Cross-cultural Patterns of Attachment:

A Meta-Analysis of the Strange Situation

Marinus H. van IJzendoum and Pieter M. Kroonenberg

University of Li'iden

VAN IJZKNDOOHN. MAHIM'S II., and KnooNKNUKiu;, I'l h,ii:n M. Cwss-ctilltinil t'altcrns nf Alliirli-
meni: A Mt'ta-Anahjsh of the Strange Situation. CHILD DK\KL()I'MENT, 19S8, 59, 147-156. Cross-
culhiral research usin)i, Aiii.sworths Straiip' Sidiatinii tcTids to ifK (in iiicoinplctf inlojinafidii and to
concentrate on individual lathfi tliaii aggregated samples. In this study, a wider peispetiixe is taken
hy examining almost 2,000 Strange Situation elassifieatioiis ohtained in iS difleienl ((.nintries. Ditfei-
eiiees and similanties between (iistiihiitions in classifications <ii sumph^s are investigated using
conespondence analysis. Aggregation ol samples pei counln AIH] cDntineiit alloued loi a finnti'i
empirical basis t<n eross-cnltmal analysis. Snbstantial intracnitnral difVerenies were estalilished; in a
number ot instances, sample's Irom 1 country resembled ihose in oilier coiuitries uiore than the> did
eaeh other. The data also suggi-st a pattern o( cioss-eultiua! dillerentes, in v\hieh A classilieations
emerge as relatively more prevalenl in Western lMLro|iean (onntries and C classifications iis rela-
tively more freniienl in Israel and japau. hitracultinal variation was Tieinh f.5 times the cross-
cultural variation.

Cross-cultiiral aspcets ol attacliTiic'iit tlu'-
oiy and findings liave been discussed lor sev-
eral years (Ainsworth, 1977; Bretherton,
1985;'Hinde, 1982; Lamb, Tboni|)soii, Gard-
ner, & Chamov, 1985; Sa^i & Lewkowie/,
1987). Re.seareh using tlie Strange Situation
paradifjni (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall,
1978) in varions conntries seemed (o show
marked differences in distributions o( attach-
ment classification.s aeross eultmes: distribu-
tions fbmid in Bieleleld, Federal Repubhe of
Germany (Grossmann, Grossmann, SpaTigler,
Siiess, ik Unzner, 1985), in Sappoi'o, Japan
(Miyake, Chen, & Campos, 198.5; Takahashi,
1986), and in Israeli kibbutzim (Saj^i et al.,
1985) were seen to deviate stronj^ly from the
Ameriean "standard" distribution o! about
20% avoidant (A), 70% seeure («), and 10%
resistant (C) attaehment relationships (Ains-
worth et al., 1978). A relatively high percent-
age of A elassifieatioiis were found in
Bielefeld, and a relatively high percentage of
C classifications, in Japan and Israel.
It is somewhat curious that so nincli at-
tention has been paid to deviant distribntions
found in these samples (see. ior instance,
Bretherton, 1985; Lamb et al., 1985). Because
sample sizes in attachment researeh gt'iicrally
have been rather small, sampling error eannot
always be ruled out. In the ease of the
Bielefeld sample, Uinde (1982) rightly speaks
oi a "provisional" finding: ii the obtained dis-
tribution deviates not onK' from the American
"standard" but also Irom other Ck'rman and
Western Enropean distribnti{)ns, its charac-
teristics need to be replicated before spec-
ulations about this population's idiosynenitie
cultmal background can be sericnisK' enter-
tained.
In general, eross-eiiltiual diseussions ot
attachment theory and findings bave presup-
posed that tliere are large eross-enltm-al differ-
ences compared with intraeiiltural differ-
ences; however, no empirical studies have
addressed this issne on the available data. Al-
though Lamb et a!. (1985, p. 183), Fthenakis
(1985, p. 223), van IJzendoorn (1986a, p. 559).
and Siigi and Lewkowie/ (1987, p. 432) have
compared attachment classificati(ni distribu-
tions from several different cultint's, at most
onl> a third of the available evidenee way
considered in each instance; statements abtiut
tlie proportion oi intraeiiltm^al to cross-
cultural diflerenees could therefore oiiK' be
imprecise. For example. Lamb et al. (1985)
mentioned lioth \ariations of distribntions be-
tween and within cultures, but they did n{»t
compare tlie relatively large intracultural vari-
ation of the United States with that of non-

