-G4 7. S.
ELIO7( #,radition and the (ndi"idual ,alent# F 0101G( in Selected 'ssays F LondonC 8aber and 8aber( 01:0G4 LUUCS( ,heory
of the No"el and ,he -istorical No"el F 01=@G tran". )anna' Mitc'e## and Stan#ey Mitc'e## F Linco#nC Uni3er"ity o5 Nebra">a
6re""( 01;=G4 RO9ER7 WEIMANN( #'rzFhlerstand9unkt und Point of 1iew) @ur 5eschichte und Aesthetik der Pers9ekti"e im
englischen *oman#( @eitschrift fCr Anglistik und Amerikanistik 2S F 012,GC =21!<024 IAN WA77( ,he *ise of the No"el F 01:@4
)ar%ond"*ort'C 6en$uin( 01;=G4 )AYDEN W)I7E( %etahistory. ,he -istorical (magination in Nineteenth-6entury 'uro9e
F 9a#ti%oreC Jo'n" )o&>in" Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01@=G.
:=. MILE 9ENLENIS7E( Problems in 5eneral Linguistics F 0122G tran". Mary E#iEabet' Mec> F Cora# Gab#e"( 8#a.C
Uni3er"ity o5 Mia%i 6re""( 01@@G4 J. L. AUS7IN( -ow to 4o ,hings with Dords F 012,4 O+5ordC O+5ord Uni3er"ity 6re""(
01;-G4 M. M. 9A)7IN ( ,he 4ialogic (magination F 01=;( &ub. 01@-G tran". Cary# E%er"on and Mic'ae# )o#Bui"t F Au"tinC
Uni3er"ity o5 7e+a" 6re""( 01;0G.
:<. So%e re#e3ant *or>" in #iterary &ra$%atic"C 7EUN A. LAN DIJ Fed.G( 4iscourse and Literature. New A99roaches to the
Analysis of Literary 5enre F A%"terda%C 9enHa%in"( 01;:G4 MARY LOUISE 6RA77( ,oward a S9eech Act ,heory of Literary
4iscourse F 9#oo%in$tonC Indiana Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01@@4 JO)N R. SEARLE( '09ression and %eaning. Studies in the ,heory
of S9eech Acts F Ca%brid$eC Ca%brid$e Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01@1G4 ROGER D. SELL. Fed.G( Literary Pragmatics F LondonC
Rout#ed$e( 011-G.
::. GEORGE )ENRI LON WRIG)7( An 'ssay in 4eontic Logic and the 5eneral ,heory of Action F A%"terda%C Nort'
)o##and( 012;G4 6AUL RICZUR( 4u te0te G l#action F 6ari"C Seui#( 01;2G4 ERLING GO88MAN( $rame Analysis. An 'ssay on
the <rganization of '09erience F Ca%brid$e( Ma"".C )ar3ard Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01@<G.
:2. 6RO66( $olktale4 A.!J. GREIMAS( Structural Semantics. An Attem9t at a %ethod F 0122G tran". Danie#e McDo*e##(
Rona#d Sc'#ei5er and A#an Le#ie( introd. Rona#d Sc'#ei5er F Linco#nC Uni3er"ity o5 Nebra">a 6re""( 01;=G.
26
:@. A. N. LESELOLSI( Poetika siuzheto"( in Sobranie Sochinenii, >?0 F 6eter"bur$( 010=G( &&. 0!0==4 7OMAS)ELSI(
A7'e%atic"A F"e#ect. and tran". o5 ,eoriAa literatury( 01,:G in Le%on and Rei" Fed" and tran".G( *ussian $ormalist 6riticism( &&.
20!1;.
:;. A" a "a%&#e o5 t'ree &o""ib#e direction" c'o"en a%on$ innu%erab#e *or>"C ENNE7) 9URE( A 5rammar of %oti"es
and A *hetoric of %oti"es F C#e3e#andC
!=1!
Wor#d( 012,G4 R. S. CRANE( KA7'e Conce&t o5 6#ot and t'e 6#ot o5 7o% Jone"AK( in 6ritics and 6riticism( ed. R. S. Crane F
01:,4 abrid$ed edn C'ica$oC Uni3er"ity o5 C'ica$o 6re""( 01:@G( &&. 2,!1=4 WILLIAM O. )ENDRICS( 'ssays on
Semiolinguistics and 1erbal Art F 7'e )a$ueC Mouton( 01@=G.
:1. GO88MAN( $rame Analysis4 DALID 9ORDWELL( Narration in the $iction $ilm F Madi"onC Uni3er"ity o5 Wi"con"in
6re""( 01;:G4 EDWARD 9RANIGAN F"ee &&. ,=<!<;( be#o*G.
2-. 8or in"tance( in MARLIN MINSI( KAA 8ra%e*or> 5or Re&re"entin$ no*#ed$eAK( in ,he Psychology of 6om9uter
1ision( ed. R. ). Win"ton F Ne* Yor>C McGra*)i##( 01@:G4 DANIEL G. 9O9ROW( R. A6LAN et a#.( KAGUSC A 8ra%e!
Dri3en Dia#o$ Sy"te%AK( Artificial (ntelligence 8 F 01@@C 0::!@=4 JAMES MEE)AN( KA7a#e!S&inAK( in (nside 6om9uter
Understanding. $i"e Programs Plus %iniatures( ed. Ro$er C. Sc'an> and C'ri"to&'er . Rie"bec> F )i##"da#e( NJC Er#bau%(
01;0G( &&. 01@!,,24 GREGORY G. COLOM9 and MAR 7URNER( KACo%&uter"( Literary 7'eory( and 7'eory o5 Meanin$AK(
in ,he $uture of Literary ,heory( ed. Ra#&' Co'en F Ne* Yor>C Rout#e$e( 01;1G( &&. =;2!<0-.
20. JAMES( #Art of $iction#4 LU99OC( 6raft of $iction4 C)ARLES 9ALLY( KALe style indirect libre en franOais moderneAK(
5ermanisch-*omanische %onatschrift ; F 010,GC :<1!:2( :1@!2-24 9OO7)( *hetoric of $iction4 GENE77E( Narrati"e
4iscourse and Narrati"e 4iscourse *e"isited F 01;=G tran". Jane E. Le*in F It'aca( NY. Corne## Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01;;G4 9AL(
Narratology4 9A)7IN( 4ialogic (magination4 DOUARD DUJARDIN( Le %onologue int!rieur F 6ari"C Me""ein( 01=0G4
RO9ER7 )UM6)REY ( Stream of 6onsciousness in the %odern No"el F 9er>e#eyC Uni3er"ity o5 Ca#i5ornia 6re""( 01:<G4
DORRI7 CO)N( ,rans9arent %inds. Narrati"e %odes for Presenting 6onsciousness in $iction F6rincetonC 6rinceton
Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01@;G4 ROGER 8OWLER( Linguistics and the No"el F 01@@4 LondonC Met'uen( 01;:G.
2,. WALER GI9SON( KAAut'or"( S&ea>er"( Reader"( and Moc> Reader"AK( 6ollege 'nglish 22 F 01;-GC ,2:!1.
2=. GENE77E( Narrati"e 4iscourse4 6RINCE( #(ntroduction to the Study of the Narratee#.
2<. 9AR7)ES S?D4 S7ANLEY 8IS)( (s ,here a ,e0t in ,his 6lassP ,he Authority of (nter9reti"e 6ommunities F Ca%brid$e(
Ma"".C )ar3ard Uni3er"ity 6re"" 01;-G4 ISER( ,he (m9lied *eader and ,he Act of *eading. A ,heory of Aesthetic *es9onse
F 01@24 9a#ti%oreC Jo'n" )o&>in" Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01;-G4 )ORS7 RU7)RO8( ,he *eader#s 6onstruction of Narrati"e
F LondonC Rout#ed$e( 01;0G.
2:. 6E7ER J. RA9INOLI7D( +efore *eading. Narrati"e 6on"entions and the Politics of (nter9retation F It'aca( NYC Corne##
Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01;@G4 KANarrati3e Ana#y"i"C An Interdi"ci&#inary Dia#o$ueAK( "&ecia# i""ue o5 Poetics 2R F A&ri# 01;2G4
KANarrato#o$y Re3i"itedAK( "&ecia# i""ue" o5 Poetics ,oday 22( 0, FSu%%er and Winter 011-( a## 0110G4 NAS) Fed.G( Narrati"e in
6ulture.
22. SC)LEGEL( 4as AthenFum F 0@1;!0;--G in Eritische Schriften( ed. Wo#5dietric' Ra"c' F Munic'( 01:;G4 )EGEL(
'sthetics.
2@. ALAIN RO99E!GRILLE7( $or a New No"el. 'ssays on $iction F 012=G tran". Ric'ard )o*ard F Ne* Yor>C Gro3e(
012:G4 JEAN RICARDOU( Nou"eau0 9robTmes du roman F 6ari"C Seui#( 01@;G4 MIC)AEL 9OYD( ,he *efle0i"e No"el.
$iction as 6riti:ue F Le*i"bur$C 9uc>ne## Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01;=GC 6A7RICIA WAUG)( %etafiction. ,he ,heory and Practice
of Self-6onscious $iction F LondonC Rout#ed$e( 01;<G4 9RIAN Mc)ALE( Postmodernist $iction F LondonC Met'uen( 01;@G4
LINDA )U7C)EON ( A Poetics of Postmodernism. -istory, ,heory, $iction F LondonC Rout#ed$e and e$an 6au#( 01;;G.
!<-!
2;. DALID LODGE( #,he No"elist at the 6rossroads# F 0121G in ,he No"el ,oday. 6ontem9orary
Driters on %odern $iction, ed) %alcolm +radbury F 01@@4 ne* edn LondonC 8ontana( 011-G( &&. ;@!002.
21. RO9ER7 AL7ER( Partial %agic. ,he No"el as a Self-6onscious 5enre F 9er>e#eyC Uni3er"ity o5
Ca#i5ornia 6re""( 01@:G.
27
@-. See LUCIEN DXLLEN9AC)( ,he %irror in the ,e0t F 01@@G tran". Jere%y W'ite#ey and Enuna
)u$'e" F O+5ordC 6o#ity 6re""( 01;1G.
@0. AL7ER( Partial %agic( &. +.
@,. GA9RIEL JOSI6OLICI( ,he Dorld and the +ook. A Study of %odern $iction F Stan5ordC Stan5ord
Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01@0G( &. +i3.
@=. 9A)7IN( 4ialogic (magination4 JULIA RIS7ELA( KA+akhtin, le mot, le dialogue et le romanAK(
6riti:ue >3U F 012@GC <=;!2:.
@<. GENE77E( (ntroduction G l#archite0te F 6ari"C Edition" du Seui#( 01@1G.
@:. 8RYE( Anatomy of 6riticism.
@2. 8REDRIC JAMESON( ,he Political Unconscious. Narrati"e as a Socially Symbolic Act F It'aca(
NY. Corne## Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01;0G.
@@. 8REUD( #6reati"e Driters and 4aydreaming# F 01-;G in Ada%" Fed.G( 6ritical ,heory since Plato(
&&. @<1!:=( and 4er Dahn und die ,rFume in D) &ensens Gradi3a F Lei&Ei$C )e##en( 01-@G.
@;. A7E MILLE77( Se0ual Politics F 01214 LondonC Lira$o( 01@@G4 ELLEN MOERS( Literary
Domen. ,he 5reat Driters F Garden City( NYC Doub#eday( 01@2G4 SANDRA M. GIL9ER7 and SUSAN GU9AR( ,he
%adwoman in the Attic. ,he Doman Driter and the Nineteenth-6entury Literary (magination F Ne* )a3enC Ya#e Uni3er"ity
6re""( 01@1G.
@1. See( 5or in"tance( JUDI7) 8E77ERLEY( ,he *esisting *eader. A $eminist A99roach to American
$iction F 9#oo%in$tonC Indiana Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01@;G4 NANCY . MILLER ( SubAect to 6hange. *eading $eminist Driting
F Ne* Yor>C Co#u%bia Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01;;G.
;-. 6AUL RICZUR( ,ime and Narrati"e( 3o#. 0 F 01;=G tran". at'#een McLau$'#in and Da3id
6e##auer4 3o#. , F 01;<G tran". at'#een McLau$'#in and Da3id 6e##auer4 3o#. = F 01;:G tran". at'#een 9#arney and Da3id
6e##auer F C'ica$oC Uni3er"ity o5 C'ica$o 6re""( 01;<( 01;2( 01;;G.
;0. DIANE ELAM( *omancing the Postmodern F LondonC Rout#ed$e( 011,G( &. 2;.
;,. W)I7E( %etahistory and ,he 6ontent of the $orm. Narrati"e 4iscourse and -istorical
*e9resentation F 9a#ti%oreC Jo'n" )o&>in" Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01;@GC DOMINIC LACA6RA ( -istory and 6riticism F It'aca(
NYC Corne## Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01;:G and -istory, Politics, and the No"el F It'aca( NYCCorne## Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01;@G.
Part T&o
Narrati(! structur!: story
!10!
1 2abula an# +3u4h!t in th! Analysis o Narrati(!: +o'! A'!rican Discussions
H

JONA7)AN CULLER
Jonat'an Cu##er i" one o5 t'e %ain "e%iotician" in t'e An$#o!Sa+on "&'ere. )e 'a" bot' ada&ted and criticiEed t'e Euro&ean
"tructura#i"t "c'oo#" in 'i" in5#uentia# Structuralist Poetics F 01@:G and ,he Pursuit of Signs. Semiotics, Literature,
4econstruction F 01;=G. )e i" a#"o t'e aut'or o5 <n 4econstruction F 01;,G( &robab#y t'e %o"t in5#uentia# o3er3ie* and
a""e""%ent o5 decon"tructi3e t'eory. Cu##er ar$ue" t'at t'e decon"tructi3i"t &roHect doe" not de#e$iti%iEe "tructura#i"t t'eory( but
co%&#e%ent" it. In t'e artic#e re&rinted 'ere 'e attac>" t'e *ide"&read a""u%&tion a%on$ 8renc' narrato#o$i"t" t'at e3ent" at
5abu#a #e3e# are arran$ed accordin$ to a true or natura# order( #ater %odi5ied and di"ru&ted by t'e reBuire%ent" o5 narrati3e
&re"entation at di"cour"e #e3e#. Dra*in$ on t'e A%erican t'eoretica# tradition( Cu##er contend" t'at #iterary a" *e## a" non!
#iterary narrati3e" are or$aniEed around a doub#e( contradictory #o$ic( t'e #o$ic o5 e3ent"( *'ic' rein5orce" t'e cau"a# e55icacy o5
ori$in" and a""u%e" t'e &ri%acy o5 e3ent" re$ard#e"" o5 t'eir "i$ni5ication( and t'e order o5 co'erence( *'ic' denie" t'eir cau"a#
e55icacy and treat" t'e e3ent" a" &ri%ari#y t'e &roduct" o5 %eanin$. Cu##erA" t'e"i" i" t'at t'e"e o&&o"ed #o$ic" do not cance# eac'
28
ot'er( but rat'er create a ten"ion on *'ic' t'e &o*er o5 t'e narration de&end"( a" 'e 5orce5u##y de%on"trate" in 'i" ana#y"i" o5
"e3era# #iterary and non!#iterary narrati3e". Cu##erA" de5inition o5 5abu#a a" a tro&o#o$ica# con"truction( t'e &roduct( rat'er t'an
t'e rea#ity re&orted by di"cour"e( i" in #ine *it' Mie>e 9a# 3ie* in Narratology F 01;:G t'at t'e 5abu#a i" t'e %o"t ab"tract o5 a##
narrati3e #e3e#".
A#t'ou$' t'e idea o5 narrato#o$y and t'e &roHect o5 a grammaire du r!cit "ee% to 'a3e ari"en and acBuired t'eir 5orce *it'in
8renc' "tructura#i"% and recent *or> in t'i" e+&andin$ 5ie#d 'a" been do%inated or &ro3o>ed by t'e &rob#e%" rai"ed in
"tructura#i"t
[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[
\
Re&rinted 5ro% Poetics ,oday 2. = F 01;-GC ,@!=@. 8ir"t &re"ented at Syno9sis > KANarrati3e 7'eory and 6oetic" o5 8ictionAK(
an Internationa# Sy%&o"iu% 'e#d at t'e 6orter In"titute 5or 6oetic" and Se%iotic"( 7e# A3i3 Uni3er"ity( and t'e Lan Leer
Jeru"a#e% 8oundation( 02!,, June 01@1.
!1=!
account" o5 narrati3e( t'ere 'a" been an i%&ortant A%erican tradition in t'e "tudy o5 narrati3e( *'o"e "a#ient %o%ent" are )enry
Ja%e" Prefaces( 6ercy Lubboc> ,he 6raft of $iction and Wayne 9oot' ,he *hetoric of $iction. In"&ired by t'e"e e+a%&#e"(
critic" 'a3e done %uc' detai#ed and &erce&ti3e *or> on &rob#e%" o5 narrati3e tec'niBue and in &articu#ar on narrati3e &oint o5
3ie*. I5 one *ere to "u%%ariEe 3ery crude#y t'e t'eoretica# c#ai%" o5 t'i" critica# tradition( t'ey %i$'t run "o%e*'at a" 5o##o*"C
e3ery narrati3e 'a" a narrator( *'et'er or not 'e i" e+&#icit#y identi5ied. 7o inter&ret a narrati3e one %u"t identi5y t'e i%&#ied
narrator and *'at in t'e "tory be#on$" to 'i" &er"&ecti3e( di"tin$ui"'in$ bet*een t'e action it"e#5 and t'e narrati3e &er"&ecti3e on
t'at action( 5or one o5 t'e centra# t'e%atic i""ue" o5 e3ery "tory i" t'e re#ation"'i& bet*een t'e i%&#ied narrator F*it' 'i"
>no*#ed$e( 3a#ue"( etc.G and t'e "tory *'ic' 'e narrate".
7'e e55ect o5 recent 8renc' *or> in narrato#o$y on t'i" tradition 'a" been to &ro3o>e %ore atte%&t" to "y"te%atiEe and re5ine t'e
%ode#" and conce&t" *'ic' 'ad o5ten been u"ed in an ad 'oc *ay to inter&ret indi3idua# te+t". So *e 'a3e *itne""ed( 5or
e+a%&#e( Gera#d 6rinceA" de3e#o&%ent o5 t'e conce&t o5 Anarratee(A a" di"tin$ui"'ed 5ro% Ai%&#ied readerA !! an i%&ortant
di"tinction *'ic' &re3iou" *riter" 'ad $enera##y o3er#oo>ed !! and Sey%our C'at%an i%&ortant *or> o5 "ynt'e"i"( Story and
4iscourse. Indeed( narrato#o$y "ee%" to %e at t'e %o%ent a 5#ouri"'in$ area o5 A%erican critici"%( &er'a&" becau"e it i" t'e
area in *'ic' it "ee%" %o"t &o""ib#e to ac'ie3e inte$ration( or at #ea"t dia#o$ue( bet*een an A%erican critica# tradition and
3ariou" Euro&ean t'eoretica# de3e#o&%ent".
W'at I a% $oin$ to di"cu"" i" not( 'o*e3er( t'i" tradition !! t'e "tudy o5 &oint o5 3ie* #ea3ened *it' "tructura#i"% and
5or%a#i"% !but rat'er "o%e recent di"cu""ion" o5 narrati3e *'ic' can be a#i$ned *it' t'i" tradition in t'at t'ey in3e"ti$ate
"o%et'in$ *'ic' t'e tradition o5 &oint o5 3ie* "tudie" %u"t( a" it *ere( ta>e 5or $ranted. I5 one i" to "tudy &oint o5 3ie* and
narrati3e tec'niBue( i5( %ore $enera##y( one i" to "tudy t'e re#ation"'i& bet*een t'e di"cour"e o5 a te+t and t'e "tory it te##"( t'en
t'e notion o5 fabula( "tory( &#ot( action !! ca## it *'at you *i## !! beco%e" t'e $round o5 oneA" endea3or( t'e 9oint d#a99ui *'ic'
%a>e" t'e "tudy o5 &oint o5 3ie* &o""ib#e. 8or t'e "tudy o5 &oint o5 3ie* to %a>e any "en"e( t'ere %u"t be 3ariou" contra"tin$
*ay" o5 3ie*in$ and te##in$ a $i3en "tory( and t'i" %a>e" A"toryA an in3ariant core( a "eBuence o5 action" *'ic' can be &re"ented
in any o5 3ariou" *ay". Action beco%e" "o%et'in$ t'at e+i"t" inde&endent#y o5 narrati3e &re"entation4 in &rinci&#e it e+i"t" &rior
to any narrati3e &re"entation and cou#d be &re"ented in ot'er *ay". 8or e+a%&#e( *'en GIrard Genette "et" out to "tudy t'e
co%&#icated
!1<!
te%&ora# re#ation"'i&" bet*een r!cit and discours in 'i" KDi"cour" du rIcit(A 'e %u"t a""u%e t'at e3ent" o5 t'e r!cit
occurred in "o%e order and t'at eac' e3ent occurred eit'er once or %ore t'an once F Genette( 01@,G. 7'en 'e can de"cribe t'e
narrati3e &re"entation a" a tran"5or%ation o5 t'e true or ori$ina# order o5 e3ent". O5 cour"e( in a &articu#ar narrati3e it %ay be
i%&o""ib#e to te## 5ro% t'e e3idence &re"ented *'et'er e3ent A &receded or 5o##o*ed e3ent 9( but "ince it i" a""u%ed t'at at t'e
#e3e# o5 fabula t'ere %u"t 'a3e been a true order( t'i" i%&o""ibi#ity can be ta>en a" a 5act about &oint o5 3ie*. Wit'out t'e
a""u%&tion t'at t'ere i" a true order o5 e3ent" &rior to narrati3e &re"entation( one cou#d not c#ai% t'at t'e #ac> o5 order *a" t'e
re"u#t o5 &oint o5 3ie*.
O5 cour"e it i" not unrea"onab#e to a""u%e t'at e3ent" do occur in "o%e order and t'at a de"cri&tion o5 e3ent" &re"u&&o"e" t'e
&rior e+i"tence o5 t'o"e e3ent". 9ut in a&&#yin$ to t'e te+t o5 narrati3e t'e"e &er5ect#y rea"onab#e a""u%&tion" about t'e *or#d(
*e i"o#ate a #e3e# o5 "tructure( ca## it fabula( *'ic' *e treat a" "o%et'in$ $i3en( a con"tant( a "eBuence o5 e3ent"( *'ic' t'e
narrati3e &re"u&&o"e" and *'ic' it cou#d de"cribe in 3ariou" *ay". 9y identi5yin$ t'i" "eBuence o5 action" a" *'at t'e te+t i"
de"cribin$( *e %a>e it &o""ib#e to treat e3eryt'in$ e#"e in t'e te+t a" *ay" o5 3ie*in$( &re"entin$( 3a#uin$( or orderin$ t'i" non!
te+tua# "ub"tratu%.
29
7'i" 'a" $enera##y been a 5ruit5u# *ay o5 &roceedin$( but a" %y de"cri&tion %ay a#ready 'a3e "u$$e"ted( it in3o#3e" an o&eration
*'ic' can certain#y be Bue"tionedC t'e 'euri"tic de5inition o5 a Atrue "eBuence o5 action"A *'ic' narrati3e di"cour"e i" t'en "aid to
&re"ent. 7'e ana#y"e" o5 narrati3e *'ic' I &ro&o"e to di"cu"" brac>et t'e Bue"tion o5 &oint o5 3ie* and i%&#ied narrator and treat
t'e fabula it"e#5 not a" a $i3en but a" a tro&o#o$ica# con"truct. I5 one *i"'ed to identi5y t'i" "ort o5 ana#y"i" by it" t'eoretica#
a##e$iance"( one %i$'t cite NietE"c'eA" tro&o#o$ica# decon"truction o5 cau"a#ity F De Man( 01@<( 01@:G or ennet' 9ur>eA"
account o5 narrati3e a" t'e tro&o#o$ica# Ate%&ora#iEin$ o5 e""enceA F 0121C <=-!<-G V . . . W
6au# de ManA" 3ie* o5 narrati3e a" t'e e+&an"ion or #itera#iEation o5 tro&o#o$ica# "tructure" F 01@@G and J. )i##i" Mi##erA" account
o5 t'e *ay narrati3e" c#ai% t'e "tatu" o5 'i"tory 5or t'eir &#ot" and t'en "'o* 'i"tory to ori$inate in an act o5 di"cur"i3e
inter&retation F 01@<G a#"o be#on$ to t'i" $enera# a&&roac' to narrati3e( but I a% intere"ted in %ore re"tricted ana#y"e" *'ic'
e+&#icit#y identi5y fabula not a" t'e rea#ity re&orted by di"cour"e but a" it" &roduct.
7o i##u"trate t'e >ind o5 &rob#e%" and i""ue" in3o#3ed( #et u" "tart *it' a 5a%i#iar e+a%&#e( t'e "tory o5 Oedi&u". 7raditiona#
narrati3e ana#y"i" *ou#d identi5y t'e "erie" o5 e3ent" *'ic' con"titute t'e action o5 t'e "tory F Oedi&u" i" abandoned on Mt.
Cit'aeron( re"cued by a
!1:!
