OpportunitiesforCombinedHeatandPower

atWastewaterTreatmentFacilities:
MarketAnalysisandLessonsfromtheField
U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency
CombinedHeatandPowerPartnership
October2011

TheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)
CHPPartnershipisavoluntaryprogramthatseeksto
reducetheenvironmentalimpactofpowergeneration
bypromotingtheuseofCHP.CHPisanefficient,
clean,andreliableapproachtogeneratingpowerand
thermalenergyfromasinglefuelsource.CHPcan
increaseoperationalefficiencyanddecreaseenergy
costswhilereducingtheemissionsofgreenhouse
gases.TheCHPPartnershipworkscloselywith
energyusers,theCHPindustry,stateandlocal
governments,andotherstakeholderstosupportthe
developmentofnewCHPprojectsandpromotetheir
energy,environmental,andeconomicbenefits.
TheCHPPartnershipprovidesresourcesaboutCHP
technologies,incentives,emissionprofiles,andother
informationonitswebsiteatwww.epa.gov/chp.For
moreinformation,contacttheCHPPartnership
Helplineatchp@epa.govor(703)373-8108.
Acknowledgements
The CHP Partnership would like to thank the following people for
their review and comments, which were very helpful in the
developmentofthisreport:
Robert Bastian,U.S.EPAOfficeofWater
John Cuttica,UniversityofIllinoisatChicago
Lauren Fillmore,WaterEnvironmentResearchFoundation(WERF)
Bruce Hedman,ICFInternational
Chris Hornback, National Association of Clean Water Agencies
(NACWA)
Dana Levy, New York State Energy Research and Development
Authority(NYSERDA)
John Moskal,U.S.EPARegion1
Reportpreparedby:EasternResearchGroup,Inc.(ERG)andResourceDynamicsCorporation
(RDC)fortheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,CombinedHeatandPowerPartnership,
October2011.

TableofContents
EXECUTIVESUMMARY...................................................................................................................iv
1.0 Introduction....................................................................................................................... 1
2.0 CHPandItsBenefitsatWastewaterTreatmentFacilities................................................. 3
3.0 TheMarket........................................................................................................................ 5
3.1 WastewaterTreatmentFacilitieswithCHP...................................................................... 5
3.2 PotentialCHPMarket........................................................................................................ 7
4.0 TechnicalandEconomicPotential.................................................................................... 9
4.1 TechnicalPotential forCHPatWastewaterTreatmentFacilities ..................................... 9
4.1.1 Methodology...................................................................................................................... 9
4.1.2 ElectricandThermalGenerationPotentialfromCHPSystemsatWastewater
TreatmentFacilities ......................................................................................................... 10
4.1.3 NationalElectricGenerationPotentialfromCHPatWastewaterTreatment
Facilities........................................................................................................................... 12
4.1.4 PotentialCarbonDioxideEmissionsBenefits................................................................. 12
4.2 EconomicPotentialforCHPatWastewaterTreatmentFacilities................................... 13
4.2.1 Methodology.................................................................................................................... 14
4.2.2 HeatingRequirements ofWastewaterTreatmentFacilities ............................................ 15
4.2.3 EstimatedCosttoGenerateElectricity............................................................................ 18
4.2.4 NationalEconomicPotentialScenarios........................................................................... 24
5.0 WastewaterTreatmentFacilityInterviews:CHPBenefits,Challenges,and
OperationalInsights......................................................................................................... 28
5.1 WastewaterTreatmentFacilitiesInterviewedandInterviewFormat.............................. 28
5.2 DriversandBenefits........................................................................................................ 30
5.3 Challenges....................................................................................................................... 34
5.4 OperationalInsightsandObservations............................................................................ 38
AppendixA:DataSourcesUsedintheAnalysis............................................................................... 40
AppendixB: AnaerobicDigesterDesignCriteriaUsedforTechnicalPotentialAnalysis................. 42
AppendixC:SpaceHeatingCapabilityofCHPatWastewaterTreatmentFacilities........................ 43
AppendixD:Cost-to-GenerateEstimatesbyState............................................................................. 45
AppendixE: AdditionalReferenceResources.................................................................................... 49
i

ListofTables
Table1:NumberofDigesterGasWastewaterCHPSystemsandTotalCapacitybyState.................. 6
Table2:NumberofSitesandCapacity(MW)byCHPPrimeMovers................................................. 6
Table3:NumberofU.S.WastewaterTreatmentFacilitieswithAnaerobicDigestion......................... 8
Table4:WastewaterFlowtoU.S.WastewaterTreatmentFacilitieswithAnaerobicDigestionand
withoutCHP............................................................................................................................ 8
Table5:PrimeMoverPerformanceSpecificationsforUseinTechnicalPotentialModel ................. 10
Table6:ElectricandThermalEnergyPotentialwithCHPforTypicallySizedDigester................... 11
Table7:CHPTechnicalPotentialatWastewaterTreatmentFacilitiesintheUnitedStates.............. 12
Table8:PotentialCarbonDioxideEmissionsDisplacedwithCHPatWastewaterTreatment
Facilities................................................................................................................................. 13
Table9:ThermalEnergyRequirementsforAnaerobicDigestersbyClimateZone........................... 17
Table10:InstalledCostDataPointsforAnaerobicDigesterGasCHPSystems................................ 19
Table11:PrimeMoverPriceandPerformanceSpecificationsforUseinEconomicPotential
Model................................................................................................................................... 20
Table12:EstimatedCosttoGenerateAnaerobicDigesterGasElectricity(Case1NoNatural
GasPurchasesDisplaced).................................................................................................... 21
Table13:EstimatedCosttoGenerateAnaerobicDigesterGasElectricity(Case2CHPHeat
DisplacesNaturalGasSpaceHeating)................................................................................. 22
Table14:EstimatedCosttoGenerateAnaerobicDigesterGasElectricity(Case3CHPHeat
DisplacesNaturalGasforBothDigesterandSpaceHeating) ............................................. 23
Table15:EconomicPotentialofU.S.WastewaterTreatmentFacilities(Scenario1Most
FacilitiesDoNotUtilizeDigesterGasPriortoCHP).......................................................... 25
Table16:EconomicPotentialofU.S.WastewaterTreatmentFacilities(Scenario2AllFacilities
UseDigesterGastoHeatDigesterPriortoCHP)................................................................ 26
Table17:WastewaterTreatmentFacilitiesInterviewed..................................................................... 29
Table18:InterviewResultsDriversandBenefits............................................................................ 31
Table19:InterviewResultsChallenges............................................................................................ 35
Table20:InterviewResultsOperationalInsights............................................................................. 39
ii

ListofFigures
Figure1:MapofFiveU.S.ClimateZonesbyState............................................................................ 16
Figure2: ThermalEnergyRequirementsforAnaerobicDigestersbyHeatingDegreeDays ............. 17
Figure3:WastewaterTreatmentFacilitieswithAnaerobicDigestersNumberofSiteswith
EconomicPotential(Scenario2) .......................................................................................... 26
Figure4:EconomicPotentialbyWastewaterTreatmentFacilitySize(Scenario2)........................... 27
iii

EXECUTIVESUMMARY
PurposeofReport
Thisreportpresentstheopportunitiesforcombinedheatandpower(CHP)applicationsinthe
municipalwastewatertreatmentsector,anditdocumentstheexperiencesofwastewater
treatmentfacility(WWTF)operatorswhohaveemployedCHP.ItisintendedtobeusedbyCHP
projectdevelopers;WWTFoperators;stateandlocalgovernmentpolicymakers;andother
partiesinterestedinexploringtheopportunities,benefits,andchallengesofCHPatWWTFs.
KeyFindings
CHPisareliable,cost-effectiveoptionforWWTFsthathave,orareplanningtoinstall,
anaerobicdigesters.
Thebiogasflowfromthedigestercanbeusedasfueltogenerateelectricityandheatina
CHPsystemusingavarietyofprimemovers,suchasreciprocatingengines,
microturbines,orfuelcells.ThethermalenergyproducedbytheCHPsystemisthen
typicallyusedtomeetdigesterheatloadsandforspaceheating.Awell-designedCHP
systemusingbiogasoffersmanybenefitsforWWTFsbecauseit:
Producespoweratacostbelowretailelectricity.
Displacespurchasedfuelsforthermalneeds.
Mayqualifyasarenewablefuelsourceunderstaterenewableportfoliostandardsand
utilitygreenpowerprograms.
Enhancespowerreliabilityfortheplant.
ProducesmoreusefulenergythaniftheWWTFweretousebiogassolelytomeet
digesterheatloads.
Reducesemissionsofgreenhousegasesandotherairpollutants,primarilyby
displacingutilitygridpower.
WhilemanyWWTFshaveimplementedCHP,thepotentialstillexiststousemoreCHP
basedontechnicalandeconomicbenefits.
AsofJune2011,CHPsystemsusingbiogaswereinplaceat104WWTFs,representing
190megawatts(MW)ofcapacity.CHPistechnicallyfeasibleat1,351additionalsites
andeconomicallyattractive(i.e.,paybackofsevenyearsorless)atbetween257and662
ofthosesites.
1
TheCHPtechnicalpotentialisbasedonthefollowingengineeringrulesofthumb:
AtypicalWWTFprocesses100gallonsperdayofwastewaterforeveryperson
served
2
,andapproximately1.0cubicfoot(ft
3
)ofdigestergascanbeproducedbyan
anaerobicdigesterperpersonperday.
3
1
ArangeispresentedduetouncertaintiesinthedataavailableforWWTFs,makingitdifficulttosupportasingle,
nationaleconomicpotential.
2
GreatLakes-UpperMississippiBoardofStateandProvincialPublicHealthandEnvironmentalManagers,
RecommendedStandardsforWastewaterFacilities(Ten-StateStandards),2004.
3
Metcalf&Eddy,WastewaterEngineering:TreatmentandReuse,4
th
Edition,2003.
iv

ThecompositionofanaerobicdigestergasfromWWTFsisusually60to70percent
methanewiththeremainderprimarilycarbondioxide(CO
2
).Thelowerheatingvalue
(LHV)ofdigestergasrangesfrom550to650Britishthermalunits(Btu)/ft
3
,andthe
higherheatingvalue(HHV)rangesfrom610to715Btu/ft
3
,orabout10percent
greaterthantheLHV.
4
Eachmilliongallonsperday(MGD)ofwastewaterflowcanproduceenoughbiogasinan
anaerobicdigestertoproduce26kilowatts(kW)ofelectriccapacityand2.4millionBtuper
day(MMBtu/day)ofthermalenergyinaCHPsystem.
ThecosttogenerateelectricityusingCHPatWWTFsrangesfrom1.1to8.3centsper
kilowatt-hour(kWh)dependingontheCHPprimemoverandotherfactors.
Currentretailelectricratesrangefrom3.9toover21centsperkWh,soCHPcanhave
cleareconomicbenefitsforWWTFs.
Onanationalscale,thetechnicalpotentialforadditionalCHPatWWTFsisover400MWof
biogas-basedelectricitygeneratingcapacityandapproximately38,000MMBtu/dayof
thermalenergy.
Thiscapacitycouldpreventapproximately3millionmetrictonsofcarbondioxide
emissionsannually,equivalenttotheemissionsofapproximately596,000passenger
vehicles.
Alsoonanationalscale,theeconomicpotentialrangesfrom178to260MW.Thisrepresents
43to63percentofthetechnicalpotential.
5
Thevastmajorityofeconomicpotentialcomes
fromlarge(>30MGD)WWTFsthatcansupportlargerCHPunits.
TranslatingCHPpotentialintoactualsuccessesrequiresanunderstandingofoperational
realities.Thisreportincludesinterviewsof14owners/operatorsofCHPsystemsatWWTFs
acrossthecountry.Keyoperationalobservationsfromtheseinterviewsareincludedin
Section5.
4
Metcalf&Eddy,WastewaterEngineering:TreatmentandReuse,4
th
Edition,2003.AfuelsLHVdoesnot
includetheheatofthewaterofvaporization.
5
ArangeispresentedduetouncertaintiesinthedataavailableforWWTFs,makingitdifficulttosupportasingle,
nationaleconomicpotential.Economicpotentialisdefinedasapaybackperiodofsevenyearsorless.
v

1.0 Introduction
InApril2007,theU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgencys(EPAs)CombinedHeatandPower
Partnership(CHPP)releaseditsfirstreportidentifyingtheopportunitiesforandbenefitsof
combinedheatandpower(CHP)atwastewatertreatmentfacilities(WWTFs).
6
Theprimary
purposeofthe2007reportwastoprovidebasicinformationforassessingthepotentialtechnical
fitforCHPatcertainWWTFsspecifically,thosewithinfluentflowratesgreaterthan5million
gallonsperday(MGD)thathaveanaerobicdigesters.The2007reportshowedthattheselarger
facilitiesproduceenoughbiogasfromanaerobicdigestion,basedontypicalpractices,tofuela
CHPsystem.Thereportalsoprovidedbasicinformationonthecosttogeneratepowerandheat
atWWTFswithCHP.
Sincethereleaseofthe2007report,CHPPPartnersandotherstakeholdershaveexpressed
increasedinterestinCHPatWWTFsandseveraladditionalreportsonCHPatWWTFshave
beenreleased.
7
Thisupdatedreporthasbeenpreparedinresponsetotheincreasedinterest.The
primarypurposesofthisupdate(whichisintendedtoreplacethe2007report)areto:
ExpandtheevaluationoftechnicalandeconomicpotentialforCHPtoincludesmaller
WWTFswithinfluentflowratesof1to5MGD.
PresentoperationalobservationsobtainedthroughinterviewswithWWTFoperatorswho
haveemployedCHP.
TheupdatedreportisintendedtobeusedbyCHPprojectdevelopers;WWTFoperators;federal,
state,andlocalgovernmentpolicymakers;andotherpartieswhoareinterestedinexploringthe
opportunities,benefits,andchallengesofCHPatWWTFs.Thereportisorganizedaccordingly:
Section 2 providesanoverviewofCHPanditsbenefitsatWWTFs.
Section 3 describestheexistingCHPcapacityatWWTFsandthepotentialmarketfor
additionalCHPatWWTFs.
Section 4 analyzesthetechnicalandeconomicpotentialforCHPatWWTFs,presenting
analysesofelectricandthermalenergygenerationpotentialatWWTFs,aswellascost-
to-generateestimatesunderthreedigestergasutilizationcases.
Section 5 presentsfirst-handobservationsgatheredthroughinterviewsofWWTF
operatorsregardingthebenefitsandchallengesofCHPdevelopmentandoperation.
Appendix A liststhedatasourcesandtypesofdatausedintheanalysis.
Appendix B providesanaerobicdigesterdesigncriteriausedinthetechnicalpotential
analysis.
Appendix C presentsanalysisofthespaceheatingcapabilityofCHPatWWTFs.
6
The2007reportwastitled,TheOpportunitiesforandBenefitsofCombinedHeatandPoweratWastewater
TreatmentFacilities.
7
RecentreportspertainingtoCHPatWWTFsinclude:
Brown&Caldwell,EvaluationofCombinedHeatandPowerTechnologiesforWastewaterTreatment
Facilities,December2010.Availableat:http://water.epa.gov/scitech/wastetech/publications.cfm.
AssociationofStateEnergyResearch&TechnologyTransferInstitutions,StrategicCHPDeployment
AssistanceforWastewaterTreatmentFacilities,October2009.Availableat:
http://www.asertti.org/wastewater/index.html.
CaliforniaEnergyCommission,CombinedHeatandPowerPotentialatCaliforniasWastewater
TreatmentPlants,September2009.Availableat:http://www.energy.ca.gov/2009publications/CEC-200-
2009-014/CEC-200-2009-014-SF.PDF.
1

Appendix D presentsthecosttogeneratebystateforCHPatWWTFsunderthethree
digestergasutilizationcasespresentedintheeconomicpotentialanalysis.
Appendix E listsadditionalresourcesavailablefromtheCHPPandotherorganizations.
2

2.0 CHPandItsBenefitsatWastewaterTreatmentFacilities
CHPisthesimultaneousproductionofelectricityandheatfromasinglefuelsource,suchas
naturalgas,biomass,biogas,coal,oroil.CHPisnotasingletechnology,butanenergysystem
thatcanbemodifieddependingontheneedsoftheenergyenduser.CHPsystemsconsistofa
numberofindividualcomponentsconfiguredintoanintegratedwhole.Thesecomponents
includetheprimemover,generator,heatrecoveryequipment,andelectricalinterconnection.The
primemoverthatdrivestheoverallsystemtypicallyidentifiestheCHPsystem.Primemovers
forCHPsystemsincludereciprocatingengines,combustionturbines,steamturbines,
microturbines,andfuelcells.
8
CHPplaysanimportantroleinmeetingU.S.energyneedsaswellasinreducingthe
environmentalimpactofpowergeneration.Regardlessofsectororapplication,CHPbenefits
include:
Efficiencybenefits.CHPrequireslessfuelthanseparateheatandpowergenerationto
produceagivenenergyoutput.CHPalsoavoidstransmissionanddistributionlossesthat
occurwhenelectricitytravelsoverpowerlinesfromcentralgeneratingunits.
Reliabilitybenefits.CHPcanprovidehigh-qualityelectricityandthermalenergytoa
siteregardlessofwhatmightoccuronthepowergrid,decreasingtheimpactofoutages
andimprovingpowerqualityforsensitiveequipment.
Environmentalbenefits.Becauselessfuelisburnedtoproduceeachunitofenergy
output,CHPreducesemissionsofgreenhousegasesandotherairpollutants.
Economicbenefits.CHPcansavefacilitiesconsiderablemoneyontheirenergybillsdue
toitshighefficiency,anditcanprovideahedgeagainstunstableenergycosts.
CHPhasbeensuccessfullyimplementedinmanydifferentsectors,includingWWTFs.CHPat
WWTFscantakeseveralforms,includinganaerobicdigestergas-fueledCHP;non-biogasfueled
CHP(e.g.,naturalgas);heatrecoveryfromasludgeincineratorthatcandriveanorganicrankine
cyclesystem;andacombinedheatandmechanicalpowersystem(e.g.,anengine-drivenpump
orblowerwithheatrecovery).
TheanalysispresentedinthisreportisbasedonCHPfueledbyanaerobicdigestergas(biogas),
anditfocusesonWWTFsthatalreadyhave,orareplanningtoinstall,anaerobicdigesters.
Biogasproducedbyanaerobicdigesterscanbeusedasfuelinvariousprimemoverstypically
reciprocatingengines,microturbines,andfuelcellstogenerateheatandpowerinaCHP
system.TheelectricpowerproducedcanoffsetallormostofaWWTFspowerdemand,andthe
thermalenergyproducedbytheCHPsystemcanbeusedtomeetdigesterheatloadsand,in
somecases,forspaceheating.
ItshouldbenotedthatCHPisoneofseveralbeneficialusesofbiogasgeneratedbyWWTF
anaerobicdigesters,andeachWWTFmustassessitsownsite-specifictechnical,economic,and
environmentalconsiderationstodeterminethebestuseofitsbiogas.Other,non-CHPusesof
biogasinclude:
Digestergasforheat.WWTFscanusedigestergasinaboilertoprovidedigester
heatingand/orprovidespaceheatingforbuildingsonsite.
8
InformationaboutCHPprimemovers,includingcostandperformancecharacteristics,canbefoundinthe
CatalogofCHPTechnologies.Availableat:http://www.epa.gov/chp/basic/catalog.html.
3