'I'he authors acknowledge the lielpiul comments ol'William I'. Gardner iind an anonymous
reviewer on an earlier draft of this numuscript. A previous \ersiou was |)iesentcd at the bieimial
meeting ofthe Society lor Researeh m ChikI Develoijment, Haltiniore, Ml), Apiil H)87. Re(iiiests
tor reprints should be addressed to Marinus 11. van Hzcndoorn, Deijai-hnent ol iLducation. UTn\er-
sity of Leiden, P.O. Box 9507, NL-230() RA Leiden, Netherlands.
[Chitd Devdopment, 1988, 59, 147-1.56. © 1988 hy the Sofi<'t>' HIT Hcst-arch in Child Devi^lopment. Inc.
All rit'hts rf-sejved. (HX)9-3y2()/88/.5:-XII-0022S<)l.(X)|
 148 Child Development
American distributions (see also, Sagi & Lew-
kowicz, 1987).
Finally, it is by no means elear whether
the mueh-discnssed deviations from tlie
American "standard" distribution are as dra-
matic as is often suggested. In the absenee of
systematic analysis of a wide range of Ameri-
can and non-Ameriean distributions obtained
in different samples, it is impossible to evalu-
ate whether sneh deviations are indeed
significant or may only refleet expectable be-
tween-sample variation.
In this study we consider the largest data
base of Strange Situation classifieations eol-
Ieeted so far. By comparing individual sam-
ples with a "global" distribution, derived
across all available samples, a more appropri-
ate perspective on sample-speeifie variations
can be gained. Furthemiore, by aggregating
data per country or continent, the risk of capi-
talizing on outlying and unreliable distribu-
tions of individual samples will be lessened.
Lastly, by considering not only Ainsworth et
al.'s (1978) "standard" distribution but other
American samples as well, it becomes possi-
ble to eompare more precisely intracultunil
versus cross-eultiiral diHerenees.
Method
Data base.—A computer search of tlie
"Lockheed files" for the key word "attaeh-
ment" as well as examination ofthe mnitina-
tional data set eompiled by Sagi and Connell
(see, Sagi & Lewkowiez, 1987) were used to
identify relevant studies. The following erite-
ria were subse(juently applied in selecting
the data base lor the eurrent analysis. (1) Only
studies on infant-mother attachment using
elassieal Strange Situation procedures and re-
porting the distribution of A, B, and C elas-
sifieations were eonsidered; other caregiver-
infant dyads, assessments by nonshmdard
procedures, and studies in whieh A and C
classifieations were reported as a single "in-
secure" category were exeluded. (2) Speeial
groups sueh as Down's syndrome children or
twins were exeluded, as were samples of less
than N = 35 (this latter was to avoid sampling
instiibilities and effeets of possible mis-
elassifieations on individual sampling distri-
butions). (3) Studies with overlapping sam-
ples were eliminated. Thus, for example,
Matas, Arend, and Sroufe's (1978) sample was
exeluded because 11 of the 48 subjects had
been ineluded in another study; to refleet
findings reported by the Minnesota Longitu-
dinal Projeet in various publications, we se-
lected only their largest sample, as described
by Egeland and Farher (1984). (4) Studies in-
volving children older than 24 months were
exeluded; tlie oldest sample ineluded in the
dati base had a mean age of 21 months and
eame from Goossens's study (1986; see also,
van IJzendoom, Goossens, Kroonenberg, &
Tavecchio, 1985). In total, 32 samples from
eight countries were selected, representing
1,990 Strange Situation elassifieations.
Data analyses.—The samples were cast
in a contingency table, with sample N's as one
of the marginal distributions and frequency of
A, B, and C classifications over all samples as
the other {see Table 1). Three kinds of anal-
yses were performed on these data.
1. To assess signifieant deviations in fre-
quency of a particular classification in a given
sample, standardized residuals for eaeh cell of
tlie table—eomputed as [(O - ii;)^/(£)]''^, tliat
is, die square root of tlie eell's contiibntion to
the overall chi square or, more eorreet, Pear-
son's x^—were obtained. These residuals are
standardized deviations ftom a model of inde-
pendence between rows and columns and
hence provide an index of variability; under
adequate assumptions, they are asymptoti-
cally standard normal distributed (see Bishop,
Fienberg, & Holland, 1975). A large standard-
ized residual indicates tliat the observed eell
fretjueney is considerably larger or, if the sign
is negative, smaller than expected from the
marginals. Because a large number of cells
were to be evaluated (tliree eategories x 32
samples - 96 cells), the Bonferroni approaeh
was used to guard against eapit;ilization on
chance: the standard alpha level of .05 was
divided by 96, and a two-tailed BonfeiToni
alpha level of .0()()5 was adopted. Standard-
ized residuals of 3.5 or larger attain this level
of signifieance.
2. To evaluate the extent of cross- and
intracultural differences, the overall variation
(i.e., Pearson's x^) was partitioned into sums
of squared residuals over samples within a
country and tJiose between eountries. Simi-
larly, the variation between countries may be
further partitioned into sums of squared resid-
uals over countries within a region or conti-
nent and those between regions (see
Greenacre, 1985, pp. 203-204).
3. To investigate similarities and differ-
ences in sample profiles (i.e., the distribution