"'e&'erd( rai"ed in Corint'4 'e >i##" Laiu" at t'e cro""road"( an"*er" t'e S&'in+A" ridd#e( %arrie" Joca"ta( "ee>" t'e
%urderer o5 Laiu"( di"co3er" 'i" $ui#t and b#ind" 'i%"e#5G( and *ou#d de"cribe t'e order and &er"&ecti3e in *'ic' t'e"e e3ent" o5
t'e &#ot are &re"ented in t'e di"cour"e o5 t'e &#ay. It a""u%e"( in ot'er *ord"( t'at t'e"e e3ent" con"titute t'e rea#ity o5 t'e "tory
and it t'en a">" about t'e "i$ni5icance o5 t'e *ay in *'ic' t'ey are &re"ented. In t'e ca"e o5 Oedi&u" a" in %any ot'er
narrati3e"( o5 *'ic' t'e detecti3e "tory i" t'e %o"t co%%on in"tance( t'e di"cour"e 5ocu"e" on t'e brin$in$ to #i$'t o5 a crucia#
e3ent( *'ic' t'e "tory identi5ie" a" a rea#ity *'ic' deter%ine" "i$ni5icance. So%eone >i##ed Laiu"( and t'e &rob#e% i" to di"co3er
*'at in 5act 'a&&ened at t'at 5ate5u# %o%ent in t'e &a"t.
7'i" *ay o5 t'in>in$ about t'e &#ay i" c#ear#y e""entia# to it" &o*er( but one can a#"o ar$ue t'at t'i" "u&&o"ed e3ent( Oedi&u"A"
"#ayin$ o5 Laiu"( i" not "o%et'in$ $i3en a" rea#ity but i" &roduced by a tro&o#o$ica# o&eration( t'e re"u#t o5 narrati3e
reBuire%ent". Once *e are *e## into t'e &#ay( it i" c#ear to u" t'at Oedi&u" %u"t be $ui#ty( ot'er*i"e t'e ta#e *i## not *or> at a##.
And t'i" i" not "i%&#y a %atter o5 t'e reader re"&ondin$ to a &ecu#iar ae"t'etic #o$ic. Oedi&u" too 5ee#" t'e 5orce o5 t'i" #o$ic. It
'a" been &ro&'e"ied( a5ter a##( t'at 'e *ou#d >i## 'i" 5at'er. It *a" &ro&'e"ied t'at Laiu" *ou#d be >i##ed by 'i" "on. Oedi&u"
ad%it" to 'a3in$ >i##ed an o#d %an at about t'e ri$'t ti%e and &#ace. So *'en t'e "'e&'erd re3ea#" t'at Oedi&u" i" in 5act t'e "on
o5 Laiu"( Oedi&u" #ea&" to t'e conc#u"ion( and e3ery reader #ea&" *it' 'i%( t'at 'e did in 5act >i## Laiu". )e #ea&" to t'i"
conc#u"ion not on t'e ba"i" o5 e%&irica# e3idence or eye*itne"" account" Ft'e on#y *itne"" 'a" to#d a "tory t'at i" inco%&atib#e
*it' Oedi&u"A" $ui#tC t'at t'ere *ere %any %urderer"( *'erea" Oedi&u" c#ai%" 'e acted a#oneG( but i" co%&e##ed rat'er by
%eanin$( by t'e inter*ea3in$ o5 &ro&'e"ie" and t'e de%and" o5 narrati3e co'erence. In"tead o5 "ayin$( t'ere5ore( t'at t'ere are
e3ent" *'ic' too> &#ace and *'ic' t'e &#ay re3ea#" in a certain order and *it' certain detour"( *e can "ay t'at t'e crucia# e3ent
it"e#5 i" a &roduct o5 t'e de%and" o5 "i$ni5ication. In"tead o5 e3ent deter%inin$ %eanin$ and %eanin$ bein$ t'e re"u#t or e55ect
o5 a crucia# e3ent( it turn" out t'at %eanin$ i" t'e cau"e o5 t'e e3ent( t'e cau"e o5 it" cau"e( in a tro&o#o$ica# o&eration t'at can be
a""i%i#ated to %etony%y FA"ub"titution o5 cau"e 5or e55ect or e55ect 5or cau"eAG.
Oedi&u" beco%e" t'e %urderer o5 'i" 5at'er not by a 3io#ent act t'at i" brou$'t to #i$'t but by dee%in$ t'i" act to 'a3e ta>en
&#ace( by bo*in$ to t'e de%and" o5 narrati3e co'erence. Reader" cannot e"ca&e t'i" &roce"" eit'erC t'e te+t &er"uade" u" t'at
t'i" e3ent %u"t 'a3e ta>en &#ace. A#t'ou$' in t'eory t'e deed ou$'t to be t'e cau"e
!12!
o5 Oedi&u"A" $ui#t( t'e &#ay %a>e" &o""ib#e an a#ternati3e readin$ in *'ic' cau"e and e55ect are re3er"ed and $ui#t i" *'at
&roduce" t'e deed. And it i" e""entia# to t'e tra$ic 5orce o5 t'e &#ay t'at Oedi&u" "'ou#d ta>e t'i" #ea&( e%brace $ui#t and dee%
t'e act to 'a3e ta>en &#ace rat'er t'an( "ay( re"i"t t'e #o$ic o5 "i$ni5ication and deny 'i" $ui#t unti# actua# &roo5 i" obtained. In
identi5yin$ t'i" a#ternati3e #o$ic in *'ic' t'e e3ent i" not a cau"e but an e55ect o5 t'e%e( one i" 'e#&in$ to account 5or t'e 5orce
o5 t'e narrati3e.
9ut it i" certain#y not t'e ca"e t'at in de"cribin$ t'e &#ay in t'i" *ay *e 'a3e re&#aced a de#uded or incorrect %ode# o5 narrati3e
by a correct one. On t'e contrary( it i" ob3iou" t'at %uc' o5 t'e &o*er o5 <edi9us de&end" on t'e a""u%&tion t'at t'ere i" a &rior
5act *'ic' occu&ie" a deter%inate &#ace in t'e cau"a# "eBuence o5 action" but *'ic' t'e narrati3e &er"&ecti3e on#y $radua##y
re3ea#". It i" e""entia# to be#ie3e t'at Oedi&u"A" innocence or $ui#t i" deter%ined by an e3ent in t'e &a"t *'ic' 'a" a#ready ta>en
&#ace but *'ic' 'a" not yet been re3ea#ed. On t'e ot'er 'and( a" *e 'a3e a#ready "u$$e"ted( t'e tra$ic 5orce o5 t'e endin$
de&end" on &reci"e#y t'e contrary #o$ic *'ereby Oedi&u" &o"it" t'e act on t'e ba"i" o5 a "tructure o5 "i$ni5ication and *'ereby
30
'e and t'e reader" are con3inced t'at 'e did >i## 'i" 5at'er not by deci"i3e te"ti%ony o5 *itne""e" Ft'e *itne"" i" ne3er e3en
a">ed t'e crucia# Bue"tionG but by t'e de%and" o5 "i$ni5ication.
7'e &#ay reBuire"( t'en( a doub#e ana#y"i"( a readin$ in t*o re$i"ter"( one o5 *'ic' a""u%e" t'e &riority o5 act" to t'eir narrati3e
re&re"entation or &re"entation( t'e ot'er *'ic' "ee" &#ot a" a tro&o#o$ica# &roduct o5 narrati3e reBuire%ent". I5 <edi9us "ee%" an
unu"ua# ca"e in t'at it contain" a &o""ib#e uncertainty about a centra# e3ent in t'e &#ot( #et u" con"ider an e+a%&#e 5ro% a 3ery
di55erent &eriod and $enre( Geor$e E#iot 4aniel 4eronda( a" ana#y"ed in a recent artic#e by Cynt'ia C'a"e F 01@;G. Deronda( t'e
ado&ted "on o5 an En$#i"' nob#e%an( i" a ta#ented( "en"iti3e youn$ %an( %o3in$ in $ood "ociety( *'o 'a" been unab#e to decide
on a &ro5e""ion. )e 'a&&en" to re"cue a &oor Je*i"' $ir# *'o *a" tryin$ to dro*n 'er"e#5( and in "earc'in$ 5or 'er 5a%i#y #ater(
'e %eet" 'er brot'er Mordecai( an ai#in$ "c'o#ar *it' *'o% 'e be$in" to "tudy )ebre*. )e de3e#o&" an inten"e intere"t in
Je*i"' cu#ture( 5a##" in #o3e *it' Mira'( t'e $ir# 'e 'a" "a3ed( and i" acce&ted by Mordecai and ot'er" a" a >indred "&irit.
At t'i" &oint Deronda recei3e" a "u%%on" 5ro% 'i" %ot'er *'o( obeyin$ 'er 5at'erA" inHunction( re3ea#" to 'i% t'e "ecret o5 'i"
birt'C 'e i" a Je*. 7'e no3e# e%&'a"iEe" t'e cau"a# 5orce o5 t'i" &a"t e3entC becau"e 'e *a" born a Je*( 'e i" a Je*. Ori$in(
cau"e( and identity are #in>ed in a i%&#icit ar$u%ent t'at i" co%%on to narrati3e. Wit'
!1@!
t'e re3e#ation o5 DerondaA" &arenta$e it i" i%&#ied t'at 'i" &re"ent c'aracter and in3o#3e%ent *it' t'in$" Je*i"' 'a3e been
cau"ed by 'i" Je*i"' ori$in.
9ut on t'e ot'er 'and( a" C'a"e note"( t'e no3e#A" account o5 DerondaA" "ituation 'a" %ade it c#ear to t'e reader t'at t'e
&ro$re""ion o5 'i" de"tiny and t'u" o5 t'e "tory &o"iti3e#y reBuire" t'at 'e turn out to be Je*i"'. Su"&en"e i" 5ocu"ed on 'i"
re#ation"'i& *it' Mira' and Mordecai( "o t'at "o%et'in$ #i>e t'i" re3e#ation i" reBuired 5or t'e re"o#ution o5 t'e &#ot4 and
Mordecai 'a" e+&#icit#y "tre""ed 'i" 5ait' t'at Deronda i" Je*i"'. 7'u" it "ee%" t'at DerondaA" Je*i"' &arenta$e i" "o%et'in$
t'at can be deduced 5ir"t 5ro% 'i" identity !! 'i" Bua#itie" and be'a3ior a" &re"ented in 'i" re#ation" *it' Mordecai and Mira' !!
and "econd 5ro% t'e &atent "trate$y and direction o5 t'e narrati3e. A7'e re3e#ation o5 DerondaA" ori$in" t'ere5ore a&&ear" a" t'e
e55ect o5 narrati3e reBuire%ent". 7'e "u&&o"ed cau"e o5 'i" c'aracter and 3ocation Faccordin$ to t'e c'a&ter" recountin$ t'e
di"c#o"ureG( DerondaA" ori$in &re"ent" it"e#5 Fin t'e #i$'t o5 t'e re"t o5 t'e te+tG rat'er a" t'e e55ect o5 t'e account o5 'i" 3ocationC
'i" ori$in i" t'e e55ect o5 it" e55ect"A F C'a"e( 01@;C ,0;G.
It i" i%&ortant to "tre"" 'ere t'at( a" in t'e ca"e o5 <edi9us( t'ere i" no Bue"tion o5 5indin$ a co%&ro%i"e 5or%u#ation *'ic'
*ou#d do Hu"tice to bot' &re"entation" o5 t'e e3ent by a3oidin$ e+tre%e"( 5or t'e &o*er o5 t'e narrati3e de&end" &reci"e#y on t'e
a#ternati3e u"e o5 e+tre%e"( t'e ri$orou" de&#oy%ent o5 t*o #o$ic"( eac' o5 *'ic' *or>" by e+c#udin$ t'e ot'er. It *onAt do to
"ay( 5or e+a%&#e( t'at DerondaA" in3o#3e%ent *it' Judai"% i" &art#y but not co%&#ete#y t'e re"u#t o5 'i" birt'( and t'at t'e
re3e#ation o5 'i" birt' i" t'ere5ore in &art an e+&#anation and in &art a narrati3e 5u#5i##%ent. 7'i" "ort o5 5or%u#ation i" *ron$
becau"e t'e &o*er o5 E#iotA" no3e# de&end" &reci"e#y on t'e 5act t'at DerondaA" co%%it%ent to Judai"% and idea#i"%( in"tead o5
to t'e 5ri3o#ou" "ociety in *'ic' 'e 'a" been rai"ed( i" &re"ented a" a 5ree c'oice. 7o 'a3e e+e%&#ary %ora# 3a#ue it %u"t be
&re"ented a" a c'oice( not a" t'e ine#uctab#e re"u#t o5 t'e 'idden 5act o5 &arenta$e. It a#"o %u"t be &re"ented a" *'o#e'earted( not
a" a di#ettanti"' dabb#in$ *'ic' *ou#d t'en be tran"5or%ed into co%%it%ent by re3e#ation o5 t'e 5act o5 birt'. 7'e no3e#
reBuire" t'at DerondaA" co%%it%ent to Judai"% be inde&endent o5 t'e re3e#ation o5 'i" Je*i"'ne"" !! t'i" i" t'e%atica##y and
et'ica##y e""entia# !! yet it" account o5 Je*i"'ne"" doe" not a##o* 5or t'e &o""ibi#ity o5 con3er"ion and in"i"t" on t'e
irre&#aceabi#ity o5 ori$in"C to be a Je* i" to 'a3e been born a Je*. 7'e"e t*o #o$ic"( one o5 *'ic' in"i"t" u&on t'e cau"a#
e55icacy o5 ori$in" and t'e ot'er o5 *'ic' denie" t'eir cau"a# e55icacy( are in contradiction but t'ey are e""entia# to t'e *ay in
!1;!
*'ic' t'e narrati3e 5unction". Once #o$ic a""u%e" t'e &ri%acy o5 e3ent"4 t'e ot'er treat" t'e e3ent" a" t'e &roduct" o5 %eanin$".
One cou#d ar$ue t'at e3ery narrati3e o&erate" accordin$ to t'i" doub#e #o$ic( &re"entin$ it" &#ot a" a "eBuence o5 e3ent" *'ic' i"
&rior to and inde&endent o5 t'e $i3en &er"&ecti3e on t'e"e e3ent"( and( at t'e "a%e ti%e( "u$$e"tin$ by it" i%&#icit c#ai%" to
"i$ni5icance t'at t'e"e e3ent" are Hu"ti5ied by t'eir a&&ro&riatene"" to a t'e%atic "tructure. A" critic" *e ado&t t'e 5ir"t
&er"&ecti3e *'en *e debate t'e "i$ni5icance o5 a c'aracterA" action" Fta>in$ t'o"e action" a" $i3enG. We ado&t t'e "econd
&er"&ecti3e *'en *e di"cu"" t'e a&&ro&riatene"" or ina&&ro&riatene"" o5 an endin$ F*'en *e debate *'et'er t'e"e action" are
a&&ro&riate e+&re""ion" o5 t'e t'e%atic "tructure *'ic' ou$'t to deter%ine t'e%G. 7'eori"t" o5 narrati3e 'a3e a#*ay"( o5 cour"e(
reco$niEed t'e"e t*o &er"&ecti3e"( but t'ey 'a3e &er'a&" been too ready to a""u%e t'at t'ey can be 'e#d to$et'er( "ynt'e"iEed in
"o%e *ay *it'out contradiction. It i" &reci"e#y t'i" contradiction *'ic' *i## o5ten %ani5e"t it"e#5 a" a %o%ent in t'e "tory t'at
31
"ee%" eit'er "u&er5#ou" or e#"e too neat( *'ic' recent *or> on narrati3e 'a" brou$'t to t'e 5ore( "tre""in$ it" i%&ortance to t'e
r'etorica# 5orce o5 t'e te+t.
7'ou$' %y e+a%&#e" "o 5ar 'a3e been <edi9us *e0 and 4aniel 4eronda( t'i" doub#e #o$ic i" by no %ean" con5ined to 5ictiona#
narrati3e". In "e3era# intere"tin$ artic#e" 6eter 9roo>" 'a" di"cu""ed narrati3e in 8reud( de"cribin$ a co%&#e+ "ituation F 01@@(
01@1G. On t'e one 'and( 8reudian t'eory %a>e" narrati3e t'e &re5erred %ode o5 e+&#anation. 6"yc'oana#y"i" doe" not &ro&o"e
"cienti5ic #a*" o5 t'e 5or% Ai5 Q( t'en Y.A 6"yc'oana#ytic under"tandin$ in3o#3e" tracin$ a &'eno%enon to it" ori$in( "eein$ 'o*
one t'in$ #ead" to anot'er. 8reudA" ca"e 'i"torie" are t'e%"e#3e" o5ten narrati3e" o5 'i" conduct o5 t'e ca"e( but( %ore i%&ortant(
'e e+&#ain" a neuro"i" or &"yc'o"i" by recon"tructin$ a &#ot( by te##in$ *'at 'a&&ened. Li>e <edi9us and 4aniel 4eronda(
8reudA" narrati3e" #ead to t'e re3e#ation o5 a deci"i3e e3ent *'ic'( *'en &#aced in t'e true "eBuence o5 e3ent"( can be "een a" a
t'e cau"e o5 t'e &re"ent "ituation.
V . . . W
In ,otem and ,aboo 8reud te##" o5 a deci"i3e 'i"torica# e3ent in &ri%iti3e ti%e"C a Hea#ou" and tyrannica# 5at'er( *'o >e&t a## t'e
*o%en 5or 'i%"e#5 and dro3e a*ay t'e "on" a" t'ey reac'ed %aturity( *a" >i##ed and de3oured by t'e "on" *'o 'ad banded
to$et'er. 7'i" A%e%orab#e and cri%ina# deedA *a" t'e be$innin$ o5 "ocia# or$aniEation( re#i$ion( and %ora# re"triction"( "ince t'e
$ui#t #ed to t'e creation o5 taboo". 7'i" 'i"torica# e3ent( 8reud c#ai%"( re%ain" e55icaciou" to t'i" day. We in'erit and re&eat t'e
*i"' i5 not t'e
!11!
actua# deed( and t'e $ui#t *'ic' ari"e" 5ro% t'i" *i"' >ee&" t'e con"eBuence" o5 t'e deed a#i3e in an unbro>en
narrati3e.
9ut c#ear#y i5 $ui#t can be created by de"ire" a" *e## a" by act"( it i" &o""ib#e t'at t'e ori$inary act ne3er too> &#ace. 8reud ad%it"
t'at t'e re%or"e %ay 'a3e been &ro3o>ed by t'e "on"A 5anta"y o5 >i##in$ t'e 5at'er Fby t'e i%a$ination o5 an e3entG. 7'i" i" a
&#au"ib#e 'y&ot'e"i"( 'e "ay"( Aand no da%a$e *ou#d t'u" be done to t'e cau"a# c'ain "tretc'in$ 5ro% t'e be$innin$ to t'e
&re"ent dayA F 01:-C 02G. C'oo"in$ bet*een t'e"e a#ternati3e" i" no ea"y %atter4 'o*e3er( 'e add"( Ait %u"t be con5e""ed t'at t'e
di"tinction *'ic' %ay "ee% 5unda%enta# to ot'er &eo&#e doe" not in our Hud$%ent a55ect t'e 'eart o5 t'e %atter.A V . . . W
E%&'a"i" on e3ent and e%&'a"i" on %eanin$ $i3e t'e "a%e narrati3e. 9ut once a$ain( one cannot 5ai# to *i"' to c'oo"e( and
8reud doe"C &ri%iti3e %en *ere unin'ibited4 5or t'e% t'ou$'t &a""ed direct#y into action. Wit' t'e% it i" rat'er t'e deed t'at i"
t'e "ub"titute 5or t'ou$'t. And t'i" i" *'y( *it'out #ayin$ c#ai% to any 5ina#ity o5 Hud$%ent( I t'in> t'at in t'e ca"e be5ore u" it
%ay be a""u%ed t'at Kin t'e be$innin$ *a" t'e DeedKA F 01:-C 020G.
A "a5e a""u%&tion( &er'a&"( but "a5e becau"e it i" "o eBui3oca#. 8reud 'ere "tart" *it' t'e 5anta"y and a""ert" t'at 5or &ri%iti3e
%en t'e deed *a" a "ub"titute 5or t'e 5anta"y. 7'e deed tru#y too> &#ace( 'e c#ai%"( but 'i" 5or%u#ation &re3ent" one 5ro% ta>in$
t'e deed a" a $i3en "ince it i" it"e#5 but a "ub"titute 5or t'e 5anta"y( a &roduct o5 t'i" &ri%a# 5anta"y. And in c#ai%in$ t'at in t'e
be$innin$ *a" t'e Deed( 8reud re5er" u" not to an e3ent but to a "i$ni5yin$ "tructure( anot'er te+t( Goet'e $aust in *'ic' AdeedA
i" but a "ub"titute 5or A*ordA. ]uotin$ Goet'e in a""ertin$ an ori$inary deed( 8reud cannot but re5er u" to an ori$inary *ordC t'e
*ord t'at *a" in t'e be$innin$ and t'e ori$ina# aut'oritati3e *ord o5 Scri&ture. 7'e t*o &er"&ecti3e"( in t'e be$innin$ *a" t'e
Deed and in t'e be$innin$ *a" t'e Word( are certain#y in con5#ict( and et'ica# concern" de%and a c'oice( but a" 8reudA" te+t
"'o*"( e3en *'en one trie" to c'oo"e one doe" not e"ca&e t'e a#ternati3e one tried to reHect.
I 'a3e been o55erin$ e+a%&#e" o5 an a&&roac' to narrati3e *'ic'( un#i>e "tudie" o5 &oint o5 3ie* t'at 'a3e do%inated A%erican
narrati3e t'eory in t'e &a"t( doe" not a""u%e t'e &ri%acy o5 e3ent "o a" to 5ocu" on %ean" o5 &re"entation but rat'er e+&#ore" t'e
co%&#e+ interaction o5 t*o %ode" o5 deter%ination *'ic' bot' "ee% nece""ary to narrati3e but *'ic' do not $i3e ri"e to a
'ar%oniou" "ynt'e"i". 7'e e+a%&#e" I 'a3e u"ed 'a3e been #iterary and t'eoretica# narrati3e" and I *ou#d #i>e to conc#ude *it'
a brie5 di"cu""ion o5 anot'er "&ecie"( *'at Wi##ia% Labo3 ca##" Anatura# narrati3e.A
In 'i" "tudie" o5 t'e b#ac> En$#i"' 3ernacu#ar( Labo3 beca%e
!0--
actua# deed( and t'e $ui#t *'ic' ari"e" 5ro% t'i" *i"' >ee&" t'e con"eBuence" o5 t'e deed a#i3e in an unbro>en narrati3e.
9ut c#ear#y i5 $ui#t can be created by de"ire" a" *e## a" by act"( it i" &o""ib#e t'at t'e ori$inary act ne3er too> &#ace. 8reud ad%it"
t'at t'e re%or"e %ay 'a3e been &ro3o>ed by t'e "on"A 5anta"y o5 >i##in$ t'e 5at'er Fby t'e i%a$ination o5 an e3entG. 7'i" i" a
32
&#au"ib#e 'y&ot'e"i"( 'e "ay"( Aand no da%a$e *ou#d t'u" be done to t'e cau"a# c'ain "tretc'in$ 5ro% t'e be$innin$ to t'e
&re"ent dayA F 01:-C 02G. C'oo"in$ bet*een t'e"e a#ternati3e" i" no ea"y %atter4 'o*e3er( 'e add"( Ait %u"t be con5e""ed t'at t'e
di"tinction *'ic' %ay "ee% 5unda%enta# to ot'er &eo&#e doe" not in our Hud$%ent a55ect t'e 'eart o5 t'e %atter.A V . . . W
E%&'a"i" on e3ent and e%&'a"i" on %eanin$ $i3e t'e "a%e narrati3e. 9ut once a$ain( one cannot 5ai# to *i"' to c'oo"e( and
8reud doe"C &ri%iti3e %en *ere unin'ibited4 5or t'e% t'ou$'t &a""ed direct#y into action. Wit' t'e% it i" rat'er t'e deed t'at i"
t'e "ub"titute 5or t'ou$'t. And t'i" i" *'y( *it'out #ayin$ c#ai% to any 5ina#ity o5 Hud$%ent( I t'in> t'at in t'e ca"e be5ore u" it
%ay be a""u%ed t'at Kin t'e be$innin$ *a" t'e DeedKA F 01:-C 020G.
A "a5e a""u%&tion( &er'a&"( but "a5e becau"e it i" "o eBui3oca#. 8reud 'ere "tart" *it' t'e 5anta"y and a""ert" t'at 5or &ri%iti3e
%en t'e deed *a" a "ub"titute 5or t'e 5anta"y. 7'e deed tru#y too> &#ace( 'e c#ai%"( but 'i" 5or%u#ation &re3ent" one 5ro% ta>in$
t'e deed a" a $i3en "ince it i" it"e#5 but a "ub"titute 5or t'e 5anta"y( a &roduct o5 t'i" &ri%a# 5anta"y. And in c#ai%in$ t'at in t'e
be$innin$ *a" t'e Deed( 8reud re5er" u" not to an e3ent but to a "i$ni5yin$ "tructure( anot'er te+t( Goet'e $aust in *'ic' AdeedA
i" but a "ub"titute 5or A*ordA. ]uotin$ Goet'e in a""ertin$ an ori$inary deed( 8reud cannot but re5er u" to an ori$inary *ordC t'e
*ord t'at *a" in t'e be$innin$ and t'e ori$ina# aut'oritati3e *ord o5 Scri&ture. 7'e t*o &er"&ecti3e"( in t'e be$innin$ *a" t'e
Deed and in t'e be$innin$ *a" t'e Word( are certain#y in con5#ict( and et'ica# concern" de%and a c'oice( but a" 8reudA" te+t
"'o*"( e3en *'en one trie" to c'oo"e one doe" not e"ca&e t'e a#ternati3e one tried to reHect.
