LANGUAGE IS MACHINE DEPENDENT

Machine-dependent is a term for application software that runs only on a particular type of
computer. Conversely, applications that run on a variety of different types of computers are
called machine-independent (or cross-platform).
Prior to deploying machine-dependent applications on non-native computer architectures or
operating systems, the application in question usually undergoes porting. This process involves
writing (or re-writing) the application's computer code to suit the target architecture or operating
system.
In programming, any "machine dependent" language is a low-level programming language, such as
Assembler, that uses mnemonics and code specifically designed for a particular microprocessor or CPU.
For example, an assembler language writen using the operators for an Intel x86 CPU would not work on a
machine with a Motorola CPU, and vice versa. So, "X86 Assembler" is considered "machine dependent".
The C language itself is machine independant, the dependancies are taken care of by the machine specific
headers and system files supplied with the compiler.

Machine-dependent is a term for application software that runs only on a particular type of computer.
Conversely, applications that run on a variety of different types of computers are called machine-
independent (or cross-platform).

Prior to deploying machine-dependent applications on non-native computer architectures or operating
systems, the application in question usually undergoes porting. This process involves writing (or re-
writing) the application's computer code to suit the target architecture or operating system.
Interpreter and Compiler
Let's introduce at this point some concepts of execution of programs written in high level
programming languages. As we have already seen, the only language that a computer can
understand is the so called machine language. These languages are composed of a set of basic
operations whose execution is implemented in the hardware of the processor. We have also seen
that high level programming languages provide a machine-independent level of abstraction that
is higher than the machine language. Therefore, they are more adapted to a human-machine
interaction. But this also implies that there is a sort of translator between the high level
programming language and the machine languages. There exists two sorts of translators:

Interpreter
An Interpreter is a program that implements or simulates a virtual machine using the base
set of instructions of a programming language as its machine language.
You can also think of an Interpreter as a program that implements a library containing the
implementation of the basic instruction set of a programming language in machine
language.
An Interpreter reads the statements of a program, analyzes them and then executes them on
the virtual machine by calling the corresponding instructions of the library.

Interactive interpreter session
During an interactive interpreter session the statements are not only read, analyzed and
executed but the result of the evaluation of an expression is also printed. This is also called
a READ - EVAL - PRINT loop.


Compiler
A Compiler is a program that translates code of a programming language in machine code,
also called object code. The object code can be executed directly on the machine where it
was compiled.
Figure 5.1. Comparison of compiled and interpreted code

So using a compiler separates translation and execution of a program. In contrast of an
interpreted program the source code is translated only once.
The object code is machine-dependent meaning that the compiled program can only be executed
on a machine for which it has been compiled, whereas an interpreted program is not machine-
dependent because the machine-dependent part is in the interpreter itself.
Figure 5.2 illustrates another concept of program execution that tries to combine the advantage
of more effective execution of compiled code and the advantage of machine-independence of
interpreted code. This concept is used by the JAVA programming language for example and in a
more subtle way by Python.
Figure 5.2. Execution of byte compiled code

