DC Ups System

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Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
Saline Water Conversion Corporation
General Directorate of Training Programs
Training Center JUBAIL
Version 1.1
Prepared by: ABDUL-RAZIK OTHMAN BAKRY
Date: FEBRUARY, 2007

M
MA A I I N N T T E E N N A A N N C C E E D
DE E P P A A R R T T M ME E N N T T

E E L L E E C C T T R R I I C C A A L L E E N N G G I I N N E E E E R R S S C C O O M MM MO O N N
C C O O U U R R S S E E

Contents i
Contents

Lesson 1: INTRODUCTION1
UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER
SUPPLIES (UPS).1
DC ESSENTIAL SUPPLIES1
AC ESSENTIAL SUPPLIES.2
CAPACITORS IN ELECTRONIC
CIRCUITS...2
CAPACITOR TYPES, SYMBOLS
AND RATINGS...4
NON-POLARISED CAPACITORS..4
POLARISED CAPACITOR...4
SYMBOLS AND RATINGS..5
CAPACITOR CHARGE AND
DISCHARGE..5
PRACTICAL EXERCISE - TESTING
OF CAPACITORS...7
PRECAUTIONS....7
PROCEDURE8
RESULTS TABLE.8
CONCLUSIONS ...8
EXERCISE MARKING SCALE9

Lesson 2: COMMON COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION1
PN J UNCTION DIODE..1
REVERSE BIAS..1
FORWARD BIAS.2
RATINGS, SYMBOLS AND PACKAGES....2
PRACTICAL EXERCISE - TESTING DIODES...3
PRECAUTIONS...3
PROCEDURE..3
RESULTS TABLE...4
CONCLUSIONS..4
EXERCISE MARKING SCALE.....5
ZENERS AND LEDS......5
ZENER DIODE.5
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)..6
SYMBOLS AND PACKAGES...7
BIPOLAR J UNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJ T)...7
BJ T SYMBOLS AND PACKAGING.8
TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS.9
COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION..10
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES...11

Lesson 3: UNCONTROLLED RECTIFIERS.1
DC ESSENTIAL SUPPLIES.....1
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER..2
FULL WAVE RECTIFIERS....3
Contents ii
CENTRE-TAP TRANSFORMER RECTIFIER......3
BRIDGE RECTIFIER.....4
THREE PHASE BRIDGE RECTIFIER5
RECTIFIER CIRCUIT5
PRV AND RIPPLE.7
PRACTICAL EXERCISE - RECTIFIER
WAVEFORMS..7
OBJ ECTIVES7
GENERAL PRECAUTIONS7
SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS WHEN USING
ANOSCILLOSCOPE...8
EQUIPMENT8
PROCEDURE..8
Half Wave Rectifier.8
Bridge Rectifier8
RESULTS TABLE..9
CONCLUSIONS.9
EXERCISE MARKING SCALE..10

Lesson 4: DC FILTERS1
SHUNT CAPACITOR FILTER..1
FILTER ACTION.1
WAVEFORM AND RIPPLE..2
PRV RATINGS...3
FILTERED HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER.4
FILTERED FULL-WAVE RECTIFIERS...4
PRACTICAL DEMONSTRATION.4
OTHER TYPES OF FILTER..4
SERIES INDUCTOR FILTER4
PI FILTER 5

Lesson 5: VOLTAGE REGULATORS..1
ZENERSERIES EGULATOR...1
ZENER FOLLOWER.1
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK..2
CURRENT LIMITING....2
ZENER SHUNT REGULATOR....4
SWITCHING REGULATOR..5
BASIC OPERATION..5
PULSE GENERATOR...6
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER7
BASIC 741C OP-AMP...7
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK...9
LM340 VOLTAGE REGULATOR...12

Lesson 6: SILICON CONTROLLED RECTIFIERS.1
SCR BASIC THEORY1
INTRODUCTION.1
CONSTRUCTION AND CIRCUIT SYMBOL...1
SCR OPERATION...2
Contents iii
COMPARISON WITH DIODE3
RATINGS AND PACKAGES..3
PRACTICAL EXERCISE - TESTING
AN SCR WITH A MULTIMETER..4
PRECAUTIONS4
PROCEDUR..4
RESULTS TABLE.4
CONCLUSIONS4
EXERCISE MARKING SCALE...5
PRACTICAL EXERCISE - DC
TESTS OF AN SCR.5
OBJ ECTIVES5
PRECAUTIONS5
EQUIPMENT.5
PROCEDUR .5
RESULTS TABLE.6
CONCLUSIONS7
EXERCISE MARKING SCALE...7

Lesson 7: INVERTERS..1
AC ESSENTIAL SUPPLIES1
INVERSION...2
INVERTER SYMBOL...2
CENTRE-TAP TRANSFORMER
INVERTER (HALF BRIDGE)..2
FULL BRIDGE INVERTER.4
INVERTING OPERATION..4
BLOCKING THE INVERTING SCRS5
FREEWHEELING AN INDUCTIVE LOAD6
VOLTAGE REGULATION..6
THREE-PHASE INVERTERS...7
THREE-PHASE FOUR-WIRE INVERTER..7
THREE-PHASE BRIDGE INVERTER..8

Lesson 7: INVERTER AUXILIARIES.1
HARMONIC FILTERS1
SERIES RESONANT FILTER..1
SHUNT RESONANT FILTER...3
TRANSFORMERS AND STATIC SWITCH5
TRANSFORMERS.5
STATIC SWITCH...6
SCR TRIGGERING8

Uninterrupted Power Supply Introduction
Lesson 1 Page 1
LESSON
1
LECTURE
INTRODUCTION

Objectives
At the end of this Lesson, the Trainee will be able to explain what
DC and AC UPS systems are and how they work; state that
capacitors are dangerous and correctly discharge them; identify
polarized capacitors; calculate RC Time Constants; test
capacitors using MultiMates.
1 UNINTERRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLIES (UPS)

1.1 DC ESSENTIAL SUPPLIES

There are many important controls which must have a reliable supply
of electricity. Some typical examples are the tripping & closing coils of
circuit breakers and the protection relays which operate these in
emergencies. These are essential loads.
Such equipment where any loss of power is not acceptable is supplied
with DC current. Normally a Rectifier supplies the essential DC loads
and also charges up a Battery. This is called a DC Essential Supply.
If the DC supply from the rectifier fails, the battery supplies the load
without any interruption of current. The battery can only provide DC
power for a few hours, determined by its Ampere-Hour Capacity and
the current drawn by the DC load. Meanwhile arrangements can be
made to restore DC power from the charger.

Fig. 1-1. Dual Redundant DC Power Supply
~
~
--
--
AC MAINS
AC MAINS
RECTIFIER/CHARGE
RECTIFIER/CHARGE
BATTERY
BATTERY

-
+
-
DC BUSBAR
DC
LOAD
LOAD
+
+
-
-
BUS
Lesson 1 Page 2
Fig. 1-1 shows a typical DC supply system. It is called Dual
Redundant because either of the two power lines can be lost without
affecting the loads. Each battery bank has the capacity to supply all
DC loads. Besides providing secure DC supplies during emergencies,
this scheme also allows one DC supply line to be taken out for
maintenance without shutting the DC system down.
There are two blocking diodes to prevent a healthy DC supply back
feeding into a faulty one. The bus coupler (usually a circuit breaker) is
normally closed, but can be opened for maintenance of either busbars.
Further flexibility can be obtained by providing facilities for switching
each load to either busbars.

1.2 AC ESSENTIAL SUPPLIES

There are certain important electrical loads which require AC current
instead of DC. These include control computers, logic controllers and
essential pump motors.
To supply these AC essential loads during failure of AC mains power,
we need rectifiers and batteries, just as with DC Essential Loads. But
we also need an Inverter to convert the DC from the rectifier/battery to
AC for the loads:

~
~
---
---
AC MAINS 1
AC MAINS 2
RECTIFIER 1
RECTIFIER 2
BATTERY 1
BATTERY 2
ESSENTIAL
+
+
-
-
---
~
---
~
INVERTER 1
INVERTER 2
L N
~ ~
LOADS
STATIC SWITCH 1
~ ~
STATIC SWITCH 2
BUSBAR
~ ~
STATIC SWITCH 3
AC MAINS 3

Fig. 1-2. UPS with Dual Redundancy and AC Bypass

The example above is a typical UPS system with dual redundancy. If
one charger, one battery or one inverter fails, the other UPS circuit can
supply all the essential AC loads. For maintenance or emergencies an
AC Bypass is also provided. The two Inverters convert DC back to AC
and the Static Switches isolate faulty supplies from the AC busbars.

2 CAPACITORS IN ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

The capacitor is a very important part of most electronic circuits -
particularly rectifiers, inverters and pulse generators. This is because
of its ability to cause a controlled time delay when charging or
Lesson 1 Page 3
discharging through a series resistance. So the capacitor can switch
circuits on and off.
Capacitors are dangerous because they store electrical charge and
can electrocute anyone who touches their terminals. It is therefore
very important to discharge a capacitor before working on it. This is
done by shorting the two terminals together with a jumper lead. Large
capacitors should be discharged through a resistor, to limit the
discharge current. This avoids large arcs being produced.
Because capacitors are so important in electronics, it is useful to
remember their most important features:
1. A capacitor is simply two metal plates separated by a Dielectric
(insulating material). When a DC voltage is applied to the plates
current cannot flow through the dielectric, but there is a charge build-up
on the plates.
2. The ability of a capacitor to store charge is its Capacitance. This is
measured in Farads. The relationship between charge (Q),
capacitance (C) and voltage (V) is: Q = C x V.
3. Since it stores charge a capacitor opposes voltage changes. When
the supply voltage to a DC circuit falls to zero volts, the capacitor will
maintain voltage in the circuit. This is why even small capacitors are
very dangerous and must be discharged before they are touched.
However, this ability of the capacitor to maintain voltage is very useful
in many electronic circuits.
4. When the supply voltage is AC the capacitor charges in one
direction, then discharges and charges in the opposite direction as the
supply voltage alternates. So current flows all the time.
The Reactance of the capacitor is high for low frequencies and low for
high frequencies:

XC = 1_ = -j__
jC 2fC

The -j signifies that XC is the opposite of Inductive Reactance. This
ability of capacitance to cancel out inductance is used in Series and
Parallel Resonant circuits (oscillators and filters).
5. When capacitors are connected in parallel the total capacitance,
CT, is:

CT = C1 + C2 + C3 + ............