I 'a3e been o55erin$ e+a%&#e" o5 an a&&roac' to narrati3e *'ic'( un#i>e "tudie" o5 &oint o5 3ie* t'at 'a3e do%inated A%erican
narrati3e t'eory in t'e &a"t( doe" not a""u%e t'e &ri%acy o5 e3ent "o a" to 5ocu" on %ean" o5 &re"entation but rat'er e+&#ore" t'e
co%&#e+ interaction o5 t*o %ode" o5 deter%ination *'ic' bot' "ee% nece""ary to narrati3e but *'ic' do not $i3e ri"e to a
'ar%oniou" "ynt'e"i". 7'e e+a%&#e" I 'a3e u"ed 'a3e been #iterary and t'eoretica# narrati3e" and I *ou#d #i>e to conc#ude *it'
a brie5 di"cu""ion o5 anot'er "&ecie"( *'at Wi##ia% Labo3 ca##" Anatura# narrati3e.A
In 'i" "tudie" o5 t'e b#ac> En$#i"' 3ernacu#ar( Labo3 beca%e
!0--
intere"ted in t'e narrati3e ">i##" di"&#ayed by ado#e"cent" and &reado#e"cent" in re"&ondin$ to Bue"tion" #i>e AWere you e3er in a
5i$'t *it' "o%ebody bi$$er t'an youPA 5o##o*ed by AW'at 'a&&enedPA i5 t'ey an"*ered AYe".A Labo3A" 5or%a# ana#y"i" o5 t'e
e#e%ent" o5 t'e"e "torie" F 012@( 01@,G be$in" by a""u%in$ t'e &ri%acy o5 e3ent"( de5inin$ a narrati3e a" a *ay o5 reca&itu#atin$
&a"t e+&erience by %atc'in$ a "erie" o5 c#au"e" to a "eBuence o5 e3ent" F 01@,C =2-!0G. )o*e3er( *'at Labo3 di"co3er" a" a
re"u#t o5 t'i" orientation i" t'at At'ere i" one i%&ortant a"&ect o5 narrati3e *'ic' 'a" not been di"cu""ed !! &er'a&" t'e %o"t
i%&ortant e#e%ent in addition to t'e ba"ic narrati3e c#au"e. 7'at i" *'at *e ter% t'e e3a#uation o5 t'e narrati3eC t'e %ean" u"ed
by t'e narrator to indicate t'e &oint o5 t'e narrati3e( it" rai"on dA^treA F 01@,C =22G. Indeed( it beco%e" c#ear t'at 5or Labo3 t'e
narratorA" &ri%ary concern i" not to re&ort a "eBuence o5 e3ent" but to te## a "tory t'at *i## not be "een a" &oint#e"". A6oint#e""
"torie" are %et Fin En$#i"'G *it' t'e *it'erin$ reHoinder( KSo *'atPK E3ery $ood narrator i" continua##y *ardin$ o55 t'i"
Bue"tion4 *'en 'i" narrati3e i" o3er it "'ou#d be unt'in>ab#e 5or a by"tander to "ay( KSo *'atPKA F 01@,C = 22GG.
Labo3A" narrator" &ro3e ">i##ed at *ardin$ o55 t'i" Bue"tion( at con"tructin$ t'eir narrati3e" in "uc' a *ay t'at t'e de%and" o5
"i$ni5icance are %et and t'e "tory i" &ercei3ed a" narratab#e( a" Are&ortab#e.A 7'e Bue"tion o5 *'et'er any $i3en "tory i" bein$
to#d &ri%ari#y in order to re&ort a "eBuence o5 e3ent" or in order to te## a te##ab#e "tory i" o5 cour"e di55icu#t to decide( but t'e
et'ica# and re5erentia# #ure o5 "torie" %a>e" #i"tener" *ant to decide Fi" t'at t'e *ay it rea##y 'a&&ened or i" 'e Hu"t tryin$ to
i%&re"" u"PG. Labo3 a3oid" t'i" Bue"tion( eit'er becau"e 'e t'in>" it %a>e" no di55erence to 'i" ana#y"i" or becau"e 'e t'in>" t'at
t'e t*o &roHect" can and "'ou#d coincide( e3a#uati3e c#au"e" bein$ added to narrati3e c#au"e" to &roduce a $ood "tory. A" #on$ a"
narrati3e c#au"e" can be di"tin$ui"'ed 5ro% e3a#uati3e c#au"e" it i" &o""ib#e to %aintain t'e 3ie* t'at a narrati3e i" a "eBuence o5
c#au"e" re&ortin$ e3ent" F*'ic' %ay be true or 5a#"eG *it' c#au"e" added *'ic' e3a#uate t'e e3ent Fand *'ic' are neit'er true
nor 5a#"eG( but *'en Labo3 co%e" to de"cribe t'e e3a#uati3e de3ice"( 'e note" t'at "o%e o5 t'e %o"t &o*er5u# e3a#uati3e
e#e%ent" are not co%%ent" e+terna# to t'e action but e%bedded in t'e action it"e#5. One can e%&'a"iEe t'e re&ortabi#ity o5 a
"tory( 5or e+a%&#e( by narratin$ a" an e3ent an e3a#uati3e co%%entC AAnd *'en *e $ot do*n t'ere 'er brot'er turned to %e and
*'i"&ered( KI t'in> "'eA" dead( Jo'n_KA F 012@C =1G. Indeed( t'e e3a#uation A%ay it"e#5 be a narrati3e c#au"eA F 012@C =@G a" in AI
ne3er &rayed to God "o 5a"t and "o 'ard in a## %y #i5e_A
Labo3A" c#ai% i" certain#y correct( t'at %any c#au"e" re&ortin$
!0-0!
action are in 5act deter%ined by t'e e3a#uati3e 5unction( i.e.( t'e atte%&t to %a>e t'e "tory a tru#y te##ab#e "tory and a3oid t'e
Bue"tion ASo *'atPA 9ut $i3en t'i" &o""ibi#ity( *e 5ind our"e#3e" in an a*>*ard "ituation. 8or any re&ort o5 an action t'ere i"
33
a#*ay" t'e &o""ibi#ity t'at it "'ou#d be t'ou$'t o5 a" e3a#uati3e( a" deter%ined by reBuire%ent" o5 "i$ni5icance( rat'er t'an a" a
re&re"entation o5 a $i3en e3ent. W'ic'e3er o&tion *e c'oo"e( *e 'a3e t'e "a%e narrati3e( o5 cour"e( and in t'i" "en"e it %ay not
%atter( but i5 *e are concerned *it' t'e 5orce o5 t'e "tory( and te##er" and #i"tener" o5 natura# narrati3e are e"&ecia##y concerned
*it' t'e 5orce o5 narrati3e( t'en *e are in3ited to c'oo"e and cannot ta>e 5or $ranted t'e 'ar%oniou" reconci#iation o5 t'e"e t*o
5unction" or #o$ic".
So e3en 'ere( in t'e"e %o"t un#iterary o5 narrati3e"( *e 5ind t'e "a%e &rob#e%atic re#ation"'i& bet*een t'e deter%ination" o5
fabula and t'e di"cour"e o5 sAuzhet. V . . . W
R!!r!nc!s
9OO7) W.( 0120. *hetoric of $iction F C'ica$oC C'ica$o Uni3er"ity 6re""G.
9ROOS 6E7ER( 01@@. KA8reudA" Ma"ter&#otC ]ue"tion" o5 Narrati3e(AK Yale $rench Studies RR? 2C ,;-!=--.
!!!!! 01@1 KA8iction" o5 t'e Wo#5%an(AK 4iacritics U. 0C @,!;=.
9URE ENNE7)( 0121. A 5rammar of %oti"es F 9er>e#eyC Ca#i5ornia Uni3er"ity 6re""G.
C)ASE CYN7)IA( 01@;. KA7'e Deco%&o"ition o5 t'e E#e&'ant"C Doub#e!Readin$ Danie# Deronda.AK P%LA U3C ,0:!,@.
!!!!! 01@1 KAOedi&a# 7e+tua#ityC Readin$ 8reudA" Readin$ o5 Oedi&u"(AK 4iacritics U. 0C :<!@0.
C)A7MAN S.( 01@;. Story and Di"cour"eC Narrati3e Structure in 8iction and 8i#% F It'aca( NYC Corne## Uni3er"ity 6re""G.
DE 6AUL MAN( 01@<. KANietE"c'eA" 7'eory o5 R'etoric(AK Sym9osiumC ==!<:.
!!!!! 01@: KAAction and Identity in NietE"c'e(AK Yale $rench Studies R>C 02!=-.
!!!!! 01@@ KA7'e 6ur#oined Ribbon(AK 5ly9h 2C ,;!<1.
8REUD SIGMUND( 01:-. ,otem and ,aboo F Ne* Yor>C NortonG.
GENE77E GRARD( 01@,. KADi"cour" du rIcit(AK $igures ((( F 6ari"C Seui#G.
LA9OL WILLIAM( 012@. KANarrati3e Ana#y"i"C Ora# Ler"ion" o5 6er"ona# E+&erience(AK 'ssays on the 1erbal and 1isual Arts.
Proc) of the Annual S9ring %eeting of the American 'thnological Society F Seatt#eC Wa"'in$ton Uni3er"ity 6re""G( &&. 0,!<<.
!!!!! 01@, Language in the (nner 6ity FUni3er"ity 6ar>C Uni3er"ity o5 6enn"y#3ania 6re""G.
LU99OC 6.( 01:@( 6raft of $iction F Ne* Yor>C Li>in$G.
MILLER J. )ILLIS( 01@<. KANarrati3e and )i"tory(AK 'L- ;2C <::!@=.
!0-,!
5 6hat is "78osition9 An "ssay in T!'8oral D!li'itation
H

MEIR S7ERN9ERG
In #ine *it' Wo#5$an$ I"er( U%berto Eco and )or"t Rut'ro5( Meir Sternber$ o55er" a reader!re"&on"e a&&roac' to
narrati3e. )e de5ine" narrati3e a" a "y"te% o5 A$a& 5i##in$A and 'y&ot'e"i" te"tin$ and contend" t'at t'e te+tua# "tructure
%u"t be "tudied a" it i" dyna%ica##y con"tructed by t'e reader. 7'e endurance o5 5ir"t i%&re""ion" i" a #a* o5 'u%an
&erce&tion. 8ir"t i%&re""ion" condition 5urt'er &erce&tion". Sternber$ t'ere5ore &ro&o"e" t'e e#aboration o5 a "ca#e o5
r'etorica# e55ect" accordin$ to At'e ri"e and 5a## o5 5ir"t i%&re""ion"A and a c#a""i5ication o5 retardatory "tructure" in t'e
&re"entation o5 narrati3e in5or%ation. )e #i>e*i"e contend" t'at #iterary te+t" are t'e re"u#t o5 t'e "e#ection and
34
co%bination o5 %oti5" and t'at t'e te%&ora# di"tortion o5 t'e c'rono#o$ica# order o5 e3ent" i" an indication o5 arti"tic
&ur&o"e.
In t'i" e+cer&t 5ro% c'a&ter 0 o5 'i" boo> '09ositional %odes and ,em9oral <rdering in $iction( Sternber$ atte%&t"
to de5ine e+&o"ition 5unctiona##y and tran"$enerica##y. )e contend" t'at t'e Ru""ian 5or%a#i"t di"tinction bet*een
fabula and siuzhet i" not eBui3a#ent but co%&#e%entary to E. M. 8or"terA" notion" o5 A"toryA and A&#otA. )e de5ine"
e+&o"ition a" t'e be$innin$ o5 t'e 5abu#a4 t'at i"( a" t'e 5ir"t &art o5 t'e c'rono#o$ica##y ordered "eBuence o5 %oti5" a"
recon"tructed by t'e reader( *'ic' %ay or %ay not coincide *it' t'e be$innin$ o5 t'e siuzhet. Sternber$ 5urt'er
di55erentiate" bet*een re&re"ented ti%e and re&re"entationa# ti%e F GenetteA" "tory ti%e and narrati3e ti%eG. )e ar$ue"
t'at e3ery *or> e"tab#i"'e" it" o*n ti%e!nor% and t'at t'ere i" a #o$ica# corre#ation bet*een t'e a%ount o5 ti%e
de3oted to an e#e%ent and t'e de$ree o5 it" ae"t'etic re#e3ance or centra#ity. 8or Sternber$( t'e c#o"er t'e t*o ti%e"
beco%e( t'e %ore ae"t'etica##y re#e3ant i" t'e "cene.
A" t'e *'o#e o5 anyt'in$ i" ne3er to#d( t'e *riter o5 5iction i" nece""ari#y con5ined to &re"entin$ 'i" c'aracter" in action *it'in
t'e
[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[
\
MEIR S7ERN9ERG( '09ositional %odes and ,em9oral <rdering in $iction F 9a#ti%oreC Jo'n" )o&>in" Uni3er"ity 6re""(
01@;G( &&. 0 ! ,= ( =-@ !1.
!0-=!
#i%it" o5 a certain 5icti3e &eriod o5 ti%e. It i" t'u" una3oidab#e t'at 'e "'ou#d inter"ect t'e #i3e" o5 'i" dra%ati"
&er"onae at a $i3en 'our. )i" &rob#e% i" on#y to decide *'ic' 'our it "'a## be and in *'at "ituation t'ey "'a## be di"co3ered.
V . . . W
It i" t'e 5unction o5 t'e e+&o"ition to introduce t'e reader into an un5a%i#iar *or#d( t'e 5icti3e *or#d o5 t'e "tory( by &ro3idin$
'i% *it' t'e $enera# and "&eci5ic antecedent" indi"&en"ab#e to t'e under"tandin$ o5 *'at 'a&&en" in it. 7'ere are "o%e &iece" o5
in5or%ation( 3aryin$ in nu%ber and nature 5ro% one *or> to anot'er( t'at t'e reader cannot do *it'out. )e %u"t u"ua##y be
in5or%ed o5 t'e ti%e and &#ace o5 t'e action4 o5 t'e nature o5 t'e 5icti3e *or#d &ecu#iar to t'e *or> or( in ot'er *ord"( o5 t'e
canon" o5 &robabi#ity o&eratin$ in it4 o5 t'e 'i"tory( a&&earance( trait" and 'abitua# be'a3ior o5 t'e dra%ati" &er"onae4 and o5 t'e
re#ation" bet*een t'e%.
In "o%e in"tance" it %ay indeed "ee% Ft'ou$' I "'a## ar$ue t'i" i" not t'e ca"eG t'at a certain a%ount o5 &rior in5or%ation !!
about t'e c'aracter" and t'e 5icti3e *or#d !! t'at i" not 5u##y contained in t'e *or> it"e#5 %ay be a""u%ed be5ore'and. In Gree>
dra%a( 5or e+a%&#e( t'e dra%ati"t"( re"tricted to a *e##!de5ined 5ie#d o5 %ateria#( to#d and reto#d %yt'" *it' *'ic' t'eir audience
*a" 5a%i#iar. W'ene3er t'e narrati3e %ateria#" are deri3ed 5ro% 'i"tory( it %ay #i>e*i"e "ee% t'at t'e co%%unication o5 at #ea"t
&art o5 t'e e+&o"itiona# in5or%ation %ay be di"&en"ed *it' on t'e a""u%&tion t'at t'e aut'or ta>e" 5or $ranted 'i" readerA"
&o""e""ion o5 a certain a%ount o5 co%%on >no*#ed$e. V . . . W
E3en a nu%ber o5 %odern *riter" %ay "ee% to "'are t'e e+&o"itiona# &ri3i#e$e" or e+e%&tion" o5 t'eir ancient &redece""or". I
a% re5errin$ e"&ecia##y to no3e#i"t" ce#ebrated 5or t'eir &ro$re""i3e creation o5 "o%e &ri3ate( 5u##!5#ed$ed 5icti3e *or#d !!
7ro##o&eA" 9arc'e"ter( 9a#EacA" nineteent'!century 8rance( or 8au#>nerA" Yo>na&ata*&'a County !! re&eated#y carryin$ o3er not
on#y "ettin$" but *'o#e ca"t" o5 c'aracter" and c#u"ter" o5 incident" 5ro% one *or> to anot'er o5 t'e "a%e cyc#e. 9ut t'e "a%e
%ay be true o5 any "erie" o5 *or>"( notab#y detecti3e "torie"( in *'ic' at #ea"t one centra# c'aracter recur" Fe.$.( A$at'a
C'ri"tieA" )ercu#e 6oirotG( e3en t'ou$' t'e "ettin$ o5 t'e 5icti3e *or#d 3arie".
Many critic" *or> on t'e i%&#icit Fand "o%eti%e" e3en e+&#icitG a""u%&tion t'at in a## t'e"e ca"e" at #ea"t &art o5 t'e
e+&o"itiona# antecedent" %ay indeed be ta>en a" >no*n or obtained by t'e reader out"ide t'e #i%it" o5 t'e "in$#e *or>(
&articu#ar#y *it' re5erence to di55erent "torie" o5 t'e "a%e cyc#e( *'ic' t'ey re$ard a" a "in$#e unit. A c#o"e e+a%ination o5 t'e
#iterary e3idence( 'o*e3er( indicate" t'at t'i" a""u%&tion i" untenab#e. In t'eir conte%&t 5or t'e 5ata# 5uti#ity
!0-<!
o5 8act( *riter" u"ua##y 'a3e no "cru&#e" about "u&&#e%entin$( %odi5yin$( or e3en di"tortin$ 'i"torica# e3idence or tradition to
"uit t'eir arti"tic &ur&o"e". S'a>e"&eare i" notoriou" 5or t'e 5ree u"e 'e %ade o5 'i" "ource". In &ulius 6aesar( 'e dra"tica##y bot'
"i%&#i5ie" and co%&#icate" t'e 'i"tory o5 t'e t*o year" bet*een Cae"arA" triu%&'ant return to Ro%e and t'e deci"i3e batt#e at
6'i#i&&i.
0
V . . . W Sti## %ore audaciou"#y( a &o&u#ar 'i"torica# tradition %ay be initia##y e%bodied in t'e *or> on#y to be
35
de%o#i"'ed or re3er"ed at a #ater "ta$e( a" i" t'e ca"e *it' t'e $rue"o%e 5i$ure o5 Ric'ard III in Jo"e&'ine 7eyA" ,he 4aughter of
,ime.
W'en a c'aracter or a "ituation i" carried o3er 5ro% one *or> to anot'er( t'e *riter 5ee#" no #e"" 5ree to introduce in t'e% any
c'an$e" dictated by t'e di"tincti3e arti"tic conce&tion o5 t'e ne* *or>. V . . . W A" Ma#co#% Co*#ey 'i%"e#5 ad%it"( Aa" one boo>
#ead" into anot'er( 8au#>ner "o%eti%e" 5a##" into incon"i"tencie" o5 detai#. . . . )enry Ar%"tid i" a #i>ab#e 5i$ure in As ( Lay
4ying and Light in August4 in ,he -amlet 'e i" %ean and 'a#5!de%entedA4 and "o on.
,
V . . . W W'et'er *e are to "'ru$ "uc'
c'an$e" o55 a" Aincon"eBuentia# error"(A
=
a" Co*#ey doe"( or( a" can ea"i#y be e"tab#i"'ed( ta>e t'e% to be de#iberate and
re3ea#in$ de3iation" 5ro% &re3iou" t'e%atic and "tructura# conce&tion"( it i" e3ident t'at t'ey con"titute or ca## 5or ne*
e+&o"itiona# %ateria#. V . . . W
Moreo3er( not*it'"tandin$ $enera# e0 cathedra dec#aration" to t'e contrary( *riter" a" a ru#e ta>e t'e nece""ary &recaution" to
render eac' o5 t'eir *or>" a" e+&o"itiona##y autono%ou" a" &o""ib#e( e3en *'en t'e carryin$ o3er o5 c'aracter" and 5icti3e *or#d
in3o#3e" no di3er$ence 5ro% &re3iou" conce&tion". In t'e "econd c'a&ter o5 7ro##o&e +archester ,owers( 5or in"tance( t'e
narrator in5or%" t'e reader t'at Ait i" 'ard#y nece""ary t'at V'eW "'ou#d 'ere $i3e to t'e &ub#ic any #en$t'ened bio$ra&'y o5 Mr.
)ardin$ u& to t'e &eriod o5 t'e co%%ence%ent o5 t'i" ta#e.A V . . . W A#t'ou$' 7ro##o&e o"ten"ib#y &ro5e""e" to a""u%e t'at Mr.
)ardin$A" ordea#( 5or%er#y narrated in ,he Darden( %u"t by no* be a %atter o5 co%%on >no*#ed$e( 'e in 5act cunnin$#y
reca&itu#ate" t'e occurrence" e+&o"itiona##y. re#e3ant to +archester ,owers. W'at *a" t'ere t'e core o5 t'e action &ro&er i" 'ere
te#e"co&ed into a 5e* &a""a$e"4 and "o%e additiona# "entence" t'en brin$ t'e account u& to date and e55ect t'e nece""ary
tran"ition to At'e co%%ence%ent o5 t'i" ta#e.A V . . . W
In conc#u"ion( V . . . W t'e #i%it" o5 a #iterary unit cannot be 5i+ed a 9riori but are dyna%ic in t'at t'ey 3ary accordin$ to t'e >ind
o5 Bue"tion" t'e critic &o"e". V . . . W E+&o"ition( t'ere5ore( can ne3er be di"&en"ed *it' *it' i%&unity4 and t'e &ecu#iar &rob#e%"
it rai"e"
!0-:!
%u"t be con5ronted and "o#3ed by e3ery *riter( in e3ery *or> a5re"'.
Th! location o !78osition
So 5ar I 'a3e di"cu""ed t'e di"tincti3e 5unction o5 t'e e+&o"ition. 7'e Bue"tion ari"e"( 'o*e3er( *'et'er( bearin$ in %ind t'i"
5unction( *e can &oint to any "&eci5ic &art or &art" o5 a narrati3e *or> For any #iterary te+t "ub"u%in$ a narrati3e "eBuenceG t'at
can be ca##ed At'e e+&o"ition.A W'at i" t'e #ocation o5 t'e e+&o"itiona# "ection" or e#e%ent"P I" it 5i+ed or 3ariab#eP And 5ina##y(
'o* are t'e e+&o"itiona# "ection" or e#e%ent" to be di"tin$ui"'ed 5ro% t'e none+&o"itiona#P
7'e %o"t detai#ed and *ide#y acce&ted t'eory o5 e+&o"ition i" t'e ti%e!'onored 3ie* 5ir"t &ro&o"ed by Gu"ta3 8reyta$( *'o"e
"c'e%e o5 dra%atic "tructure inc#ude" e+&o"ition a" an inte$ra# &artC A7'e dra%a &o""e""e" . . . a &yra%ida# "tructure. It ari"e"
5ro% t'e introduction *it' t'e entrance o5 t'e e+citin$ 5orce" to t'e clima0( and 5a##" 5ro% t'ere to t'e catastro9he. 9et*een
t'e"e t'ree &art" #ie Ft'e &art" o5 t'e rise and t'e fall.A
<
An i%&ortant dra%atic e55ect ca##ed t'e e+citin$ %o%ent or 5orce A"tand"
bet*een t'e introduction and t'e ri"eAC At'e be$innin$ o5 t'e e+cited action For co%&#icationG occur" at a &oint *'ere( in t'e "ou#
o5 t'e 'ero( t'ere ari"e" a 5ee#in$ or 3o#ition *'ic' beco%e" t'e occa"ion o5 *'at 5o##o*"4 or *'ere t'e counter&#ay re"o#3e" to
u"e it" #e3er to "et t'e 'ero in %otion. . . . In &ulius 6aesar t'i" i%&e##in$ 5orce i" t'e t'ou$'t o5 >i##in$ Cae"ar( *'ic'( by t'e
con3er"ation *it' Ca""iu"( $radua##y beco%e" 5i+ed in t'e "ou# o5 9rutu"A F&&. 00: ( 0,0 G. V . . . W
8reyta$A" conce&tion o5 e+&o"ition( 'o*e3er( &#au"ib#e and tidy#oo>in$ a" it i"( "ee%" to %e untenab#e. It" 5ata# *ea>ne""
con"i"t" not "o %uc' in it" #i%ited ran$e o5 a&&#icabi#ity a" in it" interna# incon"i"tency and it" 5ai#ure to "tand u& to t'e 5act"
e3en *'en te"ted a$ain"t *or>" t'at are con"tructed A&yra%ida##y.A I5 t'e 5unction o5 t'e e+&o"ition i"( in 8reyta$A" o*n *ord"( Ato
e+&#ain t'e &#ace and ti%e o5 t'e action( t'e nationa#ity and #i5e re#ation" o5 t'e 'eroA F&&. 00@ !0;G( it i" 'ard#y &o""ib#e to
&re"cribe or to deter%ine a 9riori t'at a## aut'or" %u"t in3ariab#y c'oo"e to #ocate t'e e+&o"itiona# in5or%ation *it'in t'e 5ir"t
act or be5ore t'e Ari"in$ action.A And indeed( *riter" "e#do% i%&o"e on t'e%"e#3e" any #i%itation" o5 t'i" >ind. In Ib"en 5hosts(
5or in"tance( t'e e+&o"ition i" di"tributed t'rou$'out( and ne* 3ita# 5act" concernin$ t'e &a"t o5 t'e a$ent" >ee& cro&&in$ u& a"
#ate a" t'e #a"t act. 9ut t'e 5a##acy can be de%on"trated e3en *it' re5erence to t'e &#ay". 8reyta$ 'i%"e#5 cite"
!0-2!