In this case the source code is translated by a compiler in a sort of object code, also called byte
code that is then executed by an interpreter implementing a virtual machine using this byte code.
The execution of the byte code is faster than the interpretation of the source code, because the
major part of the analysis and verification of the source code is done during the compilation step.
But the byte code is still machine-independent because the machine-dependent part is
implemented in the virtual machine. We will see later how this concept is used in Python
DOCUMENTATION
Documentation may refer to the process of providing evidence ("to document something") or to
the communicable material used to provide such documentation (i.e. a document).
Documentation may also (seldom) refer to tools aiming at identifying documents (see
bibliography) or to the field of study devoted to the study of documents and bibliographies (see
documentation (field)).
Subfields of documentation include:
Scientific documentation
Technical documentation (e.g. software documentation, product specifications, data sheets, or a
patent)
Legal documentation (e.g. a travel document system)
Administrative documentation
Historical documentation
Documentation understood as document is any communicable material (such as text, video,
audio, etc., or combinations thereof) used to explain some attributes of an object, system or
procedure. It is often used to mean engineering documentation or software documentation, which
is usually paper books or computer readable files (such as HTML pages) that describe the
structure and components, or on the other hand, operation, of a system/product.
A professional whose field and work is documentation used to be termed a documentalist.
Normally, documentalists are trained or have a background in both a specific subject and in the
field of documentation (today information science). A person more or less exclusively to write
technical documentation is called a technical writer. Technical writers are similarly trained or
have a background in technical writing, along with some knowledge of the subject(s) they are
documenting. Often, though, they collaborate with subject matter experts (SMEs), such as
engineers.
Common types of computer hardware/software documentation include online help, FAQs, how-
tos, and user guides. The term RTFM is often used colloqially in regard to such documentation,
especially to computer hardware and software user guides.
A common type of software document frequently written by software engineers in the simulation
industry is the SDF (software documentation folder). While developing the software for a
simulator, which can range from embedded avionics devices to 3D terrain databases to full
motion control systems, the engineer keeps a notebook detailing the development lifecycle of the
project. The notebook can contain a requirements section, an interface section detailing the
communication interface of the software, a notes section to detail the proof of concept attempts
to track what worked or didn't work in solving certain problems, and a testing section to detail
how the software will be tested to prove conformance to the requirements of the contract. The
end result is a detailed description of how the software is designed, how to build and install the
software on the target device, and any known weaknesses in the design of the software. This
document will allow future developers and maintainers of the trainer to come up to speed on the
software design in as short a time as possible and have a documented reference when modifying
code or searching for bugs.
Principles
While associated ISO standards are not easily available publicly, a guide from other sources for
this topic may service the purpose
[1],

[2],

[3]
. David Berger has provided several principals in
document writings, regarding the terms using, procedure numbering and even lengths of
sentences etc.
[4]
.
The following is the list of guides dealing with each specific field and type
documentation in health care
[5]

thesis writing
[6],

[7],

[8]

Further information: Dissertation
papers for academic journal publishing (i.e. Journal of Food Science
[9]
and Analytical Chemistry
[10]
)
Procedures and techniques
The procedures of documentation varies from one sector, or one type, to another. In general,
these may involve document drafting, formating, submitting, reviewing, approving, distributing,
repositing and tracking etc. and are convened by associated SOPs in a regulatory industry
[11],

[12],

[13],

[14]
.

ANALOG AND DIGITAL TRANSMISSION
Analog & Digital Signals


In general, there are two types of telecommunication transmission--Analog transmission and
Digital transmission.
Analog Transmission

Analog transmission uses signals that are exact replicas of a sound wave or picture being
transmitted. Signals of varying frequency or amplitude are added to carrier waves with a given
frequency of electromagnetic current to produce a continuous electric wave. The term "analog
signal" came about because the variations in the carrier waves are similar, or analogous, to that
of the voice itself.
For example, in analog transmission, say a telephone system, an electric current or the
reproduction of patterned sound waves are transmitted through a wire and into the telephone
receiver. Once this is completed, they are then converted back into sound waves.


Digital Transmission

In digital transmission the signals are converted into a binary code, which consists of two
elementspositive and non-positive. Morse code and the "on and off" flashing of a light are
basic examples. Positive is expressed as the number 1, while non-positive is expressed as the
number 0. Numbers that are expressed as a string of 0s and 1s are called binary numbers. Every
digit in a binary number is referred to as a bit and represents a power of two. For example, in the
binary number 101, the 1 at the right represents 1 x 2; the 0 in the middle represents 0 x 2; and
the 1 to the far left represents 1 x 2. The decimal equivalent of 101 is (1 x 2) + (0 x 2) + (1 x
2) = 4 + 0 + 1 = 5. In a standard code used by most computers, the letter "A" is expressed in 8
bits as 01000001.
As an example of digital transmission, in a type of digital telephone system, coded light signals
produced by a rapidly flashing laser travels through optical fibers (thin strands of glass) and are
then decoded by the receiver. When transmitting a telephone conversation, the light flashes on
and off about 450 million times per second. This high rate enables two optical fibers to carry
about 15,000 conversations simultaneously.