Digestergaspurificationtopipelinequality.WWTFscanmarketandsellproperly
treatedandpressurizedbiogastothelocalnaturalgasutility.
Directbiogassaletoindustrialuserorelectricpowerproducer.WWTFscantreat,
deliver,andsellbiogastoalocalindustrialuserorpowerproducerwhereitcanbe
convertedtoheatand/orpower.
Biogastovehiclefuel.WWTFscantreatandcompressbiogasonsitetoproduce
methaneofaqualitysuitableforuseasfleetvehiclefuel.
Awell-designedCHPsystemusingbiogasoffersmanybenefitsforWWTFsbecauseit:
Producespoweratacostbelowretailelectricity.
Displacespurchasedfuelsforthermalneeds.
Mayqualifyasarenewablefuelsourceunderstaterenewableportfoliostandardsand
utilitygreenpowerprograms.
Enhancespowerreliabilityfortheplant.
ProducesmoreusefulenergythaniftheWWTFweretousebiogassolelytomeet
digesterheatloads.
Reducesemissionsofgreenhousegasesandotherairpollutants,primarilybydisplacing
utilitygridpower.
ThebenefitsofCHPdeploymentatWWTFsareinadditiontothoseprovidedbyanaerobic
digesters.ThetypicalbenefitsofanaerobicdigestersatWWTFsincludeenhancedbiosolids
management;reducedodors;lowerfugitivemethaneemissions;andadditionalrevenuesources
suchassoilfertilizersthatcanbeproducedfromdigestereffluent.
4

3.0 TheMarket
ThissectioncharacterizesthemarketforCHPatWWTFs.Itfirstpresentsinformationabout
WWTFsthatcurrentlyutilizeCHP,andthendiscussestheCHPmarketpotentialatWWTFs,
focusingonWWTFsthatdonotcurrentlyutilizeCHPbutthathaveanaerobicdigesters.
Foreconomicreasons,WWTFsthatalreadyoperateanaerobicdigesters
9
,orthoseplanningto
implementanaerobicdigestion,presentthebestopportunityforCHP;therefore,theanalysisin
thisreportfocusesonWWTFsthathaveanaerobicdigesters.Theincorporationofanaerobic
digestersintothewastewatertreatmentprocessistypicallydrivenbyfactorsotherthanpower
andheatgeneration(e.g.,enhancedbiosolidsmanagementorodorcontrol).However,oncein
place,anaerobicdigestersproducedigestergasorbiogaswhichiskeytoCHPfeasibilityat
WWTFs.Biogasisapproximately60to70percentmethane,andcanbeusedtofuelaCHP
systemtoproduceelectricityandusefulthermalenergy.Theelectricitygeneratedcanoffsetall
ormostofaWWTFselectricpowerdemand,andtherecoveredthermalenergycanbeusedto
meetdigesterheatingloadsandfacilityspaceheatingrequirements.However,atthistimemost
biogasisusedtoheatdigestersorisflared.
10
3.1 WastewaterTreatmentFacilitieswithCHP
AsofJune2011,wastewatertreatmentCHPsystemswereinplaceat133sitesin30states,
representing437megawatts(MW)ofcapacity.
11
AlthoughthemajorityoffacilitieswithCHP
usedigestergasastheprimaryfuelsource,someemployCHPusingfuelsotherthandigester
biogas(e.g.,naturalgas,fueloil)becausetheyeitherdonotoperateanaerobicdigesters(sodo
notgeneratebiogas),orbecausebiogasisnotaviableoptionduetosite-specifictechnicalor
economicconditions.Ofthe133WWTFsusingCHP,104facilities(78percent),representing
190MWofcapacity,utilizedigestergasastheprimaryfuelsource.
12
Table1showsthenumber
ofsitesandcapacity(MW)bystatethatusedigestergasastheprimaryfuelsourceforCHP.
9
Anaerobicdigestionisabiologicalprocessinwhichbiodegradableorganicmatterisbrokendownbybacteriain
theabsenceofoxygenintobiogasconsistingofmethane(CH
4
),carbondioxide(CO
2
),andtraceamountsofother
gases.
10
BrownandCaldwell,EvaluationofCombinedHeatandPowerTechnologiesforWastewaterTreatment
Facilities,December2010.Availableat:http://water.epa.gov/scitech/wastetech/publications.cfm.
11
CHPInstallationDatabase,maintainedbyICFInternationalwithsupportfromtheU.S.DepartmentofEnergyand
OakRidgeNationalLaboratory.Availableat:http://www.eea-inc.com/chpdata/index.html.
12
SomeWWTFsblendbiogaswithnaturalgasifthevolumeofbiogasfromthedigestersisnotsufficienttomeeta
facilitysthermaland/orelectricrequirements(e.g.,inthewinterwhendigesterheatloadsarehigher).
5

Table1:NumberofDigesterGasWastewaterCHPSystemsandTotalCapacitybyState
State
Number
ofSites
Capacity
(MW)
State
Number
ofSites
Capacity
(MW)
AR 1 1.73 MT 3 1.09
AZ 1 0.29 NE 3 5.40
CA 33 62.67 NH 1 0.37
CO 2 7.07 NJ 4 8.72
CT 2 0.95 NY 6 3.01
FL 3 13.50 OH 3 16.29
IA 2 3.40 OR 10 6.42
ID 2 0.45 PA 3 1.99
IL 2 4.58 TX 1 4.20
IN 1 0.13 UT 2 2.65
MA 1 18.00 WA 5 14.18
MD 2 3.33 WI 5 2.02
MI 1 0.06 WY 1 0.03
MN 4 7.19 Total 104 189.8
Source:CHPInstallationDatabase,ICF,June2011
Table1showsthatthestateswiththegreatestnumberofCHPsystemsutilizingbiogasare
California(33),Oregon(10),NewYork(6),Washington(5),Wisconsin(5),Minnesota(4),and
NewJersey(4).StateswiththegreatestcapacityareCalifornia(62.67MW),Ohio(16.29MW),
Washington(14.18MW),Florida(13.50MW),andNewJersey(8.72MW).Thesestatesinclude
eightofthetop15largestU.S.citiesandsixofthe15mostpopulousU.S.states,andtherefore,
tendtosupportthelargesttreatmentfacilitieswhereCHPismosteconomicallybeneficial.
SeveralofthesestatesofferCHPincentivesaswellandtendtohavehigherretailelectricrates,
whichcanmakeCHPmoreattractiveeconomically.
SeveraltypesofCHPprimemoverscanbeusedtogenerateelectricityandheatatWWTFs.
13
Table2showstheCHPprimemoverscurrentlyusedatWWTFsthatusedigestergasasthe
primaryfuelsource.
Table2:NumberofSitesandCapacity(MW)byCHPPrimeMovers
PrimeMover
Number
ofSites
Capacity
(MW)
Reciprocatingengine 54 85.8
Microturbine 29 5.2
Fuelcell 13 7.9
Combustionturbine 5 39.9
Steamturbine 1 23.0
Combinedcycle 1 28.0
Total 104 189.8
Source:CHPInstallationDatabase,ICF,June2011
ThemostcommonlyusedprimemoversatWWTFsarereciprocatingengines,microturbines,
andfuelcells.Thepowercapacitiesoftheseprimemoversmostcloselymatchtheenergy
contentofbiogasgeneratedbydigestersattypicallysizedWWTFs.Opportunitiesforusing
13
InformationaboutCHPprimemovers,includingcostandperformancecharacteristics,canbefoundinthe
CatalogofCHPTechnologies.Availableat:http://www.epa.gov/chp/basic/catalog.html.
6

combustionturbines,steamturbines,andcombinedcyclesystemsaretypicallyfoundinthefew
verylargeWWTFs(i.e.,greaterthan100MGD).
3.2 PotentialCHPMarket
ToestimatethepotentialmarketforCHPatWWTFs,theCHPPusedtheEPA2008Clean
WatershedNeedsSurvey(CWNS)database
14
toidentifyWWTFsthatdonotalreadyoperate
CHP.Asthedatabasewasconfiguredtoprovideacomprehensiveassessmentofcapitalneedsto
meetwaterqualitygoalsestablishedundertheCleanWaterAct,theprimaryindicatorsusedfor
theCHPPsanalysiswerethenumberoffacilitieswithanaerobicdigestionandthetotalinfluent
flowratetothosefacilities.Thedatabasecollectionprocessisvoluntaryandthedatavaryin
levelofcompleteness.SincetheCHPP2007reportwasreleased,therehavebeenotherstate-
specificdatasetsthathavebecomeavailable.However,theuniformdatacollectionmethod
appliedtotheCWNSdatabaseintroducesaconsistencyinthedatacollectionmethodology.Itis
alsoatthistimetheprimarycomprehensivedatasetonmunicipalwastewatertreatmentactivity
atanationalscale.ThesetwocriteriarenderedthedatamorerepresentativefortheCHPPs
nationalanalysis.
15
TheCHPPs2007reportaboutCHPatWWTFsshowedthatinfluentflowratesof5MGDor
greaterweretypicallyrequiredtoproducebiogasinquantitiessufficientforeconomically
feasibleCHPsystems.OneoftheCHPPsgoalsforthis2011study,however,wastobe
inclusiveofallmarketopportunitiesforCHPatWWTFs.RecognizingthatCHPsystemscan
anddooperateatfacilitieswithinfluentflowrateslessthan5MGD,this2011analysisusesa
lowerlimitof1MGD.SomesmallerWWTFs(i.e.,between1and5MGD)canproduce
sufficientbiogasthroughconventionalmeans(ifbiosolidloadingsarehighenough),oraugment
theirdigestionprocesstoboostthebiogasgenerationrateoftheanaerobicdigesters(e.g.,
additionofcollectedfats,oils,andgreasestodigesters;useofmicrobialstimulants).
Table3presentsthetotalnumberofWWTFsintheUnitedStatesandthenumberwithanaerobic
digestion,excludingWWTFsthatalreadyutilizeCHP.Table4showsthewastewaterflowto
WWTFswithanaerobicdigestion,alsoexcludingthosethatutilizeCHP.Table3showsthat
1,351WWTFsgreaterthan1MGDutilizeanaerobicdigestersbutdonotoperateCHPsystems.
Thedataindicatethatsystemswithlargerflowratesaremorelikelytohaveanaerobicdigesters,
andthereforehavegreaterpotentialforCHP.ThisfindingiscorroboratedbythedatainTable4,
whichindicatethatforWWTFsgreaterthan1MGDthatdonotemployCHP,approximately60
percentofwastewaterflowgoestofacilitieswithanaerobicdigestion.
14
EPAsOfficeofWastewaterManagement,inpartnershipwithstates,territories,andtheDistrictofColumbia,
conductstheCWNSeveryfouryearsinresponsetoSections205(a)and516oftheCleanWaterActanddevelopsa
ReporttoCongress.The2008CWNSisavailableat:http://water.epa.gov/scitech/datait/databases/cwns/.
15
WaterEnvironmentFoundationsProjectonthePreparationofBaselineoftheCurrentandPotentialUseof
BiogasfromAnaerobicDigestionatWastewaterPlantswasinitiatedinAugust2011tocreatearobustconsensus
datasetregardingthecurrentandpotentialproductionofbiogasfromanaerobicdigestionatPubliclyOwned
TreatmentWorks(POTW)intheUnitedStates.EPAisservingontheAdvisoryPanelforthisproject,butisnot
responsibleforitscontent.
7

Table3:NumberofU.S.WastewaterTreatmentFacilitieswithAnaerobicDigestion
andwithoutCHP
WWTFsFlow
RateRange
(MGD)
Total
WWTFs
WWTFswith
Anaerobic
Digestion
PercentageofWWTFs
withAnaerobic
Digestion
>200 10 7 70%
100200 18 13 72%
75100 25 17 68%
5075 24 17 71%
2050 137 82 60%
1020 244 140 57%
510 451 230 51%
15 2,262 845 37%
Total 3,171 1,351 43%
Source:CWNS,2008
Table4:WastewaterFlowtoU.S.WastewaterTreatmentFacilitieswithAnaerobic
DigestionandwithoutCHP
WWTFsFlow
RateRange
(MGD)
TotalWastewater
Flow(MGD)
WastewaterFlowto
WWTFswithAnaerobic
Digestion(MGD)
PercentageofFlowto
WWTFswithAnaerobic
Digestion
>200 3,950 3,010 76%
100200 2,705 2,076 77%
75100 2,172 1,469 68%
5075 1,471 1,078 73%
2050 4,133 2,491 60%
1020 3,407 1,959 57%
510 3,188 1,630 51%
15 5,124 2,082 41%
Total 26,150 15,795 60%
Source:CWNS,2008
8

4.0 TechnicalandEconomicPotential
ThissectionpresentsthetechnicalandeconomicpotentialforCHPatWWTFs.Theanalyses
focusonWWTFsthatoperateanaerobicdigesters.Inthetechnicalpotentialsubsection,this
reportpresentsanestimateofCHPelectriccapacityandthermalgenerationbasedonWWTF
influentflow.OwnersandoperatorsofWWTFscancomparetheirinfluentflowtothisestimate
toapproximatetheCHPsystemsizethatmaybepossibleattheirfacility.Theeconomic
potentialsubsectionpresentscost-to-generateestimatesforvariousCHPprimemoversunder
severaldigestergasutilizationcases.OwnersandoperatorsofWWTFscancomparethesecost-
to-generateestimatestocurrentelectricityratestodeterminewhetherCHPmightmakesenseat
theirfacility.Inaddition,thereportprovidesnationalestimatesofbothtechnicalandeconomic
potentialbasedon2008CWNSdata,aswellasanestimateforpotentialcarbondioxide(CO
2
)
emissionsreductionsassociatedwithmeetingthenationaltechnicalpotential.Thetechnicaland
economicestimatespresentedinthissectionserveasindicatorsofCHPpotentialatWWTFs,but
everyWWTFconsideringCHPwillneedtocompleteitsownsite-specifictechnicaland
economicanalysistoassesstheviabilityofCHP.
4.1 TechnicalPotentialforCHPatWastewaterTreatmentFacilities
Section4.1.1discussestheassumptionsandmethodologyusedinthetechnicalpotential
analysis.Section4.1.2presentstherelationshipbetweeninfluentflowandelectricandthermal
generationpotentialwithCHP.Section4.1.3presentsthenationaltechnicalpotentialestimate
forCHPatWWTFs.Section4.1.4presentsthepotentialcarbondioxideemissionsbenefits
associatedwithmeetingthenationaltechnicalCHPpotential.
4.1.1 Methodology
TodeterminetheelectricandthermalenergygenerationtechnicalpotentialforCHPatWWTFs,
theanalysismodeledthefuelproducedandheatingrequiredbyatypicallysizeddigester.The
followingassumptionswereusedtodevelopthemodel:
Digester type. Therearetwotypesofconventionalanaerobicdigestion
processesmesophilicandthermophilicandtheyaredistinguishedbythetemperature
atwhichtheyoperate.Mostanaerobicdigestersoperateatmesophilictemperatures
between95and100F.Thermophilicdigestersoperateattemperaturesbetween124and
138F.Thethermophilicprocessisusuallyfasterduetothehigheroperatingtemperature
butisusuallymoreexpensivebecauseofhigherenergydemands.
16
Becausemost
digestersinoperationtodayaremesophilic,theanalysispresentedhereassumestheuse
ofamesophilicdigester.
Flow rate. Thedigestermodelusedintheanalysishasaninfluentflowrateof9.1MGD,
whichisbasedonthesludgecapacityofatypicallysizeddigester.Awastewaterflow
rateof9.1MGDproducesroughly91,000standardcubicfeet(ft
3
)ofbiogasperday,
whichhasanenergycontentof58.9millionBritishthermalunitsperday
(MMBtu/day).
17
16
Metcalf&Eddy,WastewaterEngineering:TreatmentandReuse,4thEdition,2003.
17
Biogasgenerationwascalculatedbasedon100gallonsofwastewaterflowperdaypercapita(GreatLakes-Upper
MississippiBoardofStateandProvincialPublicHealthandEnvironmentalManagers,RecommendedStandards
9