of relative proportions of A, B, and C classi-
fieations), we used eorrespondence analysis,
a teehnique widely used by Freneh inves-
tigators (for details, see Benzecri, 1976;
Greenaere, 1985; Nishisato, 1980). Briefly de-
scribed, the metliod permits simultaneous
 van IJzendoom and Kroonenberg
analysis of both sample and category profiles;
its solution is obtiiined via singnlar value de-
composition of tlie standardized residnals and
a weighting of tbe singular veetors by the
square root ofthe singular values multiplied
by the inverse square root of N subjeets in a
sample or category.
In graphie represetituitions of the results
of til is analysis (sueh as depicted iu Fig. I),
tlie origin represents the marginal distribu-
tions of both categories and samples; in es-
senee, it is the global distiibution derived
from all tlie samples, and samples close to the
origin have profiles that elosely resemble the
global one. Distaiiee from the origiti indexes
the extent to which the given sample or cate-
gory distribution deviates from its marginal
distribution, and the direction indicates the
kind of deviation. Samples or categories that
are close together resemble eaeh <ither, and
those that deviate in ojjposite directiotis are
negatively related; when both a sample and
category point are close together, the devia-
tion from the marginal distribntions is particu-
larly pronouneed in that sample-and-category
combination. In sum, the representation |)er-
mits seeing which samples have similar
profiles over categories and wbieh eategories
have similar profiles over sainples, as well as
whieh categories and whieh samples deviate
markedly from their "global" distribution.
Results
The frequeneies of A, /J, and C classifi-
eations obtained in each ofthe 32 samples (as
well as summed over eoutitries and regions)
aie shown in Table 1. In all but one instanee
(Grossmann et al., 1985, labeled F2 in the
table), the B eategory emerges as modal.
Deviations from expected frequencies:
standardized residuals.—Considering first
the datii for eountries (itixlieized entries in
Table 1), the standardized residuals are nega-
tive (smaller than expected) for the C and
positive (larger than expeeted) for tbe A
classification iti all the four Western Enro-
pean countries; the obverse is tiTie lor Israel
and Japan. In the single C'hinese sample ol
U.S. residents, the B catcgoiy is less frequent
than expected. Individual samples within
countries that have eells with significant devi-
ations from marginal expectations inelude
Grossmann's Bielefeld sample (F2), in which
A's are overrepresented; Sagi's Israeli kibbut-
zim sample (II) and Egeland and Farber's correspondence analysis.—A correspondence
sample (U9), which are characterized by over- analysis was carried out to get an overview
representation of C's; and the Sapporo sam- of the structural similarities and differenees
149
ple (J2), in whieh signifieantly fewer A's and
significantly more C's were ionnd.
Intraenltural versns cross-cultural dif-
ferences: partitioning variation.—In our data
base, differences between samples, x^(62, N
= 1,990) = 248.6, p < .(XM)1; between conn-
trtes, x^(14, N = 1,990) = 102.4, p < .O(X)1;
and between continents, x"'(6, N = 1,990) ~-
92.1, p < .0001, are signifieant. Dlfferenees
between samples within the Federal Be-
publie of Germany, x^(4, N - 136) ^ 16.5, p
< .01; within Japan, x^(2, iV = 96) = 9.6, p <
.01; and within the United SUites, x"(34, N =
1,230) - 102.8, p < .0001, are signifieant as
well. Differences between samples within Is-
rael, x^(2,A' = 118) = 5.9, p - .05, and within
the Netherlands, x"(6, .V = 251) = 11.2, p =
.08, are only margitially signifieant. Differ-
ences between the distributiotis of the non-
U.S. eountries and the United SUites itself are
negligible, x"(2, N - 1,990) = .3; N.S.
To aequire some indication of tlie rela-
tive size of the intracultura! and cross-cultiu'al
differenees, the tot;il variation (i.e., Pearson's
X^) of Table 1 is partitioned into parts asso-
ciated with eountries atid continents (see
Table 2).
The m(jst salient aspect of Table 2 is that
the jntracultural variation (i.e., within coun-
tries) is nearly 1.5 times tbe cross-cnltitral
variation (i.e., between eountries). The aver-
age variation per sample within countries is
especially large in the Federal Bepublic of
Germany (6.2) and the United States (5.8) and
much smaller in the Netherlands (2.7) and Ja-
pan (2.7). For Great Britiiin, Sweden, atid the
(Ameriean) Chinese sample this can, of
course, not be assessed. The contributions ot
German and Duteh samples to tlie between-
conntry variation are about the same as their
within-eountry variation. As will be seen in
more detail later, the within-U.S. variation is
sueh that the United States has an A, B, C
distribntion elosely resembling the global dis-
tribution. On the average, the Japanese and
Israeli samples eonttibute most to the be-
tween-eountries and between-continent vari-
ation. The Western European eountries have
relatively similar profiles: of the between-
eountries variation of 4.6 per sample, only a
quarter (1.1) is associated with the differences
among tliemselves, whereas the rest (3.5) is
associated with differenees with (conntries
from) other continents.
Similarities and differences in profiles:
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152 Child Development