Digital format is ideal for electronic communication as the string of 1s and 0s can be transmitted
by a series of "on/off" signals represented by pulses of electricity or light. A pulse "on" can
represent a 1, and the lack of a pulse "off" can represent a 0. Information in this form is very
much easier to store electronically. Furthermore, digital transmission is usually faster and
involves less noise and disturbances as compared to analog data transmission.
Analog and Digital Transmissions
analog digital
data continuous (e.g., voice) discrete (e.g., text)
signal continuous electromagnetic waves

Used mainly for transmitting data across a
network.
sequence of voltage pulses

Used mainly internally within
computers.
transmission transmission of analog signals without regards to
their content (the data may be analog or binary).
The signals become weaker (attenuated) with the
distance. Amplifiers may be used to strengthen
the signals, but as side effect they also boost the
noise. This might not be a problem for analog
data, such as voice, but is a problem for digital
data.
Transmission that is concerned
with the content of the signal.
Repeaters are used to overcome
attenuation. A repeater recovers
the digital pattern from the
signal it gets, and resubmits a
new signal.
Advantages of digital transmission.
Technology Sees a drop in cost due to LSI and VLSI
Data integrity Repeaters allow longer distances over lines of lesser quality.
Capacity utilization Digital techniques can more easily and cheaply utilize, through
multiplexing, available transmission links of high bandwidth.
Security and privacy Encryption techniques are more readily applied to digital data
Integration Simplified if digitized data is used everywhere.
INTERNET
The Internet (also known simply as the Net) can be briefly understood as "a network of
networks". Specifically, it is the worldwide, publicly accessible network of interconnected
computer networks that transmit data by packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol
(IP). It consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic, business, and governmental networks,
which together carry various information and services, such as electronic mail, online chat, file
transfer, and the interlinked Web pages and other documents of the World Wide Web.
Contrary to some common usage, the Internet and the World Wide Web are not synonymous: the
Internet is a collection of interconnected computer networks, linked by copper wires, fiber-optic
cables, wireless connections etc.; the Web is a collection of interconnected documents, linked by
hyperlinks and URLs. The World Wide Web is accessible via the Internet, along with many
other services including e-mail, file sharing and others described below. The Internet is the
worldwide, publicly accessible network of interconnected computer networks that transmit data
by packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol (IP). It is a "network of networks" that
consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic, business, and government networks, which
together carry various information and services, such as electronic mail, online chat, file transfer,
and the interlinked Web pages and other documents of the World Wide Web.
Contrary to some common usage, the Internet and the World Wide Web are not synonymous: the
Internet is a collection of interconnected computer networks, linked by copper wires, fiber-optic
cables, wireless connections, etc.; the Web is a collection of interconnected documents, linked by
hyperlinks and URLs. The World Wide Web is accessible via the Internet, along with many
other services including e-mail, file sharing and others described below.
One of the greatest things about the Internet is that nobody really owns it. It is a global collection of
networks, both big and small. These networks connect together in many different ways to form the single
entity that we know as the Internet. In fact, the very name comes from this idea of interconnected networks.
Since its beginning in 1969, the Internet has grown from four host computer systems to tens of millions.
However, just because nobody owns the Internet, it doesn't mean it is not monitored and maintained in
different ways. The Internet Society, a non-profit group established in 1992, oversees the formation of the
policies and protocols that define how we use and interact with the Internet.
In this article, you will learn about the basic underlying structure of the Internet. You will learn about domain
name servers, network access points and backbones. But first you will learn about how your computer
connects to others.
THE ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF THE INTERNET:
The Internet or the World Wide Web is indeed a wonderful and amazing addition in our
lives. The Internet can be known as a kind of global meeting place where people from all
parts of the world can come together. It is a service available on the computer, through
which everything under the sun is now at the fingertips of anyone who has access to the
Internet.
To get online, meaning to connect to the Internet, you need to have:
A Computer: Computer equipment is a sizeable investment and thus you should
select a computer carefully. Before buying a computer, understand your needs
and then choose one accordingly. See that it comes with a warranty and that
after sales service is available in case you need it.
Internet Service Provider: This is the software that you will require to get online.
You can now choose from a dial-up service or 24-hour broadband services. This is
the service that will help you to connect to the Internet and start your surfing
experiences.
ADVANTAGES OF THE INTERNET
The Internet provides opportunities galore, and can be used for a variety of things. Some of the
things that you can do via the Internet are:
E-mail: E-mail is an online correspondence system. With e-mail you can send and receive instant
electronic messages, which works like writing letters. Your messages are delivered instantly to
people anywhere in the world, unlike traditional mail that takes a lot of time.
Access Information: The Internet is a virtual treasure trove of information. Any kind of
information on any topic under the sun is available on the Internet. The search engines on the
Internet can help you to find data on any subject that you need.
Shopping: Along with getting information on the Internet, you can also shop online. There are
many online stores and sites that can be used to look for products as well as buy them using
your credit card. You do not need to leave your house and can do all your shopping from the
convenience of your home.
Online Chat: There are many chat rooms on the web that can be accessed to meet new people,
make new friends, as well as to stay in touch with old friends.
Downloading Software: This is one of the most happening and fun things to do via the Internet.
You can download innumerable, games, music, videos, movies, and a host of other
entertainment software from the Internet, most of which are free.
DISADVANTAGES OF THE INTERNET
There are certain cons and dangers relating to the use of Internet that can be summarized as:
Personal Information: If you use the Internet, your personal information such as your name,
address, etc. can be accessed by other people. If you use a credit card to shop online, then your
credit card information can also be stolen which could be akin to giving someone a blank
check.
Pornography: This is a very serious issue concerning the Internet, especially when it comes to
young children. There are thousands of pornographic sites on the Internet that can be easily
found and can be a detriment to letting children use the Internet.
Spamming: This refers to sending unsolicited e-mails in bulk, which serve no purpose and
unnecessarily clog up the entire system.

HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS
To establish a connection to internet the following are required
1) Computer with facility to connect a modem. A separate port is to be provided for external
modem or an expansion slot for internal modem.
2)A telephone connection
3)A modem
4) A TCP/IP account with an internet Service provider
5) The computer should have the respective software to avail the various internet resources. It
should have a web browser to view the web pages, and an e-mail software to compose, send and
organise e-mail messages
HARDWARE REQUIREMENT

You need a 2-way cable modem or DSL broadband Internet connection. You will also need a
Telephone Adapter (TA). You will also need a standard household cordless or corded telephone

NIC CARD
A computer with a NIC card (i.e. network interface card, Ethernet card) and a broadband modem
is normally required for high-speed Internet access. The type of modem needed depends on the
type of broadband services that is used.

BROADBAND MODEM
A broadband modem is a device that connects to the computer?s NIC card and is required to
handle the rapid rate of data transfer from the Internet. Broadband modems cost under $100.
Many broadband service providers either include a modem in their monthly packages or charge
the subscriber a nominal monthly rental fee.
Most modems that come with computers are designed for dial-up Internet access and for sending
faxes over the phone lines. They will not support a high-speed Internet connection.

ETHERNET HUB
To provide concurrent high-speed Internet access to two or more computers, either an Ethernet
hub or a router should be connected between the broadband modem and each of the computers.
Hubs and routers are inexpensive and are typically designed to network four or five computers.


SOFTWARE REQUIREMENT
We can choose what O.S. to use. The most common are the following:
Win9x, Win2000, WinXP
Linux
Under Windows we have Microsoft Netmeeting, Internet Phone, DialPad or others or Internet
Switchboard for Quicknet cards. Note well, however, that the latest Quicknet cards using
Swithboard (older version too) NEED to be connected to Internet to get working for managing
Microtelco account (not free of charge), so if you plan to remain isolated from the Internet you
need to install OpenH323 software.

Under Linux we have the free software GnomeMeeting, a clone of Microsoft Netmeeting, while
in console mode we use (also free software) applications from OpenH323 web site: simph323 or
ohphone that can also work with Quicknet accelerating hardware. Note that all Openh323 source
code has to be compiled in a user directory (if not it is necessary to change some environment
variable).
Gateway software
To manage gateway feature (join TCP/IP VoIP to PSTN lines) you need some kind of software
like this:

Internet SwitchBoard (only when connected to Internet) for Windows systems also acting as a
h323 terminal;
PSTNGw for Linux and Windows systems you download from OpenH323.
Gatekeeper software
The following can be chosen as gatekeeper:

Opengatekeeper
Openh323 Gatekeeper (GK)
Other software
An example of a useful h323 compliant software is Phonepatch, which is able to solve problems
behind a NAT firewall. It simply allows users (external or internal) calling from a web page
(which is reachable from even external and internal users): when web application understands
the remote host is ready, it calls (h323) the source telling it all is ok and communication can be
established. Phonepatch is a proprietary software (with also a demo version for no more than 3
minutes long conversations).