36
in i##u"tration o5 'i" t'eory. In &ulius 6aesar( 'e %aintain"( t'e e+citin$ 5orce Ai" t'e t'ou$'t o5 >i##in$ Cae"ar( *'ic'(
by t'e con3er"ation *it' Ca""iu" Vact 0( "cene ,W( $radua##y beco%e" 5i+ed in t'e "ou# o5 9rutu"A F&. 0,0 G. In 5act( t'e e+&o"ition
i" not concentrated *it'in t'e #i%it" o5 t'e 5ir"t act( and on#y a "%a## &art o5 it &recede" t'e i%&e##in$ %o%ent. Mo"t o5 t'e
e+&o"itiona# %ateria# i" *ide#y di"tributedC one i%&ortant a"&ect o5 9rutu"A" e+&o"itiona# A#i5e re#ation"(A 'i" re#ation" *it' 'i"
*i5e 6ortia( i" Ae+&#ainedA on#y in act ,( "cene 0( a5ter 9rutu" 'a" a#ready a""u%ed t'e #eader"'i& o5 t'e con"&iracy4 Cae"arA" A#i5e
re#ation"A *it' Ca#&urnia are dra%atica##y con3eyed e3en #ater( in act ,( "cene ,4 *'i#e t'e 5u## di"c#o"ure o5 AntonyA" re#ation"
*it' Cae"ar i" de#ayed unti# 'i" 5a%ou" "o#i#oBuy in act =( "cene 0. 7'e"e 3ariou" antecedent" FA#i5e re#ation"AG( a## o5 t'e%
indi"&utab#y e+&o"itiona# accordin$ to 8reyta$A" de5inition o5 t'e function o5 e+&o"ition( turn out to be a" indi"&utab#y
none+&o"itiona# accordin$ to 'i" de"cri&tion o5 it" #ocation4 and a" 8reyta$A" de5inition o5 t'e 5unction o5 e+&o"ition i" ba"ica##y
"ound( *e %u"t conc#ude t'at 'i" &re"cri&ti3e 3ie* o5 it" #ocation %u"t be *ron$. V . . . W
7'e *ea>ne"" o5 8reyta$A" t'eory o5 e+&o"ition "te%"( in 5act( 5ro% a %aHor 5#a* in 'i" $enera# %ode# o5 "tructure. 8reyta$
&ur&ort" to de"cribe t'e "tructure o5 t'e action a" a %o3e%ent in ti%e( in a de5inite direction and t'rou$' de5inite "ta$e" !! in t'e
te%&ora# order in *'ic' t'e reader or audience #earn" o5 t'e de3e#o&%ent" o5 t'e action. 9ut *'at 'e rea##y de"cribe" i" not t'e
%o3e%ent o5 t'e action but t'e "tructure o5 t'e con5#ict. )e di3orce" t'i" 5ro% t'e actua# te%&ora# %o3e%ent o5 t'e action(
&re"entin$ a "tructure t'at i" 3ie*ed by t'e reader on#y *'en 'e retro"&ecti3e#y #oo>" bac> on t'e action and rearran$e" or
rea""e%b#e" it c'rono#o$ica##y in 'i" %ind. W'at 8reyta$ and 'i" 5o##o*er" 5ai# to ta>e into account i" t'at t'e c'rono#o$ica#
order in *'ic' e3ent" 'a&&en need not nece""ari#y coincide *it' t'e order in *'ic' t'ey are i%&arted to t'e reader.
Con"eBuent#y( t'e Aab"o#ute(A c'rono#o$ica# order o5 occurrence Fin *'ic' e+&o"ition i" indeed &re#i%inary in &oint o5 ti%eG doe"
not nece""ari#y corre"&ond *it' t'e actua# te%&ora# %o3e%ent or order o5 &re"entation o5 t'e "a%e e3ent" in an actua# *or>( in
*'ic' e+&o"itiona# in5or%ation %ay e3en be de5erred to t'e #a"t "cene or c'a&ter( a" it i" in Go$o# 4ead Souls or in t'e detecti3e
"tory.
In "'ort( a" innu%erab#e #iterary *or>" *'ere t'e e+&o"ition or &art o5 it i" eit'er de#ayed or di"tributed cannot be 5itted into
8reyta$A" 6rocru"tean "c'e%e( 'i" c#ai%" about t'e 5i+ed and "tatic #ocation o5 e+&o"ition %u"t be reHected. 7'e on#y acce&tab#e
t'eory o5 e+&o"ition *i## be one 5#e+ib#e enou$' to 'o#d $ood eBua##y 5or a## >ind" o5 "tructure and to cut acro"" t'e boundarie"
o5 $enre.
!0-@!
"78ositionD abula an# su3!tD story an# 8lot
It "ee%" to %e &o""ib#e to de5ine e+&o"ition "ati"5actori#y on#y in ter%" o5 5abu#a( "uHet( and "cenic nor%. 7'e i%&ortant
di"tinction bet*een 5abu#a and "uHet( 5ir"t &ro&o"ed by t'e Ru""ian 8or%a#i"t"(
:
i" "ti## a%enab#e to 5urt'er di"cri%ination and
de3e#o&%ent. A narrati3e *or> i" co%&o"ed o5 %yriad" o5 %oti5"( t'at i"( ba"ic and conte+tua##y irreducib#e narrati3e unit".
2
E+a%&#e" o5 "uc' %oti5" in ,he Ambassadors *ou#d be AStret'er reac'ed t'e 'ote# at C'e"ter(A A)e 5ound 'i%"e#5 5acin$ a #ady in
t'e 'a##(A or AWay%ar"' %ade a "udden da"' into a "'o&.A 7'e fabula o5 t'e *or> i" t'e c'rono#o$ica# or c'rono#o$ica#!cau"a#
"eBuence into *'ic' t'e reader( &ro$re""i3e#y and retro"&ecti3e#y( rea""e%b#e" t'e"e %oti5"4 it %ay t'u" be 3ie*ed a" t'e
"econd!de$ree Ara* %ateria#A F&o"t"e#ected and "trai$'t5or*ard#y co%bined narrati3eG t'at t'e arti"t co%&o"itiona##y Ade5or%"A
and t'u" re!conte+tua#iEe" in con"tructin$ 'i" *or> F%ain#y by *ay o5 te%&ora# di"&#ace%ent"( %ani5o#d #in>a$e( and
&er"&ecti3a# %ani&u#ation"G. 7'e suAet( in contra"t( i" t'e actua# di"&o"ition and articu#ation o5 t'e"e narrati3e %oti5" in t'e
&articu#ar 5ini"'ed &roduct( a" t'eir order and interre#ation( "'a&in$ and co#orin$( *a" 5ina##y decided on by t'e aut'or. 7o &ut it
a" "i%&#y a" &o""ib#e( t'e fabula in3o#3e" *'at 'a&&en" in t'e *or> a" FreGarran$ed in t'e AobHecti3eA order o5 occurrence( *'i#e
t'e suAet in3o#3e" *'at 'a&&en" in t'e order( an$#e( and &attern" o5 &re"entation actua##y encountered by t'e reader. V . . . W
A&art 5ro% t'i" !! to re&air a &ronounced bia" o5 t'e 8or%a#i"t"A !one %u"t a#"o ta>e into account t'at t'e 5abu#a i" eBua##y
a%enab#e to %ani&u#ation" o5 &oint o5 3ie*( a 5or% o5 arti"tic de5or%ation and re!conte+tua#iEation t'at 5reBuent#y coincide"
*it' and "o%eti%e" e3en account" 5or te%&ora# di"&#ace%ent". 7'e aut'or can &o"tu#ate an o%ni"cient narrator( or co%&o"e an
e&i"to#ary "tory( or e%&#oy any o5 t'e c'aracter" a" t'e narrator( or record t'e action a" it &a""e" t'rou$' t'e con"ciou"ne"" o5
any or a## o5 t'e%4 in eac' ca"e t'e te%&ora# order o5 t'e %oti5"( t'eir co%bination( "i$ni5icance( *ei$'t( and co#orin$ *i## 3ary.
)enry Ja%e" u"ed to "ay t'at t'ere are 5i3e %i##ion *ay" o5 te##in$ a "tory. )e %eant( o5 cour"e( t'at out o5 a $i3en( ba"ica##y
"i%i#ar 5abu#a( 5i3e %i##ion "uHet" can be %o#ded( eac' *it' it" o*n te%&ora# "tructure and narrati3e "trate$y and con"eBuent#y
*it' it" o*n &ecu#iar e55ect on t'e reader. V . . . W
It i" accordin$#y in ter%" o5 t'e di"tinction bet*een 5abu#a and "uHet t'at I can no* rede5ine %y %ain obHection to 8reyta$A"
t'eory !it" 5ai#ure to di55erentiate t'e ab"o#ute dyna%ic" o5 t'e cau"a##y
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V . . . W
37
7'e di55erentiation bet*een *'at I ca## re&re"entationa# and re&re"ented ti%e date" bac>( in 5act( to t'e Renai""ance and t'e
NeoC#a""ica# a$e( durin$ *'ic' it *a" e+c#u"i3e#y e%&#oyed a" a nor%ati3e too# 5or c'ec>in$ t'e ad'erence o5 dra%ati"t" to t'e
"o ca##ed Ari"tote#ian unity o5 ti%e. Ca"te#3etro( 5or e+a%&#e( di"tin$ui"'e" A&erce&tib#e ti%eA 5ro% Ainte##ectua# ti%eA( and Dryden
denounce" t'e &ractice o5 A%a>Vin$W too $reat a di"&ro&ortion bet*i+t t'e i%a$inary ti%e o5 t'e &#ay( and t'e rea# ti%e o5 it"
re&re"entation.A 7'e concern *it' ti%e!ratio" 'a"( %oreo3er( been re3i3ed in %odern critici"%. Lariou" Ger%an "c'o#ar"
di"tin$ui"' AerzFhlte @eitA 5ro% AerzFhlzeitA4 and A. A. Mendi#o* e#aborate" a "i%i#ar di"tinction bet*een At'e c'rono#o$ica#
duration o5 t'e no3e#A and At'e c'rono#o$ica# duration o5 t'e readin$.A I be#ie3e( 'o*e3er( t'at t'e"e 3ariou" &air" o5 ter%" 'a3e
not been "u55icient#y e+&#oited. 7'ey 'a3e traditiona##y been u"ed %ain#y to indicate t'e ratio bet*een t'e re&re"entationa# and
t'e re&re"ented ti%e o5 t'e *or> as a whole !! At'e ti%e it ta>e" to read a no3e#A a" a$ain"t At'e #en$t' o5 t'e ti%e co3ered by t'e
content o5 t'e no3e#A !! and a#"o t'e di"&aritie" bet*een di55erent *or>" in t'i" re$ard( but #e"" o5ten to in3e"ti$ate t'e 3ariation"
in ti%e!ratio" *it'in a "in$#e *or>. And e3en *'en "uc' 3ariation" 'a3e been &ointed out( t'i" 'a" u"ua##y been done in order to
di"cu"" t'eir i%&#ication" 5or t'e *or>A" te%&o or it" narrati3e r'yt'%. I certain#y a$ree t'at a co%&ari"on o5 t'e ti%e!ratio" in
di55erent *or>" %ay yie#d 'i$'#y "i$ni5icant re"u#t"( "o%e o5 *'ic' *i## be re5erred to be#o*. V . . . W It i"( 'o*e3er( at #ea"t
eBua##y i%&ortant to trace t'e 3ariation" in ti%e!ratio *it'in t'e #i%it" o5 a "in$#e *or> a" *e##4 5or t'e"e 3ariation" not on#y #ead
t'e reader to 3ariou" A5or%a#A conc#u"ion" Fa" to te%&oG but at t'e "a%e ti%e &#ay a centra# ro#e in t'e inter&retation o5 t'e te+t.
7'e reader i" a#*ay" con5ronted and 5reBuent#y ba55#ed by "uc' Bue"tion" a"( W'o i" t'e &rota$oni"t or center o5 intere"t in t'e
*or>P W'at i" t'e re#ati3e i%&ortance o5 t'e 3ariou" c'aracter"( incident" and t'e%e"P And 'o* do t'ey co%bine *it' t'e
centerP )e i" ob#i$ed to &o"e and an"*er doEen" o5 Bue"tion" o5 t'i" "ort i5 'e i" to con"truct( or recon"truct( t'e *or>A" "tructure
and 'ierarc'y o5 %eanin$ and to co%&o"e a 5u##y inte$rated &icture o5 it" art. )o*e3er( t'e"e Bue"tion" are ne3er "ett#ed
e+&#icit#y and "ati"5actori#y by t'e te+t it"e#5( e3en *'en o3ert r'etoric i" e%&#oyed !! not e3en *'en t'e aut'or re5er" to one o5
t'e c'aracter" a" A%y 'eroA or o&en#y ca##" t'e readerA" attention to t'e ro#e &#ayed by a certain incident or a$ent. 7'e reader i"
t'ere5ore 5orced to 5o##o* t'e %u#ti5ariou" i%&#ication" o5 t'e te+t Fit" dra%atiEed r'etoricG a" to it" &ecu#iar &rinci&#e" o5
"e#ection and co%bination in order to *or>
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&ro&e##ed action 5ro% t'e 3ariab#e dyna%ic" o5 t'e readin$!&roce"". 7o a""ert t'at t'e 5ir"t act o5 any &#ay For t'e 5ir"t
5e* c'a&ter" o5 a no3e#G contain" t'e e+&o"ition i" to con5u"e t'e be$innin$ o5 t'e "uHet and t'at o5 t'e 5abu#a. 7'e e+&o"ition
a#*ay" con"titute" t'e be$innin$ o5 t'e 5abu#a( t'e 5ir"t &art o5 t'e c'rono#o$ica##y ordered "eBuence o5 %oti5" a" recon"tructed
by t'e reader4 but it i" not nece""ari#y #ocated at t'e be$innin$ o5 t'e "uHet. 7'e t*o be$innin$" coincide and o3er#a& on#y *'en
t'e aut'or &re"ent" 'i" ta#e in a "trai$'t c'rono#o$ica# "eBuence Fa" 'a&&en"( %ore or #e""( in t'e 9oo> o5 Job( or in t'e La0daela
Saga( or in Ja%e" Dashington S:uareG. 7'e aut'or( 'o*e3er( %ay a" #e$iti%ate#y c'oo"e to &#un$e in medias res or to di"tribute
t'e e+&o"itiona# %ateria# t'rou$'out t'e *or>4 and in t'e"e ca"e"( t'ou$' t'e e+&o"ition i" "ti## #ocated at t'e be$innin$ o5 t'e
5abu#a( it" &o"ition in t'e order actua##y de3i"ed to &re"ent t'e %oti5" to t'e reader radica##y 3arie".
R!8r!s!nt!# ti'! an# r!8r!s!ntational ti'!: th! Iuantitati(! in#icator
So 5ar I 'a3e de5ined e+&o"ition a" t'e Abe$innin$A or A5ir"t &artA o5 t'e 5abu#a. 7'i" de5inition( 'o*e3er( t'ou$' it 5ir%#y
e"tab#i"'e" t'e e+&o"itiona# terminus a :uo and t'ou$' it 5#e+ib#y co3er" t'e innu%erab#e &o""ibi#itie" o5 co%binin$ and
orderin$ a $i3en nu%ber o5 %oti5"( %ay "ti## be re$arded a" "eriou"#y inco%&#ete un#e"" *e can deter%ine e+act#y u& to *'at
&oint in t'e 5abu#a t'e %oti5" are e+&o"itiona#. 7o di"co3er t'i" e#u"i3e #ine o5 de%arcation( *e %u"t 5ir"t con"ider %ore o5 t'e
ti%e 3a#ue" o5 5iction Fti%e a" a di%en"ion( obHect and indicator o5 arti"tic "e#ection a" *e## a" o5 co%bination and orderin$G and
t'e i%&ortant ro#e t'ey &#ay in $uidin$ t'e readerA" inter&retation o5 t'e *or>.
Narrati3e &re"ent" c'aracter" in action durin$ a certain 5icti3e &eriod o5 ti%e. A" a ru#e( 'o*e3er( one 5ind" t'at t'e aut'or 'a"
not treated t'e *'o#e o5 t'e 5icti3e &eriod in t'e #i5e o5 t'e c'aracter" *it' t'e "a%e de$ree o5 attention. 7'i" &eriod 5a##"
natura##y or i" arti5icia##y di3ided into di55erent "ub&eriod"( "ta$e"( or ti%e!"ection". So%e o5 t'e"e are rendered at $reat #en$t'(
"o%e $a##o&ed t'rou$' or ra&id#y "u%%ariEed( "o%e di"%i""ed *it' a &er5unctory "entence or t*o( *'i#e ot'er" are e3en &a""ed
o3er un%entioned. E3en *it'in t'e( 5ra%e*or> o5 a "in$#e *or>( t'ere5ore( *e $enera##y di"co3er di55erent ratio" o5 re9resented
time Fi.e.( t'e duration o5 a &roHected &eriod in t'e #i5e o5 t'e c'aracter"G to re9resentational time Fi.e.( t'e ti%e t'at it ta>e" t'e
reader( by t'e c#oc>( to &eru"e t'at &art o5 t'e te+t &roHectin$ t'i" 5icti3e &eriodG.
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out adeBuate an"*er". 7'e :uantitati"e indicator( re3ea#in$ t'e &rinci&#e" o5 "e#ection o&eratin$ in t'e te+t( 5or%" one o5 t'e
readerA" indi"&en"ab#e $uide" in t'e &roce"" o5 inter&retation in t'at it 'e#&" 'i% to deter%ine t'e te+tA" $enera# tendency
FAintentionAG and it" &articu#ar "tructure o5 %eanin$. 8or o*in$ to t'e "e#ecti3ity o5 art( t'ere i" a #o$ica# corre#ation bet*een t'e
38
a%ount o5 "&ace de3oted to an e#e%ent and t'e de$ree o5 it" ae"t'etic re#e3ance or centra#ity( "o t'at t'ere i" a $ood &ri%a 5acie
ca"e 5or in5errin$ t'e #atter 5ro% t'e 5or%er.
A" t'e 3ariation" in ti%e!ratio" 5or% one %ani5e"tation o5 t'e Buantitati3e indicator( it can be deter%ined t'at( mutatis mutandis(
t'e ti%e!ratio o5 a narrati3e ti%e!"&an or e3ent $enera##y "tand" in direct &ro&ortion to it" conte+tua# re#e3anceC one *'o"e
re&re"entationa# ti%e a&&ro+i%ate" it" re&re"ented ti%e i" i%&#ied to be %ore centra# to t'e *or> in Bue"tion t'an anot'er in
*'ic' t'e"e t*o ti%e 5actor" are inco%%en"urate. V . . . W
It i" Buite under"tandab#e t'at di55erent *riter"( eac' *it' 'i" o*n conce&tion o5 #i5e and &oetic" o5 art( "'ou#d di55er a" to *'at
5ie#d" o5 %ateria# %erit Ft'orou$'G treat%ent. 9ut t'e reader 5ind" 'i%"e#5 in an a#to$et'er di55erent "ituation. ]ua reader( 'e 'a"
no &ri3ate arti"tic a+e to $rind. )i" on#y bu"ine"" i" to endea3or to $ra"& t'e nature and 5unction" o5 t'e co%&o"itiona# &rinci&#e"
o&eratin$ in t'e te+t( "o t'at 'e %ay co%&re'end a" 5u##y a" &o""ib#e it" "tructure o5 %eanin$. )a3in$ t'i" in 3ie*( 'e cannot
a&&#y to t'e *or> any "ca#e o5 intrin"ic intere"t Finc#udin$ 'i" o*nG( becau"e t'ere i" not a "in$#e one t'at i" uni3er"a##y 3a#id. )e
%u"t( t'ere5ore( %ea"ure t'e 3a#ue o5 narrati3e e#e%ent" in ter%" o5 conte+tua# "i$ni5icance( #ar$e#y "u$$e"ted by t'e
Buantitati3e indicator.
@
V . . . W Laurence Sterne( 5or e+a%&#e( de%on"trate" 'i" acute a*arene"" o5 t'e 5unctiona#ity o5 'i"
"ee%in$#y biEarre "e#ecti3e &rocedure *'en 'e c#ai%" t'at At'e 'a&&ine"" o5 t'e Cer3antic 'u%our ari"e" 5ro% t'i" 3ery t'in$ !!
o5 de"cribin$ "i##y and tri5#in$ E3ent"( *it' t'e Circu%"tancia# 6o%& o5 $reat One".A
8ie#din$ 'i%"e#5 *a"( in 5act( *e## a*are o5 t'e 3a#ue!deter%inin$ a"&ect o5 t'e te%&ora# 3ariation"( t'ou$' in 'i" &o#e%ica#
i%&etu" a$ain"t *'at "ee%ed to 'i% Ric'ard"onA" &etty &"yc'o#o$ica# &reoccu&ation" 'e at ti%e" tended to o3er"tate 'i" &#ea to
t'e contrary. Re$ard#e"" o5 t'e o3ert %oti3ation o5 'i" "e#ecti3e deci"ion"( t'ey are actua##y ba"ed not on t'e o"ten"ib#e criterion
o5 intrin"ic intere"t 3er"u" du##ne"" but on t'at o5 arti"tic re#e3ance 3er"u" irre#e3ance( a" 'e 'i%"e#5 i" dri3en to ad%it o&en#y
i%%ediate#y a5ter t'e %u55 incident in ,om &onesC
!000!
7'ou$' t'i" incident *i## &robab#y a&&ear o5 #itt#e con"eBuence to %any o5 our reader"( yet tri5#in$ a" it *a"( it 'ad "o 3io#ent an
e55ect on &oor Jone" t'at *e t'ou$'t it our duty to re#ate it. In. rea#ity( t'ere are %any #itt#e circu%"tance" too o5ten o%itted by
inHudiciou" 'i"torian"( 5ro% *'ic' e3ent" o5 t'e ut%o"t i%&ortance ari"e. V . . . W
F:.<G
Juantitati(! in#icatorD sc!nic nor'D an# icti(! 8r!s!nt
7'e Buantitati3e indicator i" a#"o an indi"&en"ab#e 5actor in t'e de#i%itation o5 t'e e+&o"ition( e"&ecia##y in deter%inin$ t'e
&reci"e te%&ora# &oint in t'e 5abu#a *'ic' %ar>" t'e end o5 t'e e+&o"ition.
A" ar$ued abo3e( t'e #iterary arti"t e+&#oit" t'e &o""ibi#itie" o5 3aryin$ t'e ti%e!ratio" in order to t'ro* t'e conte+tua# centra#ity
o5 certain 5icti3e &eriod" into 'i$' re#ie5 a$ain"t t'e bac>$round o5 ot'er &eriod" be#on$in$ to t'e tota# "&an o5 t'e "uHet. It i" t'u"
t'e a&&ro+i%ation o5 re&re"entationa# to re&re"ented ti%e t'at dra*" t'e readerA" attention to "o%e "ub&eriod" con"titutin$
Adi"cri%inated occa"ion"A in t'e VJa%e"ianW "en"e o5 t'e *ord. And 3ice 3er"aC t'e 3ery di"&arity bet*een t'e di55erent ti%e!
ratio" Fand t'e $reater it i" t'e %ore con"&icuou"#y "i$ni5icant it beco%e"G "u$$e"t" t'at t'e cur"ori#y treated ti%e!"ection" are
nondi"cri%inated becau"e t'ey are %eant to occu&y but a re#ati3e#y %inor &o"ition in t'e &articu#ar "tructure o5 %eanin$
e"tab#i"'ed by t'e *or>.
Moreo3er( in %o"t 5ictiona# Fand dra%aticG *or>" *e 5ind not on#y 3ariation" but a#"o a ba"ic "i%i#arity bet*een t'e ti%e!ratio"
o5 t'e 3ariou" "cene" or di"cri%inated occa"ion". E3ery narrati3e e"tab#i"'e" a certain "cenic ti%e!nor% o5 it" o*n. 7'i" nor%
%ay( o5 cour"e( 3ary 5ro% one *riter( and e3en 5ro% one *or>( to anot'er. And e3en *it'in a "in$#e *or> certain "cene" %ay
turn out to de3iate 5ro% t'e ba"ic ti%e!nor% e"tab#i"'ed by t'e %aHority o5 t'e di"cri%inated occa"ion". 9ut "uc' de3iation"
F"ay( a ratio o5 ,C= or e3en 0C: *'ere t'e nor% i" 0C,G( *'ic' %ay indeed a&&ear con"iderab#e *'en e+a%ined in i"o#ation(
$enera##y &ro3e in"i$ni5icant *'en con"idered( a" t'ey %u"t be( in t'e conte+t o5 t'e *'o#e *or> !! in t'e #i$'t o5 t'e non"cenic
a" *e## a" t'e "cenic ti%e!ratio". V . . . W
Since e3ery *or> doe" e"tab#i"' a "cenic nor% and "ince t'e "cenic treat%ent accorded to a 5icti3e ti%e!"ection under"core" it"
'i$' ae"t'etic i%&ortance( t'e 5ir"t "cene in e3ery *or> natura##y a""u%e" a "&ecia# con"&icuou"ne"" and "i$ni5icance. 7'e
aut'orA" 5indin$ it to
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39
be t'e 5ir"t ti%e!"ection t'at i" Ao5 con"eBuence enou$'A to de"er3e 5u## "cenic treat%ent turn" it( i%&#icit#y but c#ear#y(
into a con"&icuou" "i$n&o"t( "i$ni5yin$ t'at t'i" i" &reci"e#y t'e &oint in ti%e t'at t'e aut'or 'a" decided( 5or *'ate3er rea"on( to
%a>e t'e reader re$ard a" t'e be$innin$ o5 t'e action &ro&er. 7'at i"( t'e te+t "u$$e"t"( *'y t'i" Aocca"ionA i" t'e 5ir"t to 'a3e
been "o Adi"cri%inated.A V . . . W I5( t'ere5ore( t'e 5ir"t di"cri%inated occa"ion i" t'e be$innin$ o5 *'at 7ro##o&e 'a&&i#y ca##" At'e
rea# >erne# o5 Vt'eW "tory(A
;
it 5o##o*" t'at any %oti5 t'at antedate" it in ti%e Fi.e.( &recede" it in t'e 5abu#aG i" e+&o"itiona# !!
irre"&ecti3e o5 it" &o"ition in t'e "uHet.