FK;. 1,—Cone spond e nee analysis soluH<m ol saniple-by-elassifieation table. Arrows indii'ate classifi-
eation categories. Points iiidieate samples; tor labels see Table 1.

between profiles of individual samples (see
Fig. 1).
In Figure I, the U.S. samples show very
large variation, bnt their eeriter of gravity is
near the origin ofthe figure, indicating a U.S.
distribution nearly proportional to the global
one.' Ainsworth et al.'s (1978) "standard"
sample (Ul) is also projected near the origin.
In other countries, too, intraeultural vari-
ation is rather large compared with eross-
cultural variation. In Genriany, for example,
the distance hetween the Berlin (Fl) and

In this figure, (he counhies (and Westem Europe) have been projeeted by using regression-
type procedures with the eountiy coordinates as the eriteria and the catej^ory coordinates as regies-
,sion weights for the frequencies ofthe eountrie.s. In other words, eountries are treated as "variables
supplementaires," Greenacre (1985, pp. 202-203), among others, shows that these country (eonli-
nent) points lie in tbe center of gravity- of the .samples from that eounti-y (eontinent). The same
proeedure may be used for A, B, and C frequency distributions {/^, /„, fc) of new .samples. There-
lore, researchers e;m project their distributions into our Figure 1 by using the following formulas for
the X-eoordirmte and y-eoordinate, respecrively: X = (-.6447/'^ - .0313/), + l.l473/c.)/(.2696 x
N), and y = (-.7031/^ + .3i95 f,, - .567()/t:)/(.2286 x A'), where N ='f^ + f,, + f^.
 van IJzendoom and Kroonenberji 153
TABLK 2
P\H1I IIOMNG (W TO'1A[,