INKJET PRINTER
An inkjet printer is a type of computer printer that reproduces a digital image by propelling
variably-sized droplets of liquid or molten material (ink) onto a page. Inkjet printers are the most
common type of printer
[1]
and range from small inexpensive consumer models to very large and
expensive professional machines.
[2]

The idea of inkjet printing dates back to the 19th century and the technology was first developed
in the early 1950s. Starting in the late 1970s inkjet printers that could reproduce digital images
generated by computers were developed, mainly by Epson, Hewlett-Packard and Canon. In the
worldwide consumer market, four manufacturers account for the majority of inkjet printer sales:
Canon, Hewlett-Packard, Epson, and Lexmark
[citation needed]
.
The emerging ink jet material deposition market also uses ink jet technologies, typically
piezoelectric crystals, to deposit materials directly on substrates.
TechnologiesS
There are three main technologies in use in contemporary inkjet printers: thermal, piezoelectric,
and continuous.
Thermal inkjets
Most consumer inkjet printers, from companies including Canon, Hewlett-Packard, and
Lexmark, use print cartridges with a series of tiny electrically heated chambers constructed by
photolithography. To produce an image, the printer runs a pulse of current through the heating
elements causing a steam explosion in the chamber to form a bubble, which propels a droplet of
ink onto the paper (hence Canon's tradename of Bubble Jet for its inkjets). The ink's surface
tension as well as the condensation and thus contraction of the vapor bubble, pulls a further
charge of ink into the chamber through a narrow channel attached to an ink reservoir.
The ink used is known as aqueous (i.e. water-based inks using pigments or dyes) and the print
head is generally cheaper to produce than other inkjet technologies. The principle was discovered
by Canon engineer Ichiro Endo in August 1977.
Note that thermal inkjets have no relation to thermal printers, which produce images by heating
thermal paper, as seen on older fax machines, cash registers, ATM receipt printers, and lottery
ticket printers.
Piezoelectric inkjets
Most commercial and industrial ink jet printers and some consumer printers (Epson) use a
piezoelectric material in an ink-filled chamber behind each nozzle instead of a heating element.
When a voltage is applied, the piezoelectric material changes shape or size, which generates a
pressure pulse in the fluid forcing a droplet of ink from the nozzle. This is essentially the same
mechanism as the thermal inkjet but generates the pressure pulse using a different physical
principle. Piezoelectric (also called Piezo) ink jet allows a wider variety of inks than thermal or
continuous ink jet but the print heads are more expensive. Piezo inkjet technology is often used
on production lines to mark products - for instance the use-before date is often applied to
products with this technique; in this application the head is stationary and the product moves
past. Requirements of this application are a long service life, a relatively large gap between the
print head and the substrate, and low operating costs. There is a drop-on-demand process, with
software that directs the heads to apply between zero to eight droplets of ink per dot and only
where needed. As of June 2009, the fastest cut-sheet inkjet printer on the market is the RISO
ComColor 9050, which prints 146 USLetter and 150 A4 full-color pages per minute in both one-
sided and two-sided printing modes.
[3][4]

Continuous ink jet
The continuous ink jet method is used commercially for marking and coding of products and
packages. The idea was first patented in 1867, by Lord Kelvin and the first commercial devices
(medical strip chart recorders) were introduced in 1951 by Siemens.
[5]

In continuous ink jet technology, a high-pressure pump directs liquid ink from a reservoir
through a gunbody and a microscopic nozzle, creating a continuous stream of ink droplets via the
Plateau-Rayleigh instability. A piezoelectric crystal creates an acoustic wave as it vibrates within
the gunbody and causes the stream of liquid to break into droplets at regular intervals 64,000 to
165,000 drops per second may be achieved. The ink droplets are subjected to an electrostatic
field created by a charging electrode as they form, the field varies according to the degree of
drop deflection desired. This results in a controlled, variable electrostatic charge on each droplet.
Charged droplets are separated by one or more uncharged guard droplets to minimize
electrostatic repulsion between neighbouring droplets.
The charged droplets pass through an electrostatic field and are directed (deflected) by
electrostatic deflection plates to print on the receptor material (substrate), or allowed to continue
on undeflected to a collection gutter for re-use. The more highly charged droplets are deflected to
a greater degree. Only a small fraction of the droplets is used to print, the majority being
recycled.