7'e e+&o"itiona# %ateria#( a#*ay" antedatin$ t'e 5ir"t "cene( %ay corre"&ondin$#y &recede it in &oint o5 it" actua# &o"ition in t'e
"uHet. In t'i" ca"e( t'e #ar$e di"&arity bet*een t'e ti%e!ratio o5 t'e e+&o"itiona# &art and t'at o5 t'e o&enin$ "cene Fa di"&arity
conco%itant *it' "e3era# ot'er indicator"( to be di"cu""edG #ay" bare t'e &re&aratory nature o5 *'ate3er &recede" t'e te%&ora#
"i$n&o"t. 7'e co%%unication o5 t'e e+&o"itiona# %ateria#( 'o*e3er( %ay a#"o be de#ayed( "o t'at it *i## "ucceed t'e 5ir"t
di"cri%inated occa"ion in it" actua# orderin$. In t'i" ca"e( t'e e+&o"itiona# in5or%ation *i## retro"&ecti3e#y t'ro* #i$'t on it( t'at
i"( enric'( %odi5y or e3en dra"tica##y c'an$e t'e readerA" under"tandin$ o5 it4 5or( *it'in t'e "'ar&#y circu%"cribed( enc#o"ed
*or#d o5 t'e #iterary te+t( a#%o"t e3ery %oti5 or occurrence antedatin$ anot'er tend" to i##u%inate it in "o%e *ay( no %atter *'at
t'eir order o5 &re"entation in t'e "uHet. 7'e &oint %ar>in$ t'e end o5 t'e e+&o"ition in t'e 5abu#a t'u" coincide" *it' t'at &oint in
ti%e *'ic' %ar>" t'e be$innin$ o5 t'e ficti"e 9resent in t'e "uHet !! t'e be$innin$ o5 t'e 5ir"t ti%e!"ection t'at t'e *or>
con"ider" i%&ortant enou$' to be *ort'y o5 "uc' 5u## treat%ent a" *i## in3o#3e( accordin$ to t'e conte+tua# "cenic nor%( a c#o"e
a&&ro+i%ation or corre"&ondence bet*een it" re&re"entationa# ti%e and t'e c#oc>!%ar>ed ti%e *e e%&#oy in e3eryday #i5e.
It *i## be noticed t'at I di""ociate %y u"e o5 t'e ter% ficti"e 9resent 5ro% any de&endence on dra%atic or 5icti3e i##u"ion( *it'
*'ic' it i" u"ua##y t'ou$'t to be interc'an$eab#e. V . . . W
I5 *e $ra"& A5icti3e &re"entA a" a de"cri&ti3e %eta&'or denotin$ an indi"&utab#y obHecti3e ratio bet*een re&re"entationa# ti%e and
re&re"ented ti%e( a ratio t'at in3o#3e" an a&&ro+i%ation o5 t'e t*o ti%e"4 and i5 t'i" a&&ro+i%ation i" inter&reted a" ai%in$ to
ac'ie3e Fto ado&t Mendi#o*A" o*n &'ra"e in anot'er conte+tG a Ac#o"er corre"&ondence bet*een t'e &ace o5 #i3in$ . . . and Vt'eW
de&iction o5 itA(
1
t'en *e "'a## be ab#e to account 5or t'e &o""ibi#ity t'at a
!00=!
te%&ora# tran"5er ta>e" &#ace at "uc' a &oint by re5errin$ to t'e obHecti3e co%&o"itiona# e#e%ent" t'at %ay &roduce it. V . . . W
Not!s
0. See ERNES7 SC)ANDER( ,he Problem Plays of Shakes9eare F London( 0122G( c'a&. ,.
,. MALCOLM COWLEY( ed.( ,he Portable $aulkner F Ne* Yor>( 01:<G( &&. @!;.
=. Ibid.( &. ;. Co*#ey( "i$ni5icant#y enou$'( add" in t'e "a%e "entence t'at t'e"e incon"i"tencie" are Aa5tert'ou$'t" rat'er t'an
o3er"i$'t".A
<. GUS7AL 8REY7AG( ,echni:ue of the 4rama( tran". E#ia" J. MacE*an F C'ica$o( 01-;4 5ir"t &ub#i"'ed 0;2=G( &&. 00<!
0:.
:. See e"&ecia##y 9ORIS 7OMAS)ELSIAS KA,h!mati:ue(AK in ,h!orie de la litt!rature( ed. 7E3etan 7odoro3 F 6ari"(
012:G( &&. ,<-!,4 &art o5 t'i" e""ay 'a" been re&rinted in *ussian $ormalist 6riticism. $our 'ssays( ed. Lee 7. Le%on and
Marion J. Rei" F Linco#n( Nebr.( 012:G. Stran$e#y enou$'( 7o%a"'e3">y 'i%"e#5 $i3e" but an indi55erent account o5 e+&o"ition(
neit'er 5u##y e+&#oitin$ t'e ter%" 'e 'i%"e#5 "u$$e"t" nor ta>in$ into account t'e co%&#e+ o5 ti%e!&rob#e%" in3o#3ed Fe.$.( t'e
5icti3e &re"entG.
)i"torica##y( a" I 'a3e ar$ued e#"e*'ere( t'e di"tinction bet*een fabula and suAet i" a#ready i%&#icit in t'e Ari"tote#ian 3ie* o5
A*'o#eA a" a$ain"t A%yt'o"A F KAE#e%ent" o5 7ra$edy and t'e Conce&t o5 6#ot in 7ra$edyC On t'e Met'odo#o$y o5 Con"titutin$ a
Generic W'o#e(AK -asifrut ; V 01@=WC ,=!21G4 and it *a" #ater 5or%u#ated in t'e &re3a#ent Renai""ance and Neo!c#a""ica#
o&&o"ition o5 t'e Anatura# orderA Fe%&#oyed by 'i"torian"G and t'e Aarti5icia# orderA Fdi"tincti3e o5 #iterary artG. 7'ere i" no doubt
t'at in t'e 'and" o5 t'e Ru""ian 8or%a#i"t" "o%e o5 t'e &ractica# i%&#ication" o5 t'i" 5unda%enta# di"tinction *ere brou$'t out
%ore i%&re""i3e#y t'an e3er be5ore4 and t'at i" *'y I a% u"in$ fabula and suAet 'ere rat'er t'an t'e %ore ancient ter%ino#o$y
or( a" i" t'e 5a"'ion no*aday"( "o%e ne* ter%ino#o$y o5 %y o*n. 9ut I "'ou#d &er'a&" *arn t'e reader t'at in 3ie* o5 3ariou"
t'eoretica# and %et'odo#o$ica# *ea>ne""e" 5ro% *'ic' I be#ie3e t'e 8or%a#i"t &o"itionF"G on t'i" i""ue "u55er( %y account o5
t'e"e ter%" "i$ni5icant#y di3er$e" 5ro% t'eir" at a nu%ber o5 &oint". I "'ou#d be 'e#d re"&on"ib#e on#y 5or t'e di"tinction" a"
e+&#icit#y de5ined in t'i" c'a&ter and 5urt'er de3e#o&ed and de%on"trated t'rou$'out t'e ar$u%ent.
40
2. 7'i" conce&tion o5 A%oti5A %u"t be "'ar&#y di"tin$ui"'ed 5ro% t'at o5 %any 5o#>#ori"t" and #iterary critic"( *'o re5er by t'i"
ter% to a recurrent( and "o%eti%e" %i$ratory( t'e%atic unit( o5ten reducib#e to "%a##er unit" Fe.$.( t'e 3ictory o5 t'e Cindere##a
or t'e "onA" Bue"t 5or 'i" 5at'erG. A" u"ed 'ere( motif &ri%ari#y de"i$nate" an irreducib#e narrati3e unit( *'ic' %ay or %ay not
recur. C5. 7o%a"'e3">i( #,h!mati:ue,# &&. ,2;!1.
@. 7'e reader %ay o5 cour"e 5ind t'i" conte+tua##y deter%ined "ca#e 5a#"e or "tereoty&ed or tri3ia# !! t'at i"( not co%&atib#e
*it' *'at 'e or any ot'er reader 'o#d" intrin"ica##y "i$ni5icant in #i5e or art or bot'. 9ut t'i" i" a#ready a Bue"tion o5 e3a#uation(
*'ic' "'ou#d not a55ect t'e inter&retati3e &rocedure #eadin$ 'i% to t'e nor%ati3e conc#u"ion.
;. AN7)ONY 7ROLLO6E( (s -e Po9erAoyP( c'a&. 0.
1. A. A. MENDILOW( ,ime and the No"el F London( 01:,G( &. @=.
!00<!
Post-structuralist narratology
!,<1!
): R!a#ing or th! Plot
H

6E7ER 9ROOS
In t'i" e+cer&t 5ro% c'a&ter 0 o5 KReadin$ 5or t'e 6#otK F 01;<G 6eter 9roo>" "et" out to u&date and rede5ine t'e traditiona#
conce&t o5 A&#otA( 5a##en into di"u"e in t'e En$#i"'!"&ea>in$ *or#d a5ter t'e ad3er"e critici"% o5 "uc' %oderni"t critic" a" E. M.
8or"ter. In #ine *it' 8renc' narrato#o$y( 9roo>" reiterate" Ari"tot#eA" contention in t'e Poetics t'at &#ot( de5ined a" At'e
co%bination o5 t'e incident"( or t'in$" done in t'e "toryA( i" t'e %o"t i%&ortant e#e%ent o5 narrati3e. )e ana#y"e" 3ariou"
a"&ect" o5 "uc' conce&t" a" t'e Ru""ian 5or%a#i"t AfabulaA and AsiuzhetA( GIrard GenetteA" A'i"toireA and Adi"cour"A and Jonat'an
Cu##erA" A"toryA and Adi"cour"eA( conc#udin$ t'at a &ure#y "tructura#i"t de5inition o5 &#ot *ou#d be re"tricti3e and inadeBuate. In
order to be e+&#anatory( t'e ana#y"i" o5 &#ot !! under"tood a" t'e or$aniEin$ #ine o5 a narrati3e !! "'ou#d be ab#e to ta>e
account o5 intentiona#ity. 7o t'i" end( 9roo>" &ro&o"e" a #ea& beyond 5or%a#i"% and "&eci5ica##y to*ard" 8reudian
&"yc'oana#y"i"( *'ic' i" in #ine *it' %uc' 5e%ini"t critici"% o5 t'e 01;-". In t'i" connection it i" intere"tin$ to &oint out t'e
"i%i#arity bet*een t'e tit#e o5 c'a&ter , o5 KReadin$ 5or t'e 6#otK( ANarrati3e De"ireA( and 7ere"a de Laureti"A ADe"ire in
Narrati3eA( a#"o &ub#i"'ed in 01;<( *'ic' i" re&rinted a" c'a&ter 0@ o5 t'i" boo>. 9ut *'erea" de Laureti" a&&#ie" 8reudian
&"yc'oana#y"i" to t'e de"ire o5 t'e *o%an "&ectator in 5i#%( 9roo>"A" re!readin$ o5 8reud re%ain" %a#e!oriented. 7'e %ain
e%&'a"i" o5 'i" 5or%u#ation #ie" in 'i" conce&tion o5 narrati3e a" a &"yc'o#o$ica# "tructurin$ de3ice *'ic' $o3ern" bot'
'u%an be'a3iour and t'e de5inition o5 "e#5.
I
V . . . W
AReadin$ 5or t'e &#ot(A *e #earned "o%e*'ere in t'e cour"e o5 our
[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[
\
6E7ER 9ROOS( *eading for the Plot. 4esign and (ntention in Narrati"e F O+5ordC C#arendon( 01;<G( &&. =!=2( =,:!
=-.
41
!,:0!
"c'oo#in$( i" a #o* 5or% o5 acti3ity. Modern critici"%( e"&ecia##y in it" An$#o!A%erican branc'e"( 'a" tended to ta>e it"
3a#uation" 5ro% "tudy o5 t'e #yric( and *'en it 'a" di"cu""ed narrati3e 'a" e%&'a"iEed Bue"tion" o5 A&oint o5 3ie*(A tone(A
A"y%bo#(A A"&atia# 5or%(A or A&"yc'o#o$y.A 7'e te+ture o5 narrati3e 'a" been con"idered %o"t intere"tin$ in"o5ar a" it a&&roac'ed
t'e den"ity o5 &oetry. 6#ot 'a" been di"dained a" t'e e#e%ent o5 narrati3e t'at #ea"t "et" o55 and de5ine" 'i$' art !! indeed( &#ot i"
t'at *'ic' e"&ecia##y c'aracteriEe" &o&u#ar %a""!con"u%&tion #iteratureC &#ot i" *'y *e read &aws( but not )enry Ja%e". And
yet( one %u"t in $ood #o$ic ar$ue t'at &#ot i" "o%e'o* &rior to t'o"e e#e%ent" %o"t di"cu""ed by %o"t critic"( "ince. it i" t'e
3ery or$aniEin$ #ine( t'e t'read o5 de"i$n( t'at %a>e" narrati3e &o""ib#e becau"e 5inite and co%&re'en"ib#e. Ari"tot#e( o5 cour"e(
reco$niEed t'e #o$ica# &riority o5 &#ot( and a recent critica# tradition( "tartin$ *it' t'e Ru""ian 8or%a#i"t" and co%in$ u& to t'e
8renc' and A%erican Anarrato#o$i"t"(A 'a" re3i3ed a Bua"i!Ari"tote#ian "en"e o5 &#ot. V . . . W
7'ere are e3ident#y a nu%ber o5 di55erent *ay" one %i$'t $o about di"cu""in$ t'e conce&t o5 &#ot and it" 5unction in t'e ran$e o5
narrati3e 5or%". 6#ot i"( 5ir"t o5 a##( a con"tant o5 a## *ritten and ora# narrati3e( in t'at a narrati3e *it'out at #ea"t a %ini%a# &#ot
*ou#d be inco%&re'en"ib#e. 6#ot i" t'e &rinci&#e o5 interconnectedne"" and intention *'ic' *e cannot do *it'out in %o3in$
t'rou$' t'e di"crete e#e%ent" !! incident"( e&i"ode"( action" !! o5 a narrati3eC e3en "uc' #oo"e#y articu#ated 5or%" a" t'e
&icare"Bue no3e# di"&#ay de3ice" o5 interconnectedne""( "tructura# re&etition" t'at a##o* u" to con"truct a *'o#e4 and *e can
%a>e "en"e o5 "uc' den"e and "ee%in$#y c'aotic te+t" a" drea%" becau"e *e u"e inter&reti3e cate$orie" t'at enab#e u" to
recon"truct intention" and connection"( to re&#ot t'e drea% a" narrati3e. It *ou#d( t'en( be &er5ect#y &#au"ib#e to underta>e a
ty&o#o$y o5 &#ot and it" e#e%ent" 5ro% t'e (liad and t'e <dyssey on*ard to t'e ne* no3e# and t'e A%eta5iction"A o5 our ti%e.
0
Yet it "ee%" c#ear a#"o t'at t'ere 'a3e been "o%e 'i"torica# %o%ent" at *'ic' &#ot 'a" a""u%ed a $reater i%&ortance t'an at
ot'er"( %o%ent" in *'ic' cu#ture" 'a3e "ee%ed to de3e#o& an unBuenc'ab#e t'ir"t 5or &#ot" and to "ee> t'e e+&re""ion o5 centra#
indi3idua# and co##ecti3e %eanin$" t'rou$' narrati3e de"i$n. 8ro% "o%eti%e in t'e %idei$'teent' century t'rou$' to t'e %id!
t*entiet' century( We"tern "ocietie" a&&ear to 'a3e 5e#t an e+traordinary need or de"ire 5or &#ot"( *'et'er in 5iction( 'i"tory(
&'i#o"o&'y( or any o5 t'e "ocia# "cience"( *'ic' in 5act #ar$e#y ca%e into bein$ *it' t'e En#i$'ten%ent and Ro%antici"%. A"
Lo#taire announced and t'en t'e Ro%antic" con5ir%ed( 'i"tory re&#ace" t'eo#o$y a" t'e >ey di"cour"e and centra# i%a$ination in
t'at 'i"torica# e+&#anation beco%e" near#y
a nece""ary 5actor o5 any t'ou$'t about 'u%an "ocietyC t'e Bue"tion o5 *'at *e are ty&ica##y %u"t &a"" t'rou$' t'e Bue"tion o5
*'ere *e are( *'ic' in turn i" inter&reted to %ean( 'o* did *e $et to be t'ereP Not on#y 'i"tory but 'i"torio$ra&'y( t'e
&'i#o"o&'y o5 'i"tory( &'i#o#o$y( %yt'o$ra&'y( diac'ronic #in$ui"tic"( ant'ro&o#o$y( arc'aeo#o$y( and e3o#utionary bio#o$y a##
e"tab#i"' t'eir c#ai% a" 5ie#d" o5 inBuiry( and a## re"&ond to t'e need 5or an e+&#anatory narrati3e t'at "ee>" it" aut'ority in a
return to ori$in" and t'e tracin$ o5 a co'erent "tory 5or*ard 5ro% ori$in to &re"ent.
7'e enor%ou" narrati3e &roduction o5 t'e nineteent' century %ay "u$$e"t an an+iety at t'e #o"" o5 &ro3identia# &#ot"C t'e
&#ottin$ o5 t'e indi3idua# or "ocia# or in"titutiona# #i5e "tory ta>e" on ne* ur$ency *'en one no #on$er can #oo> to a "acred
%a"ter&#ot t'at or$aniEe" and e+&#ain" t'e *or#d. 7'e e%er$ence o5 narrati3e &#ot a" a do%inant %ode o5 orderin$ and
e+&#anation %ay be#on$ to t'e #ar$e &roce"" o5 "ecu#ariEation( datin$ 5ro% t'e Renai""ance and $at'erin$ 5orce durin$ t'e
En#i$'ten%ent( *'ic' %ar>" a 5a##in$!a*ay 5ro% t'o"e re3ea#ed &#ot" !! t'e C'o"en 6eo&#e( Rede%&tion( t'e Second Co%in$
!! t'at a&&eared to "ub"u%e tran"itory 'u%an ti%e to t'e ti%e#e"". V . . . W 9y t'e end o5 t'e En#i$'ten%ent( t'ere i" no #on$er
any con"en"u" on t'i" &rediction( and no cu#tura# co'e"ion around a &oint o5 5i+ity *'ic' a##o*" t'ou$'t and 3i"ion "o to
tran"5i+ ti%e. And t'i" %ay e+&#ain t'e nineteent' centuryA" ob"e""ion *it' Bue"tion" o5 ori$in( e3o#ution( &ro$re""( $enea#o$y(
it" 5ore$roundin$ o5 t'e 'i"torica# narrati3e a" &ar e+ce##ence t'e nece""ary %ode o5 e+&#anation and under"tandin$.
We "ti## #i3e today in t'e a$e o5 narrati3e &#ot"( con"u%in$ a3id#y )ar#eBuin ro%ance" and te#e3i"ion "eria#" and dai#y co%ic
"tri&"( creatin$ and de%andin$ narrati3e in t'e &re"entation o5 &er"on" and ne*" e3ent" and "&ort" conte"t". V . . . W And yet( *e
>no* t'at *it' t'e ad3ent o5 Moderni"% ca%e an era o5 "u"&icion to*ard &#ot( en$endered &er'a&" by an o3ere#aboration o5
and o3erde&endence on &#ot" in t'e nineteent' century. V . . . W A re5#ection on &#ot a" t'e "ynta+ o5 a certain *ay o5 "&ea>in$
our under"tandin$ o5 t'e *or#d %ay te## u" "o%et'in$ about 'o* and *'y *e 'a3e co%e to "ta>e "o %any o5 t'e centra#
concern" o5 our "ociety( and o5 our #i3e"( on narrati3e.
II
V . . . W
6#ot a" it intere"t" %e i" not a %atter o5 ty&o#o$y or o5 5i+ed "tructure"( but rat'er a "tructurin$ o&eration &ecu#iar to t'o"e
%e""a$e" t'at
42
!,:=!
are de3e#o&ed t'rou$' te%&ora# "ucce""ion( t'e in"tru%enta# #o$ic o5 a "&eci5ic %ode o5 'u%an under"tandin$. 6#ot(
#et u" "ay in &re#i%inary de5inition( i" t'e #o$ic and dyna%ic o5 narrati3e( and narrati3e it"e#5 a 5or% o5 under"tandin$ and
e+&#anation.
Suc' a conce&tion o5 &#ot "ee%" to be at #ea"t co%&atib#e *it' Ari"tot#eA" under"tandin$ o5 mythos( t'e ter% 5ro% t'e Poetics
t'at i" nor%a##y tran"#ated a" A&#ot.A It i" Ari"tot#eA" c#ai% t'at &#ot FmythosG and action F9ra0isG are #o$ica##y &rior to t'e ot'er
&art" o5 dra%atic 5iction"( inc#udin$ c'aracter FethosG. %ythos i" de5ined a" At'e co%bination o5 t'e incident"( or t'in$" done in
t'e "tory(A and Ari"tot#e ar$ue" t'at o5 a## t'e &art" o5 t'e "tory( t'i" i" t'e %o"t i%&ortant.
,
V . . . W Later in t'e "a%e &ara$ra&' 'e
reiterate"( u"in$ an ana#o$y t'at %ay &ro3e 'e#&5u# to t'in>in$ about &#otC AWe %aintain( t'ere5ore( t'at t'e 5ir"t e""entia#( t'e #i5e
and "ou#( "o to "&ea>( o5 7ra$edy i" 6#ot4 and t'at t'e C'aracter" co%e "econd !! co%&are t'e &ara##e# in &aintin$( *'ere t'e
%o"t beauti5u# co#our" #aid on *it'out order *i## not $i3e one t'e "a%e &#ea"ure a" a "i%&#e b#ac>and!*'ite ">etc' o5 a &ortrait.A
6#ot( t'en( i" concei3ed to be t'e out#ine or ar%ature o5 t'e "tory( t'at *'ic' "u&&ort" and or$aniEe" t'e re"t. 8ro% "uc' a 3ie*(
Ari"tot#e &roceed" to deri3e t'ree con"eBuence". 8ir"t( t'e action i%itated by t'e tra$edy %u"t be co%&#ete in it"e#5. 7'i" in turn
%ean" t'at it %u"t 'a3e a be$innin$( a %idd#e( and an end !! a &oint *'o##y ob3iou" but one t'at *i## &ro3e to 'a3e intere"tin$
e55ect" in it" a&&#ication". 8ina##y( Hu"t a" in t'e 3i"ua# art" a *'o#e %u"t be o5 a "iEe t'at can be ta>en in by t'e eye( "o a &#ot
%u"t be Ao5 a #en$t' to be ta>en in by t'e %e%ory.A 7'i" i" i%&ortant( "ince %e%ory !! a" %uc' in readin$ a no3e# a" in "eein$ a
&#ay !! i" t'e >ey 5acu#ty in t'e ca&acity to &ercei3e re#ation" o5 be$innin$"( %idd#e"( and end" t'rou$' ti%e( t'e "'a&in$ &o*er
o5 narrati3e.
9ut our En$#i"' ter% A&#otA 'a" it" o*n "e%antic ran$e( one t'at i" intere"tin$#y broad and &o""ib#y in"tructi3e. V . . . W Co%%on
to t'e ori$ina# "en"e o5 t'e *ord i" t'e idea o5 boundedne""( de%arcation( t'e dra*in$ o5 #ine" to %ar> o55 and order. 7'i" ea"i#y
e+tend" to t'e c'art or dia$ra% o5 t'e de%arcated area( *'ic' in turn %odu#ate" to t'e out#ine o5 t'e #iterary *or>. 8ro% t'e
or$aniEed "&ace( &#ot beco%e" t'e or$aniEin$ #ine( de%arcatin$ and dia$ra%%in$ t'at *'ic' *a" &re3iou"#y undi55erentiated.