Season of operation. Theanalysismodelsbothsummerandwinterdigesteroperation.
AppendixBcontainsthedigesterdesigncriteriausedfortheanalysis.
Theanalysisestimatesthebiogasutilizationofthemodeldigesterunderfivepossiblecases:
ThefirstcaseassumesnoCHPsystem,whereonlytheamountofbiogasneededforthe
digesterheatloadisutilizedandtherestisflared.
TheotherfourcasesassumethataCHPsystemutilizesthecapturedbiogastoproduce
bothelectricityandthermalenergy.ThecasesdifferbasedontheCHPprimemover
utilized.
TheCHPprimemoverschosenforanalysisareconsistentwiththosecurrentlyusedatWWTFs
(seeTable2inSection3.1).
18
ThefourmodeledCHPprimemoversincludetworeciprocating
engines(onerich-burnandonelean-burn),
19
amicroturbine,andafuelcell.Theanalysisusesthe
performancecharacteristics(i.e.,electricefficiencyandpower-to-heatratio)ofcommercially
availableequipment,asstatedbythemanufacturers.Todevelopestimatesofelectricandthermal
output,theanalysisappliesCHPprimemoverperformancecharacteristicstotheproduced
biogas(58.9MMBtu/day).Table5presentstheperformancespecificationsoftheCHPprime
moversusedtodevelopthetechnicalpotentialestimate.
Table5:PrimeMoverPerformanceSpecificationsforUseinTechnicalPotentialModel
PrimeMover Size(kW)
Thermal
Output
(Btu/kWh)
Powerto
HeatRatio
Electric
Efficiency
(%)(HHV)
CHP
Efficiency
(%)(HHV)
Reciprocating
Engine(Rich-
Burn)
280 5,520 0.62 29.1 76
Reciprocating
Engine(Lean-
Burn)
335 3,980 0.86 32.6 71
Microturbine
260
(4x65)
3,860 0.88 26.0 56
FuelCell 300 2,690 1.26 42.3 76
4.1.2 ElectricandThermalGenerationPotentialfromCHPSystemsatWastewater
TreatmentFacilities
Table6presentstheresultsofthemodeledCHPsystems.Theresultsrepresentanaverageof
winterandsummerdigesteroperation.ThefuelcellCHPsystemhasthehighestelectriccapacity
forWastewaterFacilities(Ten-StateStandards),2004),andapproximately1.0cubicfootperdayofdigestergas
percapita(Metcalf&Eddy,WastewaterEngineering:TreatmentandReuse,4thEdition,2003).
18
Althoughtheprimemoverspecificationsaretakenfromtypicalequipmentavailableinthemarketplace,
manufacturernameshavebeenremovedtoavoidimplicitlyendorsinganymanufacturersorproducts.
19
Rich-burnenginesarecharacterizedbyhigherfuel-to-air-ratios,whereaslean-burnengineshavelowerfuel-to-air-
ratios.Lean-burnengineshavelowerexhaustemissionsandachievehigherfuelefficiencyduetomorecomplete
fuelcombustion.MostoftheenginesinstalledatWWTFstodayarerich-burn,butthesearegraduallybeingphased
outinfavoroflean-burnengineswithhigherefficienciesandloweremissions.
10

ofthemodeledsystems(304kilowatts[kW])duetoitshighelectricefficiency.Inmanycases,
however,theuseoffuelcellsatWWTFsislimitedbecauseoftheirhighcostandchallenges
associatedwithpre-treatingbiogasbeforeitcanbeusedinafuelcell.Thetwomostcommonly
usedCHPprimemoversatWWTFsreciprocatingenginesandmicroturbineshaveelectric
capacitiesof187to234kWandproduce17to28MMBtuofthermalenergybasedonaflow
rateof9.1MGD.
Table6:ElectricandThermalEnergyPotentialwithCHPforTypicallySizedDigester
NoCHP
System
Reciprocating
EngineCHP/
Rich-Burn
Reciprocating
EngineCHP/
Lean-Burn
Microturbine
CHP
FuelCellCHP
TotalWWTFFlow(MGD) 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1 9.1
HeatRequirementforSludge
(Btu/day)
6,693,375 6,693,375 6,693,375 6,693,375 6,693,375
WallHeatTransfer(Btu/day) 591,725 591,725 591,725 591,725 591,725
FloorHeatTransfer(Btu/day) 1,109,484 1,109,484 1,109,484 1,109,484 1,109,484
RoofHeatTransfer(Btu/day) 741,013 741,013 741,013 741,013 741,013
TotalDigesterHeatLoad
(Btu/day)
9,135,597 9,135,597 9,135,597 9,135,597 9,135,597
FuelRequiredforDigesterHeat
Load*(Btu/day)(HHV)
11,419,496
EnergyPotentialofGas(Btu/day)
(HHV)
58,901,700 58,901,700 58,901,700 58,901,700 58,901,700
%ofGasUsedforDigesterHeat
Load(Btu/day)
19.4%
ExcessDigesterGas**(Btu/day) 47,482,204
ElectricEfficiency(HHV) 29.1% 32.6% 26.0% 42.3%
Power-to-HeatRatio 0.62 0.86 0.88 1.26
TotalCHPEfficiency(HHV) 76% 71% 56% 76%
ElectricProduction(Btu/day) 17,140,395 19,201,954 15,314,442 24,915,419
ElectricProduction(kW) 209 234 187 304
HeatRecovery(Btu/day) 27,645,798 22,327,854 17,402,775 19,774,142
DigesterHeatLoad(Btu/day) 9,135,597 9,135,597 9,135,597 9,135,597
AdditionalHeatAvailable***
(Btu/day)
18,510,201 13,192,257 8,267,178 10,638,545
Note:Analysisassumes50percentsummerand50percentwinterdigesteroperation.
*Assumes80percentefficientboiler.
**Assumesnootherusesexceptboiler.
***Availablefornon-digesterheatingusesatthefacility(e.g.,spaceheating,hotwater).
BasedonthemodeledCHPsystemsand9.1MGD,theanalysisdevelopedanengineeringruleof
thumbforassessingCHPpotential.Theanalysisshowsthat1MGDofinfluentflowequatesto
26kWofelectriccapacityand2.4MMBtu/dayofthermalenergypotential.Todevelopa
relationshipbetweeninfluentflowrate(i.e.,MGD)andCHPcapacity,theanalysistakesthe
averageoutputsofthefourprimemovers,yieldingtheresultthataninfluentflowrateof9.1
MGDproduces234kWofelectriccapacityandapproximately22MMBtu/dayofthermal
energyoutput.TheanalysisscaledthisresulttoaperMGDbasistoprovideasimplerelationship
betweeninfluentflowandCHPcapacitythatWWTFoperatorscanusetoapproximateaCHP
systemsizeattheirfacilities.
11

4.1.3 NationalElectricGenerationPotentialfromCHPatWastewaterTreatment
Facilities
Table7summarizestheCHPtechnicalpotentialatWWTFsintheUnitedStates.Asshownin
Tables3and4(seeSection3.2),the2008CWNSidentified1,351WWTFsgreaterthan1MGD
thathaveanaerobicdigestersbutthatdonotutilizeCHP,representing15,795MGDof
wastewaterflow.Usingtheresultsdevelopedinthetechnicalpotentialanalysis(i.e.,1MGDof
influentflowcanproduce26kWofelectriccapacityand2.4MMBtu/dayofthermalenergy),
these1,351WWTFscouldproduceapproximately411MWofelectriccapacityand37,908
MMBtu/dayofthermalenergyiftheyallinstalledandoperatedCHP.
Table7:CHPTechnicalPotentialatWastewaterTreatmentFacilitiesintheUnitedStates
FacilityType
Numberof
WWTFs
Wastewater
Flow(MGD)
ElectricPotential
(MW)*
ThermalPotential
(MMBtu/day)*
WWTFswithanaerobicdigestion
andnoCHP(>1MGD)
1,351 15,795 411 37,908
*Electricandthermalpotentialestimatesassumethat26kWofelectriccapacityand2.4MMBtu/dayresultfromawastewater
influentflowrateof1MGD.
Note:Anadditional269MWofelectriccapacityand24,852MMBtu/dayofthermalenergyispossibleatWWTFsgreaterthan1
MGDthatdonotcurrentlyoperateanaerobicdigesters.However,asstatedearlier,powerandheatgenerationistypicallynota
primarydriverforinstallingandoperatinganaerobicdigesters,andbecauseitisunlikelythatalltheseWWTFswillinstall
anaerobicdigesters,thispotentialisunlikelytobeachieved.
4.1.4 PotentialCarbonDioxideEmissionsBenefits
AsdescribedinSection4.1.3,411MWofCHPtechnicalpotentialexistsatWWTFsthatoperate
anaerobicdigesters.ThissubsectionpresentsanestimateoftheCO
2
emissionsthatwouldbe
preventedifthispotentialweretobeachieved.
ThefollowingassumptionswereusedtodeveloptheestimateofCO
2
emissionspreventedby
CHPatWWTFswithanaerobicdigesters:
PriortoCHPdevelopment,WWTFspurchaseelectricityfromthegridandusebiogas
fromthedigestersinon-siteboilerstomeetdigesterheatloadsandspaceheatingneeds,
andflareanyexcessbiogas.(CO
2
emissionsreductionsthereforearisefromdisplaced
gridelectricityonly.)
CO
2
emissionsfrombiogascombustionareemittedregardlessofwhetherornotCHPis
employed,andthereforebiogascombustionwithCHPyieldsnonetpositiveCO
2
emissions.
Alloftheelectricityproducedisutilizedonsiteandexcesspowerisnotexportedtothe
grid.
TheCHPsystemoperatesyear-round.
SincealloftheestimatedCO
2
emissionsreductionsareassociatedwithdisplacedgrid-supplied
electricity,thekeydeterminantforestimatingtotalemissionsreductionsisagrid-basedCO
2
emissionsfactor.Theanalysisusesthe2010Emissions&GenerationResourceIntegrated
12

Database(eGRID)
20
toobtainthisfactor.eGRIDdataincludetotalmassemissionsand
emissionsratesfornitrogenoxides,sulfurdioxide,CO
2
,methane,andnitrousoxide;net
generation;andresourcemixassociatedwithU.S.electricitygeneration.Thisanalysisusesthe
nationalall-fossilaverageCO
2
emissionsfactor(1,744.81lbCO
2
/megawatt-hour[MWh]
produced),becauseitmostcloselyapproximatesthegenerationmixthatisdisplacedbyCHP.
21
eGRIDCO
2
emissionsfactorsrelatepollutantemissionstotheamountofelectricitygenerated
andnottheamountofelectricitydelivered.Basedontheassumptionthatalloftheelectricity
generatedbytheCHPsystemisusedonsiteattheWWTF,theeGRIDfactorisadjustedto
accountfortransmissionanddistribution(T&D)lossesassociatedwithdisplacedgridelectricity,
sincetheselossesdonotoccurwithCHP.AccordingtoeGRID,theU.S.averageT&Dlineloss
percentageis6.2percent,meaningthat1MWhproducedresultsin0.938MWhdelivered.Asa
result,theadjustedall-fossilaverageCO
2
emissionfactoris1,860.14lbCO
2
/MWhdelivered.
MultiplyingtheadjustedCO
2
gridemissionsfactorbytheelectricpotentialestimateyields
avoidedCO
2
emissionsof3,040,726metrictonsperyear,whichisequivalenttotheemissions
from596,052passengervehicles.
22
Table8presentstheseresults.
Table8:PotentialCarbonDioxideEmissionsDisplacedwithCHPatWastewater
TreatmentFacilities
Input/Output Value
ElectricpotentialatWWTFswith
anaerobicdigesters
411MW
Totalannualelectricproduction
(assumesyear-roundoperation)
3,602,826MWh
Adjustedall-fossilaverageCO2
emissionsfactor
1,860.14lbCO2/MWh
TotaldisplacedCO2 emissions
3,350,880tonsCO2/year
or
3,040,726metrictonsCO2/year
Equivalentnumberofpassenger
vehicles
596,052
4.2 EconomicPotentialforCHPatWastewaterTreatmentFacilities
Section4.2.1describestheassumptionsandmethodologyusedintheeconomicpotential
analysis.Section4.2.2presentsadiscussionoftheheatingrequirementsofWWTFsand
developsestimatesforthethermalenergyrequirementsofanaerobicdigesters.Section4.2.3
presentsthecost-to-generateestimatesforeachofthedigestergasutilizationcases.Section4.2.4
presentsanestimateofnationaleconomicpotentialbasedon2008CWNSdataandthecost-to-
generateresults.
20
eGRIDisthemostcomprehensivesourceofdataontheenvironmentalcharacteristicsofelectricitygeneratedin
theUnitedStates.Availableat:http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-resources/egrid/index.html.
21
FormoreinformationontheuseandvalueofeGRIDemissiondata,see
http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/documents/egridzips/The_Value_of_eGRID_Dec_2009.pdf.
22
EquivalentpassengervehiclesarecalculatedusingtheEPAGreenhouseGasEquivalenciesCalculator.Available
at:http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-resources/calculator.html.
13

4.2.1 Methodology
TodeterminetheeconomicpotentialforCHPatWWTFs,theanalysisdevelopedestimatesof
thecosttogenerateelectricityonsiteusingdigestergasforthreedigestergasutilizationcases.
Thefollowingassumptionswereusedtodevelopcost-to-generateestimates:
Digester gas utilization cases.Threecasesofdifferentusesofdigestergaswere
consideredinordertoevaluatethethermalcreditassociatedwithCHP.
23
(Thethermal
creditrepresentstheavoidedfuelcostsachievedthroughCHPheatrecoveryonaper
kWhbasis.)
o Case1:Assumesdigestergasisusedforbothdigesterheatingandspaceheating
priortoCHPimplementation.
o Case2: AssumesdigestergasisusedfordigesterheatingonlypriortoCHP
implementationandnaturalgasisusedforspaceheating.
o Case3:Assumesdigestergasisnotusedforheating,andnaturalgasisusedfor
digesterandspaceheatingpriortoCHPimplementation.
ResearchconductedforthisanalysisindicatesthatCase2isthemostfrequentpractice
priortoCHPimplementation.
24,25,26
Itismuchlesscommontousedigestergastomeet
bothdigesterandspaceheatingneeds,ortonotuseitatall.Thecost-to-generateanalysis
evaluatesallthreecases,however,toprovideacomprehensiveexaminationofall
possibledigestergasutilizationoptionsandthebenefitsofusingCHPthermaloutput.
Thermal credit.Forallthermalcredits,theanalysisusesthe2010nationalaverage
industrialgaspriceof$5.40perthousandcubicfeet.
27
WWTF plant size.Theplantsizesselectedfortheanalysisarerepresentativeoftherange
offacilitysizesthatareapplyingCHP.
CHP prime mover.TheCHPprimemoverschosenforanalysisareconsistentwiththose
currentlyusedatWWTFs(seeTable2,Section3.1).Systemsareassumedtobeavailable
95percentofthetime,with5percentdowntimeformaintenanceandrepairs.Forsystems
usingcombustionturbines,however,availabilityisestimatedat98percent,basedon
SolarTurbinesdata.
CHP prime mover size. CHPprimemoversizeisbasedontherelationshipbetween
wastewaterinfluentflowandCHPelectriccapacityasderivedinthetechnicalpotential
analysis(seeSection4.1),whichshowsthat1MGDofflowcanproduce26kWof
electriccapacityinaCHPsystem.
23
TheCHPPs2007reportevaluatedthesesamethreecases,withCase3providingthehighestthermalvalue
becausetheCHPthermaloutputdisplacesnaturalgaspurchases,andCase1providingthelowestthermalvalue
becausetheCHPthermaloutputdoesnotdisplaceanypurchasedfuel.
24
Fishman,Bullard,VogtandLundin,BeneficialUseofDigesterGasSeasonalandLifecycleCost
Considerations,2009.
25
BrownandCaldwell(preparedforTownofFairhaven,Massachusetts,BoardofPublicWorks),Anaerobic
DigestionandCombinedHeatandPowerFeasibilityStudy,December19,2008.
26
SEAConsultants,CityofPittsfieldFeasibilityStudy,WastewaterTreatmentPlant,April2008.
27
EnergyInformationAdministration,FormEIA-857,MonthlyReportofNaturalGasPurchasesandDeliveriesto
Consumers,Washington,D.C.
14

Interest rate and project lifespan.Theanalysisassumesa5percentinterestrateanda20-

yearlifespan.
Theanalysiscalculatesthecosttogenerateelectricityundereachofthethreedigestergas
utilizationcasesusingthethermalenergyrequirementforanaerobicdigesters
28
(Table9)and
CHPprimemoverpriceandperformancespecifications(Table11).
4.2.2 HeatingRequirementsofWastewaterTreatmentFacilities
AcriticalcharacteristicofanyeconomicCHPapplicationistouseasmuchCHPthermaloutput
aspossible.ForWWTFs,recoveredthermalenergyfromCHPcanbeusedfordigesterheating
andspaceheating.ThissubsectionpresentsadiscussionoftheheatingrequirementsofWWTFs
anddevelopsestimatesofthethermalenergyrequirementsforanaerobicdigestersusedinthe
CHPcost-to-generateestimates.ItalsopresentstheresultsofananalysisofhowmuchCHP
thermaloutputcanbeutilizedtomeetspaceheatingrequirementsatWWTFs.
Thermal Energy Requirements for Anaerobic Digesters
Climateisthemostimportantfactordeterminingdigesterheatingrequirements.Whenambient
airandsludgetemperaturesarelow,ittakesmoreenergytoheatthedigesters.TheUnitedStates
canbedividedintofivedifferentclimatezones
29
basedoncoolingandheatingdegreedays:
Zone1Coldclimatewithmorethan7,000heatingdegreedays
Zone2Cold/moderateclimatewith5,500to7,000heatingdegreedays
Zone3Moderate/mixedclimatewith4,000to5,500heatingdegreedays
Zone4Warm/hotclimatewithfewerthan4,000heatingdegreedaysandfewerthan
2,000coolingdegreedays
Zone5Hotclimatewithfewerthan4,000heatingdegreedaysandmorethan2,000
coolingdegreedays
Figure1showsthefiveU.S.climatezonesbystate.(Statesthatspanmorethanonezoneare
assignedtothezonethatcoversmostofthestate.)
28
GreaterthermalenergyrequirementsforanaerobicdigestersmeansthatthereislessCHPrecoveredheatavailable
todisplacepurchasednaturalgasforspaceheatingloads,resultinginasmallerthermalcredit.
29
U.S.EnergyInformationAdministration,CommercialBuildingsEnergyConsumptionSurvey,Washington,DC,
2003.
15
Figure1:MapofFiveU.S.ClimateZonesbyState

Recentfeasibilitystudiesandtechnicalpapersforvariousanaerobicdigestergasprojectswere
examinedtodeterminehowdigesterheatingrequirementscorrelatetoclimate(seeFigure2).
Thesefeasibilityanalysesandtechnicalpapersassesseddigestergasprojectsinthefollowing
locations:Georgia(Zone5),NorthCarolina(Zone4),Oregon(Zone3),Massachusetts(Zone2),
andMaine(Zone1).Usingtheselocations,theanalysisdeterminedtheminimumandmaximum
energyrequirementsintermsofheatingdegreedays.Ineachcase,theaverageenergyrequired
eachday(MMBtu/day)wasdividedbythesizeoftheWWTF,asmeasuredinMGD.

Withminimumandmaximumboundsfortheenergyrequirements,theaveragevaluefor
MMBtu/day/MGDwasdetermined.Thiswasaccomplishedbyfirstplottingthedatapointsand
constructingparallellinesthatroughlyintersectthetwohighestandthetwolowestdatapoints.
Thesetwolinesrepresentthemaximumandminimumheatingrequirements.Theaverage
heatingrequirementlinewasdevelopedbyaddingalinethatdividesequallytheareabetween
thesetwolines.Figure2showsthedatapointsused,alongwiththeminimum,maximum,and
averagevalues,accordingtoheatingdegreedays.Table9presentstheminimum,maximum,and
averagevaluesintabularform.Ineachcase,theaverageenergyrequiredeachday(MMBtu/day)
wasdividedbythesizeoftheWWTF,asmeasuredinMGD.Theaveragevaluesforeachzone
wereusedinthecost-to-generateanalysis.