But when capacitors are connected in series, CT is given by:

1_ = 1_ + 1_ + 1_ + ............
CT C1 C2 C3

6. Capacitor Identification
Typical capacitor packages are shown in Fig. 1-3:
Lesson 1 Page 4

Fig. 1-3 - CAPACITOR PACKAGES

Most capacitors have leads for solder connections, though high-
capacity units have bolt-and-thread connections.
7. The Farad (F) is a very large unit. Most electronic circuits use very
small capacitors of typical sizes:
- Micro-Farads (F), equal to 10-6 F
- Nano-Farads (nF), equal to 10-9 F
- Pico-Farads (pF), equal to 10-12 F

3 CAPACITOR TYPES, SYMBOLS AND RATINGS

There are two different designs of capacitor in common use, Polarized
(Electrolytic) and Non-Polarized (Electrostatic). It is very important to
understand the differences between them.

3.1 NON-POLARISED CAPACITORS

This is of standard, two-plate, construction. The dielectric can be
ceramic, mica, paper or plastic compounds. It does not matter which
plate is positive, so it is suitable for AC circuits.

3.2 POLARISED CAPACITOR

This capacitor contains an electrolyte (like a battery) rather than a
dielectric. The plates are usually of aluminum or tantalum. Because it
contains an electrolyte, the capacitor is polarized - it acts as a good
insulator (capacitor) in one direction, but as a good conductor (short
circuit) in the other.
If the supply voltage positive is applied to the capacitor positive
terminal we have a good capacitor. But if the supply voltage positive
is applied to the capacitor negative terminal, and the voltage is large
enough, the dielectric breaks down to a short circuit and the capacitor
explodes. (A very small reverse voltage, such as that from an
ohmmeter, will not cause any damage.)
Despite this danger, polarized capacitors can store much more charge
than similar sized non-polarized capacitors (though they lose charge
through leakage much more quickly). They are therefore widely used
in DC circuits, especially rectifier filters.
A polarized capacitor can be recognized by its polarity marking (non-
polarized capacitors do not have any polarity markings). Some typical
markings are shown in Fig. 1-4:

Lesson 1 Page 5

_
IDENTIFY CATHODE
(NEGATIVE TERMINAL)
_
+ +
IDENTIFY ANODE
(POSITIVE TERMINAL)

Fig. 1-4. Polarity Markings

3.3 SYMBOLS AND RATINGS

Typical circuit symbols are shown in Fig. 1-5:

OR ELECTROSTATIC (NON-POLARISED)
OR
+
ELECTROLYTIC (POLARISED)
+
OR VARIABLE NON-POLARISED

Fig. 1-5. Circuit Symbols

The two important ratings for a capacitor are:

1. Nominal Capacitance, given in pF, nF or F.

2. Nominal Voltage, which is DC unless stated otherwise. The AC rms
voltage rating of a non-polarized capacitor is approximately 70% of the
DC rating (to limit the peak value of the waveform).
For most capacitors, these two ratings are engraved on the case. On
some small capacitors a colour coding system is used, rather like that
for carbon resistors. Many small capacitors only have a reference
code. To find the ratings, these capacitors must be tested or the
manufacturers reference book consulted.

4 CAPACITOR CHARGE AND DISCHARGE

When a DC voltage is applied to a capacitor, there is a surge of current
as the capacitor charges up. This current rapidly reduces to zero as
voltage builds up across the capacitor plates. This process is called
charging. The supply voltage can now be switched off and the
capacitor retains its voltage!
Lesson 1 Page 6
If the capacitor terminals are now shorted out, the capacitor discharges
and once again a surge of current flows, which rapidly reduces to zero
as the voltage across the plates is lost.
The larger the capacitor (or resistor) the larger the charge/discharge
currents and the longer the time taken to charge and discharge.
We can prolong the charge and discharge times and reduce the surge
currents by adding series resistance to the circuit, as shown in Fig. 1-6:

R
C
(a) CAPACITOR CHARGING
C
R
(b) CAPACITOR DISCHARGING

Fig. 1-6. RC Time-delay circuit

A measure of the time delay for charge and discharge is the RC Time
Constant (T).This is the time taken for the voltage to change by 63.2 %.
Mathematically:

T = R x C

Example
A 10 F capacitor is in series with a 100 k resistor. A DC supply of
20 V is applied. Calculate:
(a) The RC Time Constant (T).
(b) The voltage across C when this time has elapsed.
Answer:
(a) T = RC = 100 x 103 x 10 x 10-6 = 1
second
(b) V = 0.632 x E = 0.632 x 20 = 12.64 V
Fig. 1-7 on the next page shows typical Voltage/Time and Current Time
graphs for charging a capacitor - first with a small series resistor and
next with a large resistor. These graphs will invert for capacitor
discharge, because the voltage will reduce and the current will be
negative (reverse flow).

Lesson 1 Page 7

Emax
63.2% Small R (small RC Time Constant)
Large R (large RC Time Constant)
time T2 T1
Imax
26.8%
T1 T2
Small R (small RC Time Constant)
Large R (large RC Time Constant)
time

Fig. 1-7. Effect of varying the Series Resistor

The RC Time Constant is used when testing a capacitor with an
analogue MultiMate on its ohm function. The circuit is the same as Fig.
1-6, because the series resistance is built into the meter. So we can
flick-test the capacitor.
The meter pointer should flick towards zero ohms (maximum current)
then slowly move back towards infinite ohms (zero current). If this
does not happen, either the meter range is too low to measure the
capacitor, or the capacitor is damaged.
The following exercise is designed to give the trainee practice in testing
capacitors and extracting information on ratings and construction.

5 PRACTICAL EXERCISE - TESTING OF CAPACITORS

5.1 PRECAUTIONS

1. Always discharge a capacitor before touching it. A large, charged
capacitor CAN ELECTROCUTE YOU!
2. When testing, do not press the bare ends of the test probes onto
the component with your fingers. The resistance of your body will be in
parallel with the component. This will give inaccurate readings.
3. When using any MultiMate as an ohm-meter, always check that the
batteries are fully charged. A low-charged battery will not give
accurate readings, because it cannot supply enough power for the test
circuit.

Lesson 1 Page 8
4. When using an analogue meter as an ohm-meter, always set the
zero reading, by shorting the meter leads together, before testing. Do
this for each range multiplier you use before testing the component.

5.2 PROCEDURE

There are 3 capacitors, labeled 1 to 3. For each one:
1. Determine the nominal capacitance, nominal voltage and whether
the capacitor is polarized or not, by reading the information on the
case.
2. Measure the capacitance using the digital MultiMate as a
Capacitance Meter. Record the values in the Results Table, with the
range setting used.
3. Use the analogue meter as an ohm-meter to perform a Flick Test.
Record whether the test was successful or not and which Scale
Multiplier was used.
4. Repeat step 3 using the digital MultiMate. Record whether the test
was successful or not and which range setting was used.

5.3 RESULTS TABLE

CAP
A-
CIT
OR
PACKAGE
INFORMATION
DIGITAL
METER
AS
CAPACITAN
CE
METER
ANALOGUE
METER
FLICK TEST
DIGITAL
METER
FLICK
TEST

CAP
A-
CIT
OR
NO. NOMI
NAL
CAPAC
-
ITANC
E
NOMIN
AL
VOLTA
GE
POLA
-
RISE
D
(Y/N)
READI
NG
SCAL
E
RANG
E
TES
T
OK?
(Y/N)
MULTI
-PLIER
TEST
OK?
(Y/N)
SCA
LE
RAN
GE
OK?
(Y/N)

1 0.1 F 100
VDC
NO 0.1 F 2 F Y R x 10K Y 2 M Y

2 0.22 F 50 VDC NO 0.2 F 2 F Y R x 10K Y 2 M Y

3 10 F 35 VDC YES 10 F 20 F Y R x 10K Y 2 M Y

5.4 CONCLUSIONS

1. Which of the three tests is the easiest to perform accurately and
gives the most information? Why?
Answer: DIGITAL METER AS CAPACITANCE METER, WHICH NOT
ONLY SHOWS CAPACITOR IS OK, BUT MEASURES
CAPACITANCE TOO.

2. Which MultiMate is best for performing Flick Tests? Why?
Lesson 1 Page 9
Answer:ANALOGUE METER AS OHMMETER, AS IT IS EASY TO
SEE THE CHARGE & DISCHARGE OF THE CAPACITOR.

5.5 EXERCISE MARKING SCALE

1. Observations
Nominal Capacitance - 3 x 2 points = 6 points
Nominal Voltage - 3 x 2 points = 6 points
Polarized (Y/N) - 3 x 4 points = 12 points
Sub-Total = 24 points

2. Practical Tests
Capacitance Reading - 3 x 4 points = 12 points
Capacitance Meter Range - 3 x 2 points = 6 points
Analogue Meter Flick Test - 3 x 3 points = 9 points
Analogue Scale Multiplier - 3 x 3 points = 9 points
Digital Meter Flick Test - 3 x 3 points = 9 points
Digital Scale Range - 3 x 3 points = 9 points

3. Conclusions
Capacitor OK? - 3 x 2 points = 6 points
Conclusion 1 - = 8 points

OVERALL TOTAL = 100 Points

Uninterrupted Power Supply Semiconductor Devices
Lesson 2 Page 1
LESSON
2
LECTURE
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES

Objectives
At the end of this Lesson, the Trainee will be able to explain the
construction and operation, identify circuit symbols and
packages, and test the most common semiconductor devices
used in electronic circuits.

1 PN JUNCTION DIODE

The PN J unction Diode only conducts electricity one way, from Anode
to Cathode. If current tries to flow the wrong way (from Cathode to
Anode) the diode blocks it. So the diode acts just like a check valve in
a water system.
The diode is called a PN J unction Diode because it is made of one
piece of P-Type material (containing positive Holes) and one piece of
N-Type material (containing negative Free Electrons) with a J unction
between them. Around the J unction is a Barrier (Depletion) Region
where there are no holes or electrons.