VEW SAMI'l.h,

Between Within Total Between Within 'l\>tal

Federal Hepublie of (ierniany . . . 17.6 18.7 36.1 5.9 6.2 12.1
Great Britain 7.3 ,0 7.3 7.3 7.3
Nethedands 12.8 10-8 23.6 3.2 2,7 5.9
Sweden 4.3 .0 4-3 4,3 .0 4.3
Israel :U).^) 8.6 39-5 15,5 4.3 19.8
Japan 23,9 5.4 29-3 12,0 2.7 14.7
Unite<l States I ]()3.4 103.5 ,0 5.8 5.8
Chinese 4.7 ,0 4,7 4.7 .0 4.7
Western Europe 3!.8 10.3 42.1 .•J.5 I.] 4.6
Total" 102.4 146.2 248.6 .•i.2 4.6 7.8
' ' I ' u t a l v:i]i.itii)ii ( 2 4 8 . ( i ) = witliiii Limulrii'S (116.2) + •-villiiii •.U).:ll \ , , i i - l . ' . S . / l ! . S . (91.«)
l)etwt-('ii \ u i i - l . : . S . / l i , S . (.3).
' .Xveiii^e variation - variatiim/iiu. ul s.iiiiples.

Bielefeld (F2) sample is abont as larj^e as the elietti (U15) saTiiples, as well as Li-Hepae's
distance between the Berlin sample and the Chinese sample (C).
Israeli kibbutzim (II) or the Kennedy and
Bakeman sample (Ull). In japan, the Tokyo Diseussion
sample (Jl) resembles Croekenberg's [U7)
and Bates's (U3) samples more than the Sajj- Basetl on evidence of the 32 studies con-
poro sample (J2). The Israeli eit\' sample (12) sidered in this analysis, intiiicidtiiral diller-
resembles Owen's sample (U14) more than ences emerge as being (}uite considerable.
the Israeli kibbutzim samj^le (II), whieh Seeing that often it is the same investigator
shows more similarit>' to the Kennedy and who obtained samples with widely dilferent
Bakeman sample (Ull). distributions witliin a given eonntry (e.g..
Federal Repnblie ot Gennany, United States,
Israel), such intracidtmal variation can hardly
Even though the standardized residuals be attributed to differences in procednres or
of the Easterbrooks and Lamb sample (US) application of the coding system (Lamb et al.,
were not extreme (see Table 1), its ontlying 1985).
position in Figure 1 is due to its unusual
profile. The Bielefeld (F2) and Sapporo (J2) Aldiough when aggiegated over the 18
samples are clearly outliers as well. samples, the U.S. distribution is proportional
to the "global" pattern derived from all sam-
There is no eommon usage to inspect di- ples (as is, fortiiitonsly, Ainsworth et al."s
mensions in correspondence analysis, but one 1978 sample distribntion, Ul), its status as a
may diseem that tlie first dimension (variation "standard" is achieved only tlirough aggrega-
— 144.6 or 58%) shows a progression of an tion over a wide diversity. Thus, for instance,
overrepresentiition of tfie A classifications on Easterbrooks and Lamb's sample (U8) differs
the left: to an overrepres en tation of the C notably from Kennedy and Bakeman s (Ull),
elassifieations on the right, while the seeond Egeland and Farber's (U9), and Schneider-
dimension (variation - 104.0 or 42%) indi- Bosen and Cicchetti's (U15); there are very
eates a B versus A plus C overrepresentation. few anxiously attaehed dyads in tlie fornier
The fonner trend roughly eoiTesponds with and very many (particularly C's) in all tfie lat-
the division: Western Europe (W) versus the ter. The Easterbrooks and Lamb sample con-
United Stites (U) versns Japan (J) and Israel sisted ot middle-class, mostly professional
(I) on the first dimension. The overrepresen- families; in contrast, the other three all in-
tation of A and C dyads characterizes a eluster volved low soeioeeonomic status and in-
of low socioeconomie status samples: the cluded, respectively, black infants from a
Kennedy and Bakeman (Ull), Egeland and low-income population, economically dis-