16

Figure2:ThermalEnergyRequirementsforAnaerobicDigestersbyHeatingDegreeDays
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
M
M
B
t
u
/
d
a
y

p
e
r

M
G
D

Zones4&5 Zone3 Zone2 Zone1
CapeFear,NC
Atlanta,GA
Dalles,OR
Fairhaven,MA
Pittsfield,MA
Auburn,ME
MAX
MIN
AVG
3.5
0
Heating Degree Days
Sources:
Atlanta, GA: Hardy,ScottA.,AWEAAnnualConference2011,AchievingEconomicandEnvironmental
SustainabilityObjectivesthroughOn-SiteEnergyProductionfromDigesterGas,April11,2011.
Auburn, ME: CDM,LewistonAuburnWaterPollutionControlAuthority,Maine:AnaerobicDigestion
andEnergyRecoveryProject,ConceptualDesignReport,October2009.
Cape Fear, NC:Fishman,Bullard,VogtandLundin,BeneficialUseofDigesterGasSeasonaland
LifecycleCostConsiderations,2009.
Dalles, OR:Carollo,TheDallesWastewaterTreatmentPlantCogenerationFeasibilityStudy,September
2009.
Fairhaven, MA:BrownandCaldwell(preparedforTownofFairhaven,Massachusetts,BoardofPublic
Works),AnaerobicDigestionandCombinedHeatandPowerFeasibilityStudy,December19,2008.
Pittsfield, MA:SEAConsultants,FeasibilityStudyWastewaterTreatmentPlant:CityofPittsfield,
April2008.
Table9:ThermalEnergyRequirementsforAnaerobicDigestersbyClimateZone
AverageMMBtu/day/MGD
ClimateZone Minimum Maximum Average
Zone1(Cold) 1.8 3.7 2.8
Zone2(Moderate/Cold) 1.6 3.4 2.5
Zone3(Moderate/Mixed) 1.4 3.0 2.3
Zone4(Warm/Hot) 1.2 2.8 2.0
Zone5(Hot) 1.0 2.6 1.8
Space Heating Capability of CHP at Wastewater Treatment Facilities
Inadditiontoestimatingthethermalenergyrequirementsforanaerobicdigesters,theanalysis
alsodevelopedestimatesofhowmuchCHPthermaloutputisavailableforspaceheatingafter
17

digesterheatingrequirementsaremet.Theestimatesofsurplusthermaloutputforspaceheating
weretakenintoconsiderationwhendevelopingthevalueofthethermalcreditusedinthecost-
to-generateanalysis.
Theanalysisrevealedthatasubstantialamountofsurplusheatforspaceheatingisavailableonly
inwarmandhotclimates,wheredemandforspaceheatingisminimal,exceptincoldwinter
months.Inthesewarmandhotclimates,upto25percentoftheCHPthermaloutputisavailable
forspaceheating.Incoldclimates,wheremoreenergyisrequiredtoheatthedigester,surplus
thermalenergyforspaceheatingisgenerallynotavailable.Inthesecoolerclimates,theanalysis
estimatedthatlessthan10percentoftheCHPthermaloutputisavailable,andinmanycases
thereisnoneleftforspaceheating.
Whilethedatasuggestthatsurplusheatmaynotbeavailableincolderclimatesafterthedigester
heatingneedshavebeenmet,somefacilitiesintheseclimatesdoinfacthavesurplusheating.
Forexample,oneoftheWWTFsinterviewedbytheCHPP,thetownofLewiston,NY(see
Section5),hasenoughthermaloutputtoheatonebuildinginthesummerandtomeet95percent
ofthatbuildingswinterheatingrequirement.Thisdiscrepancybetweenestimatedandrealized
thermalsurpluscanbeattributedtoanumberoffactors:
Digesterheatingrequirementsdependonmanydifferentfactors,anddesignand
constructionofthedigestercaninfluencetheheatlossduetofactorssuchasinsulation.
CertainmethodsforincreasingdigestergasproductioncanallowforalargerCHPsystem
andmoresurplusthermaloutputforspaceheating.Thesemethodsincludemixingofthe
contentsofthedigestertank,orincorporatingfats,oils,andgreases(FOG)intothe
digester.
WWTFscanalsoincreasethesizeoftheCHPsystemandincorporatenaturalgasintheir
fuelusagetoincreasetheamountofCHPthermaloutputavailableforspaceheating.
FurtherdetailsabouttheanalysisofspaceheatingcapabilityofCHPcanbefoundinAppendix
C.
4.2.3 EstimatedCosttoGenerateElectricity
ThissubsectionpresentsestimatesofthecosttogenerateelectricitywithCHPusingdigestergas
foreachofthethreedigestergasutilizationcases.Thecost-to-generatecalculationinvolves
calculatingtheinvestmentcost(CHPsystemandgaspretreatmentequipment)onaper-kWh
generatedbasis;addinginmaintenancecosts;andapplyingathermalcredit,asappropriate,to
derivethefullcostperkWhtoownandoperateaCHPsystem.WWTFoperatorscancompare
thecost-to-generateestimatestothecurrentretailelectricratethattheypaytohelpthemevaluate
ifamoredetailedanalysisofCHPmakessensefortheirfacility.
Basedontheresultsoftheanalysis,thefollowingobservationscanbemade:
ThecosttogenerateelectricityusingCHPatWWTFsrangesfrom1.1to8.3centsper
kWhdependingontheCHPprimemoverandotherfactors.Currentretailelectricrates
rangefrom3.9tomorethan21centsperkWh,soCHPcanhavecleareconomicbenefits
forWWTFs.
Costtogeneratetendstodecreaseastheprimemoverincreasesinsize.
18

ThemorethermalenergyaWWTFcanusethroughouttheyear,thelowerthecostto
generate.
Table10presentsinstalledcostdatafordigestergas-fueledCHPsystems.Gaspretreatment
equipmentistypicallyrequiredfordigestergasgenerators,sothesecostsareincluded.Datawere
obtainedfromcasestudiesandfeasibilitystudiesfordigestergasreciprocatingengines,
microturbines,fuelcells,andcombustionturbines.
Table10:InstalledCostDataPointsforAnaerobicDigesterGasCHPSystems
FacilityName State PrimeMover Size(kW)
TotalInstalled
Cost
CostperkW
EssexJunctionWastewaterTreatmentFacility
1
VT Microturbine 60 $303,000 $5,000
LewistonWastewaterTreatmentFacility
2
NY Microturbine 60 $300,000 $5,000
ChiquitaWaterReclamationPlant
1
CA Microturbine 60 $275,000 $4,600
AlbertLeaWastewaterTreatmentFacility
1
MN Microturbine 120 $500,000 $4,200
ColumbiaBlvd.WastewaterTreatmentPlant
3
OR Microturbine 120 $346,000 $2,900
FairfieldWastewaterTreatmentFacility
4
CT FuelCell 200 $1,200,000 $6,000
WildcatHill
2
AZ Reciprocating
Engine
292 $1,750,000 $6,000
VanderHaakDairyFarm
3
WA Reciprocating
Engine
300 $1,200,000 $4,000
GreshamWastewaterTreatmentPlant
5
OR Reciprocating
Engine
395 $1,352,000 $3,400
JanesvilleWastewaterTreatmentFacility
1
WI Reciprocating
Engine
400 $910,000 $2,300
KingCountySouthTreatmentPlant
6
WA FuelCell 1,000 $5,000,000 $5,000
SaltLakeCityWaterReclamationPlant
7
UT Reciprocating
Engine
1,400 $3,500,000 $2,500
RochesterWastewaterReclamationPlant
1
NY Reciprocating
Engine
2,000 $4,000,000 $2,000
SouthsideWastewaterTreatmentPlant
8
TX Combustion
Turbine
4,200 $10,500,000 $2,500
DelRioWastewaterTreatmentPlant
8
TX Combustion
Turbine
4,200 $9,400,000 $2,200
GenericSite
9
USA Combustion
Turbine
4,910 $8,758,000 $1,800
1
MidwestCHPApplicationCenter:RACProjectProfiles,http://www.chpcentermw.org/15-00_profiles.html
2
ProjectInterview,9/14/2010
3
NorthwestCHPApplicationCenter:CaseStudies,http://chpcenternw.org/ProjectProfilesCaseStudies.aspx
4
ProjectInterview,9/22/2010,installationusesnaturalgasandnotdigestergas
5
http://files.harc.edu/Sites/GulfCoastCHP/CaseStudies/GreshamORWastewaterServices.pdf
6
EstimatefromGregBush,KingCountyProjectManageronnewMCFCInstallation
7
http://www.slcgov.com/utilities/NewsEvents/news2003/news552003.htm
8
EstimatebyCDM(2005)
9
EstimatebySolarTurbines(2010)forlandfillsite
BasedondatafromTable10:
MicroturbineCHPsystemsrangefrom$3,000/kWto$5,000/kW.
30
30
MicroturbineCHPsystemscanbethemostversatileoptionforsmaller(i.e.,<10MGD)WWTFs.
19

ReciprocatingengineCHPsystemsinthe300kWto1MWsizerangetypicallycost
between$2,500/kWand$4,000/kW.Largerenginesystemsover1MWinsizetendto
rangefrom$2,000/kWto$3,000/kW.
31
CombustionturbineCHPsystemsaregenerallytheleastexpensiveoptiononaper-kW
basis,rangingbetween$1,800/kWand$2,800/kW.
32
Ingeneral,fuelcellsystemsarethehighestcostoption,at$5,000/kWto$6,000/kW,
evenforlargegensetsgreaterthan1MW.
33
UsingthecostdatapointsshowninTable10,theanalysisdevelopedsizerangesandcostsfor
thedifferentprimemoversforuseinthecost-to-generateestimates.Specificationsfortheprime
movers,suchasmaintenancecosts,efficiencies,andsystemavailability(usedtoestimatedown
time),werealsoestimatedbasedonmanufacturerdata.TheresultsarepresentedinTable11.
Table11:PrimeMoverPriceandPerformanceSpecificationsforUseinEconomic
PotentialModel
PrimeMover
MinSize
(kW)
MaxSize
(kW)
Modeled
InstalledCost
($/kW)
Maintenance
($/kWh)*
Thermal
Output
(Btu/kWh)
Electric
Efficiency
(%)
CHP
Efficiency
(%)
SmallRich-Burn
Engine
30 100 4,500 0.03 5,800 28 76
Microturbine 30 250 4,000 0.025 3,900 26 55
Rich-Burn
Engine
100 300 3,600 0.025 5,500 29 76
FuelCell 200 2,000 5,500 0.03 2,700 42 76
SmallLean-
BurnEngine
300 900 3,200 0.02 4,000 32 71
Lean-Burn
Engine
1,000 4,800 2,500 0.016 3,400 38 75
Combustion
Turbine
4,000 16,000 2,100 0.012 3,900 35 75
Note:Allequipmentandmaintenancecostsincludegaspretreatment.ElectricandCHPefficienciesarebasedonHHVofthe
digestergassupplied.
*MaintenancecostsforWWTFsusingCHPcanvaryconsiderably.DuringtheinterviewsofWWTFoperatorswithCHP
installations(seeSection5),itwasfoundthatsomefacilitieshavemaintenancecostsashighas7centsperkWh,primarilydue
toexcessivecontaminantsinthedigestergasleadingtoveryhighfueltreatmentcosts.Othersiteswereabletokeep
maintenancecostsdownduetocleanerdigestergasandidealmaintenancestrategies.Asaresult,themaintenancecostsin
Table11shouldbeseenasestimatesandarenotintendedtoindicatewhatanyindividualsitewillexperience.
TheanalysisusedtheCHPprimemoverpriceandperformancespecificationdatainTable11
andthethermalenergyrequirementforanaerobicdigestersdatainTable9todevelopcost-to-
generateestimatesforCHPatWWTFs.Tables12through14presentthecost-to-generate
estimatesforthethreedigestergasutilizationcases:
Table12presentsthecost-to-generateresultsforCase1.Thiscaseassumesthesiteuses
digestergasinitsboilertoprovidedigesterandspaceheatingpriortoCHP;therefore,no
31
Somesmallerrich-burnenginesystemshavebeenemployedatsmallerWWTFs,buttheytendtobecostlyanddo
notofferthebenefitsoflean-burntechnologyinthissmaller(under300kW)size.Rich-burnenginestendto
producemoreemissionsandhavelowerelectricefficienciesthantheirlean-burncounterparts,sodeploymentof
rich-burnengineshasdeclinedinrecentyearsaslean-burnengineshavebeenproducedatincreasinglysmallersizes.
32
CombustionturbinesaremostlylimitedtoWWTFapplications4MWorlargerinsize.
33
Somestates(e.g.,Connecticut)offerincentivesforfuelcellinstallations,whichcanhelplowercosts.
20

valueisgiventothethermaloutputoftheCHPbecauseitdoesnotdisplaceanynatural
gaspurchases.Asaresult,thereisnovariationinthevalueofthermaloutputbyclimate
zone,andthecosttogenerateisestimatedtobeconstantforeachclimatezone.Ofthe
threecasesmodeled,Case1resultsinthehighestcosttogenerate,althoughinareaswith
highretailelectricrates,CHPprojectscanhaveanacceptablepaybackperiod.
Table13presentsthecost-to-generateresultsforCase2.Thiscaseassumesthesiteuses
digestergasinitsboilertoprovidedigesterheatingandpurchasesnaturalgasforspace
heating(whenneeded)priortoCHP,resultinginathermalcreditforreductionsinnatural
gaspurchasesusedforspaceheating.Toaccountforthefactthatspaceheating
requirementsarehighestduringcoldwinterperiodswhendigesterheatingloadsarealso
attheirpeak,theanalysisemployedaseasonaldigesterloadfactortoadjustforpeak
loads.
34
FormostclimatezonesandWWTFcapacities,thethermalcreditwasverysmall
andhadminimalimpactonthecosttogenerate.Thethermalcreditforspaceheating
resultsinalowercosttogenerateonlyinwarmerclimates,wherelessenergyisrequired
toheatthedigester.
Table14presentsthecost-to-generateresultsforCase3.Thiscaseassumesthesiteuses
naturalgastoprovidealldigesterandspaceheating,resultinginafullthermalcredit.In
thiscase,thethermalcreditismuchmoresubstantialandreducesthecosttogenerateby
severalcentsinallclimatesforallWWTFsizesascomparedtoCase2.Theresearch
conductedforthisanalysisindicates,however,thatCase3isatypicalandthatCase2
representsthemostfrequentlyobservedpractice.
AppendixDprovidesstate-by-statecost-to-generateestimatesforCase1,Case2,andCase3for
eachtypeofCHPsystem.
Table12:EstimatedCosttoGenerateAnaerobicDigesterGasElectricity(Case1No
NaturalGasPurchasesDisplaced)
EstimatedCosttoGenerate($/kWh)
ClimateZone
WWTFPlantSize
(MGD)
Corresponding
CHPSystem
Size(kW)
Micro-
turbine
Rich-
Burn
Engine
Fuel
Cell
Lean-
Burn
Engine
Turbine
15
(AllZones)
15 30130 0.064 0.073 --- --- ---
510 130260 0.064 0.060 0.083 --- ---
1020 260520 0.064 0.060 0.083 0.051 ---
2040 5201,040 --- --- 0.083 0.051 ---
40150 1,0403,900 --- --- 0.083 0.040 ---
>150 >3,900 --- --- --- 0.040 0.032
34
Averagedigesterloadsarelowerthanwinterdigesterloads,andsubtractingaveragedigesterloadsfromCHP
thermaloutputleavesmorethermaloutputforspaceheatingthanactuallyisavailableduringwinterperiod.Using
seasonalloadsisnecessarytoavoidoverstatingtheamountofsurplusheatavailableforspaceheating,andthesize
ofthethermalcredit.Theseasonaldigesterloadfactoristheratioofthewinterdigesterheatloadtotheaverage
monthlydigesterheatload.Theseasonaldigesterloadfactorchosenfortheanalysiswas1.36whichisbasedondata
fromtheCapeFear,NC,andPittsfield,MA,feasibilityanalyses(thesetwoanalysesprovidedseasonaldatawhereas
theotheranalysescitedinFigure2didnot).
21

Table13:EstimatedCosttoGenerateAnaerobicDigesterGasElectricity(Case2CHP
HeatDisplacesNaturalGasSpaceHeating)
EstimatedNetCosttoGenerate($/kWh)
ClimateZone
WWTFPlantSize
(MGD)
Corresponding
CHPSystem
Size(kW)
Micro-
turbine
Rich-
Burn
Engine
Fuel
Cell
Lean-
Burn
Engine
Turbine
1Cold
30130
0.064 0.073 --- --- ---
510 130260
0.064 0.060 0.083 --- ---
1020 260520
0.064 0.060 0.083 0.051 ---
2040 5201,040
--- --- 0.083 0.051 ---
40150 1,0403,900
--- --- 0.083 0.040 ---
>150 >3,900
--- --- --- 0.040 0.032
2Cold/
Moderate
15 30130
0.064 0.073 --- --- ---
510 130260
0.064 0.060 0.083 --- ---
1020 260520
0.064 0.060 0.083 0.051 ---
2040 5201,040
--- --- 0.083 0.051 ---
40150 1,0403,900
--- --- 0.083 0.040 ---
>150 >3,900
--- --- --- 0.040 0.032
3Moderate/
Mixed
15 30130
0.064 0.073 --- --- ---
510 130260
0.064 0.059 0.083 --- ---
1020 260520
0.064 0.059 0.083 0.051 ---
2040 5201,040
--- --- 0.083 0.051 ---
40150 1,0403,900
--- --- 0.083 0.040 ---
>150 >3,900
--- --- --- 0.040 0.032
4Warm/
Hot
15 30130
0.064 0.073 --- --- ---
510 130260
0.064 0.058 0.083 --- ---
1020 260520
0.064 0.058 0.083 0.051 ---
2040 5201,040
--- --- 0.083 0.051 ---
40150 1,0403,900
--- --- 0.083 0.040 ---
>150 >3,900
--- --- --- 0.040 0.032
5Hot
15 30130
0.064 0.072 --- --- ---
510 130260
0.064 0.058 0.083 --- ---
1020 260- 520
0.064 0.058 0.083 0.051 ---
2040 5201,040
--- --- 0.083 0.051 ---
40150 1,0403,900
--- --- 0.083 0.040 ---
>150 >3,900
--- --- --- 0.040 0.031
22