1.1 REVERSE BIAS

P - TYPE N - TYPE
BARRIER VOLTAGE
V
B
HOLES
ELECTRONS
BARRIER REGION
(DEPLETION REGION)
E
(+)
(-)
E = V
B

Fig. 2-1. Reverse Bias (no conduction)

As shown in Fig. 2-1, with the battery positive connected to the N -
Type material the Depletion Region grows bigger so that the Barrier
Voltage, VB, always equals the applied EMF, E. So no current flows.
This is called Reverse Bias.
Lesson 2 Page 2

If the applied EMF is too great, the diode is forced to break down and
will become a permanent short circuit. The diode is then useless and
must be replaced.

1.2 FORWARD BIAS

P - TYPE N - TYPE
BARRIER VOLTAGE
V
B
BARRIER REGION
E
(+)
(-)
HOLES
ELECTRONS
I
R
E = V
B
+ I x R

Fig. 2-2. Forward Bias (conduction)

Fig. 2-2 shows the battery positive is connected to the P - Type
material. The battery forces the electrons and holes to combine at the
J unction. So current can flow as long as E is greater than VB. This is
called Forward Bias. The difference between E and VB is the voltage
drop across the load resistor R.
If the resistance is too small the diode will overheat (due to excessive
current) and blow (become open circuit). The diode is then useless
and must be replaced.

1.3 RATINGS, SYMBOLS AND PACKAGES

The two most important ratings for diodes are:
1. Peak Reverse Voltage (PRV) - the maximum Reverse Bias Voltage
the diode can withstand without breakdown.
2. Maximum Forward Current (IF) - the maximum Forward Bias
Current the diode can carry before overheating and going open circuit.
For Forward Bias, VB is a voltage drop across the diode and is called
VF, the Forward Drop. This depends on the material the diode is made
from:
- For a Germanium diode: VB is approximately 0.2 to 0.4
V.
- For a Silicon diode: VB is approximately 0.6 to 0.8
V.
- For a Gallium Arsenide diode: VB is approximately 1.5 to 2.0
V.
Lesson 2 Page 3

Most diodes are made from Silicon, because it is does not have a large
leakage current, like Germanium, and does not have a high Forward
Drop, like Gallium Arsenide.
The circuit symbol for a diode is shown in Fig. 2.3 on the next page.

ANODE
(P-TYPE)
CATHODE
(N-TYPE)

Fig. 2.3. Diode Circuit Symbol

Some typical diode packages are shown in Fig. 2.4. Note that for low-
power diodes there is a Band at one end of the diode. This identifies
the Cathode. Large- power diodes have heavy threaded connections
which can dissipate heat into heat sinks and are mechanically strong.

1N4004
BAND
AXIAL LEADS
FOR SOL DER CONNECTION
PIGTAIL
THREADED
CONNECTION
BOLT CONNECTION

Fig. 2.4. Diode Packages

2 PRACTICAL EXERCISE - TESTING DIODES

2.1 PRECAUTIONS

1. When using an analogue meter as an ohm-meter to test diodes,
remember that the red lead goes to the common (-) terminal and the
black lead to the normal (+) terminal (opposite to when using the meter
as a DC voltmeter or ammeter).
2. When using a digital meter as an ohm-meter to test diodes,
Precaution 1 above does not apply.
3. When using a digital meter as a diode tester, remember that the
range used is in mV, so your reading has the units of mV.

2.2 PROCEDURE

There are 5 diodes, labeled 1 to 5. For each diode:
1. Using the analogue meter as an ohm-meter, test the diode in
forward bias then reverse bias. Record the resistance values in the
Results Table. Also show the scale multiplier used.
Lesson 2 Page 4
2. Using the digital meter as an ohm-meter, test the diode in forward
bias then reverse bias. Record the resistance values in the Results
Table. Also show the range used.
3. Test the diode with the digital meter as a diode tester. Record the
voltages measured in the Results Table.

2.3 RESULTS TABLE

DIOD
E

ANALOGUE
OHMMETER

DIGITAL
OHMMETER

DIGITAL
DIODE TESTER
NO.
+ -
+ -
SCALE
MULTI-
PLIER
+ -
+ -
SCALE
RANGE
+ -
mV
+ -
mV

1 12 x 1 20 M 600 mV

2 10 x 1 20 M 630 mV

3 15 x 1 20 M 700 mV

4 x 10 K 20 M

5 0.1 0.1 x 1 0.1 0.1 200 0 0

2.4 2.4 CONCLUSIONS

1. From your test results, complete the Table below by placing a tick
() in the correct boxes:

DIODE

DIODE CONDITION

CATHODE
IDENTIFICATION

DIODE MATERIAL
NO. HEAL
THY
OPEN
CIRCUI
T

SHORT
CIRCUI
T
CORREC
T

WRON
G

? SILICON GERM-
ANIUM
?

1

2

3

4

5

Lesson 2 Page 5
2. Which of the three test methods is the best for diode testing?
Answer: DIGITAL MULTIMETER AS A DIODE TESTER.
3. Why is this method the best?
Answer: EASY AND SIMPLE AND TELLS YOU IF DIODE IS
SILICON
OR GERMANIUM, IF IT IS HEALTHY AND IF THE POLARITY
MARKINGS ARE CORRECT.
4. Which is the worst method of the three?
Answer: DIGITAL MULTIMETER AS AN OHM-METER.
5. Why is this method the worst?
Answer: READS HIGH RESISTANCE IN BOTH DIRECTIONS.


1. Practical Tests:
Analogue Forward Test - 5 x 2 points = 10 points
Analogue Reverse Test - 5 x 2 points = 10 points
Scale Multiplier - 5 x 1 point = 5 points
Digital Forward Test - 5 x 2 points = 10 points
Digital Reverse Test - 5 x 2 points = 10 points
Scale Range - 5 x 1 point = 5 points
Diode Tester Frwrd Test - 5 x 2 points = 10 points
Diode Tester Rvrse Test - 5 x 1 point = 5 points
2. Conclusions:
Conclusion 1, 15 crosses - 15 x 1 point = 15 points


3 ZENERS AND LEDS

3.1 ZENER DIODE

The Zener Diode is a special kind of PN junction diode. It is more
heavily doped than an ordinary diode and operates in reverse bias
beyond the Breakdown Voltage without being damaged. Since the
Zener Diode does not break down this breakdown voltage is called the
Zener Voltage (VZ).
Fig. 2-5 on the next page is the Characteristic Curve for a Zener Diode.
An ordinary PN junction diode has exactly the same characteristic, but
at the reverse bias kneepoint it breaks down (fails).

Lesson 2 Page 6

+E (volts) -E (volts)
+I (mA)
-I (mA)
FORWARD DROP
ZENER VOLTAGE
FORWARD BIAS
REVERSE BIAS

Fig. 2-5. Zener Diode Characteristic Curve

Note that at the Zener Voltage point the voltage across the diode is
almost constant, even though the current can increase a lot. So the
Zener Diode is a good Voltage Regulator - it keeps the voltage in a
circuit almost constant.
Fig. 2-6 is a simple voltage regulator circuit. If the supply voltage (E) is
less than the zener voltage the zener diode does not conduct and the
circuit will not regulate voltage.

+
-
R
R
Z E
I I
V
Z
Z L
L
I S
V
S
E is a variable DC voltage
I = I
Z
+ I
L
E = V
S
+ V
Z
V
Z
is CONSTANT

Fig. 2-6. Zener Diode as a voltage regulator

Once E is slightly larger than the Zener Voltage, the output voltage will
be constant and the excess voltage from the supply is dropped across
the series resistor (RS). E must provide the load current (IL) and the
reverse bias current through the zener diode (IZ) which can be high.
As they are nearly always used in reverse bias as voltage regulators,
zener diodes are classed and selected by their Zener Voltage (VZ) and
their Power Rating (watts), because they pass quite large currents in
reverse bias.

3.2 LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

All PN junctions release light when they are conducting. This light is
produced when electrons and holes combine at the junction. But with
Lesson 2 Page 7
silicon and germanium diodes the junction and package material are
opaque, so no light is visible.
The LED is a special diode. It produces visible light when it conducts.
It is usually made of Gallium Arsenide and its forward drop is roughly
1.5 to 2.0 volts.
The junction is encased in translucent plastic so that the emitted light
can be seen. The plastic case is coloured, so that the light seen has
the colour of the case. LEDs are used as indicators (warning lights and
on/off lights) in electronic circuits.

3.3 SYMBOLS AND PACKAGES

ZENER DIODE
(a) CIRCUIT SYMBOLS
OR
LED
(b) PACKAGES
AXIAL LEAD BAND (CATHODE)
TRANSLUCENT
CASING
OR
CATHODE
ANODE

Fig. 2-7. Symbols and packages

Fig 2-7 shows ttypical circuit symbols and packages for Zener Diodes
and LEDs.

4 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTOR (BJT)

The transistor is similar to a PN J unction Diode, but has two junctions
instead of one. It can be either NPN type, or PNP type. The 3
terminals are the Collector, Base (much narrower and less heavily
doped) and Emitter. Refer to Fig. 2-8 on the next page.
Whether the transistor is NPN or PNP, there must be FORWARD BIAS
on the BASE-EMITTER J unction before current can flow between the
Collector and Emitter. The BJ T transistor is therefore an excellent
solid-state DC Switch.

For either type of transistor: IE = IB + IC

Lesson 2 Page 8
Typically, IC is 50 to 100 times larger than IB. So a small Base current
can control a large Collector current. So the BJ T transistor is an
Amplifier.

N P N
R
C
R
B
E I
c
I
B
I
E
NPN TRANSISTOR
N P N
R
C
E
EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR
N P P
R
C
E
EMITTER BASE COLLECTOR
PNP TRANSISTOR
NO BIAS on B-E
Juncti on, so NO
CURRENT i n C-E
ci rcui t .
R
C
R
B
E I
c
I
B
I
E
WITH FORWARD
BIAS on t he B-E
Juncti on, current
can NOW FLOW
i n t he C-E ci rcui t.
N P P

Fig. 2-8. BJT Transistor Construction and Operation

5 BJT SYMBOLS AND PACKAGING

The circuit symbols for NPN and PNP transistors are shown in Fig. 2-9.
The arrow in the Emitter tells you which way the Base-Emitter P-N
J unction is polarized, just like the triangle in the circuit symbol of a
diode.