We %i$'t t'in> 'ere o5 t'e $eo%etrica# e+&re""ion( &#ottin$ &oint"( or cur3e"( on a $ra&' by %ean" o5 coordinate"( a" a *ay o5
#ocatin$ "o%et'in$( &er'a&" one"e#5. 7'e 5ourt' "en"e o5 t'e *ord( t'e "c'e%e or con"&iracy( "ee%" to 'a3e co%e into En$#i"'
t'rou$' t'e conta%inatin$ in5#uence o5 t'e 8renc' com9lot( and beca%e *ide#y >no*n at t'e ti%e o5 t'e Gun&o*der 6#ot. I
*ou#d "u$$e"t t'at in %odern #iterature t'i"
"en"e o5 &#ot near#y a#*ay" attac'e" it"e#5 to t'e ot'er"C t'e or$aniEin$ #ine o5 &#ot i" %ore o5ten t'an not "o%e "c'e%e or
%ac'ination( a concerted &#an 5or t'e acco%&#i"'%ent o5 "o%e &ur&o"e *'ic' $oe" a$ain"t t'e o"ten"ib#e and do%inant
#e$a#itie" o5 t'e 5ictiona# *or#d( t'e rea#iEation o5 a b#oc>ed and re"i"ted de"ire. 6#ot" are not "i%&#y or$aniEin$ "tructure"(
t'ey are a#"o intentiona# "tructure"( $oa#oriented and 5or*ard!%o3in$.
6#ot a" *e need and *ant t'e ter% i" 'ence an e%bracin$ conce&t 5or t'e de"i$n and intention o5 narrati3e( a "tructure 5or
t'o"e %eanin$" t'at are de3e#o&ed t'rou$' te%&ora# "ucce""ion( or &er'a&" betterC a "tructurin$ o&eration e#icited by( and
%ade nece""ary by( t'o"e %eanin$" t'at de3e#o& t'rou$' "ucce""ion and ti%e. A 5urt'er ana#y"i" o5 t'e Bue"tion i"
"u$$e"ted 'ere by a di"tinction ur$ed by t'e Ru""ian 8or%a#i"t"( t'at bet*een fabula and sAuVet. $abula i" de5ined a" t'e
order o5 e3ent" re5erred to by t'e narrati3e( *'erea" sAuVet i" t'e order o5 e3ent" &re"ented in t'e narrati3e di"cour"e. V . . . W
In t'e *a>e o5 t'e Ru""ian 8or%a#i"t"( 8renc' "tructura# ana#y"t" o5 narrati3e &ro&o"ed t'eir o*n &air" o5 ter%"(
&redo%inant#y histoire Fcorre"&ondin$ to fabulaG and r!cit( or e#"e di"cour" Fcorre"&ondin$ to sAuVetG. En$#i"' u"a$e 'a"
been %ore un"ett#ed. AStoryA and A&#otA *ou#d "ee% to be $enera##y acce&tab#e renderin$" in %o"t circu%"tance"( t'ou$' a
"tructura# and "e%iotic ana#y"i" *i## 5ind ad3anta$e" in t'e #e"" "e%antica##y c'ar$ed 5or%u#ation A"toryA and Adi"cour"e.A
=

A6#otA in 5act "ee%" to %e to cut acro"" t'e fabula?sAuVet di"tinction in t'at to "&ea> o5 &#ot i" to con"ider bot' "tory e#e%ent"
and t'eir orderin$. 6#ot cou#d be t'ou$'t o5 a" t'e inter&reti3e acti3ity e#icited by t'e di"tinction bet*een sAuVet and fabula(
t'e *ay *e use t'e one a$ain"t t'e ot'er. 7o >ee& our ter%" "trai$'t *it'out "acri5icin$ t'e ad3anta$e" o5 t'e "e%antic
ran$e o5 A&#ot(A #et u" "ay t'at *e can $enera##y under"tand &#ot to be an a"&ect o5 sAuVet in t'at it be#on$" to t'e narrati3e
di"cour"e( a" it" acti3e "'a&in$ 5orce( but t'at it %a>e" "en"e Fa" indeed sAuVet it"e#5 &rinci&a##y %a>e" "en"eG a" it i" u"ed to
re5#ect on fabula( a" our under"tandin$ o5 "tory. 6#ot i" t'u" t'e dyna%ic "'a&in$ 5orce o5 t'e narrati3e di"cour"e. I 5ind
con5ir%ation 5or "uc' a 3ie* in 6au# RicNurA" de5inition o5 &#ot a" At'e inte##i$ib#e *'o#e t'at $o3ern" a "ucce""ion o5 e3ent"
in any "tory.A RicNur continue"( u"in$ t'e ter%" Ae3ent"A and A"toryA rat'er t'an fabula and sAuVetC A7'i" &ro3i"ory de5inition
i%%ediate#y "'o*" t'e &#otA" connectin$ 5unction bet*een an e3ent or e3ent" and t'e "tory. A "tory i" made out of e3ent" to
t'e e+tent t'at &#ot makes e3ent" into a "tory. 7'e &#ot( t'ere5ore( &#ace" u" at t'e cro""in$ &oint o5 te%&ora#ity and
narrati3ity . . .A
<
RicNurA" e%&'a"i" on t'e con"tructi3e ro#e o5 &#ot( it" acti3e( "'a&in$ 5unction( o55er" a u"e5u#
43
!,::!
correcti3e to t'e "tructura# narrato#o$i"t"A ne$#ect o5 t'e dyna%ic" o5 narrati3e and &oint" u" to*ard t'e readerA" 3ita# ro#e in
t'e under"tandin$ o5 &#ot.
V . . . W
6#ot a" a #o$ic o5 narrati3e *ou#d 'ence "ee% to be ana#o$ou" to t'e "ynta+ o5 %eanin$" t'at are te%&ora##y un5o#ded and
reco3ered( %eanin$" t'at cannot ot'er*i"e be created or under"tood. GenetteA" "tudy o5 narrati3e di"cour"e in re5erence to
6rou"t #ead" 'i% to note t'at one can te## a "tory *it'out any re5erence to t'e &#ace o5 it" te##in$( t'e #ocation 5ro% *'ic' it
i" &ro55ered( but t'at one cannot te## a "tory *it'out indication" o5 t'e ti%e o5 te##in$ in re#ation to t'e to#dC t'e u"e o5 3erb
ten"e"( and t'eir re#ation one to anot'er( nece""ari#y $i3e" u" a certain te%&ora# &#ace in re#ation to t'e "tory. Genette ca##"
t'i" di"cre&ancy in t'e "ituation o5 ti%e and &#ace a Adi""y%%etryA o5 t'e #an$ua$e code it"e#5( At'e dee& cau"e" o5 *'ic'
e"ca&e u".A
:
W'i#e GenetteA" &oint i" 3a#id and i%&ortant in t'e conte+t o5 #in$ui"tic" and t'e &'i#o"o&'y o5 #an$ua$e( one
%i$'t note t'at co%%on"en"ica##y t'e dee& cau"e" are e3ident to t'e &oint o5 bana#ity( i5 a#"o rat'er $ri%C t'at i"( %an i"
a%bu#atory( but 'e i" %orta#. V. . . W
Wa#ter 9enHa%in 'a" %ade t'i" &oint in t'e "i%&#e"t and %o"t e+tre%e *ay( in c#ai%in$ t'at *'at *e "ee> in narrati3e
5iction" i" t'at >no*#ed$e o5 deat' *'ic' i" denied to u" in our o*n #i3e"C t'e deat' t'at *rite" finis to t'e #i5e and t'ere5ore
con5er" on it it" %eanin$. ADeat'(A "ay" 9enHa%in( Ai" t'e "anction o5 e3eryt'in$ t'at t'e "tory can te##.A
2
9enHa%in t'u"
ad3ance" t'e u#ti%ate ar$u%ent 5or t'e nece""ary retro"&ecti3ity o5 narrati3eC t'at on#y t'e end can 5ina##y deter%ine
%eanin$( c#o"e t'e "entence a" a "i$ni5yin$ tota#ity. Many o5 t'e %o"t "u$$e"ti3e ana#y"t" o5 narrati3e 'a3e "'ared t'i"
con3iction t'at t'e end *rite" t'e be$innin$ and "'a&e" t'e %idd#eC 6ro&&( 5or in"tance( and 8ran> er%ode( and Jean!6au#
Sartre( in 'i" di"tinction bet*een #i3in$ and te##in$( ar$ued in La Naus!e. V . . . W We "'ou#d 'ere note t'at o&&o"ed to t'i"
3ie* "tand ot'er ana#y"t"( "uc' a" C#aude 9re%ond( or Jean 6oui##on( *'o %any year" a$o ar$ued Fa" a Sartrean atte%&tin$
to re"cue narrati3e 5ro% t'e con"traint" Sartre 5ound in itG t'at t'e &reterite ten"e u"ed c#a""ica##y in t'e no3e# i" decoded by
t'e reader a" a >ind o5 &re"ent( t'at o5 an action and a "i$ni5icance bein$ 5or$ed be5ore 'i" eye"( in 'i" 'and"( "o to "&ea>.
;
It
i" to %y %ind an intere"tin$ and not *'o##y re"o#3ab#e Bue"tion 'o* %uc'( and in *'at *ay"( *e in readin$ i%a$e t'e
&a"tne"" o5 t'e action &re"ented( in %o"t ca"e"( in 3erb" in t'e &a"t ten"e. V . . . W I5 t'e &a"t i" to be read a" &re"ent( it i" a
curiou" &re"ent t'at *e >no* to be &a"t in re#ation to a 5uture *e >no* to be a#ready in &#ace( a#ready in *ait 5or u" to reac'
it. 6er'a&" *e *ou#d do
!,:2!
be"t to "&ea> o5 t'e antici9ation of retros9ection a" our c'ie5 too# in %a>in$ "en"e o5 narrati3e( t'e %a"ter tro&e o5 it"
"tran$e #o$ic. V . . . W
III
V...W
In an e""ay ca##ed #Story and 4iscourse in the Analysis of Narrati"e,# Jonat'an Cu##er 'a" ar$ued t'at *e need to reco$niEe
t'at narrati3e &roceed" accordin$ to a Adoub#e #o$ic(A in t'at at certain &rob#e%atic %o%ent" "tory e3ent" "ee% to be
&roduced by t'e reBuire%ent" o5 t'e narrati3e di"cour"e( it" need" o5 %eanin$( rat'er t'an 3ice!3er"a( a" *e nor%a##y
a""u%e.
1
In ot'er *ord"( t'e a&&arent#y nor%a# c#ai% t'at fabula &recede" sAuVet( *'ic' i" a re*or>in$ o5 t'e $i3en" o5
fabula( %u"t be re3er"ed at &rob#e%atic( c'a##en$in$ %o%ent" o5 narrati3e( to "'o* t'at fabula i" rat'er &roduced by t'e
reBuire%ent" o5 sAuVetC t'at "o%et'in$ %u"t 'a3e 'a&&ened becau"e o5 t'e re"u#t" t'at *e >no* !! t'at( a" Cynt'ia C'a"e
&ut" it about Danie# DerondaA" Je*i"'ne""( A'i" ori$in i" t'e e55ect o5 it" e55ect".A
0-
Cu##er caution" critic" a$ain"t t'e
a""u%&tion t'at t'e"e t*o &er"&ecti3e" can be "ynt'e"iEed *it'out contradiction.
V . . . W
7'e irreconci#abi#ity o5 t'e At*o #o$ic"A &oint" to t'e &ecu#iar *or> o5 under"tandin$ t'at narrati3e i" ca##ed u&on to &er5or%(
and to t'e &ara#o$ica# "tatu" o5 it" A"o#ution".A Let %e re"tate t'e &rob#e% in t'i" *ayC &rior e3ent"( cau"e"( are "o on#y
retro"&ecti3e#y( in a readin$ bac> 5ro% t'e end. In t'i" "en"e( t'e %eta&'oric *or> o5 e3entua# tota#iEation deter%ine" t'e
%eanin$ and "tatu" o5 t'e %etony%ic *or> o5 "eBuence !! t'ou$' it %u"t a#"o be c#ai%ed t'at t'e %etony%ie" o5 t'e %idd#e
44
&roduced( $a3e birt' to( t'e 5ina# %eta&'or. 7'e contradiction %ay be in t'e 3ery nature o5 narrati3e( *'ic' not on#y u"e"
but i" a doub#e #o$ic. 7'e detecti3e "tory( a" a >ind o5 di%e!"tore %odern 3er"ion o5 A*i"do% #iterature(A i" u"e5u# in
di"&#ayin$ t'e doub#e #o$ic %o"t o3ert#y( u"in$ t'e &#ot o5 t'e inBue"t to 5ind( or con"truct( a "tory o5 t'e cri%e *'ic' *i##
o55er Hu"t t'o"e 5eature" nece""ary to t'e t'e%atic co'erence *e ca## a "o#ution( *'i#e c#ai%in$( o5 cour"e( t'at t'e "o#ution
'a" been %ade nece""ary by t'e cri%e. 7o Buote )o#%e" at t'e end o5 anot'er o5 'i" ca"e"( t'at o5 A7'e Na3a# 7reatyAC A7'e
&rinci&a# di55icu#ty in your ca"e . . . #ay in t'e 5act o5 t'ere bein$ too %uc' e3idence. W'at *a" 3ita# *a" o3er#aid and
'idden by *'at *a" irre#e3ant. O5 a## t'e 5act" *'ic' *ere &re"ented to u" *e 'ad to &ic> Hu"t t'o"e *'ic' *e dee%ed to be
e""entia#( and t'en &iece t'e% to$et'er in t'eir order "o a" to recon"truct t'i" 3ery re%ar>ab#e c'ain o5 e3ent".A
00
)ere *e
!,:@!
'a3e a c#ear ars 9oetica( o5 t'e detecti3e and o5 t'e no3e#i"t( and o5 t'e &#ottin$ o5 narrati3e a" an e+a%&#e o5 t'e %enta#
o&eration de"cribed by Wa##ace Ste3en" a" A7'e &oe% o5 t'e %ind in t'e act o5 5indin$?W'at *i## "u55ice.A
It *ou#d be %y 5urt'er c#ai% t'at narrati3eA" nature a" a contradictiou" doub#e #o$ic te##" u" "o%et'in$ about *'y *e
'a3e and need narrati3e( and 'o* t'e need to &#ot %eanin$" i" it"e#5 &roducti3e o5 narrati3e. We %ay e+&#ore t'i"
&ro&o"ition by *ay o5 V . . . W Rou""eau 6onfessions( and I "'a## u"e a" %y e+a%&#e 5ro% it t'e notoriou" e&i"ode t'at
c#o"e" 9oo> 7*o( t'e "tory o5 t'e "to#en ribbon. Rou""eau 'a" been "er3in$ a" a #ac>ey in t'e 'ou"e'o#d o5 M%e de
Lerce##i"( and 5ee#in$ t'at 'e V . . .W i" out o5 'i" &#ace( %i"&#aced( and t'ere5ore e3er on t'e #oo>out 5or "o%e "&ecia#
%ar> o5 5a3or t'at *ou#d indicate t'at M%e de Lerce##i" >no*" 'e i" de"tined 5or better t'in$". 9ut "'e die" *it'out any
reco$nition o5 Rou""eau( and *it'out any #e$acy. In t'e en"uin$ #iBuidation o5 'er 'ou"e'o#d( Rou""eau "tea#" a #itt#e
&in> and "i#3er ribbon( *'ic' i" 5ound in 'i" roo%. A">ed *'ere 'e $ot it( 'e #ie" and "ay" t'at Marion( a youn$ &ea"ant
$ir# "er3in$ a" a coo>( $a3e it to 'i%. Con5ronted *it' Marion( *'o ca#%#y denie" t'e a##e$ation( Rou""eau &er"i"t" in
'i" account( *'ic' #ead" Marion to e+c#ai%( AYou are %a>in$ %e 3ery un'a&&y( but I *ou#dnAt *ant to be in your &#ace.A
0,
In doubt a" to t'e trut'( t'e Co%te de #a RoBue FM%e de Lerce##i"A" 'eirG di"%i""e" t'e% bot'. Rou""eau no* $oe" on
to i%a$e t'e &robab#e 5uture "cenario o5 MarionA" #i5eC di"%i""ed under t'e "'ado* o5 accu"ation( &enni#e""( *it'out
reco%%endation or &rotection( *'at cou#d beco%e o5 'erP Rou""eau ">etc'e" *it' 'y&ot'etica# certainty a career t'at
*ou#d %a>e 'er A*or"e t'an %y"e#5(A t'at i"( &re"u%ab#y( a &ro"titute. 7'i" crue# %e%ory 'a" continued to troub#e 'i%
"o t'at in 'i" in"o%nia" t'e 5i$ure o5 Marion co%e" to re&roac' 'i% *it' t'e cri%e( a" i5 it 'ad been co%%itted on#y
ye"terday( but 'e 'a" ne3er been ab#e to brin$ 'i%"e#5 to %a>e a c#ean brea"t o5 it( e3en to 'i" c#o"e"t 5riend. In 5act( t'e
de"ire to de#i3er 'i%"e#5 o5 t'e *ei$'t o5 t'i" &articu#ar cri%e( 'e t'en te##" u"( contributed $reat#y to 'i" deci"ion to
*rite 'i" con5e""ion".
7'e 5act" o5 t'e ca"e and it" con"eBuence" 'a3e t'u" 5ar been &re"ented by Rou""eau t'e narrator in *'at 'e c#ai%" t'e
reader cannot deny to be an o&en and "trai$'t5or*ard con5e""ion. V . . . W Curiou"#y( it *a" 'i" 5riend"'i& 5or 'er t'at
cau"ed t'e accu"ation. S'e *a" &re"ent in 'i" t'ou$'t"( and 'e e+cu"ed 'i%"e#5 by *ay o5 t'e 5ir"t obHect t'at occurred
to 'i%C AAe m#e0cusai sur le 9remier obAet :ui s#offrit.A 7'i" a&&arent#y $ratuitou" and aberrant c'oice o5 &er"on to "er3e
a" 3icti% !! un"ett#in$ in it" "u$$e"tion o5 rando% 3ector" o5
!,:;!
&#ot !! t'en recei3e" "o%et'in$ c#o"er to a %oti3ation *'en Rou""eau e+&#ain" t'at 'e accu"ed Marion o5 doin$ *'at 'e
*anted to doC o5 'a3in$ $i3en 'i% t'e ribbon "ince 'e intended to $i3e it to 'er. 7'u" 'i" amiti! 5or Marion a&&ear" to
&arta>e o5 #o3e( and 'e can i%a$ine bein$ t'e reci&ient o5 *'at 'e *anted to $i3e( *'ic' a##o*" o5 a 5urt'er re3er"a# *'en
t'e #o3e!o55erin$ i" &oi"oned in it" "ourceC #o3e 3eer" to "adi"%. W'at &re3ent" Rou""eau 5ro% o*nin$ u& and "trai$'tenin$
out t'i" tan$#ed ribbon i" not t'e 5ear o5 &uni"'%ent but t'e 5ear o5 "'a%eC AI on#y "a* t'e 'orror o5 bein$ reco$niEed(
&ub#ic#y dec#ared( *it' %y"e#5 &re"ent( t'ie5( #iar( 5a#"e accu"er.A A" "o o5ten in t'e 6onfessions( it i" t'e 5ear o5 Hud$%ent
5ro% t'e out"ide( Hud$%ent by t'o"e *'o cannot "ee t'e dis9ositions int!rieures( t'at a&&ear" to %oti3ate bot' bad be'a3ior
and t'e con5e""ion t'at "uc' be'a3ior nece""itate"C t'e 5ear o5 bein$ Hud$ed a" in a &#ace *'ere 'e doe" not be#on$ &roduce"
bot' #ie" and con5e""ion". V . . . W
Ju+ta&o"ed in t'e e&i"ode o5 t'e "to#en ribbon a" &re"ented in t'e 6onfessions *e 'a3e a "trai$'t5or*ard account o5
narrati3e e3ent"( &re"ented in t'eir c'rono#o$ica# order4 a "ub"eBuent narrati3e o5 inner 5ee#in$" and %oti3e" "tandin$ in
"tar> contradiction to t'e narrati3e o5 e3ent"4 a 'a##ucinatory narrati3e o5 t'e 'y&ot'etica# 5uture o5 t'e ot'er &er"ona o5 t'e
e&i"ode( Marion4 and a narrati3e o5 t'e $eneration o5 t'e te+t o5 t'e 6onfessions( "ince t'e need to te## t'i" "tory !! or t'e"e
"torie" !! c#ai%" $enetic 5orce. I" t'ere any *ay *e can order t'e"e 5our e#e%ent" in a #o$ica# di"cour"eP A&&arent#y not(
"ince t'e 3ery &oint o5 t'e di"cre&ancy bet*een t'e narrati3e o5 action" and narrati3e o5 interna# di"&o"ition" i" t'eir
5unda%enta# #ac> o5 con$ruence( t'e inabi#ity o5 eit'er e3er 5u##y to coincide *it' or e+&#ain t'e ot'er. One cou#d no doubt
di"co3er a %oti3e o5 connection bet*een t'e t*o t'rou$' a &"yc'oana#ytic di"cour"eC Rou""eau &ro3ide" a >ey 5or "o doin$
*'en 'e introduce" 'i" de"ire 5or Marion into t'e "cenario and "u$$e"t" t'at "o%e'o* t'i" de"ire &roduced e55ect" o&&o"ite
5ro% *'at 'e intended( t'e "ubHect and obHect o5 de"ire c'an$ed &#ace"( and #o3e beca%e "adi"tic. A## t'i" cou#d be
45
reconce&tua#iEed by *ay o5 8reud( %o"t &ertinent#y t'rou$' t'e conce&t o5 denia#( dene$ation. 9ut to brin$ "uc' a
&"yc'oana#ytic di"cour"e to bear *ou#d in 5act be !! $i3en t'e nature o5 8reudA" ana#y"e" o5 t'e &rob#e% !! to add anot'er
#ayer o5 narrati3e( 'o*e3er i##u%inatin$( to t'o"e Rou""eau 'a" a#ready &i#ed u&. It *ou#d not o55er an e"ca&e 5ro%
narrati3e.
Rou""eauA" narrati3e #ayerin$" "u$$e"t a 5ai#ure to 5ind a "in$#e an"*er to t'e Bue"tion o5 *'ere 'i" &ro&er 9lace i"( *'at
'i" &ub#ic#y dec#ared na%e( ran>( and c'aracter are to be. A#*ay" out o5 &#ace( ne3er coincident *it' 'i" inner "e#5 in t'e
eye" o5 ot'er" !! and t'u" in 'i" be'a3ior !! 'e i" a#*ay" $oin$ bac> o3er t'e trace" o5 conduct
!,:1!
and interior di"&o"ition( not to reconci#e t'e% !! *'ic' i" i%&o""ib#e !! but to con5e"" t'eir irreconci#abi#ity( *'ic' $enerate"
MarionA" 5uture "tory and Rou""eauA" 5uture con5e""ion". In ot'er *ord"( t'e on#y orderin$ or "o#ution to t'e &rob#e% in
under"tandin$ Rou""eau 'a" "et u& 'ere i" %ore narrati3e. V . . . W 7o under"tand %e( Rou""eau "ay" %ore t'an once in t'e
6onfessions( %o"t i%&re""i3e#y at t'e c#o"e o5 9oo> 8our( t'e reader %u"t 5o##o* %e at e3ery %o%ent o5 %y e+i"tence4 and it
*i## be u& to t'e reader( not Rou""eau( to a""e%b#e t'e e#e%ent" o5 t'e narrati3e and deter%ine *'at t'ey %ean. 7'u" *'at
Rou""eau %u"t 5ear( in *ritin$ 'i" 6onfessions( i" not "ayin$ too %uc' or "&ea>in$ #ie"( but 5ai#in$ to "ay e3eryt'in$. In
c#ai%in$ t'e need to tout dire( Rou""eau %a>e" e+&#icit t'at t'e contradiction" encountered in t'e atte%&t to under"tand and
&re"ent t'e "e#5 in a## it" trut' &ro3ide a &o*er5u# narrati3e %ac'ine. Any ti%e one $oe" o3er a %o%ent o5 t'e &a"t( t'e %ac'ine
can be re#ied on to &roduce %ore narrati3e !! not on#y di55erin$ "torie" o5 t'e &a"t( but 5uture "cenario" and narrati3e" o5 *ritin$
it"e#5. 7'ere i" "i%&#y no end to narrati3e on t'i" %ode#( "ince t'ere i" no A"o#utionA to t'e Acri%e.A
0=
7'e narrati3e &#ottin$ in it"
entirety i" t'e "o#ution( and "ince t'at entirety 'a" no end&oint 5or t'e *ritin$ !! a" o&&o"ed to t'e bio#o$ica# !! "e#5( Rou""eau i"
reduced to reBue"tin$ t'e readerA" &er%i""ion to %a>e an end 'ereC ABu#il me soit 9ermis de n#en re9arler Aamais.A
V . . . W
I5 I e%&'a"iEe &#ottin$ e3en %ore t'an &#ot( it i" becau"e t'e &artici&#e be"t "u$$e"t" t'e dyna%ic a"&ect o5 narrati3e t'at %o"t
intere"t" %eC t'at *'ic' %o3e" u" 5or*ard a" reader" o5 t'e narrati3e te+t( t'at *'ic' %a>e" u" !! #i>e t'e 'eroe" o5 t'e te+t
o5ten( and certain#y #i>e t'eir aut'or" !! *ant and need &#ottin$( "ee>in$ t'rou$' t'e narrati3e te+t a" it un5ur#" be5ore u" a
&reci&itation o5 "'a&e and %eanin$( "o%e "i%u#acru% o5 under"tandin$ o5 'o* %eanin$ can be con"trued o3er and t'rou$'
ti%e. I a% con3inced t'at t'e "tudy o5 narrati3e need" to %o3e beyond t'e 3ariou" 5or%a#i"t critici"%" t'at 'a3e &redo%inated in
our ti%eC 5or%a#i"%" t'at 'a3e tau$'t u" %uc'( but *'ic' u#ti%ate#y !! a" t'e #ater *or> o5 9art'e" reco$niEed !! cannot dea#
*it' t'e dyna%ic" o5 te+t" a" actua#iEed in t'e readin$ &roce"".