Table14:EstimatedCosttoGenerateAnaerobicDigesterGasElectricity(Case3CHP
HeatDisplacesNaturalGasforBothDigesterandSpaceHeating)
EstimatedNetCosttoGenerate($/kWh)
ClimateZone
WWTFPlantSize
(MGD)
Corresponding
CHPSystem
Size(kW)
Micro-
turbine
Rich-
Burn
Engine
Fuel
Cell
Lean-
Burn
Engine
Turbine
1Cold
15 30130
0.043 0.044 --- --- ---
510 130260
0.043 0.035 0.068 --- ---
1020 260520
0.043 0.035 0.068 0.029 ---
2040 5201,040
--- --- 0.068 0.029 ---
40150 1,0403,900
--- --- 0.068 0.022 ---
>150 >3,900
--- --- --- 0.022 0.011
2Cold/
Moderate
15 30130
0.043 0.047 --- --- ---
510 130260
0.043 0.037 0.068 --- ---
1020 260520
0.043 0.037 0.068 0.029 ---
2040 520- 1,040
--- --- 0.068 0.029 ---
40150 1,0403,900
--- --- 0.068 0.022 ---
>150 >3,900
--- --- --- 0.022 0.011
3Moderate/
Mixed
15 30130
0.043 0.050 --- --- ---
510 130- 260
0.043 0.039 0.068 --- ---
1020 260520
0.043 0.039 0.068 0.030 ---
2040 5201,040
--- --- 0.068 0.030 ---
40150 1,0403,900
--- --- 0.068 0.022 ---
>150 >3,900
--- --- --- 0.022 0.012
4Warm/Hot
15 30130
0.043 0.052 --- --- ---
510 130260
0.043 0.040 0.068 --- ---
1020 260520
0.043 0.040 0.068 0.033 ---
2040 5201,040
--- --- 0.068 0.033 ---
40150 1,0403,900
--- --- 0.068 0.022 ---
>150 >3,900
--- --- --- 0.022 0.014
5Hot
15 30130
0.045 0.053 --- --- ---
5-10 130260
0.045 0.042 0.068 --- ---
1020 260520
0.045 0.042 0.068 0.034 ---
2040 5201,040
--- --- 0.068 0.034 ---
40150 1,0403,900
--- --- 0.068 0.024 ---
>150 >3,900
--- --- --- 0.024 0.016
23

4.2.4 NationalEconomicPotentialScenarios
Usingthecost-to-generateresultspresentedintheprevioussubsectionandthe2008CWNSdata,
nationaleconomicpotentialestimatesweredeveloped.Twoscenarioswereevaluateddueto
uncertaintiesin2008CWNSdata:
Scenario1:MostFacilitiesDoNotUseDigesterGasPriortoCHP.Thisscenario
assumesthatthe2008CWNSdataonhowWWTFsusetheirdigestergasarecompletely
accurate,meaningthatmostWWTFswithanaerobicdigestersdonotusetheirbiogasin
anyway.AsmentionedinSection3.2,however,therearelimitationstousingCWNS
data,andtheCWNSfindingthatbiogasisusedminimallyisinconsistentwithresearch
andinterviewsconductedaspartofthisreport.
Scenario2:AllFacilitiesUseDigesterGastoHeatDigesterPriortoCHP.This
scenarioassumesthattheresearchconductedinpreparingthisreportiscorrect,andthat
mostWWTFsusetheirdigestergastoheatthedigester.Forthepurposesoftheanalysis,
Scenario2assumesthatall WWTFsusetheirdigestergastoheatthedigesteronlyand
usenaturalgasforanyadditionalspaceheatingneedspriortoCHPimplementation.
Forbothscenarios,theanalysisestimatesthenationaleconomicpotentialbyestimatingthe
simplepaybackperiodforeachWWTFandsummingallCHPsystemsizes(MW)thathavea
paybackperiodofsevenyearsorless.TheanalysiswasdoneforeachWWTFintheUnited
Statesgreaterthan1MGDthathasananaerobicdigesterbutdoesnothaveCHPinstalled.
PaybackperiodwasdeterminedbydividingthetotalcapitalinvestmentforCHPbythetotal
annualsavingsachievedthroughCHPuse.
35
TheresultsshowaneconomicpotentialrangeforCHPof178to260MWatWWTFsgreater
than1MGDwithanaerobicdigesters,withScenario1providinganupperboundandScenario2
thelowerbound.
Detailsconcerningeachofthescenarioanalysesarediscussedbelow.
Scenario 1: Most Facilities Do Not Use Digester Gas Prior to CHP
Scenario1assumesthatthe2008CWNSdataarecompletelyaccurate,indicatingthatmost
WWTFswithanaerobicdigestersdonotusetheirbiogasinanyway.Basedonresearchand
throughthefacilityinterviewsconductedaspartofthisreport,however,theauthorsbelievethat
mostWWTFsuseatleastsomeoftheirdigestergas.TheCWNSdatasuggestotherwisethat
1,148ofthe1,351facilitiesevaluateddonotusetheirdigestergas.Asaresultofthis
discrepancy,theanalysisoftheCWNSispresentedhereasascenarioofwhattheeconomic
potentialcouldbeiftheCWNSdatawerefullyaccurate,andthescenarioismeanttoserveasan
upperboundofCHPeconomicpotential.
35
Totalannualcostsavingswerecalculatedbyaddingtheannualelectricandnaturalgasbillsavingsand
subtractingtheannualmaintenancecosts.AnnualelectricbillsavingswerederivedfromannualCHPelectrical
outputmultipliedbystateaverageindustrialelectricitypricesfrom2010(EIA).Annualnaturalgasbillsavingswere
estimatedusingthethermalcreditcalculationdescribedinSection4.2.3oncosttogeneratethatwerebasedon
annualavoidedgaspurchasesforeachpotentialproject,using2010stateindustrialnaturalgasprices(EIA).Annual
maintenancecostswerederivedfromthemaintenancecostsasshowninTable12,multipliedbytheCHPannual
electricoutput.
24

Table15presentsthenumberofWWTFsandthetotalcapacityforeachdigestergasutilization
case,withanestimatedpaybackperiodoflessthansevenyears(seeSection4.2.1foran
explanationofthethreedigestergasutilizationcases).
Table15:EconomicPotentialofU.S.WastewaterTreatmentFacilities(Scenario1Most
FacilitiesDoNotUtilizeDigesterGasPriortoCHP)
DigesterGasUtilization
CasePriortoCHP
WWTFs
Analyzed
NumberofFacilities
Evaluated
Facilitieswith
Economic
Potential
Potential
Capacity(MW)
Case1:DigesterGasUsed
forbothDigesterHeating
andSpaceHeating
ThoseUtilizingDigesterGas
(notforCHP)
203 88 74
Case2:DigesterGasUsed
forDigesterHeatingOnly
ThoseUtilizingDigesterGas
(notforCHP)
203 88 74
Case3:DigesterGasNot
Used
ThoseNotUtilizingDigester
Gas
1,148 574 186
Total 1,351 662 260
TheanalysisrevealednodifferenceineconomicpotentialbetweenCase1(i.e.,nonaturalgas
purchasesdisplaced)andCase2(i.e.,CHPheatdisplacesnaturalgasspaceheating).Thisis
becausemostoftheheatrecoveredfromCHPunitsisrequiredfordigesterheating,leavinglittle
(ifany)thermaloutputforspaceheating,ForCase3(i.e.,CHPheatdisplacesnaturalgasfor
bothdigesterandspaceheating),fullthermalcreditisgivenforrecoveredCHPheat,assuming
thatnaturalgasisusedtoheatthedigesterandprovidespaceheatingpriortoCHP.
Scenario1showseconomicallyfeasibleCHPpotentialat662WWTFsacrossthecountry,witha
nationalpotentialcapacityof260MW.SinceCase1andCase2drawfromthesamepoolof
WWTFs(i.e.,thosethatarecurrentlyusingtheirdigestergas),theirpotentialsarenotadditive.
Theestimatedeconomicpotentialof260MWrepresentsapproximately63percentofthe411
MWofnationaltechnicalpotentialpresentedinSection4.1.3.
Scenario 2: All Facilities Use Digester Gas to Heat Digester
Scenario2assumesthatalloftheWWTFslargerthan1MGDthatdonotalreadyemployCHP
usetheirdigestergasforheatingthedigesterandusenaturalgasforanyadditionalspaceheating
needspriortoCHPimplementation;therefore,allfacilitiesevaluatedunderthisscenariofall
underCase2(i.e.,usingdigestergastoheatonlythedigesterpriortoCHPimplementation).As
mentionedpreviously,Case2isthemostcommonsituationforaWWTFthathasnotalready
implementedCHP.
Table16presentsthenumberofWWTFswitheconomicpotentialandthetotalcapacityunder
Scenario2.
25

Table16:EconomicPotentialofU.S.WastewaterTreatmentFacilities(Scenario2All
FacilitiesUseDigesterGastoHeatDigesterPriortoCHP)
DigesterGasUtilization
CasePriorto CHP
WWTFsAnalyzed
Numberof
Facilitiesin Data
Pool
Facilitieswith
Economic
Potential
PotentialCapacity
(MW)
Case2:DigesterGasHeats
Digester
ThosewithDigesters
>1MWnotusingCHP
1,351 257 178
Total 1,351 257 178
Scenario2showseconomicCHPpotentialat257sitesacrossthecountry,withanational
potentialcapacityof178MW.Theestimatedeconomicpotentialof178MWrepresents
approximately43percentofthe411MWofnationaltechnicalpotentialpresentedinSection
4.1.3.ThesedataaregraphicallypresentedinFigure3below.
Figure3:WastewaterTreatmentFacilitieswithAnaerobicDigestersNumberofSites
withEconomicPotential(Scenario2)
104 Sites with
257 Sites with
CHP Already
Economic
Installed
Potential
1,094 Sites
with No
Current
Economic
Potential
UnderScenario2,thevastmajorityofpotentialcomesfromlargeWWTFs(i.e.,>30MGD)that
cansupportlargerCHPunits.Atsmallerfacilitiesusingdigestergasfordigesterheatingpriorto
CHPimplementation,itisdifficulttosupportCHPunlessthefacilityislocatedinanareawith
extremelyhighelectricityprices,orthefacilityiswillingtoacceptalongerpaybackperiod.
Figure4showseconomicpotentialbrokendownbyWWTFsize.
26

Figure4:EconomicPotentialbyWastewaterTreatmentFacilitySize(Scenario2)
160 -
P
o
t
e
n
t
i
a
l

C
a
p
a
c
i
t
y

(
M
W
)

140 -
120 -
100 -
80 -
60 -
40 -
20 -
0 -
1-10 MGD 10-20 MGD 20-30 MGD >30 MGD
WWTF Size Range
27

5.0 WastewaterTreatmentFacilityInterviews:CHPBenefits,Challenges,and
OperationalInsights
Theprevioussectionsofthisreportdemonstratethatthereisbothtechnicalandeconomic
potentialforincreasedCHPuseatWWTFsintheUnitedStates.Translatingpotentialintoactual
successes,however,requiresanunderstandingofoperationalrealities.Thissectionbuildsonthe
previoussectionsbypresentingoperationalexperiencesfromWWTFsthathavealready
implementedCHP.ToassessoperationalexperienceswithCHPatWWTFs,interviewsofa
numberofWWTFsthatutilizeCHPwereconducted.Thefocusoftheseconversationswasto
gainabetterunderstandingoftheirdecisiontoutilizeCHP,thebenefitstheyhaverealizedfrom
CHPtodate,andthechallenges/barriersofoperatingandmaintainingCHPsystems.Muchofthe
informationobtainedthroughtheinterviewsaffirmscommonelementsreportedinotherrecent
studiesonCHPatWWTFs,
36
butnewoperationalinsightswerealsodiscovered.
ThissectionfirstprovidesanoverviewoftheWWTFsinterviewedbytheCHPPandexplains
howtheywerechosen.Italsoprovidesdescriptionsoftheinterviewformatusedandthe
questionsasked.Subsequentsubsectionssummarizetheinformationobtainedthroughthe
interviewsandareorganizedby:
DriversforinstallingCHPandoperationalbenefits
ChallengestoCHPprojectdevelopmentandoperation/maintenance(O&M)
Operationalinsightsandobservations
5.1 WastewaterTreatmentFacilitiesInterviewedandInterviewFormat
WhenselectingWWTFstointerview,theobjectivewastobuildarepresentativepoolof
WWTFssothattheresultswereindicativeofthesector.WWTFsselectedtobeinterviewed,
therefore,representoperational,geographical,andtechnologicaldiversity.ThirtyWWTFswere
initiallyidentified,and14wereultimatelyinterviewed.Table17providesasummaryofthe14
WWTFsinterviewed.
Ofthe14CHPsystemsrepresented,theprimemoverbreakdownmatchescloselywithwhatis
seeninthemarketplace(seeTable2,Section3.1),withnineoperatingreciprocatingengines,
fouroperatingmicroturbines,andoneoperatingafuelcellsystem.CHPsystemsizesrangefrom
60kWto3.075MW,andWWTFflowcapacitiesrangefrom2MGDto75MGD.Theearliest
CHPsystemwasinstalledin1987andthemostrecentin2009.The14WWTFsarealsolocated
acrossthecountry,withfouroperatingintheEast,oneoperatingintheSoutheast,fiveoperating
intheMidwest,andfouroperatingintheWest.
36
AssociationofStateEnergyResearch&TechnologyTransferInstitutions,StrategicCHPDeployment
AssistanceforWastewaterTreatmentFacilities,October2009.Availableat:
http://www.asertti.org/wastewater/index.html;Brown&Caldwell,EvaluationofCombinedHeatandPower
TechnologiesforWastewaterTreatmentFacilities,December2010.Availableat:
http://water.epa.gov/scitech/wastetech/publications.cfm.
28

Table17:WastewaterTreatmentFacilitiesInterviewed
WastewaterTreatment
FacilityName
Location
AverageFlow
Rate(MGD)
CHPPrime
Mover
CHP
Capacity
(MW)
CHP
Installation
Date
AlbertLeaWastewater
TreatmentPlant
AlbertLea,MN 5.0 Microturbine 0.120 2004
AllentownWastewater
TreatmentPlant
Allentown,PA 31.0 Microturbine 0.360 2001
BergenCountyUtilities
Authority
LittleFerry,NJ 75.0
Reciprocating
Engine
2.812 2008
ChippewaFallsWastewater
TreatmentPlant
ChippewaFalls,WI 2.0 Microturbine 0.060 2003
CityofGreatFalls
WastewaterTreatmentPlant
GreatFalls,MT 21.0
Reciprocating
Engine
0.540 2008
CityofSantaMaria
WastewaterTreatmentPlant
SantaMaria,CA 7.8
Reciprocating
Engine
0.300 2009
ColumbiaBoulevard
WastewaterTreatmentPlant
Portland,OR 60.0
Reciprocating
Engine
1.700 2008
DesMoinesMetro
WastewaterReclamation
Facility
DesMoines,IA 70.0
Reciprocating
Engine
1.800 1987
FairfieldWaterPollution
ControlAuthority
Fairfield,CT 9.0
FuelCell(Natural
Gas)
0.200 2005
FourcheCreekTreatment
Plant
LittleRock,AR 15.0
Reciprocating
Engine
1.100 2009
RockRiverWater
ReclamationPlant
Rockford,IL 31.0
Reciprocating
Engine
3.075 2004
TheresaStreetWastewater
TreatmentFacility
Lincoln,NE 19.5
Reciprocating
Engine
0.900 1992
TownofLewistonWater
PollutionControlCenter
Lewiston,NY 2.0 Microturbine 0.060 2001
WildcatHillWastewater
TreatmentPlant
Flagstaff,AZ 3.5
Reciprocating
Engine
0.292 2008
Phoneinterviewswereconductedwiththefacilityoperatorsoveratwo-monthperiodinAugust
andSeptember2010.Theinterviewswereconductedinanunstructuredformatandsoughtto
gaininformationonspecificCHPdrivers,benefits,andchallenges/barriers.Theinterviews
coveredthefollowingoperationalareas:
ThekeyoperationalcharacteristicsoftheCHPsystem(e.g.,primemovertypeandheat
recoveryequipment;heatrecoveryuse;CHPsizingrelativetofacilitydemand;biogas
treatmentmethod;systemstart-update).
ThekeydriversforinstallingCHP.
DegreeoflocalsupporttheWWTFreceivedininstallingtheCHPsystem.
WhethertheWWTFreceivedfinancialincentivesfortheCHPsystem,andifincentives
werecriticaltoprojectviability.
TheprimarychallengesandbarriersencounteredwithCHPdevelopmentandoperation,
andhowtheywereovercome.
TheWWTFsexperienceworkingwiththelocalutility.
Thebenefitsachievedtodate,andthebenefitstheWWTFexpectstoachieveinthe
future.
Goingforward,whethertheWWTFwouldconsiderCHPaspartofanyanticipated
facilityexpansions;ifnot,whatwouldmakeadifferenceinconsideringCHP.
LessonstheWWTFcanimparttootherfacilitiesconsideringCHP.
29

5.2 DriversandBenefits
WWTFscanexperienceefficiency,reliability,environmental,andeconomicbenefitswithCHP.
Table18presentstheprimarydriversandbenefitsreportedbytheWWTFs,whichspecifically
includethefollowing:
Energycostsavings
Federal,state,local,andutilityincentives
Energy/sustainabilityplansandemissionsreductions
Enhancedreliability
Facilityupgrades
Increasedbiogasproduction
Enhancedbiosolidmanagement
Greenpublicity/positivepublicrelations
Utilityloadshedding
TheinterviewresultsclearlyshowstrongbenefitsfromoperatingCHPatWWTFsandsuggest
thatCHPisaprovenmethodofutilizingdigestergastobothproduceandconserveenergy.
30

Table18:InterviewResultsDriversandBenefits
Driver/Benefit Summary Examples
EnergyCostSavings EachWWTFinterviewedutilizestheirbiogasin
aCHPsystemtodisplaceelectricityand/orfuel
fordigesterheatloadsthattheywouldotherwise
havetopurchase,leadingtosignificantenergy
costsavingsforthefacility.Somefacilitiessaid
theyusethesavingsgeneratedfromCHPto
investinotherinfrastructureupgradesneeded
atthefacility,andsomeofthefacilities
mentionedthattheuseofCHPmakesthem
moreconsciousoftheenergytheyuse,
resultinginadditionalprojectsthatimprove
energyefficiencyandreducecosts.Several
facilitiesalsonotedthedesiretohedgeagainst
possibleenergypriceincreasesasadriverfor
CHP.