B
C
E
NPN TRANSISTOR
B
C
E
PNP TRANSISTOR

Fig. 2-9, Transistor Circuit Symbols

There are dozens of different packages and pin formations for
transistors. Some of the most common are shown in Fig. 2-10 on the
next page. Some packages (e.g. TO-5) are aluminum cans. Others
(e.g. TO-92) are plastic encapsulated. TO-3 is a large power transistor
with only two leads - the Base and Emitter. The metal casing is the
Collector, which bolts to a heat sink.
The Base can always be easily identified by testing with a MultiMate. If
any doubt exists regarding which leads are the Collector and Emitter
the manufacturers manual or other reference book should be
consulted. First you must read the code number printed on the case.
Lesson 2 Page 9
This number often has a prefix 2N (e.g. 2N2220). By looking up this
number in the manual, you can determine if the transistor is Silicon or
Germanium, NPN or PNP and what the ratings and lead arrangements
are.
If there is no information available, it may be necessary to make a
simple test circuit. An NPN transistor will not conduct properly if its
Emitter is positive. Similarly, a PNP transistor will not conduct if its
Emitter is negative. There are modular transistor testers available
which can perform these tests quickly.
The Digital MultiMate set on its diode test function can also identify the
leads of a BJ T, tell you if it made of silicon or germanium, and tell you if
the transistor is damaged.

Fig. 2-10. Typical Transistor Packages

6 TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS

Fig. 2-11 shows a typical application of the transistor as a DC Switch:

Lesson 2 Page 10

5 VDC
S
R
C
150
1500
R
B
LED
NPN

Fig. 2-11. Transistor Switch

If switch S is open, the Base-Emitter junction of the NPN transistor is
not forward biased. So the transistor is Cutoff and the LED will not
light. The transistor is an open switch.
When S closes, the B-E junction is now forward biased, so the
transistor switches on. In fact it Saturates, because of the values of RB
and RC. So the Collector current is large and the volt drop VCE is very
small. The transistor is now a closed switch.
The instructor will now demonstrate the operation of this circuit using
the Lab-Volt electronic training equipment.
The other main use of BJ T transistors is as AC signal amplifiers.
Basically, an AC signal is superimposed on the transistors DC Biasing
arrangement. The AC signals current (or voltage or both) is then
amplified by the transistor. There are three configurations which can
be used:
1. Common Base
2. Common Emitter
3. Common Collector
Common Emitter and Common Collector are commonly used in power
electronics. We will only study these two.

6.1 COMMON EMITTER CONFIGURATION

Refer to Fig. 2-12 on the next page. The Emitter (negative rail) is
common to both input and output. The input signal is supplied to the
Base and the output signal is taken from the Collector. The two
capacitors block the DC Biasing currents from flowing outside the
transistor circuit.
Main features of the Common Emitter circuit are:
1. Moderate Input Resistance (0.5 - 3 k) and Moderate Output
Resistance (10 - 50 k).

2. Current Gain = Change of IC = , which is large.
Change of IB

3. As the amplified output current flows through RC, which is larger
than the input resistance there is also a good Voltage Gain.
Lesson 2 Page 11

4. Vout is 180 degrees out of phase with Vin.

NPN
V
in
~
C
i n
R
C
V
CC
C
out
V
out
~
i
in
out
i
I
B
I
E
R
B
I
C
~

Fig. 2-12. Common Emitter Circuit

The DC biasing shown (via RB) is fixed bias. Other circuits use voltage
divider bias and an emitter resistor for stability.
The Common Emitter circuit is an excellent AC Power Amplifier (its
main use) because it amplifies both current and voltage. It is also used
as a DC switch in logic circuits, because a small base current can
switch a large collector current.

6.2 COMMON COLLECTOR CONFIGURATION

NPN
V
in
~
C
i n
R
V
CC
C
out V
out
i
in
out
i
I
B
I
E
R
B
I
C
E
~

Fig. 2-13. Common Collector Circuit

Refer to Fig. 2-13. Although this circuit seems very like the Common
Emitter, in fact it is the Collector which is common to both input and
output. The input signal is supplied to the Base and the output signal is
taken from the Emitter.
Main features of the Common Collector circuit are:

1. High Input Resistance (50 k - 1 M) and Low Output Resistance
(50 - 100 ).

2. Current Gain = Change of IE = , which is large.
Change of IB
Lesson 2 Page 12

3. Due to low output resistance and high input resistance, the current
gain does not produce any voltage amplification, so the Voltage Gain =
1.0.
4. Vout is in-phase with Vin. (There is no phase shift).
The Common Collector circuit is not a good amplifier, but is useful for
Impedance Matching between a high impedance signal source (such
as a Common Emitter Amplifier) and a low impedance load. It is widely
used in DC voltage regulators because it stops the output voltage from
the Common Emitter amplifier from reducing as the load current
increases.
The output voltage from a Common Collector circuit almost exactly
copies (follows) the input signal to the Base very closely. This is why it
is often called an Emitter Follower.
In both of the transistor circuit configurations above an NPN transistor
was used. It is just as easy to construct the circuits using a PNP
transistor. All that needs to be done is to reverse the polarities of the
DC Bias supplies.
In this lesson it has only been possible to provide an overview of the
basic semiconductor devices. There are other important devices,
some of which are discussed later in this Module. Other devices are
not covered at all, as time does not allow it.
Uninterrupted Power Supply Uncontrolled Rectifiers
Lesson 3 Page 1
LESSON
3
LECTURE
UNCONTROLLED RECTIFIERS

Objectives
At the end of this Lesson, the Trainee will be able to explain what
a DC essential supply system is and how it works; draw the
circuits and explain the operation of all common uncontrolled
rectifiers; examine rectifier input and output waveforms with an
oscilloscope.

1 DC ESSENTIAL SUPPLIES

It should be well known that there are many important instruments,
controls and protection devices in any plant which must have a
reliable, secure supply of electricity. Some typical examples are the
tripping and closing coils of circuit breakers and the protection relays
which operate these in emergency situations. These are essential
loads.
Such equipment, where a loss of power is not acceptable, is supplied
with DC current from batteries and chargers (rectifiers). Normally the
chargers supply the essential equipment (the DC load) and also
charge up the batteries. This arrangement is called an essential
supply.
If the DC output power from the chargers is lost (due to AC mains
failure or a fault in the charger) the batteries supply the load without
any interruption of DC supply. The batteries can only provide DC
power for a limited time - usually 1 to 6 hours - determined by their
Ampere-Hour Capacity and the current drawn by the DC load. During
this period arrangements can be made to restore DC power from the
charger.

~
~
---
---
AC MAINS 1
AC MAINS 2
RECTIFIER/CHARGER 1
RECTIFIER/CHARGER 2
BATTERY 1
BATTERY 2
-
+
-
DC BUSBAR 1
DC BUSBAR 2
LOAD 1
LOAD 2
+
+
-
-
BUS COUPLER
~
~
---
---
AC MAINS 1
AC MAINS 2
RECTIFIER/CHARGER 1
RECTIFIER/CHARGER 2
BATTERY 1
BATTERY 2
-
+
-
DC BUSBAR 1
DC BUSBAR 2
LOAD 1
LOAD 2
+
+
-
-
BUS COUPLER

Fig.3- 1. Dual-Redundant DC Power Supply
Lesson 3 Page 2

Fig.3--1 shows a common DC supply system. It is called Dual
Redundant because either of the two power lines can be lost without
affecting the loads. Each battery bank has the capacity to supply all
DC loads. Besides providing secure DC supplies during emergencies,
this scheme also allows one DC supply line to be taken out for
maintenance without shutting the DC system down.
There are two blocking diodes to prevent a healthy DC supply
backfeeding into a faulty one. The bus coupler (usually a circuit
breaker) is normally closed, but can be opened for maintenance of
either busbar.
Further flexibility can be obtained by providing facilities for switching
each load to either busbar.
There are two classes of rectifier which can be used in DC systems:
1. Controlled Rectifiers, which use Silicon Controlled Rectifiers
(SCRs) as the rectifying element.
2. Uncontrolled Rectifiers, which use Diodes as the rectifying element.
In this lesson we will examine the Uncontrolled Rectifier. The trainee
should already be familiar with basic rectifier circuits, but they are
reviewed here in order to lead on to filters and controlled rectifiers.

2 HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

A Half Wave Rectifier is basically one diode supplied by a transformer
(Fig.3--2).

LOAD
TX
D
E
out
I
E
in
(DC)
(AC)
LOAD
TX
D
E
out
I
E
in
(DC)
(AC)

Fig.3- 2. Half Wave Rectifier Circuit

The transformer (TX) steps the AC voltage down to the level needed
by the DC load and isolates the DC circuit from the AC supply.
The diode only conducts for positive half cycles of the mains AC, when
it is forward biased (top of circuit is positive). When the mains AC is
negative the diode is reverse biased, so no current can flow. So this
circuit only allows the positive half cycles to pass to the load.

-E
t
SINUSOIDAL A.C.
t
-E
-E
+E
PULSATING D.C.
HALF WAVE RECTIFIED
E
peak
E
peak
E
ave
-E
t
SINUSOIDAL A.C.
t
-E
-E
+E
PULSATING D.C.
HALF WAVE RECTIFIED
E
peak
E
peak
E
ave

Fig.3-3. Waveforms

Lesson 3 Page 3
Eout and I are half wave pulsating DC as shown in Fig.3--3. The
Average Value of Eout is given by:

Eave = Epeak 0.318 x Epeak

Eave is the effective DC voltage produced by the rectifier - the voltage
measured by a DC voltmeter. The Half Wave Rectifier is therefore not
a very useful circuit, as Eave is less than a third of the peak value.
During negative half cycles of the AC input, when it is not conducting,
the diode can have full peak AC voltage across it. So its PRV (Peak
Reverse Voltage Rating) must be higher than Epeak.
The peak value of the pulsating DC output voltage is smaller than that
of the AC input because of the Forward Drop (VF) across the diode.
Usually this difference (0.7 V for a silicon diode) is negligible, but has a
large effect in low voltage (small power) rectifiers.