V . . . W
In t'e atte%&t to be beyond &ure 5or%a#i"% !! *'i#e ne3er di"cardin$ it" #e""on" !! &"yc'oana#y"i" &ro%i"e"( and reBuire"( t'at in
addition to "uc' u"ua# narrato#o$ica# &reoccu&ation" a" 5unction( "eBuence( and &aradi$%( *e en$a$e t'e dyna%ic o5 %e%ory
and t'e 'i"tory o5 de"ire a" t'ey *or> to "'a&e t'e reco3ery o5 %eanin$ *it'in ti%e. 9eyond 5or%a#i"%( Su"an Sonta$ ar$ued
"o%e year" a$o( *e need an erotic" o5 art.
0<
W'at 5o##o*" %ay be concei3ed a" a
contribution to t'at erotic"( or( %ore "ober#y( a readin$ o5 our co%&u#"ion" to read.
Not!s
0. One o5 t'e a%bition" o5 NOR7)RO6 8RYE in Anatomy of 6riticism F 6rincetonC 6rinceton
Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01:@G i" to &ro3ide "uc' a ty&o#o$y in 'i" %yt'oi. Yet t'ere i" in 8rye a
certain con5u"ion bet*een %yt'oi a" &#ot "tructure" and a" %yt'" or arc'ety&e" *'ic' to %y
%ind %a>e" 'i" *or> #e"" 3a#uab#e t'an it %i$'t be.
,. ARIS7O7LE( Poetics( tran". In$ra% 9y*ater( in (ntroduction to Aristotle( ed. Ric'ard
Mceon F ,nd edn4 C'ica$oC Uni3er"ity o5 C'ica$o 6re""( 01@=G( &. 2@;.
=. See SEYMOUR C)A7MAN( Story and 4iscourse F It'aca( NYC Corne## Uni3er"ity 6re""(
01@;G VandW RO9ER7 SC)OLES( Structuralism in Literature F Ne* )a3enC Ya#e
Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01@<G.
<. 6AUL RICCEUR( KANarrati3e 7i%e(AK in <n Narrati"e( ed. W. J. 7. Mitc'e## F C'ica$oC
Uni3er"ity o5 C'ica$o 6re""( 01;0G( &. 02@.
46
:. GRARD GENE77E( KA4iscours du r!cit(AK in $igures ((( F 6ari"C Edition" du Seui#( 01@,4
En$#i"' tran". Jane Le*in( Narrati"e 4iscourse F It'aca( NY. Corne## Uni3er"ity 6re""(
01;-GG( &. ,,;.
2. WAL7ER 9ENJAMIN( KA7'e Storyte##erA V4er 'rzFhlerWK( in (lluminations( tran". )arry
Do'n F Ne* Yor>C Sc'oc>en 9oo>"( 0121G( &. 1<.
@. See 8RAN ERMODE( ,he Sense of an 'nding F Ne* Yor>C O+5ord Uni3er"ity 6re""(
012@G4 JEAN!6AUL SAR7RE( La Naus!e F 6ari"C Ga##i%ard( 01<@G( &&. :1!2-4 SAR7RE(
Les %ots F 6ari"C Ga##i%ard( 012;G( &. 0@0.
;. JEAN 6OUILLON( ,em9s et roman F 6ari"C Ga##i%ard( 01<2G. See a#"o CLAUDE
9REMOND ( Logi:ue du r!cit F 6ari"C Edition" du Seui#( 01@=G.
1. JONA7)AN CULLER( KAStory and Di"cour"e in t'e Ana#y"i" o5 Narrati3e(AK in ,he Pursuit
of Signs F LondonC Rout#ed$e M e$an 6au#( 01;0G( &. 0@;.
0-. CYN7)IA C)ASE( KA7'e Deco%&o"ition o5 t'e E#e&'ant"C Doub#e Readin$ Danie#
Deronda(AK P%LA U3( no. , F 01@;G( &. ,0;.
00. SIR AR7)UR CONAN DOYLE( KA7'e Na3a# 7reaty(AK in ,he 6om9lete Sherlock -olmes
F Ne* Yor>C Doub#eday( 01:=G( 3o#. 0( &. :<-.
0,. JEAN!JAC]UES ROUSSEAU( 6onfessions F 6ari"C 9ib#iot'SBue de #a 6#I`ade( 01:1G( &.
;:.
0=. On t'e Ate+t a" %ac'ineA in Rou""eau( and on t'e e&i"ode o5 t'e "to#en ribbon a" a *'o#e( "ee
t'e notab#e e""ay by 6AUL DE MAN( KA7'e 6ur#oined Ribbon(AK in Allegories of *eading
F Ne* )a3enC Ya#e Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01@1G( &&. ,@;!=-0. W'i#e %y u"e o5 t'e e&i"ode o5 t'e
"to#en ribbon i" "ub"tantia##y di55erent 5ro% de ManA"( I a% indebted to 'i" re%ar>ab#e
ana#y"i".
0<. SUSAN SON7AG( Against (nter9retation F Ne* Yor>C 8arrar( Strau" M Girou+( 0122G( &.
0<.
)<
D!sir! in Narrati(!
H

7ERESA DE LAURE7IS
7ere"a de Laureti"A Alice 4oesn#t.
$eminism, Semiotics, 6inema
F 01;<G i" a $roundbrea>in$ "tudy
in *'ic'( a" t'e "ubtit#e indicate"(
t'e aut'or atte%&t" to reconci#e
"e%iotic" and 5e%ini"t t'eory 5or
t'e &ur&o"e o5 ana#y"in$ narrati3e
in $enera# and 5i#% narrati3e in
&articu#ar. In t'e e+cer&t re&rinted
be#o*( ta>en 5ro% c'a&ter :( de
Laureti" di"card" ear#y "tructura#i"t
"tudie"( #i>e t'o"e &ub#i"'ed in
6ommunications no. ;( on t'e
$round" o5 t'eir inca&acity to
account 5or t'e "tructura#
connection bet*een de"ire and
narrati3e. Dra*in$ on Ro#and
9art'e"A "u$$e"tion t'at t'ere i" a
"tructura# re#ation"'i& bet*een
narrati3e and t'e Oedi&u"( de
Laureti" "et" out to ana#y"e t'e
ant'ro&o#o$ica# and "tructura#
47
&attern" o5 t'e %yt'( brin$in$
to$et'er in"i$'t" 5ro% 6ro&&( LI3i!
Strau"" and 8reud a" *e## a" 5ro%
C'ri"tian MetE and Laura Mu#3ey(
a%on$ ot'er". )er t'eory t'ere5ore
co%bine" ant'ro&o#o$ica# and
'i"torica# data *it' "tructura#i"%(
"e%iotic" and 5e%ini"t t'eory. De
Laureti"A ba"ic contention i" t'at
de"ire "'ou#d not be ana#y"ed
t'e%atica##y( but "tructura##y4 t'at
in 5act F%a#eG de"ire $enerate"
narrati3e and i" at t'e 'eart o5 t'e
%u#ti5ariou" 3er"ion" o5 *'at "'e
con"ider" to be t'e on#y narrati3e
&#otC a 'eroA" Bue"t 5or 5u#5i#%ent
*'ere *o%an i" t'e co3eted
re*ard. De Laureti" a$ree" *it'
Si%one de 9eau3oirA" c#a""ic
5e%ini"t denunciation o5 t'e
con"truction o5 *o%an a" Aot'erA in
&atriarc'a# cu#ture and a">"
i%&ortant Bue"tion" about 5e%a#e
"ubHecti3ity and it" re&re"entation
in narrati3e a" *e## a" about t'e
5e%a#e "&ectatorA" Fand by
e+ten"ion( readerA"G ca&acity to
ac'ie3e a &#ea"urab#e identi5ication
*it' t'e &rota$oni"t". Ear#ier
5e%ini"t critici"%( "uc' a" Judit'
8etter#eyA" ,he *esisting *eader
F 01@;G( 'ad a#ready &ointed out t'e
e+c#u"ion o5 5e%a#e de"ire 5ro%
%a#e narrati3e" a" *e## a" 5ro%
%a#e critica# t'eory. De Laureti"A
%o"t inno3atin$ contribution to
5i#% ana#y"i" i" 'er contention t'at
t'e &roce"" o5 identi5ication o5 t'e
5e%a#e "&ectator in3o#3e" not one
but t*o "i%u#taneou" "et"
[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[[
\
7ERESA DE LAURE7IS( Alice
4oesn#t. $eminism, Semiotics,
6inema F 9#oo%in$tonC Indiana
Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01;<G( &&. 0-=!
<=( ,--!@.
!,2,!
o5 identi5yin$ re#ation"( one *it' t'e #oo>" o5 t'e ca%era and o5 t'e %a#e c'aracter"( and t'e ot'er *it' t'e i%a$e( t'e &a""i3e
body and #and"ca&e.
The question of desire
48
V. . .W
8or 5e%ini"t t'eory in &articu#ar( t'e intere"t in narrati3ity a%ount" to a theoretical return to narrati3e and t'e &o"in$ o5
Bue"tion" t'at 'a3e been eit'er &ree%&ted or di"&#aced by "e%iotic "tudie". 7'at return a%ount"( a" i" o5ten t'e ca"e *it' any
radica# critiBue( to a rereadin$ o5 t'e "acred te+t" a$ain"t t'e &a""ionate ur$in$ o5 a di55erent Bue"tion( a di55erent &ractice( and
a di55erent de"ire. 8or i5 MetEA" *or> on la grande syntagmati:ue #e5t #itt#e roo% 5or a con"ideration o5 t'e *or>in$ o5 de"ire
in narrati3e "tructuration( 9art'e"A" di"cour"e on t'e &#ea"ure o5 t'e te+t( at once erotic and e&i"te%o#o$ica#( a#"o de3e#o&"
5ro% 'i" &rior 'unc' t'at a connection e+i"t" bet*een #an$ua$e( narrati3e( and t'e Oedi&u".
0

V. . .W
Oedi&u"A" Bue"tion t'en( #i>e 8reudA"( $enerate" a narrati3e( turn" into a Bue"t. 7'u" not on#y i" a Bue"tion( a" 8e#%an "ay"(
a#*ay" a Bue"tion o5 de"ire4 a "tory too i" a#*ay" a Bue"tion o5 de"ire.
9ut *'o"e de"ire i" it t'at "&ea>"( and *'o% doe" t'at de"ire addre""P 7'e recei3ed inter&retation" o5 t'e Oedi&u" "tory(
8reudA" a%on$ ot'er"( #ea3e no doubt. 7'e de"ire i" Oedi&u"A"( and t'ou$' it" obHect %ay be *o%an For 7rut' or >no*#ed$e
or &o*erG( it" ter% o5 re5erence and addre"" i" %anC %an a" "ocia# bein$ and %yt'ica# "ubHect( 5ounder o5 t'e "ocia# order( and
"ource o5 %i%etic 3io#ence4 'ence t'e in"titution o5 t'e ince"t &ro'ibition( it" %aintenance in So&'oc#e"A Oedi&u" a" in
)a%#etA" re3en$e o5 'i" 5at'er( it" co"t" and bene5it"( a$ain( 5or %an. )o*e3er( *e need not #i%it our under"tandin$ o5 t'e
in"cri&tion o5 de"ire in narrati3e to t'e Oedi&u" "tory &ro&er( *'ic' i" in 5act &aradi$%atic o5 a## narrati3e". V. . .W
Th! 'ythical sub3!ct
)o*e3er 3aried t'e condition" o5 &re"ence o5 t'e narrati3e 5or% in 5ictiona# $enre"( ritua#"( or "ocia# di"cour"e"( it" %o3e%ent
"ee%" to be t'at o5 a &a""a$e( a tran"5or%ation &redicated on t'e 5i$ure o5 a 'ero( a %yt'ica# "ubHect. W'i#e t'i" i" a#ready
co%%on >no*#ed$e( *'at 'a" re%ained #ar$e#y unana#yEed i" 'o* t'i" 3ie* o5 %yt' and narrati3e re"t" on a "&eci5ic
a""u%&tion about "e+ua# di55erence.
!,2=!
V. . .W
In t'i" %yt'ica#!te+tua# %ec'anic"( t'en( t'e 'ero %u"t be %a#e( re$ard#e"" o5 t'e $ender o5 t'e te+t!i%a$e( becau"e t'e
ob"tac#e( *'ate3er it" &er"oni5ication( i" %or&'o#o$ica##y 5e%a#e and indeed( "i%&#y( t'e *o%b. 7'e i%&#ication 'ere i"
not incon"eBuentia#. 8or i5 t'e *or> o5 t'e %yt'ica# "tructuration i" to e"tab#i"' di"tinction"( t'e &ri%ary di"tinction on
*'ic' a## ot'er" de&end i" not( "ay( #i5e and deat'( but rat'er "e+ua# di55erence. In ot'er *ord"( t'e &icture o5 t'e *or#d
&roduced in %yt'ica# t'ou$'t "ince t'e 3ery be$innin$ o5 cu#ture *ou#d re"t( 5ir"t and 5ore%o"t( on *'at *e ca## bio#o$y.
O&&o"ite &air" "uc' a" in"ide?out"ide( t'e ra*?t'e coo>ed( or #i5e? deat' a&&ear to be %ere#y deri3ati3e" o5 t'e
5unda%enta# o&&o"ition bet*een boundary and &a""a$e4 and i5 &a""a$e %ay be in eit'er direction( 5ro% in"ide to out"ide
or 3ice 3er"a( 5ro% #i5e to deat' or 3ice 3er"a( nonet'e#e"" a## t'e"e ter%" are &redicated on t'e single 5i$ure o5 t'e 'ero
*'o cro""e" t'e boundary and &enetrate" t'e ot'er "&ace. In "o doin$ t'e 'ero( t'e %yt'ica# "ubHect( i" con"tructed a"
'u%an bein$ and a" %a#e4 'e i" t'e acti3e &rinci&#e o5 cu#ture( t'e e"tab#i"'er o5 di"tinction( t'e creator o5 di55erence".
8e%a#e i" *'at i" not "u"ce&tib#e to tran"5or%ation( to #i5e or deat'4 "'e FitG i" an e#e%ent o5 &#ot!"&ace( a to&o"( a
re"i"tance( %atri+ and %atter.
7'e di"tance bet*een t'i" 3ie* and 6ro&&A" i" not %ere#y A%et'odo#o$ica#A4 it i" ideo#o$ica#. Su55ice it to &oint out t'at in
3ery "i%i#ar ter%" RenI Girard inter&ret" t'e Oedi&u" %yt' in it" doub#e #in> to tra$edy and to "acri5icia# ritua#( and
de5ine" t'e ro#e o5 Oedi&u" a" t'at o5 "urro$ate 3icti%. Ritua# "acri5ice( 'e "tate"( "er3e" to ree"tab#i"' an order
&eriodica##y 3io#ated by t'e eru&tion o5 3io#ent reci&rocity( t'e cyc#ica# 3io#ence in'erent in Anondi55erence(A or *'at
Lot%an ca##" Anon!di"cretene"".A 9y 'i" 3ictory o3er t'e S&'in+( Oedi&u" 'a" cro""ed t'e boundary and t'u" e"tab#i"'ed
'i" "tatu" a" 'ero. )o*e3er( in co%%ittin$ re$icide( &atricide( and ince"t( 'e 'a" beco%e At'e "#ayer o5 di"tinction"(A 'a"
abo#i"'ed di55erence" and t'u" contra3ened t'e %yt'ica# order. W'at i" i%&ortant 'ere( 5or t'e &ur&o"e o5 our di"cu""ion(
i" t'e re#ation o5 %yt'ica# t'ou$'t to t'e narrati3e 5or%( t'e &#ot!te+t. A" Girard "tate" t'at tra$edy %u"t be under"tood in
it" %yt'o#o$ica# 5ra%e*or>( *'ic' in turn retain" it" ba"i" in "acri5icia# ritua# or "acred 3io#ence( "o doe" Lot%an in"i"t on
t'e %utua# in5#uence o5 t'e t*o te+tua# %ec'ani"%"( t'e %yt'ica# te+t and t'e &#ot!te+t. 7'e So3iet "c'o#ar e+e%&#i5ie"
t'eir coe+i"tence or interre#atedne"" in a $reat 3ariety o5 te+t" 5ro% S'a>e"&eare 6omedy of 'rrors to *or>" by
Do"toe3">y( 7o#"toy( and 6u"'>in( 5ro% Gree> %yt'" and Ru""ian 5o#>ta#e" to t'e Acts of the A9ostles. )e note" 'o*( in
"&ite o5 t'e 5act t'at 'i"torica##y!"&eci5ic idea" are tran"%itted by %ean" o5 t'e #inear &#ot %ec'ani"%( t'e %yt'ica# or
e"c'ato#o$ica#
49
!,2<!
"c'e%a continue" to be i%&o"ed on t'e "ecu#ar identity o5 #iterary c'aracter"4 t'e recurrence in %odern te+t" o5 t'e%e" #i>e
5a##!rebirt'( re"urrection( con3er"ion or en#i$'ten%ent( bear" *itne"" to it" &re"ence. And 5urt'er( t'i" i%&o"ition ac'ie3e" t'e
e55ect o5 5a"'ionin$ t'e ordinary %anA" indi3idua#( inner *or#d on t'e %ode# o5 t'e %acroco"%( &re"entin$ t'e indi3idua# a" a
Acon5#ictin$#y or$aniEed co##ecti3e.A 7'u"( 'e conc#ude"( i5 A&#ot re&re"ent" a &o*er5u# %ean" o5 %a>in$ "en"e o5 #i5e(A it i"
becau"e &#ot Fnarrati3eG %ediate"( inte$rate"( and u#ti%ate#y reconci#e" t'e %yt'ica# and t'e 'i"torica#( nor% and e+ce""( t'e
"&atia# and te%&ora# order"( t'e indi3idua# and t'e co##ecti3ity.
It i" neit'er 5aci#e nor "i%&#y &arado+ica#( in #i$'t o5 "uc' con3incin$ e3idence( to "tate t'at i5 t'e cri%e o5 Oedi&u" i" t'e
de"truction o5 di55erence"( t'e co%bined *or> o5 %yt' and narrati3e i" t'e &roduction o5 Oedi&u".
,
7'e bu"ine"" o5 t'e
%yt'ica# "ubHect i" t'e con"truction o5 di55erence"4 but a" t'e cyc#ica# %ec'ani"% continue" to *or> t'rou$' narrati3e !!
inte$ratin$ occurrence" and e+ce""( %ode#in$ 5ictiona# c'aracter" F'eroe" and 3i##ain"( %ot'er" and 5at'er"( "on" and #o3er"G on
t'e %yt'ica# &#ace" o5 "ubHect and ob"tac#e( and &roHectin$ t'o"e "&atia# &o"ition" into t'e te%&ora# de3e#o&%ent o5 &#ot !!
narrati3e it"e#5 ta>e" o3er t'e 5unction o5 t'e %yt'ica# "ubHect. 7'e *or> o5 narrati3e( t'en( i" a %a&&in$ o5 di55erence"( and
"&eci5ica##y( 5ir"t and 5ore%o"t( o5 "e+ua# di55erence into eac' te+t4 and 'ence( by a "ort o5 accu%u#ation( into t'e uni3er"e o5
%eanin$( 5iction( and 'i"tory( re&re"ented by t'e #iterary!arti"tic tradition and a## t'e te+t" o5 cu#ture. 9ut *e 'a3e #earned 5ro%
"e%iotic" t'at t'e &roducti3ity o5 t'e te+t( it" &#ay o5 "tructure and e+ce""( en$a$e" t'e reader( 3ie*er( or #i"tener a" "ubHect in
Fand 5orG it" &roce"". Muc' a" "ocia# 5or%ation" and re&re"entation" a&&ea# to and &o"ition t'e indi3idua# a" "ubHect in t'e
&roce"" to *'ic' *e $i3e t'e na%e o5 ideo#o$y( t'e %o3e%ent o5 narrati3e di"cour"e "'i5t" and &#ace" t'e reader( 3ie*er( or
#i"tener in certain &ortion" o5 t'e &#ot "&ace. 7'ere5ore( to "ay t'at narrati3e i" t'e &roduction o5 Oedi&u" i" to "ay t'at eac'
reader !! %a#e or 5e%a#e !! i" con"trained and de5ined *it'in t'e t*o &o"ition" o5 a "e+ua# di55erence t'u" concei3edC %a#e!
'ero!'u%an( on t'e "ide o5 t'e "ubHect4 and 5e%a#eob"tac#e!boundary!"&ace( on t'e ot'er.
I5 Lot%an i" ri$'t( i5 t'e %yt'ica# %ec'ani"% &roduce" t'e 'u%an bein$ a" %an and e3eryt'in$ e#"e a"( not e3en A*o%anA( but
non!%an( an ab"o#ute ab"traction Fand t'i" 'a" been "o "ince t'e be$innin$ o5 ti%e( "ince t'e ori$in o5 &#ot at t'e ori$in o5
cu#tureG( t'e Bue"tion ari"e"( 'o* or *it' *'ic' &o"ition" do reader"( 3ie*er"( or #i"tener" identi5y( $i3en t'at t'ey are a#ready
"ocia##y con"tituted *o%en and %enP In &articu#ar( *'at 5or%" o5 identi5ication are &o""ib#e( *'at
!,2:!
&o"ition" are a3ai#ab#e to 5e%a#e reader"( 3ie*er"( and #i"tener"P 7'i" i" one o5 t'e 5ir"t Bue"tion" to be a">ed or rearticu#ated by
5e%ini"t critici"%4 and t'i" i" *'ere t'e *or> o5 &eo&#e #i>e 6ro&& and 8reud %u"t be "eriou"#y recon"idered.
V. . .W
O!#i8us int!rru8tus
V. . .W
7o "ucceed( 5or a 5i#%( i" to 5u#5i## it" contract( to &#ea"e it" audience" or at #ea"t induce t'e% to buy t'e tic>et( t'e &o&corn( t'e
%a$aEine"( and t'e 3ariou" &ara&'erna#ia o5 %o3ie &ro%otion. 9ut 5or a 5i#% to *or>( to be e55ecti3e( it has to &#ea"e. A## 5i#%"
%u"t o55er t'eir "&ectator" "o%e >ind o5 &#ea"ure( "o%et'in$ o5 intere"t( be it a tec'nica#( arti"tic( critica# intere"t( or t'e >ind o5
&#ea"ure t'at $oe" by t'e na%e" o5 entertain%ent and e"ca&e4 &re5erab#y bot'. 7'e"e >ind" o5 &#ea"ure and intere"t( 5i#% t'eory
'a" &ro&o"ed( are c#o"e#y re#ated to t'e Bue"tion o5 de"ire Fde"ire to >no*( de"ire to "eeG( and t'u" de&end on a &er"ona#
re"&on"e( an en$a$e%ent o5 t'e "&ectatorA" "ubHecti3ity( and t'e &o""ibi#ity o5 identi5ication.
7'e 5act t'at 5i#%"( a" t'e "ayin$ $oe"( "&ea> to eac' one and to a##( t'at t'ey addre"" "&ectator" bot' indi3idua##y and a"
%e%ber" o5 a "ocia# $rou&( a $i3en cu#ture( a$e( or country( i%&#ie" t'at certain &attern" or &o""ibi#itie" o5 identi5ication 5or eac'
and a## "&ectator" %u"t be bui#t into t'e 5i#%. 7'i" i" undoubted#y one o5 t'e 5unction" o5 $enre"( and t'eir 'i"torica# de3e#o&%ent
t'rou$'out t'e century atte"t" to t'e need 5or cine%a to "u"tain and &ro3ide ne* %ode" o5 "&ectator identi5ication in >ee&in$
*it' "ocia# c'an$e". 9ecau"e 5i#%" addre"" "&ectator" a" "ocia# "ubHect"( t'en( t'e %oda#itie" o5 identi5ication bear direct#y on t'e
&roce"" o5 "&ectator"'i&( t'at i" to "ay( t'e *ay" in *'ic' t'e "ubHecti3ity o5 t'e "&ectator i" en$a$ed in t'e &roce"" o5 3ie*in$(
under"tandin$ F%a>in$ "en"e o5G( or e3en seeing t'e 5i#%.
I5 *o%en "&ectator" are to buy t'eir tic>et" and t'eir &o&corn( t'e *or> o5 cine%a( un#i>e At'e ai% o5 bio#o$y(A %ay be "aid to
reBuire *o%enA" con"ent4 and *e %ay *e## "u"&ect t'at narrati3e cine%a in &articu#ar %u"t be ai%ed( #i>e de"ire( to*ard
50
"educin$ *o%en into 5e%ininity. W'at %anner o5 "eduction o&erate" in cine%a to &rocure t'at con"ent( to en$a$e t'e 5e%a#e
"ubHectA" identi5ication in t'e narrati3e %o3e%ent( and "o 5u#5i## t'e cine%atic contractP W'at %anner o5 "eduction o&erate" in
cine%a to "o#icit t'e co%&#icity o5 *o%en "&ectator" in a de"ire *'o"e ter%" are t'o"e o5 t'e Oedi&u"P In t'e 5o##o*in$ &a$e" I
*i## be concerned *it' 5e%a#e "&ectator"'i&(
and in &articu#ar t'e >ind" o5 identi5ication a3ai#ab#e to *o%en "&ectator" and t'e nature o5 t'e &roce"" by *'ic' 5e%a#e
"ubHecti3ity i" en$a$ed in narrati3e cine%a4 t'u" I *i## recon"ider t'e ter%" or &o"itiona#itie" o5 de"ire a" con"tituted in
cine%a by t'e re#ation" o5 i%a$e and narrati3e.