The120kWmicroturbineCHPsystematAlbertLeaWastewaterTreatmentPlant
generatesapproximately$100,000inannualenergysavings.Approximately70percent
ofthesavingsderivesfromreducedelectricityandfuelpurchasesand30percentfrom
reducedmaintenancecosts.ThefacilitynotedthatCHPmadethefacilitymore
consciousofitsenergyuse,leadingtoanumberofotherenergy-efficiency
improvements,whichresultedinfurthercostsavings.
The1.7MWreciprocatingengineCHPsystemattheColumbiaBoulevardWastewater
TreatmentPlantoperatesatanoverallefficiencyof82percentandgenerates
approximately$700,000inannualenergysavings.Thesystemoffsetsapproximately40
percentofthefacilityselectricpowerdemand.
The900kWreciprocatingengineCHPsystematTheresaStreetWastewaterTreatment
Facilitygenerates$50,000to$100,000inannualenergysavingsoutofanoperational
budgetof$4.5million.
The3.075MWreciprocatingengineCHPsystemattheRockRiverWaterReclamation
Plantsavesthefacilityapproximately50percentonitsenergybill,anannualsavingsof
approximately$250,000.
ThebusinesscaseforCHPclearlydroveCHPinstallationfortheSantaMaria
WastewaterTreatmentPlant.Priortoinstallingits300kWreciprocatingengineCHP
system,thefacilitywaspaying13to15centsperkWh,butwithCHP,thefacilityisnow
onlypayingtheequivalentof8centsperkWh.
37
The1.8MWreciprocatingengineCHPsystemattheDesMoinesMetroWastewater
ReclamationFacilityhasreducedtheelectricalbillby$500,000/yearsince2002.
Federal,State,Local, and Anumberofthefacilitiesinterviewedreceived FairfieldWaterPollutionControlAuthoritycitedavailabilityofpublicfundingasakey
UtilityIncentives
38
financialincentivesthathelpedpayforthecost
ofinstallingCHP,withsomedescribingthe
incentivesasakeycomponenttoproject
viability.Incentiveexamplesincludegovernment
grantsorpaymentsforthegreenattributesof
powergeneratedatWWTFsusingbiogas,and
utilityprogramstargetedatexpandingclean
energyorenergyefficiency.Inaddition,some
facilitiescansellexcesspowertothegrid
throughpowerpurchaseagreements,whichhas
enhancedCHPprojecteconomicsatthose
sites.

driverforinstallingtheir200kWfuelcellCHPsystem.Theirsystemisfueledwith
naturalgas;thesitepreviouslyhadbiogas-fueledmicroturbinesbuthadchallengeswith
gastreatment.Thefacilityreceived$880,000infundingfromtheConnecticutClean
EnergyFund,approximatelytwo-thirdsofthetotal$1.2millionCHPsystemcost.
FortheTownofLewistonWaterPollutionControlCenter,stateandutilityfunding
provided100percentofthe$300,000projectcostofthe60kWmicroturbineCHP
system.
AllentownWastewaterTreatmentPlantdevelopedits360kWmicroturbineCHPsystem
underaMasterEnergySavingsagreementwithitslocalutility.Underthearrangement,
installationofthesystemwasfundedthrougha10-yearlease/purchaseagreement,and
anO&MagreementwiththeutilityprovidesforfixedO&Mcosts(withanescalator)
through2014.Inexchange,thefacilityreceivesguaranteedenergysavingsachieved
37
ThecostsofpurchasingbackuppowerwhentheCHPsystemisdownhavemadethetotalcostsaboutthesameaspriortoCHP,butthishasbeenattributedto
thecontractwiththethirdpartynotcoveringexpectedhoursofoperationorbackupcharges.
38
NationalandstatelevelincentivesapplicabletoCHPandbiogascanbefoundintheCHPPFundingDatabase(http://www.epa.gov/chp/funding/funding.html)
andtheDatabaseofStateIncentivesforRenewableEnergy(DSIRE)(http://www.dsireusa.org/).
31

Driver/Benefit Summary Examples

throughtheoperationoftheCHPsystemandotherEnergyConservationMeasures
constructedthroughouttheplant.Thearrangementwasadirectresultofthe
GuaranteedEnergySavingsActpassedbythePennsylvanialegislature.
AlbertLeaWastewaterTreatmentPlantdevelopeditsCHPsystemthroughan
innovativerelationshipwithitslocalutility.Undertheagreement,theutilityhelpedpay
fortheCHPsystemandagreedtomaintainitforthefirstfiveyearsofoperation.In
exchange,theutilityreceivedcleanenergycreditsforuseunderMinnesotas
ConservationImprovementProgram.
TheColumbiaBoulevardWastewaterTreatmentPlanttookadvantageoftheOregon
BusinessEnergyTaxCreditandreceivedmoneyfromtheOregonEnergyTrustin
exchangeforthecleanenergycreditsgeneratedfromtheCHPsystem.TheBusiness
EnergyTaxCreditprovided33.5percentofthetotalCHPsystemcost.Althoughthe
WWTFisnotatax-payingentity,thetaxcreditrulesallowpublicentitiestosellthe
credittoentitiesthataresubjecttostatetax.
Energy/Sustainability Manystates,localities,andfacilitieshave TheWildcatHillWastewaterTreatmentPlant,theGreatFallsWastewaterTreatment
PlansandEmissions implementedenergyandsustainabilityplans Plant,theDesMoinesMetroWastewaterReclamationFacility,andtheBergenCounty
Reductions aimedatincreasingenergyefficiencyandclean
sourcesofenergy.Severalfacilitiesnotedthat
CHPattheirWWTFwasadriverforhelpingto
meetastate/local/facilitysustainabilityplan.In
addition,someofthefacilitiesnotedthat,as
environmentalorganizations,theirgoalisto
enhancethehealthandwelfareoftheir
communities.ThesefacilitiesseeCHPasa
meanstohelpfurtherfulfillthisgoalbecauseof
CHPsabilitytodisplacegrid-basedelectricity
withclean,renewablyfueledelectricity
decreasingemissionsofpollutantssuchas
nitrogenoxide,sulfurdioxide,andCO2.

UtilitiesAuthoritycitedsustainabilityplansasadriver/benefitofCHPinstallation.Both
theWildcatHillandGreatFallsfacilitiescitedsustainabilityplansastheprimarydriver
forCHPinstallation.
TheColumbiaBoulevardWastewaterTreatmentPlantsCHPsystemhelpsthecityof
Portlandmeetitssustainabilityplan,buttheplanwasnotadriverfortheCHP
installation.ThefacilityisconsideringexpandingtheCHPsystem,however,andsees
thecityssustainabilityplanasadriverfortheexpansion.
PriortoCHPinstallation,theAllentownWastewaterTreatmentPlantfiredasmall
portionofitsbiogasinboilersforheat,flaredtheremainingbiogas,andpurchasedallof
itselectricity.ThefacilitycitedthedesiretoreduceCO2 emissionsassociatedwith
purchasedelectricitytobemoreinlinewithitsenvironmentalmissionasadriverfor
CHPinstallation.
EnhancedReliability Ifinterconnectedinawaythatalsoallowsgrid-
independentoperation,CHPsystemscan
enableWWTFstosustainoperationsincaseof
agridoutage.Somefacilitiesstatedthatthe
abilitytooperateindependentlyfromthegrid
wasakeydriverforCHP.Mostofthefacilities,
however,saidtheyaredesignedtoshutdown
whenthegridgoesdown,tosatisfylocalutility
requirements.
TheRockRiverReclamationPlantfirstinstalleda2MWreciprocatingengineCHP
systeminmid-2004.Inthespringof2010,thefacilityexpandedtheCHPsystemto
includethreereciprocatingengineswithatotalcapacityof3.075MW.Themaindriver
citedfortheCHPsystemupgradewasthedesiretofullymeetthefacilityselectric
demandonsite,allowingthefacilitytooperateindependentlyfromthegridifneeded.
Thefacilityhasatotalelectricdemandof2.2MW,andwiththenewCHPsystem,the
facilityhasplentyofexcesscapacity.Inadditiontohavingtheabilitytooperate
independentlyfromthegrid,thefacilitysexcesscapacityalsoenablesittotakeone
engineofflineatatimeformaintenancewhilestillmaintainingtheabilitytofullymeet
thefacilityselectricdemand.
FacilityUpgrades AportionofthefacilitiesincorporatedCHPas
partofascheduledfacilityequipmentand
processupgrade.Someofthesefacilities
operatedCHPforanumberofyearsandnoted
In1988,theDesMoinesMetroWastewaterReclamationFacilityunderwentacomplete
facilityredesign,whichincludedinstallinganaerobicdigestersanda1.8MW
reciprocatingengineCHPsystem.In1997,thefacilitystartedtoexperimentwithtaking
industrialwasteandfats,oils,andgreases(FOG)toboostbiogasproduction,and
32

Driver/Benefit Summary Examples

thatthescheduledfacilityupgradeallowedthem
toinstallanewerCHPsystemthatwouldhelp
simplifyO&M,increasesystemreliability,and
offerincreasedefficiencies.
today,approximately70percentofthebiogasproducedatthefacilityisderivedfrom
hauledwaste.Thefacilityplanstotakeinadditionalhauledwasteandisupgradingits
anaerobicdigesterstoaccommodatetheincreasedload.Totakeadvantageofthe
resultingincreasedbiogasproduction,thefacilityplanstoinstallfouradditional
reciprocatingengines,twoofwhichwillbeincorporatedwiththeCHPsystem.Theother
twowillbeusedasstandbypower.
IncreasedBiogas
Production
Somefacilitiesnotedthattheyaretakingon
additionalwastestreamsthatwillboosttheir
biogasproduction,andCHPwasanaturalfitto
capitalizeontheincreasedfuelavailability.
Additionalwastestreamsincludewastesfrom
othernearbytreatmentfacilities,additional
industrialwastes,orFOG.

TheDesMoinesMetroWastewaterReclamationFacilitynotedthatitisupgradingits
anaerobicdigesterstohandleadditionalhauledwastes,andthatexpandingitsexisting
CHPsystemwillgivethefacilitytheabilitytomakeefficientuseoftheincreasedbiogas
generation.
LittleRock,Arkansas,currentlyhasaprograminplaceforpretreatmentofFOGto
whichparticipantsmustadhere.TheFourcheCreekTreatmentPlantisinterestedin
howitmightadaptoneofitsexistingdigesterstohandleFOG,whichisapossibilityfor
futureexpansion.ThefacilitywouldconsiderCHPexpansiontohandleanyincreasesin
biogasgeneration.
EnhancedBiosolid Oncethedecisionwasmadetoincorporate TheTheresaStreetWastewaterTreatmentFacilitydescribedkeepingrawsludgeoutof
Management anaerobicdigestersintothetreatmentprocess,
allfacilitiesrecognizedthatutilizingtheresulting
biogasinaCHPsystemmadesense.Treating
biosolidsinanaerobicdigestersreducesbiosolid
mass,decreasingtheburdensassociatedwith
dryingbiosolidsonsiteand/orshippingthemto
landfills,whilealsoproducingbiogasthatcanbe
usedtogeneratepowerandheatonsite.
landfillsthroughbetterbiosolidsmanagementasakeydriverforinstallinganaerobic
digestersonsite.Withthedigestersinplace,CHPallowedthefacilitytogenerateclean
powerandheatwiththeresultingbiogas.
GreenPublicity/Positive
PublicRelations
Acoupleoffacilitiesnotedthatthegreen
attributesofCHPatWWTFs(i.e.,increased
efficiencyandreducedemissionsthroughthe
useofrenewablebiogas),andthemyriadother
benefitsofferedbyCHP,generatedpublic
interestandpositiveawarenessforthefacility.
Althoughnotadriverforinitialinstallation,
WWTFsseethepositiveresponsefromthe
publicasabenefitandadriverforcontinued
operation.
BoththeAllentownWastewaterTreatmentPlantandtheColumbiaBoulevard
WastewaterTreatmentPlantreportedthattheirCHPsystemswereverywellreceived
bytheircommunitiesandgeneratedalotofpositivebuzz.
UtilityLoadShedding On-sitegenerationofpoweratWWTFscanhelp
utilitiesthatoperateinconstrainedareasshed
loadratherthaninvestinnewgeneration
infrastructureoraddadditionalburdento
existingtransmissionanddistributionsystems.
TheFairfieldWaterPollutionControlAuthoritynotedthatitsCHPsystemnotonlyhelps
thelocalutilityavoidinstallingnewcapacity,butalsoenablesthefacilitytoavoidthe
premiumpricepaidforelectricityduringhighdemandperiods.TheFairfieldfacilityis
locatedinSouthwesternConnecticut,ahighlyconstrainedelectricarea.
33

5.3 Challenges
DespitethebenefitsassociatedwithCHP,thereareseveralkeychallengestoCHPdevelopment
andoperation,regardlessofsectororapplication.Theseincluderegulatedfeesandtariffs,
interconnectionissues,environmentalpermitting,andtechnicalbarriers.AlloftheWWTFs
interviewednotedtheseaschallengestoCHPdevelopmentandoperationtosomedegree,but
alsoreportedothersspecifictoCHPoperationatWWTFs,including:
Staffeducation/trainingwithCHP
Gaspretreatment
Utilityissues
Lackofadequatebiosolidsupply
Permittingissues
AlthoughnotdiscussedindetailbytheinterviewedWWTFs,itshouldalsobenotedthat
obtainingthecapitalneededforaCHPsystemataWWTFcanposeasignificantchallengefora
WWTFandshouldnotbeoverlooked.Therearealsospecificchallengesassociatedwith
utilizingbiogasbeyondgaspretreatment.Amoredetailedinvestigationofbiogasutilization
challengesiscurrentlybeingundertakenbytheWaterEnvironmentResearchFoundation
(WERF)inareporttitled,BarriertoBiogasUtilizationSurvey(WERFProjectNumber
OWSO11C10).
TheinterviewedWWTFsallsuccessfullyimplementedCHP,soallchallengesencounteredwere
overcomeinvariousways,thoughtheywerenotinsignificant.Table19presentsthekey
challengesreportedbytheinterviewedWWTFsalongwithrelevantexamples.Akeyfindingis
thatWWTFsneedtorecognizethatCHPisaseparatefunctionbeyondtraditionalwastewater
treatment,andtherefore,itisimportanttodedicateO&Mstafftimeorcontractwithathirdparty
tooperateandmaintaintheCHPsystem.
34

Table19:InterviewResultsChallenges
Challenge Summary Examples
StaffEducation/Training
withCHP
Mostfacilitiesinterviewedidentifiedthetraining
ofstaffinO&MofCHPanditscomponents
(e.g.,gensets,heatrecovery,gaspretreatment,
anaerobicdigesters)asakeychallengetoCHP
implementation.Thesefacilitiesnotedthaton-
siteenergyproductionwasanewexperiencefor
them,andtheprocessoftransitioningfroma
wastewatertreatment-onlyfacilitytoonethat
alsoproduceson-sitepowerandheatwasa
hurdleforstafftoovercome.Somefacilities,
however,enteredintoO&Mcontractswith
serviceproviders,sotheydidnothavetotake
ontheresponsibilityoftraining/hiringstaff.
SomealsorequiredCHPequipment
manufacturerstoprovidetherequisitetraining.

TheRockRiverWaterReclamationPlantstatedthatithadtoovercometheprocessof
transitioningfromawastewatertreatment-onlyutilitytoonethatalsogeneratedpower
andheat.Thisprocessrequiredthetrainingofitsstaff,whichitdidbyhiringan
engineeringfirm.TheCHPsystemrequiresatleastahalf-timeemployeeequivalent,
whichthefacilityabsorbedintoitsexistingstaff.
UnderthearrangementbetweenAlbertLeaWastewaterTreatmentPlantanditslocal
utility,thelocalutilityinstalled,maintained,andoperatedtheCHPsystemforfiveyears;
2010wasthefirstyearinwhichthefacilityoperatedandmaintainedtheCHPsystem
itself.ThefacilitynotedthatthefiveyearsofO&Mprovidedbythelocalutilityessentially
constitutedanextendedtrainingperiodforthefacilitysstaff.
UndertheMasterEnergySavingsagreementbetweentheAllentownWastewater
TreatmentPlantanditslocalutility,thefacilityispayingthelocalutilityafeetomaintain
andoperatetheCHPsystemuntil2014.
TheDesMoinesMetroWastewaterReclamationFacilitynotedthatoperatingand
maintainingitsreciprocatingengineshasbeenachallenge.Theenvironmentisnoisy,
oily,andphysicallydemanding.Thefacilitydescribedtheimportanceofnotonlytraining
itsstafftomaintainandoperatetheCHPsystem,butalsogettingthemtotake
ownershipoftheequipment.ThefacilityplanstoexpanditsCHPsysteminthecoming
yearsandsaidthatitplanstorequiretheenginemanufacturertoprovidetraining.
TheColumbiaBoulevardWastewaterTreatmentPlantpurchasedamaintenance
contractfromitsenginemanufacturer.ThebulkofthemaintenancefortheCHPsystem
issuppliedthroughthiscontract,butthefacilitystillreliesonstafftohelpmaintainthe
system.Thebiggestchallengereportedbythefacilityissometimesinadequate
responsetimeunderthemaintenancecontract.
GasPretreatment Manyfacilitiesnotedthatunderstandingthe
importanceofgaspretreatmentanddeveloping
agaspretreatmentstrategywasakey
challenge.DigestergasatWWTFscontains
contaminantssuchashydrogensulfide,
siloxanes,andexcessmoisturethatcanimpair
CHPequipmentifnotproperlypretreated.Gas
pretreatmentismoreofaconcernforsome
CHPprimemoversthanothers(e.g.,
microturbinesaremoresensitiveto
contaminantsthansomereciprocatingengines).

TheChippewaFallsWastewaterTreatmentPlantreportedbiogasconditioningasthe
numberonechallengetodevelopingitsmicroturbineCHPsystem.Despitesomeearly
strugglesandsetbacksgettingtheconditioningsystemtoworkproperly,withthehelp
ofanexperiencedengineeringconsultant,thefacilitynolongerexperiencesany
significantgascleanupissues.
TheGreatFallsWastewaterTreatmentPlantreporteddealingwithhighhydrogen
sulfidelevels,whichleadstofrequentreplacementofitsironspongeandconsiderable
maintenancecosts.
TheTownofLewistonWaterPollutionControlCenterinitiallyhadmuchhighermoisture
levelsthanplannedandhadtoincorporatebettermoistureremovalequipment.
AllentownWastewaterTreatmentPlantsCHPsystemdidnotinitiallyincludeagas
conditioningsystem,whichledtosignificantdowntime.Hydrogensulfideandsiloxanes
inthedigestergasdamagedthecompressorsandmicroturbines.Theutility
subsequentlyinstalledagasconditioningsystembutnotedthatthefacilitystill
experiencesasignificantamountofdowntimeasaresultofthelackofredundancyin
35

Challenge Summary Examples
theglycolchilleranddigestergascompressor.
UtilityIssues Anumberoffacilitiesindicatedthatburdensome
interconnectionrequirementsorhightariffand
standbyratesweresignificantchallengesto
developingCHP.Somementionedthattheir
utilityrestrictssalesofexcesspowertothegrid,
impairingprojecteconomics.However,
opportunitiesmayexistforWWTFstopartner
withtheirlocalutilitytohelpmoveaCHPproject
forward.