3 FULL WAVE RECTIFIERS

3.1 CENTRE-TAP TRANSFORMER RECTIFIER

Refer to Fig.3-4:

TX
E
in
(AC)
D1
D2
E
out
LOAD
TX
E
in
(AC)
D1
D2
E
out
LOAD

Fig.3- 4. Centre-Tap Rectifier Circuit

The transformer is now centre-tapped and there are two diodes.
When the mains AC voltage is positive, D1 is Forward Biased and
conducts current to the Load. D2 is Reverse Biased and does not
conduct.
When the mains AC voltage is negative, D1 is Reverse Biased and
does not conduct. D2 is Forward Biased and conducts current.
Current flows in the same direction through the load all the time. out is
therefore Full Wave pulsating DC as shown in Fig.3- 5
:
Lesson 3 Page 4
t
SINUSOIDAL A.C.
t
PULSATING D.C.
+E
in
-E
in
+E
out
-E
out
FULL WAVE RECTIFIED
AVERAGE VALUE
t
SINUSOIDAL A.C.
t
PULSATING D.C.
+E
in
-E
in
+E
out
-E
out
FULL WAVE RECTIFIED
AVERAGE VALUE

Fig.3- 5. Waveforms

The Average Value of Eout is given by:

Eave = 2 x Epeak_ 0.636 x Epeak

Because Eave is twice as large, this is a better rectifier circuit than the
Half Wave type. However, it has two disadvantages:
1. A centre-tap transformer is needed but only one of the two windings
is used at any time. This is wasteful.
2. The two diodes must have a PRV rating of twice the peak DC
output voltage, because the whole transformer secondary voltage is
applied across them in reverse bias.
So this circuit is not efficient in terms of materials needed.

3.2 BRIDGE RECTIFIER

Refer to Fig.3--6 on the next page.The transformer is not centre-
tapped and there are now four diodes.
When the transformer AC supply is positive, D1 and D2 are Forward
Biased, allowing current through the Load. D3 and D4 are Reverse
Biased and do not conduct. When the transformer AC supply is
negative, D1 and D2 are Reverse Biased and do not conduct. D3 and
D4 are Forward Biased, allowing current through the Load.

TX
E
in
(AC)
D2
LOAD
D1
D3
D4
E
OUT
TX
E
in
(AC)
D2
LOAD
D1
D3
D4
E
OUT

Fig.3- 6. Bridge Rectifier Circuit

Lesson 3 Page 5
Pulsating DC current flows the same way through the load all the time.
So we have a Full Wave Rectifier again.
This is the best rectifier circuit, as it produces the same Average DC
output voltage as the Centre-Tap circuit, but uses a single-winding
transformer. Also, the PRV of the four diodes does not have to be
twice the DC peak output voltage.
The circuit can be re-drawn as in Fig.3-7:

TX
E
in
(AC)
D2
LOAD
D1 D3
D4
E
OUT
TX
E
in
(AC)
D2
LOAD
D1 D3
D4
E
OUT

Fig.3- 7. Bridge Rectifier Circuit

The trainee should be able to verify this is the same circuit as that in
Fig.3- 6. It has simply been re-drawn to clearly show the output
terminals at the right hand side.

4 THREE PHASE BRIDGE RECTIFIER

4.1 RECTIFIER CIRCUIT

Three phase rectifiers can deliver more power than single phase units
and produce a much smoother DC output, because the output voltage
is the average of three full-wave waveforms of pulsating DC.
So for DC systems with large loads, three phase bridge rectifiers are
commonly used. Fig.3-8 shows a typical three phase rectifier:

Fig.3- 8. Three-Phase Bridge Rectifier

Lesson 3 Page 6
The fuses in series with the diodes prevent damage to the circuit if a
diode breaks down (becomes a short circuit) due to excessive reverse
bias voltage. They can also protect the diodes from excess current
caused by overloads or faults.
Three voltages are applied in parallel across the Load by the AC input
transformer - EAB, EBC and ECA. Due to the rectifying action of the
diodes, these three voltages are full wave rectified pulsating DC at the
load. The trainee should confirm that:
1. Positive half cycles of EAB are rectified by diodes D1A and D2B,
while negative half cycles are rectified by diodes D1B and D2A.
2. Positive half cycles of EBC are rectified by diodes D1B and D2C,
while negative half cycles are rectified by diodes D1C and D2B.
3. Positive half cycles of ECA are rectified by diodes D1C and D2A,
while negative half cycles are rectified by diodes D1A and D2C.
Fig.3--9 shows the waveforms of these three pulsating DC voltages:

TIME
E
peak

+ VOLTS
E
AB
E
BC
E
CA

Fig.3- 9. Pulsating DC Waveforms

Fig.3--10 shows the resulting output voltage waveform across the load,
which is always the largest of the three instantaneous voltages:

I
F

E
peak

TIME
E
min

Fig.3- 10. Waveform of Eout

Lesson 3 Page 7
The Minimum Value of Eout is 0.866 x Peak Value. The Average
Value is 0.94 x Peak Value. So the three-phase bridge rectifier
produces a very good DC output voltage with very little ripple.

4.2 PRV AND RIPPLE

The PRV rating required by the six diodes is equal to the full phase-to-
phase, peak value of the AC input, which equals the peak DC output
voltage.
Although the DC output voltage from the three-phase rectifier is much
better than those from single phase rectifiers, it still contains ripple. So
the waveform can be regarded as having two components:
1. Eave - a constant (smooth) DC voltage.
2. Eripple - a ripple waveform which can be approximated to a
sawtooth. This is superimposed on the steady DC component.
Example:
Calculate the % ripple and ripple frequency in the output voltage from a
three phase rectifier where the AC supply frequency is 50 Hz..
Answer:

Eripple = Epeak - Emin = Epeak -
0.866 x Epeak

Eripple = Epeak(1 - 0.866) = 0.134 x Epeak

% Ripple = Eripple x 100 = 0.134 x Epeak
x 100
Eave 0.94 x Epeak

% Ripple = 0.134 x 100 = 14%
0.94

Ripple Frequency is six times the AC supply frequency, as there are
six output ripples for each cycle of AC supply.
Ripple Frequency = 6 x 50 = 300 Hz

5 PRACTICAL EXERCISE - RECTIFIER WAVEFORMS

5.1 OBJECTIVES

1. To use Experiment Board No. 1 to construct the following circuits:
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER
FULL WAVE BRIDGE RECTIFIER

2. To examine the circuit output voltage waveform.

5.2 GENERAL PRECAUTIONS

Never touch any circuit components or connections unless the circuit is
isolated from electrical supply.
Lesson 3 Page 8

5.3 SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS WHEN USING AN
OSCILLOSCOPE

1. Always ZERO the channel traces before connecting the probes to a
circuit.
2. Measure voltages in DC circuits using the DC display function.
3. Always check the vertical and horizontal gain controls are set to
calibrate when measuring voltages or time periods.
4. When using both input channels, always connect the 2 probe
ground connections at the same place - otherwise part of the circuit
being tested will be shorted out through the CRO.

5.4 EQUIPMENT

1. Experiment Board No. 1.
2. 120 V AC mains supply.
3. Miniature test leads.
4. Oscilloscope.

5.5 PROCEDURE

5.6 Half Wave Rectifier

1. Using CR2 on Experiment Board 1, construct a Half Wave Rectifier.
2. Display the input and output voltage waveforms on the oscilloscope
and measure their peak values and their periods.
3. Calculate the average value of the output voltage waveform and its
frequency.
4. Use the AC setting of your oscilloscope to measure the average
value of the output voltage directly. Then measure the output voltage
with a digital multimeter.
5. Use your oscilloscope to measure the peak reverse voltage across
the diode.
6. Complete the Results Table and Conclusions section.

5.6 Bridge Rectifier

Construct a Bridge Rectifier and repeat steps 1 to 6.

Lesson 3 Page 9

5.6 RESULTS TABLE

RECTIFIER

CRO MEASUREMENTS

DIGIT
AL
CIRCUIT
AC

DC OUTPUT VOLTAGE

DIO
DE
METE
R
RDG
INPUT
Epeak

Epeak CALC.
Eave
CRO
Eave
PERIOD

FREQ. PRV OUTP
UTVO
LTS

HALF WAVE

55 V

52 V

16.5 V

16.5 V

16.6 mS

60 Hz

55 V

16.5 V

FULL WAVE

55 V

52 V

33 V

33 V

8.3 mS

120 Hz

55 V

33 V

5.6 CONCLUSIONS

1. Is the output frequency of the Full Wave circuit different to that of
the Half Wave circuit? If so, explain why.
Answer: YES. BECAUSE THE FULL WAVE CIRCUIT
PRODUCES 2
OUTPUT PULSES FOR EVERY CYCLE OF INPUT AC. SO ITS
OUTPUT FREQUENCY IS DOUBLE THAT OF THE HALF WAVE
RECTIFIER.
2. Is the average output voltage of the Full Wave circuit different to
that of the Half Wave circuit? If so, explain why.
Answer: YES. BECAUSE THE FULL WAVE CIRCUIT
PRODUCES
TWICE AS MANY OUTPUT PULSES AS THE HALF WAVE, ITS
AVERAGE OUTPUT VOLTAGE IS TWICE AS LARGE.
3. Do your calculated values of average output voltage agree with
those measured directly on the oscilloscope and the digital voltmeter
readings? If so, explain why.
Answer: YES. THE OSCILLOSCOPE SET TO AC WILL SHOW
THE
AVERAGE VALUE OF VOLTAGE. THE DC VOLTMETER ONLY
RESPONDS TO AVERAGE VOLTAGE. SO ALL THREE VALUES
SHOULD BE THE SAME.
4. What minimum PRV rating should the diode have:

(A) For the Half Wave Rectifier? Answer: 55 V

(B) For the Bridge Rectifier? Answer: 55 V

Lesson 3 Page 10


1. Practical Work:
Correct Construction - 2 x 5 points = 10 points
of two Circuits
Correct use of 2-channel - = 10 points
CRO and multimeter


2. Results Table:

16 correct results - 16 x 3 points = 48 points


3. Conclusions:




Uninterrupted Power Supply Dc Filters
Lesson 4 Page 1
LESSON
4
LECTURE
DC FILTERS

Objectives
At the end of this Lesson, the Trainee will be able to identify the
common DC filter circuits and explain how a capacitor and
inductor operate as filters.