7'e cine%atic a&&aratu"( in t'e tota#ity o5 it" o&eration" and e55ect"( &roduce" not %ere#y i%a$e" but i%a$in$. It bind" a55ect
and %eanin$" to i%a$e" by e"tab#i"'in$ ter%" o5 identi5ication( orientin$ t'e %o3e%ent o5 de"ire( and &o"itionin$ t'e
"&ectator in re#ation to t'e%.
V. . .W
7'e #oo> o5 t'e ca%era Fat t'e &ro5i#%icG( t'e #oo> o5 t'e "&ectator Fat t'e 5i#% &roHected on t'e "creenG( and t'e intradie$etic
#oo> o5 eac' c'aracter *it'in t'e 5i#% Fat ot'er c'aracter"( obHect"( etc.G inter"ect( Hoin( and re#ay one anot'er in a co%&#e+
"y"te% *'ic' "tructure" 3i"ion and %eanin$. V. . .W Cine%a Aturn"A on t'i" "erie" o5 #oo>"( *rite" )eat'( and t'at "erie" in turn
&ro3ide" t'e 5ra%e*or> A5or a &attern o5 %u#ti&#y re#ayin$ identi5ication"A4 *it'in t'i" 5ra%e*or> occur bot' A"ubHect!
identi5icationA and A"ubHect!&roce"".A
=
AIt i" t'e &#ace o5 t'e #oo> t'at de5ine" cine%a(A "&eci5ie" Mu#3ey( and $o3ern" it"
re&re"entation o5 *o%an. 7'e &o""ibi#ity o5 "'i5tin$( 3aryin$( and e+&o"in$ t'e #oo> i" e%&#oyed bot' to "et out and to
contain t'e ten"ion bet*een a &ure "o#icitation o5 t'e "co&ic dri3e and t'e de%and" o5 t'e die$e"i"4 in ot'er *ord"( to
inte$rate 3oyeuri"% into t'e con3ention" o5 "toryte##in$( and t'u" co%bine 3i"ua# and narrati3e &#ea"ure. 7'e 5o##o*in$
&a""a$e re5er" to t*o &articu#ar 5i#%"( but cou#d ea"i#y be read a" &aradi$%atic o5 t'e narrati3e 5i#% in $enera#C
7'e 5i#% o&en" *it' t'e *o%an a" obHect o5 t'e co%bined $aEe o5 "&ectator and a## t'e %a#e &rota$oni"t" in t'e
5i#%. S'e i" i"o#ated( $#a%orou"( on di"&#ay( "e+ua#i"ed. 9ut a" t'e narrati3e &ro$re""e" "'e 5a##" in #o3e *it' t'e
%ain %a#e &rota$oni"t and beco%e" 'i" &ro&erty( #o"in$ 'er out*ard $#a%orou" c'aracteri"tic"( 'er $enera#i"ed
"e+ua#ity( 'er "'o*!$ir# connotation"4 'er erotici"% i" "ubHected to t'e %a#e "tar a#one.
<

I5 t'e 5e%a#e &o"ition in narrati3e i" 5i+ed by t'e %yt'ica# %ec'ani"% in a certain &ortion o5 t'e &#ot!"&ace( *'ic' t'e 'ero
cro""e" or cro""e" to( a Buite "i%i#ar e55ect i" &roduced in narrati3e cine%a by t'e a&&aratu" o5 #oo>" con3er$in$ on t'e
5e%a#e 5i$ure. 7'e *o%an i" 5ra%ed by t'e #oo> o5 t'e ca%era a" icon( or obHect o5 t'e $aEeC an i%a$e %ade to be #oo>ed at
by t'e "&ectator( *'o"e #oo> i" re#ayed
!,2@!
by t'e #oo> o5 t'e %a#e c'aracterF"G. 7'e #atter not on#y contro#" t'e e3ent" and narrati3e action but i" At'e bearerA o5 t'e #oo>
o5 t'e "&ectator. 7'e %a#e &rota$oni"t i" t'u" Aa 5i$ure in a #and"ca&e(A "'e add"( A5ree to co%%and t'e "ta$e . . . o5 "&atia#
i##u"ion in *'ic' 'e articu#ate" t'e #oo> and create" t'e actionA F&. 0= G. 7'e %eta&'or" cou#d not be %ore a&&ro&riate.
In t'at #and"ca&e( "ta$e( or &ortion o5 &#ot!"&ace( t'e 5e%a#e c'aracter %ay be a## a#on$( t'rou$'out t'e 5i#%( re&re"entin$
and #itera##y %ar>in$ out t'e &#ace FtoG *'ic' t'e 'ero *i## cro"". 7'ere "'e "i%&#y a*ait" 'i" return #i>e Dar#in$
C#e%entine4 a" "'e indeed doe" in count#e"" We"tern"( *ar( and ad3enture %o3ie"( &ro3idin$ t'e A#o3e intere"t(A *'ic' in t'e
Har$on o5 %o3ie re3ie*er" 'a" co%e to denote( 5ir"t( t'e "in$u#ar 5unction o5 t'e 5e%a#e c'aracter( and t'en( t'e c'aracter
it"e#5.
:
Or "'e %ay re"i"t con5ine%ent in t'at "y%bo#ic "&ace by di"turbin$ it( &er3ertin$ it( %a>in$ troub#e( "ee>in$ to
e+ceed t'e boundary !! 3i"ua##y a" *e## a" narrati3e#y !! a" in 5i#% noir. Or a$ain( *'en t'e 5i#% narrati3e center" on a
5e%a#e &rota$oni"t( in %e#odra%a( in t'e A*o%anA" 5i#%(A etc.( t'e narrati3e i" &atterned on a Hourney( *'et'er in*ard or
out*ard( *'o"e &o""ib#e outco%e" are t'o"e out#ined by 8reudA" %yt'ica# "tory o5 5e%ininity. In t'e be"t o5 ca"e"( t'at i"( in
t'e A'a&&yA endin$( t'e &rota$oni"t *i## reac' t'e &#ace Ft'e "&aceG *'ere a %odern Oedi&u" *i## 5ind 'er and 5u#5i## t'e
&ro%i"e o5 'i" Fo55!"creenG Hourney. Not on#y( t'en( i" t'e 5e%a#e &o"ition t'at o5 a $i3en &ortion o5 t'e &#ot!"&ace4 %ore
&reci"e#y( in cine%a( it 5i$ure" t'e Fac'ie3edG %o3e%ent o5 t'e narrati3e to*ard t'at "&ace. It re&re"ent" narrati3e c#o"ure.
V. . .W
I5 narrati3e i" $o3erned by an Oedi&a# #o$ic( it i" becau"e it i" "ituated *it'in t'e "y"te% o5 e+c'an$e in"tituted by t'e ince"t
&ro'ibition( *'ere *o%an 5unction" a" bot' a "i$n Fre&re"entationG and a 3a#ue FobHectG 5or t'at e+c'an$e. And i5 *e re%ar>
Lea Me#andriA" ob"er3ation t'at t'e *o%an a" Mot'er F%atter and %atri+( body and *o%bG i" t'e &ri%ary %ea"ure o5 3a#ue(
Aan eBui3a#ent %ore uni3er"a# t'an %oney(K t'en indeed *e can "ee *'y t'e narrati3e i%a$e on *'ic' t'e 5i#%( any 5i#%( can
be re&re"ented( "o#d( and bou$'t i" 5ina##y t'e *o%an.
2
W'at t'e &ro%otion "ti##" and &o"ter" out"ide t'e cine%a di"&#ay( to
51
#ure t'e &a""er"!by( i" not Hu"t an image of woman but t'e i%a$e o5 'er narrati3e &o"ition( t'e narrati"e image o5 *o%an !! a
5e#icitou" &'ra"e "u$$e"ti3e o5 t'e Hoin o5 i%a$e and "tory( t'e inter#oc>in$ o5 3i"ua# and narrati3e re$i"ter" e55ected by t'e
cine%atic a&&aratu" o5 t'e #oo>. In cine%a a" *e##( t'en( *o%an &ro&er#y re&re"ent" t'e 5u#5i##%ent o5 t'e narrati3e &ro%i"e
F%ade( a" *e >no*( to t'e #itt#e boyG( and t'at re&re"entation *or>" to "u&&ort t'e %a#e "tatu" o5 t'e %yt'ica# "ubHect. 7'e
5e%a#e &o"ition(
!,2;!
&roduced a" t'e end re"u#t o5 narrati3iEation( i" t'e 5i$ure o5 narrati3e c#o"ure( t'e narrati3e i%a$e in *'ic' t'e 5i#%( a" )eat'
"ay"( Aco%e" to$et'er.A
Wit' re$ard to *o%en "&ectator"( t'ere5ore( t'e notion o5 a &a""a$e or %o3e%ent o5 t'e "&ectator t'rou$' t'e narrati3e 5i#%
"ee%" "tran$e#y at odd" *it' t'e t'eorie" o5 narrati3e &re"ented "o 5ar. Or rat'er( it *ou#d "ee% "o i5 *e a""u%ed !! a" i" o5ten
done !! t'at "&ectator" natura##y identi5y *it' one or t'e ot'er $rou& o5 te+ti%a$e"( one or t'e ot'er te+tua# Eone( 5e%a#e or
%a#e( accordin$ to t'eir $ender. I5 *e a""u%ed a "in$#e( undi3ided identi5ication o5 eac' "&ectator *it' eit'er t'e %a#e or t'e
5e%a#e 5i$ure( t'e &a""a$e t'rou$' t'e 5i#% *ou#d "i%&#y in"tate or recon5ir% %a#e "&ectator" in t'e &o"ition o5 t'e %yt'ica#
"ubHect( t'e 'u%an bein$4 but it *ou#d on#y a##o* 5e%a#e "&ectator" t'e &o"ition o5 t'e %yt'ica# ob"tac#e( %on"ter or
#and"ca&e. )o* can t'e 5e%a#e "&ectator be entertained a" "ubHect o5 t'e 3ery %o3e%ent t'at &#ace" 'er a" it" obHect( t'at
%a>e" 'er t'e 5i$ure o5 it" o*n c#o"ureP
C#ear#y( at #ea"t 5or *o%en "&ectator"( *e cannot a""u%e identi5ication to be "in$#e or "i%&#e. 8or one t'in$( identi5ication i"
it"e#5 a %o3e%ent( a "ubHect!&roce""( a re#ationC t'e identi5ication Fo5 one"e#5G *it' "o%et'in$ ot'er Ft'an one"e#5G. In
&"yc'oana#ytic ter%"( it i" "uccinct#y de5ined a" t'e A&"yc'o#o$ica# &roce"" *'ereby the subAect a""i%i#ate" an a"&ect( &ro&erty
or attribute o5 t'e ot'er and is transformed( *'o##y or &artia##y( a5ter t'e %ode# t'e ot'er &ro3ide". It i" by %ean" o5 a "erie" o5
identi5ication" t'at t'e &er"ona#ity i" con"tituted and "&eci5ied.A
@
7'i" #a"t &oint i" crucia#( and t'e re"e%b#ance o5 t'i"
5or%u#ation to t'e de"cri&tion o5 t'e a&&aratu" o5 t'e #oo> in cine%a cannot e"ca&e u". 7'e i%&ortance o5 t'e conce&t o5
identi5ication( La&#anc'e and 6onta#i" in"i"t( deri3e" 5ro% it" centra# ro#e in t'e 5or%ation o5 "ubHecti3ity4 identi5ication i" Anot
"i%&#y one &"yc'ica# %ec'ani"% a%on$ ot'er"( but t'e o&eration it"e#5 *'ereby t'e 'u%an "ubHect i" con"titutedA F&. ,-2 G. 7o
identi5y( in "'ort( i" to be acti3e#y in3o#3ed a" "ubHect in a &roce""( a "erie" o5 re#ation"4 a &roce"" t'at( it %u"t be "tre""ed( i"
%ateria##y "u&&orted by t'e "&eci5ic &ractice" !! te+tua#( di"cur"i3e( be'a3iora# !! in *'ic' eac' re#ation i" in"cribed. Cine%atic
identi5ication( in &articu#ar( i" in"cribed acro"" t'e t*o re$i"ter" articu#ated by t'e "y"te% o5 t'e #oo>( t'e narrati3e and t'e
3i"ua# F"ound beco%in$ a nece""ary t'ird re$i"ter in t'o"e 5i#%" *'ic' intentiona##y u"e "ound a" an anti!narrati3e or de!
narrati3i"in$ e#e%entG.
Second#y( no one can rea##y "ee one"e#5 a" an inert obHect or a "i$'t#e"" body4 neit'er can one "ee one"e#5 altogether a" ot'er.
One 'a" an e$o( a5ter a##( e3en *'en one i" a *o%an Fa" Lir$inia Woo#5 %i$'t "ayG( and by de5inition t'e e$o %u"t be acti3e
or at #ea"t
!,21!
5anta"iEe it"e#5 in an acti3e %anner. W'ence( 8reud i" #ed to &o"tu#ate( t'e &'a##ic &'a"e in 5e%a#e"C t'e "tri3in$ o5 #itt#e $ir#" to
be %a"cu#ine i" due to t'e acti3e ai% o5 t'e #ibido( *'ic' t'en "uccu%b" to t'e %o%entou" &roce"" o5 re&re""ion *'en
5e%ininity A"et" in.A 9ut( 'e add"( t'at %a"cu#ine &'a"e( *it' it" #ibidina# acti3ity( ne3er tota##y #et" u& and 5reBuent#y %a>e"
it"e#5 5e#t t'rou$'out a *o%anA" #i5e( in *'at 'e ca##" Are$re""ion" to t'e 5i+ation" o5 t'e &re!Oedi&u" &'a"e".A One can o5 cour"e
re%ar> t'at t'e ter% Are$re""ionA i" a 3ector in t'e 5ie#d o5 F 8reudA"G narrati3e di"cour"e. V. . .W
7'e &oint( 'o*e3er( i" %ade !! and it i" re#e3ant to t'e &re"ent di"cu""ion !! t'at A5e%ininityA and A%a"cu#inityA are ne3er 5u##y
attained or 5u##y re#inBui"'edC Ain t'e cour"e o5 "o%e *o%enA" #i3e" t'ere i" a re&eated a#ternation bet*een &eriod" in *'ic'
5e%ininity or %a"cu#inity $ain t'e u&&er 'and.A
;
7'e t*o ter%"( 5e%ininity and %a"cu#inity( do not re5er "o %uc' to Bua#itie"
or "tate" o5 bein$ in'erent in a &er"on( a" to &o"ition" *'ic' "'e occu&ie" in re#ation to de"ire. 7'ey are ter%" o5 identi5ication.
And t'e a#ternation bet*een t'e%( 8reud "ee%" to "u$$e"t( i" a "&eci5ic c'aracter o5 5e%a#e "ubHecti3ity. 8o##o*in$ t'rou$'
t'i" 3ie* in re#ation to cine%atic identi5ication( cou#d *e "ay t'at identi5ication in *o%en "&ectator" a#ternate" bet*een t'e
t*o ter%" &ut in &#ay by t'e a&&aratu"C t'e #oo> o5 t'e ca%era and t'e i%a$e on t'e "creen( t'e "ubHect and t'e obHect o5 t'e
52
$aEeP 7'e *ord a#ternation con3ey" t'e "en"e o5 an eit'er?or( eit'er one or t'e ot'er at any $i3en ti%e F*'ic' i" &re"u%ab#y
*'at 8reud 'ad in %indG( not t'e t*o to$et'er. 7'e &rob#e% *it' t'e notion o5 an a#ternation bet*een i%a$e and $aEe i" t'at
t'ey are not co%%en"urab#e ter%"C t'e $aEe i" a 5i$ure( not an i%a$e. We "ee t'e i%a$e4 *e do not "ee t'e $aEe. 7o cite a$ain
an o5ten!cited &'ra"e( one can A#oo> at 'er #oo>in$(A but one cannot #oo> at one"e#5 #oo>in$. 7'e ana#o$y t'at #in>"
identi5ication!*it't'e!#oo> to %a"cu#inity and identi5ication!*it'!t'e!i%a$e to 5e%ininity brea>" do*n &reci"e#y *'en *e
t'in> o5 a "&ectator a#ternatin$ bet*een t'e t*o. Neit'er can be abandoned 5or t'e ot'er( e3en 5or a %o%ent4 no i%a$e can be
identi5ied( or identi5ied *it'( a&art 5ro% t'e #oo> t'at in"cribe" it a" i%a$e( and 3ice 3er"a. I5 t'e 5e%a#e "ubHect *ere indeed
re#ated to t'e 5i#% in t'i" %anner( it" di3i"ion *ou#d be irre&arab#e( un"uturab#e4 no identi5ication or %eanin$ *ou#d be
&o""ib#e. 7'i" di55icu#ty 'a" #ed 5i#% t'eori"t"( 5o##o*in$ Lacan and 5or$ettin$ 8reud( &ractica##y to di"re$ard t'e &rob#e% o5
"e+ua# di55erentiation in the s9ectators and to de5ine cine%atic identi5ication a" %a"cu#ine( t'at i" to "ay( a" an identi5ication
*it' t'e $aEe( *'ic' bot' 'i"torica##y and t'eoretica##y i" t'e re&re"entation o5 t'e &'a##u" and t'e 5i$ure o5 t'e %a#eA" de"ire.
1

7'at 8reud concei3ed o5 5e%ininity and %a"cu#inity &ri%ari#y in
!,@-!
narrati3e rat'er t'an 3i"ua# ter%" Fa#t'ou$' *it' an e%&'a"i" on "i$'t !! in t'e trau%atic a&&re'en"ion o5 ca"tration a"
&uni"'%ent !Buite in >ee&in$ *it' 'i" dra%atic %ode#G %ay 'e#& u" to recon"ider t'e &rob#e% o5 5e%a#e identi5ication.
8e%ininity and %a"cu#inity( in 'i" "tory( are &o"ition" occu&ied by t'e "ubHect in re#ation to de"ire( corre"&ondin$ re"&ecti3e#y
to t'e &a""i3e and t'e acti3e ai%" o5 t'e #ibido. 7'ey are &o"itiona#itie" *it'in a %o3e%ent t'at carrie" bot' t'e %a#e c'i#d
and t'e 5e%a#e c'i#d to*ard one and t'e "a%e de"tinationC Oedi&u" and t'e Oedi&a# "ta$e. 7'at %o3e%ent( I 'a3e ar$ued( i"
t'e %o3e%ent o5 narrati3e di"cour"e( *'ic' "&eci5ie" and e3en &roduce" t'e %a"cu#ine &o"ition a" t'at o5 %yt'ica# "ubHect(
and t'e 5e%inine &o"ition a" %yt'ica# ob"tac#e or( "i%&#y( t'e "&ace in *'ic' t'at %o3e%ent occur". 7ran"5errin$ t'i" notion
by ana#o$y to cine%a( *e cou#d "ay t'at t'e 5e%a#e "&ectator identi5ie" *it' bot' t'e "ubHect and t'e "&ace o5 t'e narrati3e
%o3e%ent( *it' t'e 5i$ure o5 %o3e%ent and t'e 5i$ure o5 it" c#o"ure( t'e narrati3e i%a$e. 9ot' are 5i$ura# identi5ication"( and
bot' are &o""ib#e at once4 %ore( t'ey are concurrent#y borne and %utua##y i%&#icated by t'e &roce"" o5 narrati3ity. 7'i"
%anner o5 identi5ication *ou#d u&'o#d bot' &o"itiona#itie" o5 de"ire( bot' acti3e and &a""i3e ai%"C de"ire 5or t'e ot'er( and
de"ire to be de"ired by t'e ot'er. 7'i"( I t'in>( i" in 5act t'e o&eration by *'ic' narrati3e and cine%a "o#icit t'e "&ectator"A
con"ent and "educe *o%en into 5e%ininityC by a doub#e identi5ication( a "ur&#u" o5 &#ea"ure &roduced by t'e "&ectator"
t'e%"e#3e" 5or cine%a and 5or "ocietyA" &ro5it.
V. . .W
Not!s
0. ROLAND 9AR7)ES( ,he Pleasure of the ,e0t( tran". Ric'ard Mi##er F Ne* Yor>C )i## M Wan$( 01@:G.
,. C5. MIA CAM6IONI and ELIDA9E7) GROSS( KALitt#e )an"C 7'e 6roduction o5 Oedi&u"(AK in Language, Se0uality
and Sub"ersion( ed. 6au# 8o"" and Mea$'an Morri" F Dar#in$ton( Au"tra#iaC 8era# 6ub#ication"( 01@;G( &&. 11!0,,.
=. S7E6)EN )EA7)( Buestions of 6inema F 9#oo%in$tonC Indiana Uni3er"ity 6re""( 01;0G( &&. 001!,-. A7'e "'i5t
bet*een t'e 5ir"t and "econd #oo>" "et" u& t'e "&ectatorA" identi5ication *it' t'e ca%era Fri$orou"#y con"tructed(
&#acin$ 'ea3y con"traint"( 5or e+a%&#e( on ca%era %o3e%entG. 7'e #oo> at t'e 5i#% i" an in3o#3e%ent in identi5yin$
re#ation" o5 t'e "&ectator to t'e &'oto$ra&'ic i%a$e Ft'e &articu#ar ter%" o5 &o"ition reBuired by t'e 5act o5 t'e
&'oto$ra&' it"e#5G( to t'e 'u%an 5i$ure &re"ented in i%a$e Ft'e entice%ent and t'e nece""ity o5 a 'u%an &re"ence Kon
t'e "creenKG( to t'e narrati3e *'ic' $i3e" t'e "en"e o5 t'e 5#o* o5 &'oto$ra&'ic i%a$e" Ft'e $uide!#ine 5or t'e
"&ectator t'rou$' t'e 5i#%( t'e $round t'at %u"t be ado&ted 5or it" inte##i$ib#e rece&tionG. 8ina##y( t'e #oo>" o5 t'e
c'aracter" a##o* 5or t'e e"tab#i"'%ent o5
!,@0!
t'e 3ariou" K&oint o5 3ie*K identi5ication" Ft'e "&ectator #oo>in$ *it' a c'aracter( 5ro% near to t'e &o"ition o5 'i" or 'er
#oo>( or a" a c'aracter( t'e i%a$e %ar>ed in "o%e *ay a" K"ubHecti3eKA F&. 0,-G.
<. LAURA MULLEY( KALi"ua# 6#ea"ure and Narrati3e Cine%a(AK Screen 2Q. = FAutu%n 01@:GC 0=. In t'i" connection
"'ou#d be %entioned t'e notion o5 a A5ourt' #oo>A ad3anced by Wi##e%enC a 5or% o5 direct addre"" to t'e 3ie*er( an
Aarticu#ation o5 i%a$e" and #oo>" *'ic' brin$" into &#ay t'e &o"ition and acti3ity o5 t'e 3ie*er . . . W'en t'e "co&ic
dri3e i" brou$'t into 5ocu"( t'en t'e 3ie*er a#"o run" t'e ri"> o5 beco%in$ t'e obHect o5 t'e #oo>( o5 bein$ o3er#oo>ed in
53
t'e act o5 #oo>in$. 7'e 5ourt' #oo> i" t'e &o""ibi#ity o5 t'at #oo> and i" a#*ay" &re"ent in t'e *in$"( "o to "&ea>.A
F 6AUL WILLEMEN( KALetter to Jo'n(AK Screen >2. , FSu%%er 01;-GC :2.G
:. See CLAIRE JO)NS7ON( KAWo%enA" Cine%a a" Counter!Cine%a(AK in Notes on Domen#s 6inema( ed. C#aire Jo'n"ton
F LondonC SE87( 01@<G( &. ,@4 and 6AM COO and CLAIRE JO)NS7ON( KA7'e 6#ace o5 Wo%en in t'e Cine%a o5
Raou# Wa#"'(AK in *aoul Dalsh( ed. 6'i# )ardy F Edinbur$'C Edinbur$' 8i#% 8e"ti3a#( 01@<G.
2. LEA MELANDRI( L#infamia originaria F Mi#anC EdiEioni LAErba Lo$#io( 01@@G( "ee note" 02 and =- o5 c'a&ter 0.
@. J. LA6LANC)E and J.!9. 6ON7ALIS( ,he Language of Psycho-Analysis( tran". Dona#d Nic'o#"on!S%it' F Ne*
Yor>C Norton( 01@=G( &. ,-:4 %y e%&'a"i".
;. SIGMUND 8REUD( KA8e%ininity(AK in ,he Standard 'dition of the 6om9lete Psychological Dorks of Sigmund $reud(
ed. Ja%e" Strac'ey F LondonC )o$art' 6re""( 01::G( 3o#. ,,( &. 0=0.
1. See JAC]UELINE ROSE( KA7'e Cine%atic A&&aratu"C 6rob#e%" in Current 7'eoryAK in ,he 6inematic A99aratus( ed.
7ere"a de Laureti" and Ste&'en )eat' F LondonC Mac%i##an4 Ne* Yor>C St. MartinA" 6re""( 01;-G( &&. 0@,!;2. See a#"o
)EA7)( KADi55erence(AK Screen 2U. = FAutu%n 01@;GC :-!00,.
!,@,!
54