Farber (U9), and Sehneider-Rosen and Cic- advantaged and maritally unstafile families.
154 (!lhild Develop me 111:
and a mimbfr ol'nialti'fatc'd infants. Etk'cts ol
cnvimiimeiital strc^ss apjiear iniplicaltHl as at
least one factor in leading to such cxtifine
differences (see \'augliH, Fgt land, Sronte, &
Waters, 1979).
It is aiso evident that some ot the I'.S.
samples resenililc non-l'.S. ones more elfisely
than the\' do each otiier. Tims, Owen ct al. s
sample (U14) is most like tlic Isra<'li city sam-
ple (12), whereas Antoiiucci and l.,e\'itt"s (L'2)
resentbles at most two of the Diit<'h samples
(N4 and N2), as well as (.irossniann's Ues^ens-
bnrg groiij) (F3). Similar findings appK' to
other countries: in japan, (he Tok\-o distribu-
tion (JD is more like Bates et al.'s (U3) and
C!-ockenl>erg'.s (U7) tlistribuUons than it is
like tlie Sapporo sample (J2); in Germany, the
Rcgcn.sburg (F3) and Ik-rlin (F\] distribn-
tions correspond moii? closi.'ly to those oi
other Western European (•ountries than to the
Bieleield (F2) samijle, whieli is shown as an
extreme outlier in P^i^nre 1. It is i,lear that
great eaution should he exereised in assuming
that an individual sample is repiesentative ot
a particular (sub)euiture and that the eccentric
stiitus ot an "outlier" <listribution should
await replication betore it is brought io bear
on cross-cultural tiebates.
Some cross-cultmal (as oppos<'d to iii-
ti^aeuitural) sinnlarities and dillercnces are
also snggeste{l by the data. As to the tormer. it
is evident that the li classitication is nmdal in
all countries; howexcr., vvhethci' or no( this
implies that patterns ot secure atUu'hmcnSs (as
understood in U.S. researeh) predominate iu
all rearing environments c:]nnot be estab-
lished in the absence ot clata obtained outside
the Strange Situation. The overall [jattern of
among-eountry ditierences suggests gi'eater
relative tre<jnenc\' of A el assi fieat ions in
Western Ein\)pean eountries and ot C" classifi-
cations in Israel and |ap;iin, uith ihe U.S. dis-
tribntion tailing in-beh.veen th<'se two poles.
lntracnltm-al ditterences aie 1.5 limes as
large as cross-cultural difierenees. OnK' the
Japanese and Israels samples and \V(;stern
Europe as a whole conti^ibute more to the
eniss-cnltnral variation than to the intracul-
tiiral variation, while (he I'-S. samples con-
tribute only to the intracultnral variation. In
tact, the global distribntioii would haidK
change if the U.S. samples \\'ould not be
taken into aeeount. After ail, the ditlerenccs
hetween the distribntious of tlie non-LJ.S. and
U.S. samples are nearly zero. Therefore,
given that the Strange Situation is a valid in-
stiaiment for measuring attachment (inalit\' in
the United States, there is uo reason to donl)t
its cross-cultiiral validity only because eross-
cultural sample distributions differ from Ains-
worth et al.'s (1978) 'standard."
The relatively modest cross-ciiltnral dit-
fererices may reflect tlie effeets of mass
luedia, particidarly in the Westem world,
where television programs and books that ad-
voeate similar notions of parenting are dis-
seminated across eountries. It seems evident
tliat datii trom less Western-oriented cultures
such as Africa, South America, and Eastern
European socialist countries will be needed
to establish a more tiTily global and better-
informed cross-enltnial perspective on infer-
ences to be deri\ed trom differences in dis-
tributions of Strange Situation attachment
elassifications.
References
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