1 SHUNT CAPACITOR FILTER

A capacitor can store charge. So if a capacitor is placed as a shunt
across the load in a Rectifier circuit, it will do two things:
1. Charge up when positive pulses of rectified current are supplied by
the rectifier.
2. Discharge through the load when the rectifier is not conducting.
So a shunt capacitor smoothes the ripple (pulses) and raises the
average voltage of the rectifier output, giving a much smoother
(filtered) DC output.

1.1 FILTER ACTION

Fig. 4-1 shows the current flow for a half wave rectifier with a shunt
capacitor filter during conduction of the rectifying diode. There are two
currents, one to supply the load and one to charge up the capacitor.

LOAD
TX
D
E
out
I
E
i
n
(AC)
L
I
C
+
-
SHUNT
CAPACITOR
LOAD
TX
D
E
out
I
E
i
n
(AC)
L
I
C
+
-
SHUNT
CAPACITOR

Fig. 4-1. Shunt Capacitor being Charged

Fig. 4-2 on the next page shows the current flow for the same circuit
during blocking by the rectifying diode. Now there is no supply from
the transformer, but the shunt capacitor discharges through the load,
maintaining its voltage and current:

Lesson 4 Page 2
LOAD
TX
D
E
out
I
E
in
(AC)
C
I
C
+
-
SHUNT
CAPACITOR

Fig. 4-2. Capacitor Discharging through the Load

1.2 WAVEFORM AND RIPPLE

Refer to Fig. 4-3 to see the effect of shunt capacitance on the load:

t
SINUSOIDAL A.C.
t
FILTERED D.C.
+E
in
-E
in
+E
out
-E
out
DISCHARGE
CAPACITOR CAPACITOR
CHARGE

Fig. 4-3. Effect of Capacitor on the Load

So the shunt capacitor has smoothed the pulsating DC waveform. The
larger the capacitance used, the better the smoothing. So a large
capacitor will provide perfectly smooth DC. Because large capacitors
are needed for filtering and the rectifier output is never negative,
electrolytic capacitors are usually used in filter circuits.
The capacitor filter has converted pulsating DC voltage to filtered DC,
which contains some ripple (refer to Lesson 1 - Three Phase Bridge
Rectifier). Normally a ripple factor of 10% is acceptable. If less ripple
is desired, a larger electrolytic capacitor must be used. So we need to
be able to calculate the required capacitance:
Peak-to-Peak value of the ripple waveform = Eripple

Eripple = Epeak - Emin and Eripple =
2(Epeak - Eave)

Eave = Average Value of Output Voltage (DC value)

% Ripple = Eripple x 100 = (Epeak - Emin)
x 100
Eave Eave

Lesson 4 Page 3
It can also be shown that:

Eripple = _ I _ where I is the DC Load Current, f is
the ripple
f x C frequency and C is the filter capacitance.

So: % Ripple = ____I x 100
f x C x Eave

Example:

A Bridge Rectifier, supplied with 60 Hz AC, and capacitor filter must
supply an average DC voltage of 17.8 V to a resistive load of 1.78 k
with a maximum ripple of 1%. Calculate:
(A)Peak-to-Peak value of the ripple voltage.
(B)The value of filter capacitor required.
Answer:
(A)% Ripple = Eripple x 100
Eave

Eripple = % Ripple x Eave
100

Eripple = 1 x 17.8 = 0.178 V
100

(B)I = Eave = __17.8___ = 10 x 10-3 A
Rload 1.78 x 103

Since the rectifier is a Full Wave Bridge, the ripple frequency is double
the AC supply frequency:

f = 2 x 60 = 120 Hz

Eripple = _ I _
f x C

C = ___I___ = _10 x 10-3_ = 0.47 x 10-3 F
f x Eripple 120 x 0.178

C = 470 F

2 PRV RATINGS

The filter capacitor can have a large effect on the PRV ratings of the
rectifying diodes, because it keeps the cathodes positive when the AC
supply is in its negative half cycle.

Lesson 4 Page 4
2.1 FILTERED HALF-WAVE RECTIFIER

Refer to the circuit in Fig. 4-4:

- E
peak
+ E
peak
C
PRV

Fig. 4-4. Effect of Filter on PRV

Without the filter capacitor, the PRV of the diode needs only to be
greater than Epeak to avoid damage during negative half cycles of the
AC supply.
But with a filter capacitor, an extra voltage (+Epeak) is applied to the
cathode of the diode. So:

PRV = 2 x Epeak

So the diode must have a PRV at least equal to two times the peak AC
supply voltage.

2.2 FILTERED FULL-WAVE RECTIFIERS

The trainee should be able to prove that both the Bridge and Centre-
Tap full wave rectifiers are unaffected by the filter capacitor, since the
capacitor acts in parallel with the negative half cycle of AC supply.
Remember that in the Centre-Tap Rectifier the PRV required is at least
equal to two times the peak output DC voltage. This is the same as
one times the peak input AC voltage, because of the transformer
centre tap.
For the Bridge Rectifier, the PRV ratings, peak input AC voltage and
peak output DC voltage are all the same.

2.3 PRACTICAL DEMONSTRATION

The instructor will demonstrate the effect of a shunt capacitor filter on a
Bridge Rectifier using Experiment Board 1 and an oscilloscope.

3 OTHER TYPES OF FILTER

3.1 SERIES INDUCTOR FILTER

An inductor stores energy in its magnetic field. When the current
flowing through the inductor changes, this stored energy is released
Lesson 4 Page 5
and tries to keep the current constant. A series inductor can therefore
be used as a filter, as in Fig. 4-5.

LOAD
TX
D
E
out
I
E
in
(AC)
L
+
-
SERIES
INDUCTOR

Fig. 4-5. Series Inductor Filter

Unlike the shunt capacitor, which basically works upon the output
voltage, helping to raise its average value, the series inductor works
upon the output current, trying to keep it constant at its average value.
This filter does nothing to improve the average DC output voltage from
the rectifier. But it can smooth out the waveform and can compensate
for large changes in load current, which would severely reduce the
average output voltage from a shunt capacitor filter.
Fig. 4-6 shows the effect of a series inductor filter on the rectifier
output:

t t
+E +E
BRIDGE
OUTPUT TO
INDUCTIVE
OUTPUT TO
AVERAG AVERAG

Fig. 4-6. Inductive Filter Waveforms

3.2 PI FILTER

The shunt capacitor is excellent for smoothing and raising the average
value of the output voltage from a rectifier, but can be ineffective for
control of large, rapidly changing output currents.
The series inductor is excellent for smoothing large currents, but does
not raise the average DC voltage. So these two devices are often used
together in a PI () Filter. A PI Filter is shown connected to the output
of a Half Wave Rectifier in Fig. 7-2-7 on the next page.
The first capacitor filters and raises the average DC output voltage.
The inductor filters again and provides control of large changing
currents. The second capacitor provides the final stage of filtering.

Lesson 4 Page 6

LOAD
TX
D
E
out
I
E
in
(AC)
L
+
-

Fig. 4-7. PI Filter

Often only one capacitor is needed. In this case the circuit is called an
L-Filter because of its shape.

UNINTERRUPTED POWER SUPPLY VOLTAGE REGULATORS
Lesson 5 Page 1
LESSON
5
LECTURE
VOLTAGE REGULATORS

Objectives
At the end of this Lesson, the Trainee will be able to identify the
common voltage regulator circuits and describe how they work.

1 ZENER SERIES REGULATOR

When the output voltage from an uncontrolled rectifier is applied to a
load, it will decrease
as the load current increases and increase as the load current
decreases. This is because of changes in the circuit losses

R
s
+
-
V
cc
(input voltage)
E
out R
L
V
Z
V
BE
I
s
I
L
I
z
I
B

Fig. 5-1. Zener Follower Circuit

Therefore Q conducts for shorter periods and Eou
Also, fluctuations in the AC supply voltage will affect the DC output
voltage from the rectifier, as will ripple. So we need a voltage regulator
to maintain constant DC voltage.
The simple Zener Diode Voltage Regulator described in Common
Module 6 is not suitable for regulating large DC power supplies. But it
can be adapted.

1.1 ZENER FOLLOWER

Refer to Fig. 5-1. This circuit is called a Zener Follower because it
uses an Emitter Follower transistor configuration with a Zener Diode.
The basic important equations are:
Lesson 5 Page 2

Eout = VZ - VBE and IB =
IL

. ( is the current gain of the transistor amplifier)
The advantage of this circuit over the simple Zener Diode Regulator is
that a small Base current controls a large load current. Since the Base
current is set by the Zener diode, a low power Zener can control large
load currents. Without the transistor, the Zener diode would need to
handle very large currents directly. This entails very high power rating
and large heat sinks.
Example 1:
VCC = 20 V, VZ = 10 V, = 80,
RS = 680 , RL = 15 . Find IZ.
Answer:
IS = ( VCC - VZ) = (20 - 10) = 0.0147 A
RS 680
Eout = (VZ - VBE) = (10 - 0.7) = 9.3 V
IL = Eout = 9.3 = 0.62 A
RL 15
IB = IL = O.62 = 0.00775 A (7.75 mA)
80
IZ = (IS - IB ) = (14.7 - 7.75) =6.95 mA
So a fairly low power Zener diode (drawing 7 mA) can regulate the
voltage in a load circuit with nearly 100 times as much current flowing
(620 mA).
Example 2:
Re-calculate IZ if VZ = 15 V and RS = 330 .
Answer:
IS = ( VCC - VZ) = (20 - 15) = 0.01515 A
RS 330
Eout = (VZ - VBE) = (15 - 0.7) = 14.3 V
IL = Eout = 14.3 = 0.95 A
RL 15
IB = IL = O.95 = 0.01187 A (11.87 mA)
80
IZ = (IS - IB ) = (15.15 - 11.87) =3.28 mA
Note that to obtain a higher output voltage we have to use a larger VZ.
This means using a smaller RS, otherwise there will not be enough
Base current to turn on the transistor.