TheDesMoinesMetroWastewaterReclamationFacilitystatedthatworkingwiththe
localutilityoninterconnectionwasachallenge.Ittookthefacilityonetotwoyearsto
negotiateaninterconnectionagreement,creatinggreatexpenseintermsofbothmoney
andstafftime.
TheRockRiverWaterReclamationPlantreportedthatworkingwiththelocalutilityon
interconnectionwasverydifficult,timeconsuming,andexpensive.Ofnote,thefacility
statedthatthecostofinterconnectionrepresented10percentofthetotalcost
associatedwithCHPimplementation.
FourcheCreekTreatmentPlantinitiallyexperiencedproblemswithgridinterruptions.To
remedythis,thefacilityinstalledafiberinterlockbetweentheplantandtheelectric
substationthatallowsthefacilitytocompletelydisconnectfromthegridwhenthereare
interruptions.ThisismainlyasafetyfeaturethathelpsprotecttheCHPsystem
equipmentandhelpstoensuresmoothoperationofthesystem.
TheColumbiaBoulevardWastewaterTreatmentPlantexperiencedresistancefromthe
localutilityconcerningsellingpowerbacktotheutilityunderacontract.Theutilitywas
notopposedtothefacilityoperatingCHP,butitforcedthefacilitytoinstallreverse
powerrelaystopreventanypowerexportbacktothegrid.Thefacilitywouldhave
preferredtheoptionofsellingexcesspower.
TheTheresaStreetWastewaterTreatmentFacilitydidnotexperienceanyproblems
workingwiththelocalutilityoninterconnection.However,althoughthefacilityisableto
sellexcesspower,itfeelsitdoesnotreceiveenoughcreditforthepoweritsupplies.
Thefacilitybuyspowerat5.5centsperkWhbutreceivesonly2.5centsperkWhfor
powersoldbacktothegrid.
TheWildcatHillWastewaterTreatmentPlantultimatelypartneredwiththelocalutilityto
providerenewableenergycredits(RECs)andmotivatetheutilitytohelpmovethe
projectforward.
LackofAdequate SomeWWTFsdonottreatenoughwastewater TheChippewaFallsWastewaterTreatmentPlantwasoneofthreefacilitiesinterviewed
BiosolidSupply togeneratesufficientbiogastomakeCHP
economicallyfeasible.Inmanycases,thisholds
trueforfacilitieswithflowrateslessthan5
MGD.However,smallerfacilitiescanmakeCHP
viablebyhaulingadditionalwastesuchasFOG
ortakingonindustrialwastestreamsthatare
highinbiologicaloxygendemand(BOD)
39
.
Largerfacilitiescanalsoexpandtheir
opportunitiesforCHPbyincreasingtheirbiogas
generationpotentialthroughprocessingofFOG
orotherindustrialwastestreams.
withaninfluentflowratelessthan5MGD.Priortoinstallinga60kWmicroturbineCHP
system,thefacilityoperatedgas-poweredblowerswiththebiogastheyproducedand
capturedthewasteheatofftheblowerstohelpmeetdigesterheatloads.Althoughthe
facilityonlytreatsanaverageof2MGD,approximately50percentoftheBODtreated
bythefacilitycomesfromalocalbrewer.ThisenhancedBODcontentallowsthefacility
togenerateenoughbiogastopoweritsCHPsystem.
39
BODistheamountofoxygenrequiredbyaerobicmicroorganismstodecomposetheorganicmatterinasampleofwater.Itisacommonmeasureofthe
biosolidloadinginwastewatertreatmentstreamsandanindicatorofbiogasgenerationpotential.
36

Challenge Summary Examples

PermittingIssues Acoupleoffacilitiesnotedthatobtainingthe
correctpermitsfortheirCHPsystemwas
burdensomeandtime-consuming.Installingon-
siteenergyproductionrequiresfacilitiesto
obtainthenecessarypermits,whichcanbea
newchallengeforWWTFs,especiallyifaTitleV
CleanAirAct(CAA)permitisneeded.

TheBergenCountyUtilitiesAuthorityreportedthatitsCHPsystemrequiredcareful
negotiationofchangestotheirexistingTitleVCAApermit.
TheDesMoinesMetroWastewaterReclamationFacilityreportedthattheinstallationof
itsreciprocatingengineCHPsystemrequiredthefacilitytoobtainaTitleVCAApermit.
TheprocessofobtainingaTitleVpermitwassomewhatunfamiliartothefacility,andit
isstilllearningaboutalloftheissuesinvolved.
37

5.4 OperationalInsightsandObservations
Basedonthebenefitsachievedandchallengesencountered,severalcommonoperationalinsights
becameapparentattheconclusionoftheinterviews.Theseinsightswereconsideredbyall
WWTFsasimportanttoanyfacilityconsideringCHP.Table20presentsthekeyCHP
operationalinsightsgatheredfromWWTFsacrossthefollowingtopicareas:organizational
acceptance,utilityrelationship,systemdesign,andO&M.
Ingeneral,theinsightsshowthatCHPisanaddedelementtoaWWTF,beyondtraditional
treatmentofwastewater,andthatitrequiresappropriateplanningandattention.Tothisend,
high-levelbuy-infromfacilitymanagementisveryimportanttoprojectsuccess.Inaddition,
WWTFsneedtobecloselyinvolvedwiththedesignoftheCHPsystem,includingallofits
components(e.g.,fuelpretreatment),andunderstandhowthesystemoperatesandits
maintenancerequirements.
Coordinationwiththelocalutilitywasalsoseenasextremelyimportantfordevelopingand
operatingasuccessfulCHPsystem.Fromthebeginning,immediateandcontinuingcoordination
withtheutilityisneededtoensurethatallcomponentsoftheCHPsystemareinlinewithutility
requirements.Thisprocessoftenrequiresclosenegotiationsovertopicssuchasinterconnection,
saleofexcesspower,andpotentialchangesinutilityrates.SeveraloftheWWTFsencountered
utilitiesunwillingtobuyexcesspowerorallowoperationindependentofthegrid.These
restrictionseliminatedapotentialsourceofrevenueandalsooneoftheprimarybenefitsofCHP,
enhancedreliabilityoftheWWTFspowersupply.
38

Table20:InterviewResultsOperationalInsights
Topic KeyInsights
Organizational
High-levelbuy-inforCHPcangreatlyfacilitateprojectapproval.ACHPchampionisneededtogetthe
projectoffthegroundandforcontinualsuccessfuloperation.
Acceptance
Aligningtheprojectwithcommunitygoalsforrenewableenergy/energyefficiencycanserveasagreat
justificationfortheproject.
UtilityRelationship
Immediateandcontinuingcoordinationwiththelocalutilityishighlyrecommended.Issuessuchas
interconnection,salesofexcesspower,andpotentialchangesinutilityratesallrequireclose
communicationwiththelocalutilityandcanrequiresignificanttimetoresolve.
Identifyingopportunitiesforcollaborationorpartnershipwiththelocalutilitycanbehighlybeneficial
(e.g.,masterenergysavingsagreement,saleofRECs,otherownership/O&Magreements).
CHPprojectsrequireduediligencefromdesignthroughO&M.Itisimportantforfacilitiestoensure
thatanyconsultantsorprojectdevelopershiredarefullyversedinallaspectsofdesign,installation,
andO&MofCHPsystemsatWWTFs.WWTFswanttoavoidproblemfatiguethatcanarisefroma
poorlydesignedsystemandcanleadtosystemshutdown.
WWTFsshouldensurethatthefueltreatmentandcompressionsystemshavebeendesignedto
satisfytheCHPmanufacturerspecifications.Arigorousgaspretreatmentapproachisneededfor
certainapplicationsthoroughgasanalysisandpossiblegastreatmentmayberequired.
SystemDesign
Insomecases,blendingdigestergaswithnaturalgasmayhelpmaintaindesiredheatcontentand
composition.
WWTFsshouldfamiliarizethemselveswithCHPequipmentandprocessesandseewhatfitsbestwith
theirplantandstaffexperience.AcomprehensivereviewofleadingfacilitiesthatoperateCHPisa
goodidea.
WWTFsshouldconsideroutsidewastestreamsandsludgepre-treatmenttoimprovequantityand
qualityofdigesterbiogas,butalsoconsiderthefacilityrequirementstoreceiveandprocessthese
wastesduringthedesignprocess.
SpecifictrainingforO&MpersonnelisimportantforsuccessfuloperationofaCHPsystem.Having
staffthatiswelltrainedregardingmechanicalandelectricalequipmentisextremelybeneficial.
WWTFsshouldensurethatagreementswithCHPdevelopersorsuppliersincludeproperO&M
training.
Operationsand
Maintenance
WWTFsneedtorecognizethatCHPisaseparatefunctionbeyondtraditionalwastewatertreatment
andshoulddedicateO&MstafftimeorcontractwithathirdpartytooperateandmaintaintheCHP
system.IttakesmoreeffortforaWWTFtooperateCHPinadditiontotypicalwastewatertreatment
operations.
WWTFsshouldinstituteapreventivemaintenancescheduleinsteadofreactivemaintenance.
WWTFsneedtobeawareofthemaintenanceissuesrelatedtofueltreatment,includingsiloxane
depositsonCHPequipment.Impropermaintenancewillleadtomorefrequentmaintenanceintervals.
Acomprehensivedesign/build/operation/maintenanceagreementcangreatlysimplifytheprocessof
installingandoperatingCHPforWWTFs.Evenifthemaintenanceagreementexpiresafteracertain
numberofyears,afacilitycangainvaluabletrainingexperienceoverthattime.
39

AppendixA: DataSourcesUsedintheAnalysis
TodevelopanoverviewofthewastewatertreatmentsectorandthepotentialforCHP,theCHPP
usedpubliclyavailableinformationcontainedinthe2008CWNSDatabases,
40
theCombined
HeatandPowerInstallationDatabase,
41
EPAs2010eGRID,
42
andU.S.EnergyInformation
Administration(EIA)electricityandnaturalgasprices.
43
TheCHPPalsoconductedWWTF
interviewsandperformedindependentresearch.Thefollowingdescribeseachtypeofdataused
intheCHPPsanalysis.
2008CleanWatershedsNeedsSurvey
EPAsOfficeofWastewaterManagement,inpartnershipwithstates,territories,andtheDistrict
ofColumbia,conductstheCWNSeveryfouryearsinresponsetoSections205(a)and516ofthe
CleanWaterActanddevelopsaReporttoCongress. TheCWNSisacomprehensiveassessment
ofthecapitalneedstomeetthewaterqualitygoalssetintheCleanWaterAct.Everyfouryears,
thestatesandEPAcollectinformationabout:
Publiclyownedwastewatercollectionandtreatmentfacilities.
Stormwaterandcombinedseweroverflow(CSO)controlfacilities.
Nonpointsource(NPS)pollutioncontrolprojects.
Decentralizedwastewatermanagement.
Informationcollectedaboutthesefacilitiesandprojectsincludes:
Estimatedneedstoaddresswaterqualityorwaterquality-relatedpublichealthproblems.
Locationandcontactinformationforfacilitiesandprojects.
Facilitypopulationsservedandflow,effluent,andunitprocessinformation.
NPSbestmanagementpractices.
CHPInstallationDatabase
TheCHPInstallationDatabaseismaintainedbyICFwithsupportfromtheU.S.Departmentof
EnergyandOakRidgeNationalLaboratory.ThedatabaselistsallCHPsystemsinoperationin
theUnitedStates.Informationisgatheredinrealtimeandoriginatesfromindustryliterature,
manufacturercontacts,andregionalCHPcenters.Thedatabaseiscontinuallyupdated.
2010eGRID
eGRIDisacomprehensivesourceofdataontheenvironmentalcharacteristicsofalmostall
electricpowergeneratedintheUnitedStates.Theseenvironmentalcharacteristicsincludeair
emissionsfornitrogenoxides,sulfurdioxide,carbondioxide,methane,andnitrousoxide;
emissionrates;netgeneration;resourcemix;andmanyotherattributes.
40
The2008CWNSisavailablethroughEPAsOfficeofWastewaterManagementandcanbeaccessedat:
http://water.epa.gov/scitech/datait/databases/cwns/index.cfm.
41
TheCHPInstallationDatabaseisavailableat:http://www.eea-inc.com/chpdata/index.html.
42
eGRIDisavailableat:http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-resources/egrid/index.html.
43
AverageindustrialelectricitypricestakenfromEnergyInformationAdministration(EIA),MonthlyElectric
SalesandRevenueReportwithStateDistributionsReport,yeartodatethroughDecember2010.Naturalgasprice
datacanbefoundat:http://www.eia.gov/dnav/ng/ng_pri_sum_dcu_nus_m.htm.
40

U.S.EIAElectricityandNaturalGasPrices
ElectricPowerMonthlyisareportpreparedbytheEIAthatsummarizestheaveragepricepaid
byindustrialcustomerspurchasingelectricityonastate-by-statebasis.WWTFsaretreatedas
industrialcustomersbecausetheyarefairlylargeelectricityconsumersandtheyconsumepower
throughoutthedayandnight,asdootherindustrialfacilities.Dataarecollectedfromamultitude
ofEIAforms,aswellasfromotherfederalsources.
WastewaterTreatmentFacilityInterviews
TheCHPPattemptedtocontact30WWTFsthathaveoperationalCHPsystemsandultimately
spokewith14facilities.TheWWTFschosenforcontactandthoseultimatelyinterviewed
representoperational,geographical,andtechnologicaldiversity.Informationobtainedfrom
interviewsincludedoperationalinsightsandaddresseddriversandbenefitsofCHP;barriersand
challengesencountered;andlessonslearned.
IndependentResearch
TheCHPPalsoconductedindependentresearch,whichincludedreviewingreports,studies,and
casestudiesofWWTFsthatemployCHP,andutilizingtheextensiveCHPresourcesand
contactsavailabletotheCHPP.
41

AppendixB: AnaerobicDigesterDesignCriteriaUsedforTechnicalPotentialAnalysis
Thefollowinganaerobicdigesterdesigncriteriawereusedtoestimatethetotalwastewater
influentflowratethatatypicallysizeddigestercantreat,aswellasthebiogasgenerationrate
andtheheatloadofatypicallysizeddigester.Allcriteriaarebasedonatypicallysized
mesophilicdigester.
SystemDesignParameter Value
ReactorType
1
CompleteMix
ReactorShape
1
Circular
OrganicLoad
2
(lbs/dayVS) 13,730
PercentSolidsinFlow
2
(%w/w) 8
SludgeDensity
2
(lbs/gal) 8.5
FlowtoReactor(lbs/day) 171,625
FlowtoReactor(gal/day) 20,191
FlowtoReactor(ft
3
/day) 2,699
ReactorDepth
3
(ft) 20
DesignLoad
1
(lbsVS/ft
3
/day) 0.25
TotalReactorVolume(ft
3
) 54,920
ReactorArea(ft) 2,746
ReactorDiameter
1
(ft) 60
RetentionTime(days) 20
InfluentTempWinter(F) 40
AirTempWinter(F) 40
EarthAroundWallTempWinter(F) 40
EarthBelowFloorTempWinter(F) 40
ReactorTemp(F) 98
InfluentTempSummer(F) 78
AirTemp- Summer(F) 78
EarthAroundWallTempSummer(F) 47
EarthBelowFloorTempSummer(F) 47
Sp.HeatSludge
1
(Btu/lb*F) 1.0
AreaWalls(ft
2
) 3,769.9
AreaRoof(ft
2
) 2,827.4
AreaFloor(ft
2
) 2,827.4
UWallsConcrete
1
(Btu/hr*ft
2
*F) 0.12
URoofConcrete
1
(Btu/hr*ft
2
*F) 0.28
UFloorConcrete
1
(Btu/hr*ft
2
*F) 0.30
GasGeneration
1
(ft
3
/lbVS) 12
GasHeatContent
1
(Btu/ft
3
)(HHV) 650
VSRemovalPercentat20days
2
(%) 55
VSRemoved(lbs/day) 7,552
GasGeneration(ft
3
/day) 90,618
HeatPotentialofGas(Btu/day) 58,901,700
GasGenerationperCapita
1
(ft
3
/day/person) 1
PopulationServedbyPOTW(persons) 90,618
FlowperCapita
3
(gal/day/person) 100
TotalPOTWFlow(MGD) 9.1
Sources:
1.MetcalfandEddy,WastewaterEngineeringandDesign,4
th
Edition,2003.
2.Eckenfelder,PrincipalsofWaterQualityManagement,1980.
3.GreatLakes-UpperMississippiBoardofStateandProvincialPublicHealthandEnvironmentalManagers,
RecommendedStandardsforWastewaterFacilities(Ten-StateStandards),2004.
42

AppendixC: SpaceHeatingCapabilityofCHPatWastewaterTreatmentFacilities
AsdiscussedinSection4.2.2,theanalysisestimatedthespaceheatingcapabilityofCHPat
WWTFs,demonstratingthatafterdigesterloadsaremet,thereislittleCHPrecoveredheat
availableforspaceheatinginmostclimates.BasedontheresultsshowninFigure2andTable9
(bothinSection4.2.2),theanalysisestimatedtheamountofheatavailableforspaceheatingafter
digesterheatingismet.Bysubtractingtheaveragevaluesfordigesterheatingrequirements(see
Table9)fromthethermaloutputofrepresentativeCHPsystems,theamountofheatavailablefor
spaceheatingwasestimatedforthreedifferentsizesofWWTFs(i.e.,3,16,and40MGD)for
eachofthefiveclimatezones.TheCHPsystemschosenrepresenttypicalprimemovertypesand
sizesusedatWWTFs,andtheWWTFsizesarerepresentativeoftherangeoffacilitysizesthat
areapplyingCHP.Thefollowingtablepresentstheresults.
EstimatedSpaceHeatingCapabilityforCHPUnitsinDifferentClimateZones
ThermalOutput/Load(MMBtu/day)
ClimateZone
WWTFPlant
Size(MGD)
RepresentativeCHP
System
EstimatedCHP
ThermalOutput
Average
Digester
Load
SurplusThermal
Output forSpace
Heating
1Cold
3 65kWMicroturbine
5.9 8.4 0.0
16 400kWEngine
38.4 44.8 0.0
40 1MWEngine
81.6 112.0 0.0
2Cold/
Moderate
3 65kWMicroturbine
5.9 7.5 0.0
16 400kWEngine
38.4 40.0 4.0
40 1MWEngine
81.6 100.0 0.0
3Moderate/
Mixed
3 65kWMicroturbine
5.9 6.9 0.0
16 400kWEngine
38.4 36.8 1.6
40 1MWEngine
81.6 92.0 0.0
4Warm/Hot
3 65kWMicroturbine
5.9 6.0 0.0
16 400kWEngine
38.4 32.0 6.4
40 1MWEngine
81.6 80.0 1.6
5Hot
3 65kWMicroturbine
5.9 5.4 0.5
16 400kWEngine
38.4 28.8 9.6
40 1MWEngine
81.6 72.0 9.6
Thedatainthetableaboverevealthatasubstantialamountofsurplusheatforspaceheatingis
availableonlyinwarmandhotclimates,wheredemandforspaceheatingisminimal(exceptin
coldwintermonths).Incoldclimates,wheremoreenergyisrequiredtoheatthedigester,surplus
thermalenergyforspaceheatingisgenerallynotavailable.
CHPprovidesformuchhighergasutilizationthanifthedigesterwereheateddirectlywith
boilers,sincetheuseofdigestergasismuchhigherinthesummermonthswhenheatingloads
areminimal.GasutilizationbybaseloadedCHPsystemsisfairlyconstantthroughouttheyear,
otherthanduringperiodsofmaintenance,whereasgasutilizationforboilersdropssignificantly
duringsummerperiodswhensomedigesterheatingmaybeneededbutlittleornospaceheating
43

isneeded.AWWTFinNorthCarolina
44
indicatedthat63to66percentofavailabledigestergas
canbebeneficiallyusedwithCHP,whereasuseofdigestergas-fueledboilerswouldconsume
only33to38percentofthegas,withthebalanceeitherstacklossesorflaredgas.This
experienceisconsistentwiththeinterviewsofWWTFsconductedforthisreport,inwhicha
numberoffacilitiesindicatedthatusingCHPresultsinmorebeneficialuseofthedigestergas.
Forexample,theTownofLewiston,NY,indicatedthatpriortoimplementingCHP,itsboiler
usedonly40to50percentofthegas,whereaswiththeCHPsystem,gasutilizationreached98
percent.Futuretrends
45
alsoindicatethatmorefacilitiesarelikelytobuildgasstorageintotheir
digestersystem,whichshouldresultinimprovedgasutilization.Storingdigestergasduring
periodsoflowdemandanddrawingfromstoragewhendemandforheatishighminimizesthe
needforgasflaring.FormanyWWTFs,improvinggasutilizationwhileatthesametime
eliminatingorminimizingflaringisakeydriverforimplementingCHP.
44
Fishman,Bullard,VogtandLundin,BeneficialUseofDigesterGasSeasonalandLifecycleCost
Considerations,2009.
45
Basedonanumberofrecentinstallationsandfeasibilitystudiesthatincludedgasstorage(CityofRiverside,CA;
CapeFear,NC;Ithaca,NY;RochesterNY;andGloversville-Johnstown,NY).
44