Lesson 5 Page 3

1.2 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

R
s
+
-
V
cc
(input
E
out
voltage)
R
3
R
L
R
1
R
2
Q2
Q1
V
F
V
Z

Fig. 5-2. Voltage Feedback Regulator Circuit

The circuit in Fig. 5-2 is a refinement of the Zener Follower using an
extra transistor to provide a Negative Voltage Feedback Signal.
Negative Feedback is commonly used in electronics and
instrumentation as a means of fixing the output by controlling the input.
Although it may not be obvious, this is the same circuit as FIG. 5-1 with
some simple additions:
Between Q2 and the Zener diode an extra transistor has been placed.
This is the Feedback Transistor (Q1). Q1 has a collector resistance
R3, and receives its feedback bias (VF) from adjustable voltage divider
R1 and R2.
All load current passes through Q2, the Emitter Follower transistor. Q1
is a Common Emitter transistor whose biasing is set by the feedback
voltage. The larger VF is, the more collector current flows through Q1
and the Zener diode. So as Eout rises, so does VF and the current
through Q1 via R3. This diverts some current away from the Base of
Q2, so the load current and Eout will reduce. If Eout reduces the
reverse happens and Eout will be forced to rise back to its original
level.
This circuit therefore uses negative feedback to automatically
compensate for both load and supply voltage changes. The desired
level of output voltage is set by the potentiometer section of voltage
divider R1 and R2.

1.3 CURRENT LIMITING

The series voltage regulator has one major defect. If the output
terminals are short circuited (or overloaded) the pass transistor (Q2)
will be destroyed by excessive heat caused by the very large load
current .

Lesson 5 Page 4
The solution is to provide an extra transistor Q3, biased by a sensing
resistor R4. Refer to Fig. 5-3 on the next page, which only shows the
new components affecting Q2. The rest of the circuit is unchanged.

R
3
Q2
Q3
R
4
FROM
SUPPLY
TO LOAD

Fig. 5-3. Regulator with Current Limiting

Assume that R4 is 1 . As long as the load current is below 600 mA,
the volt drop across R4 will be less than 600 mV. So Q3 cannot turn
on and the circuit operates normally.
However, if the load current exceeds 600 mA, the volt drop across R4
will be greater than 0.6 V and Q3 will turn on. Therefore Q3 will draw
bias current away from the base of Q2, which will reduce the amount of
load current flowing. So the output from the regulator is automatically
reduced to a safe level.
If R4 was changed to a 0.1 resistor, current limiting would occur at
load currents above 6 A.

2 ZENER SHUNT REGULATOR

The Zener voltage regulators discussed so far are often called series
regulators because the pass transistor is in series with the load. The
main problem with this design is that the pass transistor must conduct
all of the DC load current all of the time, leading to large heat
generation and large heat sinks and fan cooling.
An alternative arrangement for large load currents is the Shunt
Regulator. A simple shunt regulator circuit is shown in Fig. 5-4:

R
s
+
-
V
cc
E
out
R
L
V
Z
V
BE
I
s
I L
I
z
Q
I
C

Fig. 5-4. Simple Shunt Regulator
Lesson 5 Page 5

The bias voltage for the shunt transistor is held constant by the Zener
diode. If the input voltage rises, more current flows through the Zener.
So the shunt transistor has a larger base current and therefore a larger
collector current. The result is that the shunt transistor diverts excess
current and the load current and load voltage stay constant.
If the input voltage reduces, the procedure reverses. If the load itself
changes so IL varies, the currents through the Zener and transistor
also vary and VCC and Eout are kept constant.
As the voltages across the Zener, transistor and load are constant,
series resistor RS absorbs the fluctuations of VCC and is short circuit
protection.
Although the Shunt Regulator is more suitable than the Series
Regulator for large load currents, it is does not have such good
regulation. For large power DC systems the Switching Regulator is
better than either of the Zener regulators.

3 SWITCHING REGULATOR

3.1 BASIC OPERATION

Fig. 5-5 shows a simplified circuit of a Switching Regulator:

PULSE
GENERATOR
L
C D
Q
LOAD
E E
out in
V
F

Fig. 5-5. Switching Regulator Circuit

The pass transistor (Q) does not conduct all the time - it acts as a fast
acting DC switch, biased by the pulse train coming from the Pulse
Generator. Q is not continuously conducting, so does not get too hot .
The output from Q is also a pulse train, but is much bigger than that
supplied to the base of Q. A typical pulse train frequency is 20 kHz.
The pulse train is then fed to an LC filter where it is smoothed by the
inductor (L) and AC ripple shunted away by the capacitor (C).
Because the pulse frequency is so high, a small inductor can be used
and a high reactance (good smoothing) achieved. For the same
reason, a small capacitor can be used and a low reactance (good
shunting of ripple) achieved.

Lesson 5 Page 6
Part of the smooth DC output voltage (Eout) from the regulator is fed
back as the input signal (VF) to the pulse generator. This is called
negative feedback, since if Eout rises, the output pulses from the pulse
generator become narrower. t will reduce. The reverse happens if
Eout falls.
The diode (D) is a Freewheeling Diode. When the DC supply to any
inductor is cut off, its magnetic field tries to maintain constant current
by generating a back-emf (inductive kickback). Without the diode to
discharge through, the inductor would force current to flow through Q.
The large inductive voltage would damage the transistor.

3.2 PULSE GENERATOR

Refer to Fig. 5-6. This shows a typical simplified circuit.

+
-
+
-
+
-
+
-
.
E
ref
COMPARATOR
R
R
1
2
INTEGRATOR
R
3
C
2
.
R
4
R
5
.
R
6
R
7
.
OSCILLATOR
TO (Q)
TO LC FILTER
E
out
V
F
PULSE CONVERTER
C
3

Fig. 5-6. Pulse Generator Circuit

The oscillator produces a square wave whose frequency is set by R5
and C3. The integrator converts this square wave to a triangular wave.
This signal is supplied to the pulse converters non-inverting input.
Meanwhile, a feedback voltage (VF) is derived from Eout by the
voltage divider R1 and R2. VF is taken to the comparator. Here it is
compared with a reference voltage (Eref) which is usually taken from a
Zener diode.
The difference between VF and Eref is the error, which can be positive
or negative. This is applied to the inverting input of the pulse
converter, which converts the triangular waveform to a pulse train.
Control of the width of the pulses is done by the error input to the
Comparator.
If Eout rises:
The comparator produces a larger positive output voltage. This error
signal is inverted in the pulse converter and reduces the width of the
output pulses. So Q conducts for less time and Eout is reduced back
Lesson 5 Page 7
to normal. If Eout decreases, the procedure reverses to raise it back to
normal.
Example:
R1 = 3 k, R2 = 1 k, Eref = 1.25 VDC. What should Eout be?
Answer:
Current in R1 and R2 = Eref = __Eout __
R2 (R1 + R2)
Eout = Eref (R1 + R2) = 1.25 x (3 + 1) x 103
R2 1 x 103
Eout = 5 VDC
The output voltage will be constant 5 VDC as long as Eref is 1.25 VDC.

4 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

The Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp) is an Integrated Circuit (IC). This
is a complete electronic circuit (resistors, diodes and transistors)
manufactured on one small silicon chip.
The Op-Amp is much smaller and cheaper than a circuit assembled
from individual components. It gets its name from the many different
electronic operations it can do (amplifier, oscillator, waveshaper and
voltage regulator to name only a few).

4.1 BASIC 741C OP-AMP

Refer to Fig. 5-7:

741
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
8 9 10 11 12 13 14
IC OP-
TOP
SIDE
1 2 3 4
PIN
1 2 3 4
5 6 7 8

Fig. 5-7. 741C Package

The Op-Amp has 8 pins (terminals) arranged in two parallel rows of 4.
So its package is called 8/DIL (8 pin, dual-in-line). In the example
shown, the chip is installed in a 14-pin IC socket.
The pins (terminals) are numbered in a specific sequence - 1 to 8 from
the bottom left hand side. The type number 741C tells you this is an
industry-standard, general purpose Op-Amp. There are also many
special-application Op-Amps. Each type has a different type number.
Lesson 5 Page 8
Some may be of 14/DIL construction and others may have TO
(transistor-type) packages.
The circuit symbol for an Op-Amp is shown in Fig. 5-8:

-
+
2
3
1 5
4
6
7

Fig. 5-8. OP-AMP Symbol

The three terminals of major interest are 2, 3 and 6:
- Terminal 2 is the Inverting Input.
- Terminal 3 is the Non-Inverting Input.
- Terminal 6 is the Output.
The Inverting Input converts a positive signal to negative and vice-
versa. The Non-Inverting Input does not change the signal polarity.
The amplifiers output is proportional to the Error (Differential) Input -
the difference between the Inverting and Non-Inverting Inputs.
Terminal 8 is not used. The other four terminals are needed to power
and balance the Op-Amp:
- Terminals 1 and 5 are for the DC Offset Voltage.
- Terminal 7 is the Power Supply Positive.
- Terminal 4 is the Power Supply Negative.
Terminals 1 and 5 are supplied from the power supply via an external
potentiometer. The purpose is to compensate for DC offset (+or -)
voltage at the output when there is no input signal. This DC offset is
caused by slight differences between the transistors in the Op-Amp.
The Op-Amp Ground-Line for input and output signals is internally fixed
at half the DC power supply voltage across terminals 7 and 4. So if a
normal 2-terminal power supply is used it must not be grounded, as
part of the Op-Amp circuitry will be shorted out. If a dual power supply
is used, the Common (centre) terminal may be grounded and
connected to the Op-Amp Ground-Line.
The Open-Loop Gain (AOL) of an Op-Amp is given by:
AOL = ______Output Voltage (at terminal 6)______
Error Input Voltage (between terminals 2 &3)
As the Error Input Voltage is the difference between the Inverting and
Non-Inverting Inputs, AOL is also called the Differential Gain.
Typically, this is approximately 100,000 for a 741C Op-Amp.

Lesson 5 Page 9
The Input Impedance of a 741C is high (approximately 2 M) and the
Output Impedance is low (approximately 50 ). So the Op-Amp is an
excellent substitute for the Common-Collector transistor circuit
discussed in Common Module 6. Its high Gain also makes it an
excellent substitute for the Common-Emitter transistor amplifier circuit.
So the Op-Amp is a very versatile device. Its only problem is the Gain
is too high for safe operation. This is corrected by using Negative
Feedback.

4.2 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

The circuit in Fig. 5-9 is a Non-Inverting Amplifier. Its main function is
to amplify DC or AC input signals. But its high input resistance and low
output resistance mean it can also act as a voltage regulator, with the
input and output voltages being unaffected by large changes of load
current.
The output voltage only depends on the Closed-Loop Gain and the
input voltage. The circuit does not compensate for changes of input
voltage, so should be supplied through a Series Regulator.