AppendixD: Cost-to-GenerateEstimatesbyState
ToestimatethecosttogenerateforCHPatWWTFs,theanalysisconsideredthreedigestergas
utilizationcasesforeachWWTFgreaterthan1MGDthatoperatesanaerobicdigesters.
Case1:Assumesdigestergasisusedforbothdigesterheatingandspaceheatingpriorto
CHPimplementation.
Case2: AssumesdigestergasisusedfordigesterheatingonlypriortoCHP
implementationandnaturalgasisusedforspaceheating.
Case3:Assumesdigestergasisnotusedforheating,andnaturalgasisusedfordigester
andspaceheatingpriortoCHPimplementation.
45

CosttoGenerateElectricitywithDigesterGas(Case1NoThermalCredit)
State
Average
Industrial
Electricity
Price
1
(cents/kWh)
Average
Industrial
NaturalGas
Price
2
($/1000scf)
CosttoGenerate(cents/kWh)
SmallRich-
BurnEngine
(1-5MGD)
Microturbine
(1-10MGD)
Rich-Burn
Engine
(5-15MGD)
FuelCell
(10-80MGD)
SmallLean-
BurnEngine
(12-40MGD)
Lean-Burn
Engine
(40-160MGD)
Combustion
Turbine
(>160MGD)
Alaska 14.1 4.2 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Alabama 6.1 6.4 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Arkansas 5.4 7.6 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Arizona 6.7 8.2 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
California 10.9 7.0 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Colorado 6.9 5.8 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Connecticut 14.4 9.6 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Delaware 9.6 14.0 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Florida 8.9 9.4 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Georgia 6.2 6.7 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Hawaii 21.9 24.2 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Iowa 5.4 6.1 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Idaho 5.1 6.4 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Illinois 6.7 7.3 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Indiana 6.0 5.5 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Kansas 6.2 5.3 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Kentucky 5.1 5.3 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Louisiana 5.8 4.6 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Massachusetts 13.2 12.1 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Maryland 9.5 8.6 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Maine 8.8 9.1 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Michigan 7.2 9.2 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Minnesota 6.3 5.7 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Missouri 5.5 9.6 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Mississippi 6.4 5.9 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Montana 5.6 9.1 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
NorthCarolina 6.1 8.1 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
NorthDakota 5.7 5.2 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Nebraska 5.9 5.7 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
NewHampshire 12.8 12.1 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
NewJersey 11.6 9.7 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
NewMexico 6.0 6.0 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Nevada 7.4 10.5 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
NewYork 9.7 9.5 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Ohio 6.3 8.9 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Oklahoma 5.2 12.6 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Oregon 5.5 7.3 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Pennsylvania 7.6 10.2 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
RhodeIsland 12.8 12.6 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
SouthCarolina 5.7 6.1 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
SouthDakota 5.9 5.9 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Tennessee 6.7 6.2 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Texas 6.3 4.6 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Utah 4.9 5.5 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Virginia 6.7 7.1 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Vermont 9.5 6.6 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Washington 4.0 9.4 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Wisconsin 6.8 7.6 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
WestVirginia 5.9 5.4 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Wyoming 5.0 5.4 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
AverageindustrialelectricitypricestakenfromEnergyInformationAdministration(EIA),MonthlyElectricSales
andRevenueReportwithStateDistributionsReport,yeartodatethroughDecember2010.
AverageindustrialnaturalgaspricestakenfromEIA,availableat:
http://www.eia.gov/dnav/ng/ng_pri_sum_dcu_nus_m.htm.
46

NetCosttoGenerateElectricitywithDigesterGas(Case2ThermalCreditforSpace
Heating)
State
Average
Industrial
Electricity
Price
1
(cents/kWh)
Average
Industrial
NaturalGas
Price
2
($/1000scf)
CosttoGenerate(cents/kWh)
SmallRich-
BurnEngine
(1-5MGD)
Microturbine
(1-10MGD)
Rich-Burn
Engine
(5-15MGD)
FuelCell
(10-80MGD)
SmallLean-
BurnEngine
(12-40MGD)
Lean-Burn
Engine
(40-160MGD)
Combustion
Turbine
(>160MGD)
Alaska 14.1 4.2 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Alabama 6.1 6.4 7.1 6.4 5.8 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Arkansas 5.4 7.6 7.2 6.4 5.8 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Arizona 6.7 8.2 7.2 6.4 5.8 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
California 10.9 7.0 7.2 6.4 5.8 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Colorado 6.9 5.8 7.3 6.4 5.9 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Connecticut 14.4 9.6 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Delaware 9.6 14.0 7.3 6.4 5.9 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Florida 8.9 9.4 7.0 6.4 5.7 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Georgia 6.2 6.7 7.0 6.4 5.6 8.3 5.0 4.0 3.2
Hawaii 21.9 24.2 6.8 6.4 5.3 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Iowa 5.4 6.1 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Idaho 5.1 6.4 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Illinois 6.7 7.3 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Indiana 6.0 5.5 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Kansas 6.2 5.3 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Kentucky 5.1 5.3 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Louisiana 5.8 4.6 7.2 6.4 5.8 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Massachusetts 13.2 12.1 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Maryland 9.5 8.6 7.3 6.4 5.9 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Maine 8.8 9.1 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Michigan 7.2 9.2 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Minnesota 6.3 5.7 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Missouri 5.5 9.6 7.3 6.4 5.9 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Mississippi 6.4 5.9 7.1 6.4 5.8 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Montana 5.6 9.1 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
NorthCarolina 6.1 8.1 7.2 6.4 5.8 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
NorthDakota 5.7 5.2 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Nebraska 5.9 5.7 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
NewHampshire 12.8 12.1 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
NewJersey 11.6 9.7 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
NewMexico 6.0 6.0 7.2 6.4 5.9 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Nevada 7.4 10.5 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
NewYork 9.7 9.5 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Ohio 6.3 8.9 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Oklahoma 5.2 12.6 7.2 6.4 5.8 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Oregon 5.5 7.3 7.3 6.4 5.9 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Pennsylvania 7.6 10.2 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
RhodeIsland 12.8 12.6 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
SouthCarolina 5.7 6.1 7.2 6.4 5.8 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
SouthDakota 5.9 5.9 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Tennessee 6.7 6.2 7.2 6.4 5.8 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Texas 6.3 4.6 7.2 6.4 5.8 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Utah 4.9 5.5 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Virginia 6.7 7.1 7.3 6.4 5.9 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Vermont 9.5 6.6 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Washington 4.0 9.4 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Wisconsin 6.8 7.6 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
WestVirginia 5.9 5.4 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
Wyoming 5.0 5.4 7.3 6.4 6.0 8.3 5.1 4.0 3.2
*IncludesthermalcreditasdescribedinSection4.2.3
AverageindustrialelectricitypricestakenfromEnergyInformationAdministration(EIA),MonthlyElectricSales
andRevenueReportwithStateDistributionsReport,yeartodatethroughDecember2010.
AverageindustrialnaturalgaspricestakenfromEIA,availableat:
http://www.eia.gov/dnav/ng/ng_pri_sum_dcu_nus_m.htm.
47

NetCosttoGenerateElectricitywithDigesterGas(Case3FullThermalCredit)
State
Average
Industrial
Electricity
Price
1
(cents/kWh)
Average
Industrial
NaturalGas
Price
2
($/1000scf)
CosttoGenerate(cents/kWh)
SmallRich-
BurnEngine
(1-5MGD)
Microturbine
(1-10MGD)
Rich-Burn
Engine
(5-15MGD)
FuelCell
(10-80MGD)
SmallLean-
BurnEngine
(12-40MGD)
Lean-Burn
Engine
(40-160MGD)
Combustion
Turbine
(>160MGD)
Alaska 14.1 4.2 5.0 4.8 4.0 7.2 3.5 2.6 1.6
Alabama 6.1 6.4 4.9 4.2 3.9 6.6 3.2 2.1 1.3
Arkansas 5.4 7.6 3.9 3.1 3.0 6.0 2.3 1.2 0.4
Arizona 6.7 8.2 4.0 3.3 3.1 6.1 2.4 1.3 0.5
California 10.9 7.0 4.7 3.9 3.7 6.5 2.9 1.8 1.0
Colorado 6.9 5.8 4.0 3.5 3.1 6.3 2.3 1.5 0.4
Connecticut 14.4 9.6 3.2 3.1 2.5 6.0 1.7 1.1 0.0
Delaware 9.6 14.0 1.9 1.6 1.2 5.0 0.4 0.0 0.0
Florida 8.9 9.4 4.0 3.3 3.0 5.9 2.5 1.4 0.6
Georgia 6.2 6.7 4.8 4.2 3.7 6.4 3.1 2.1 1.2
Hawaii 21.9 24.2 0.2 0.0 0.0 3.2 0.0 0.0 0.0
Iowa 5.4 6.1 4.4 4.1 3.5 6.7 2.7 2.0 0.9
Idaho 5.1 6.4 3.5 3.7 2.7 6.4 2.3 1.6 0.5
Illinois 6.7 7.3 3.8 3.6 3.0 6.3 2.2 1.5 0.4
Indiana 6.0 5.5 4.3 4.0 3.4 6.6 2.6 1.9 0.8
Kansas 6.2 5.3 5.4 4.8 4.4 7.2 3.5 2.6 1.6
Kentucky 5.1 5.3 4.8 4.2 3.8 6.8 2.9 2.1 1.0
Louisiana 5.8 4.6 5.7 4.9 4.5 7.1 3.8 2.7 1.9
Massachusetts 13.2 12.1 0.0 0.1 0.0 3.9 0.0 0.0 0.0
Maryland 9.5 8.6 2.6 2.2 1.8 5.4 1.0 0.4 0.0
Maine 8.8 9.1 0.5 1.5 0.1 4.9 0.0 0.0 0.0
Michigan 7.2 9.2 2.1 2.6 1.5 5.7 1.2 0.7 0.0
Minnesota 6.3 5.7 4.2 4.2 3.3 6.8 2.8 2.1 1.0
Missouri 5.5 9.6 3.1 2.7 2.3 5.7 1.5 0.8 0.0
Mississippi 6.4 5.9 4.9 4.2 3.9 6.6 3.2 2.1 1.3
Montana 5.6 9.1 2.4 2.9 1.8 5.9 1.5 0.9 0.0
NorthCarolina 6.1 8.1 4.0 3.2 3.0 6.1 2.3 1.2 0.4
NorthDakota 5.7 5.2 4.5 4.4 3.6 6.9 3.0 2.2 1.2
Nebraska 5.9 5.7 4.4 4.1 3.5 6.7 2.7 2.0 0.9
NewHampshire 12.8 12.1 0.0 0.3 0.0 4.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
NewJersey 11.6 9.7 3.0 2.9 2.3 5.9 1.6 1.0 0.0
NewMexico 6.0 6.0 5.3 4.4 4.2 6.9 3.4 2.3 1.5
Nevada 7.4 10.5 1.9 2.0 1.3 5.3 0.6 0.2 0.0
NewYork 9.7 9.5 1.5 2.2 1.0 5.4 0.8 0.3 0.0
Ohio 6.3 8.9 2.6 2.5 1.9 5.6 1.1 0.6 0.0
Oklahoma 5.2 12.6 3.5 2.8 2.6 5.8 2.0 0.9 0.1
Oregon 5.5 7.3 3.7 3.2 2.8 6.1 2.0 1.2 0.1
Pennsylvania 7.6 10.2 1.9 2.0 1.3 5.3 0.6 0.2 0.0
RhodeIsland 12.8 12.6 1.3 1.5 0.8 4.9 0.1 0.0 0.0
SouthCarolina 5.7 6.1 4.7 3.9 3.7 6.6 2.9 1.8 1.0
SouthDakota 5.9 5.9 4.1 4.1 3.2 6.7 2.7 2.0 0.9
Tennessee 6.7 6.2 4.3 3.5 3.3 6.3 2.6 1.5 0.7
Texas 6.3 4.6 5.4 4.6 4.3 6.9 3.6 2.5 1.7
Utah 4.9 5.5 4.5 4.1 3.5 6.7 2.7 2.0 0.9
Virginia 6.7 7.1 4.3 3.7 3.3 6.5 2.5 1.7 0.6
Vermont 9.5 6.6 3.5 3.7 2.7 6.4 2.3 1.6 0.5
Washington 4.0 9.4 3.1 3.0 2.3 5.9 1.6 1.0 0.0
Wisconsin 6.8 7.6 3.1 3.4 2.4 6.2 2.0 1.4 0.2
WestVirginia 5.9 5.4 4.7 4.1 3.7 6.7 2.8 2.0 0.9
Wyoming 5.0 5.4 4.7 4.5 3.8 7.0 3.2 2.4 1.3
*IncludesthermalcreditasdescribedinSection4.2.3
AverageindustrialelectricitypricestakenfromEnergyInformationAdministration(EIA),MonthlyElectricSales
andRevenueReportwithStateDistributionsReport,yeartodatethroughDecember2010.
AverageindustrialnaturalgaspricestakenfromEIA,availableat:
http://www.eia.gov/dnav/ng/ng_pri_sum_dcu_nus_m.htm.
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AppendixE:AdditionalReferenceResources
EPACombinedHeatandPowerPartnership(CHPP)
TheCHPPisavoluntaryprogramthatseekstoreducetheenvironmentalimpactofpower
generationbypromotingtheuseofCHP.TheCHPPworkscloselywithenergyusers,theCHP
industry,stateandlocalgovernments,andotherstakeholderstosupportthedevelopmentofnew
projectsandpromotetheirenergy,environmental,andeconomicbenefits.
Website:www.epa.gov/chp/
TheCHPPoffersanumberoftoolsandresourcesthatcanhelpaWWTFimplementaCHP
system.Theseinclude:
DescriptionoftheCHPprojectdevelopmentprocess,includinginformationonkey
questionsforeachstageoftheprocessalongwithspecifictoolsandresources.
Website:www.epa.gov/chp/project-development/index.html.
TheCHPfundingdatabasewithbi-weeklyupdatesofnewstateandfederalincentive
opportunities.
Website:www.epa.gov/chp/funding/funding.html.
TheCHPCatalogofTechnologies,whichdescribesperformanceandcostcharacteristics
ofCHPtechnologies.
Website:www.epa.gov/chp/basic/catalog.html.
TheBiomassCHPCatalogofTechnologies,whichprovidesdetailedtechnology
characterizationofbiomassCHPsystems.
Website:www.epa.gov/chp/basic/catalog.html.
Reports
ThefollowingreportsaboutCHPatWWTFsareavailablefordownload:
Brown&Caldwell,EvaluationofCombinedHeatandPowerTechnologiesforWastewater
TreatmentFacilities,December2010.Availableat:
http://water.epa.gov/scitech/wastetech/publications.cfm.
AssociationofStateEnergyResearch&TechnologyTransferInstitutions,StrategicCHP
DeploymentAssistanceforWastewaterTreatmentFacilities,October2009.Availableat:
http://www.asertti.org/wastewater/index.html.
CaliforniaEnergyCommission,CombinedHeatandPowerPotentialatCalifornias
WastewaterTreatmentPlants,September2009.Availableat:
http://www.energy.ca.gov/2009publications/CEC-200-2009-014/CEC-200-2009-014-SF.PDF.
49

Organizations
Thefollowingorganizationsworkcloselywiththewastewatertreatmentindustryandoffera
wealthofknowledgeconcerningwastewatertreatmentandtheuseofanaerobicdigestion.
EPAOfficeofWastewaterManagement(OWM)TheOWMoverseesarangeof
programscontributingtothewell-beingofthenationswatersandwatersheds.
Website:www.epa.gov/owm/
NationalAssociationofCleanWaterAgencies(NACWA)NACWArepresentsthe
interestsofmorethan300publicagenciesandorganizations.NACWAmembersserve
themajorityoftheseweredpopulationintheUnitedStatesandcollectivelytreatand
reclaimmorethan18billiongallonsofwastewaterdaily.
Website:www.nacwa.org/
WaterEnvironmentFederation(WEF)Foundedin1928,theWEFisanot-for-profit
technicalandeducationalorganizationwithmembersfromvarieddisciplineswhowork
towardtheorganizationsvisionofpreservingandenhancingtheglobalwater
environment.
Website:www.wef.org/Home
WaterEnvironmentResearchFoundation(WERF)WERFhelpsimprovethewater
environmentandprotecthumanhealthbyprovidingsound,reliablescienceand
innovative,effective,cost-savingtechnologiesforimprovedmanagementofwater
resources.
Website:www.werf.org
AirandWasteManagementAssociation(A&WMA)A&WMAisanot-for-profit,
non-partisanprofessionalorganizationthatprovidestraining,information,and
networkingopportunitiestothousandsofenvironmentalprofessionalsin65countries.
Website:www.awma.org/
Other
DatabaseofStateIncentivesforRenewablesandEfficiency(DSIRE)DSIREisa
comprehensivesourceofinformationonfederal,state,local,andutilityincentivesand
policiesthatpromoterenewableenergyandenergyefficiency.
Website:http://www.dsireusa.org/
UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency
OfficeofAirandRadiation(6202J)
430R11018
October2011
www.epa.gov/chp
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