+
-
R1
R2
V
f
V
in
V
ou
V
er
R
load
+
+

Fig. 5-9. Feedback Circuit

Vin =Input Volts, Vout =Output Volts, Vf =Feedback Volts, Verr =
Error Volts.
Vf = __R2__ x Vout
R1 +R2
Verr = Vin - Vf

The Closed-Loop Gain (ACL) is given by:
ACL = Vout
Vin

So: ACL = __Vout__
Verr +Vf

Lesson 5 Page 10
Since Verr is 100,000 times smaller than Vout it can be ignored:

ACL = Vout = Vf(R1 +R2)
Vf Vf x R2

ACL = (R1 +R2) = 1 +R1
R2 R2

So, with Negative Feedback, the Gain of this circuit is no longer
100,000 but is always greater than one. The feedback also increases
the input impedance to almost infinity and reduces the the output
impedance to almost zero.
Example 1:
R1 = 1 k, R2 = 1 k, Vin = +2 VDC. Calculate:
ACL, Vout, Vf and Verr.
Answer:
ACL = 1 + R1 = 1 + 1 k = 2.0
R2 1 k
Vout = ACL x Vin = 2 x 2 = 4.0 VDC

Vf = Vout x ___R2___ = _4 x 1 k_ = 2.0 VDC
(R1 +R2) (1 k +1 k)

Verr = (Vin - Vf) = (2 - 2) = ZERO

In fact, the Error Voltage is not zero, but it is very small:

Verr = Vout = __4___ = 40 V
AOL 100,000

Example 2:
Recalculate Example 1 if R2 = 10 k.
Answer:

ACL = 1 + R1 = 1 + 1 k = 1.1
R2 10 k

Vout = ACL x Vin = 1.1 x 2 = 2.2 VDC

Vf = Vout x __R2__ = _2.2 x 10 k_ = 2.0
VDC
(R1 +R2) (1 k +10 k)

Verr = (Vin - Vf) = (2 - 2) = ZERO

In fact, the Error Voltage is not zero, but it is very small:

Verr = Vout = __2.2__ = 22 V
AOL 100,000
Lesson 5 Page 11

The Instructor will now give a practical demonstration to prove the
above calculations, using Experiment Board No. 5 and a 40 VDC
power supply. Note that the DC Input voltage is taken from a 0-1 k
potentiometer connected between the Positive and Common terminals
of the DC power supply. If the potentiometer were connected between
the Positive and Negative terminals, there would be a dangerous short-
circuit!
During the demonstration, observe that as the load resistance (0-10 k
potentiometer) at the Op-Amp output is varied from zero to 10 k, the
Input and Output Voltages remain constant! This why the Op-Amp is
so useful as an Output Voltage Regulator.
This is only one application of the Op-Amp. By adding external
combinations of resistors and capacitors to the external circuit, we can
produce practically any electronic device - integrator, differentiator,
pulse generator, oscillator and high-gain AC amplifier to name but a
few.

4.3 LM340 VOLTAGE REGULATOR

There are integrated circuit devices specially made as DC voltage
regulators which can regulate the output DC voltage even though both
the load current and input voltage are varying. These devices include
elements from the Series Regulator (Zener Follower) with a 741C Op-
Amp. They only have three external terminals, which makes
installation and testing simple.
One common type of DC Voltage Regulator using Op-Amps is the
LM340 series. Refer to Fig. 5-10 on the next page. A built-in
Reference Voltage circuit (zener diode) supplies the Non-Inverting
Input of the Op-Amp. The zener diode takes its supply from Vin.
Output voltage feedback supplies the Inverting Input via a built-in
voltage divider. The Reference Voltage is set slightly higher than the
Feedback Voltage to ensure the Op-Amp output is always positive.
If Vout reduces for any reason, the error at the Op-Amp input increases
and the Op-Amp increases its output voltage. This increases the bias
on the Base of the Pass Transistor, reducing its VCE volt-drop. So
Vout increases back to its original level.

Lesson 5 Page 12
-
+
LIMITER
LM340 CHIP
PASS
TRANSISTOR
Reference
Voltage
1 2
3
V
in
(+)
V
out
(+)
Common
(Ground)
OP-AMP
R1
R2
CURRENT
-
+
LIMITER
LM340 CHIP
PASS
TRANSISTOR
Reference
Voltage
1 2
3
V
in
(+)
V
out
(+)
Common
(Ground)
OP-AMP
R1
R2
CURRENT

Fig. 5-10. LM340 Block Diagram

If Vout increases for any reason, the error at the Op-Amp input reduces
and the Op-Amp reduces its output voltage. This reduces the bias on
the Base of the Pass Transistor, increasing its VCE volt-drop. So Vout
reduces back to its original level.
The Current Limiter protects the Op-Amp and Pass Transistor from
overload.
For the LM340 to operate correctly, Vin must always be larger than
Vout. This ensures that the Zener Diode always operates above its
Zener Voltage, giving a constant reference voltage, and to allow for
VCE volt-drop in the Pass Transistor. For example, an LM340
designed to produce a regulated DC output voltage of 15 V needs an
unregulated DC input voltage of 23 V.
The LM340 is not a high-power device. It usually operates at up to 30
VDC and 10 amperes. However, larger DC systems can be regulated
by using the LM340 to control the Bases of high-power Common-
Collector transistors (including Darlington Pairs).

Uninterrupted Power Supply Silicon Controlled Rectifiers
Lesson 6 Page 1
LESSON
6
LECTURE
SILICON CONTROLLED
RECTIFIERS

Objectives
At the end of this Lesson, the Trainee will be able to explain that
an SCR only conducts in one direction and when the Gate is
triggered; identify an SCR by its markings; test an SCR with a
multimeter; measure the Holding Current and Minimum Trigger
Current.

1 SCR BASIC THEORY

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Modern discoveries and improvements in semiconductors have
resulted in a rectifier which is controlled - it does not need a separate
voltage regulator. This Controlled Rectifier uses Silicon Controlled
Rectifiers (SCRs) instead of diodes and has largely replaced
Uncontrolled Rectifiers with separate Voltage Regulators in power
station main DC systems. However, the equipment described in the
last two lessons is still widely used for lower power DC systems and
Generator Excitation systems.
The SCR is a type of thyristor. Other thyristors are the Diac, Triac and
UJ T, which are often used to trigger SCR circuits. The SCR behaves
very much like a PN J unction Diode - it only conducts one way. But
there is one major difference - the SCR will not conduct at all until it is
triggered. This is why it is called a controlled rectifier.

1.2 CONSTRUCTION AND CIRCUIT SYMBOL

The SCR is rather like two PN J unction diodes assembled in series
(see Fig. 6-1). Notice that the ends of the SCR are Anode (A) and
Cathode (K) and the internal P-type section has a third terminal - the
Gate (G).

N P P N
Anode
Cathode
Gate
A K
G
(a) SCR Construction (b) SCR Symbol

Fig. 6-1. SCR Construction and Symbol
Lesson 6 Page 2

The SCR is basically a 3-terminal semiconductor switch, which will not
turn on (close) until two things happen:
1. The Anode must be positive compared to the Cathode.
2. A positive trigger pulse must be applied to the Gate. It is only
necessary to apply a short pulse of Gate current, called a Trigger
Pulse. Once this pulse is received, the SCR will conduct until the
current flowing from Anode to Cathode is below the Holding Current.
Then the SCR switches off. When the applied voltage becomes
positive again, another positive trigger pulse is needed to turn on the
SCR again.
Also shown in Fig. 6-1 is the circuit symbol for an SCR, which is similar
to that of a diode.

1.3 SCR OPERATION

The equivalent circuit for an SCR is shown in Fig. 6-2:

A +
Q1
Q2
G
+
-
K
I
C1
(I
B2
)
I
B1
(I
C2
)

Fig. 6-2. SCR Equivalent Circuit

(A) must be positive and (K) negative. When a positive pulse is
applied to (G), Q2 turns on because it now has forward bias on its
Base-Emitter junction. So Collector current (IC2) flows through Q2.
But IC2 is also IB1 (the Base Biasing current for PNP transistor Q1).
So Q1 turns on and Collector current IC1 flows through it.
IC1 is also the Base current for Q2. So Q1 and Q2 keep each other
conducting after the Gate pulse has finished. Current can therefore
keep flowing from Anode to Cathode. The circuit only stops
conducting if one of two things happen:
1. The forward current drops below the Holding Current level (there is
not enough Base current to keep the transistors forward biased).
2. The supply polarity reverses (as with an AC supply). In this case
the transistors are reverse biased and they turn off.
Lesson 6 Page 3
The trainee should be able to prove that the current flowing into the
SCR from (A) equals the current leaving the SCR at (K) and they are
equal to:
(IC1 + IC2)

1.4 COMPARISON WITH DIODE

1. Advantage of the SCR:
Because the SCR conducts when a positive Gate pulse is applied and
turns off when the supply to the Anode goes negative, it is an excellent
rectifier.
The SCR is a more useful rectifier than the diode because the
conduction time (and therefore the Average Output Voltage) can be
directly controlled by adjusting the timing of the Gate pulses. The
voltage regulators discussed in Lesson 2 are therefore not necessary.
2. Disadvantages of the SCR:
The SCR is not as robust as a diode, so is much more easily damaged
by large reverse voltages and forward currents, especially transients
such as sudden load changes, switching surges and short circuit faults
at the load.

1.5 RATINGS AND PACKAGES

The main SCR ratings are:
1. Maximum Forward Current (IT)
- The largest forward bias current the SCR can conduct without
overheating and becoming a permanent open circuit.
2. Peak Reverse Voltage (VRRM)
- The largest reverse bias voltage the SCR can withstand before
breaking down to a permanent short circuit.
3. Maximum Trigger Current (IGT)
- The largest Gate current which should trigger the SCR. If an SCR
under test needs a higher trigger current than this, it is deteriorating
and must be replaced.
4. Maximum Gate Voltage (VGT)
- The largest Gate voltage the SCR can withstand without failure.
5. Minimum Holding Current
- The minimum forward bias current needed to keep the SCR
conducting.
An SCR is a 3-terminal device, just like a transistor. Low power SCRs
look exactly like transistors, having the same TO package codes. High
power SCRs look very like high power diodes, except that they have
two pigtails at one end instead of two.
If in doubt, check the code number (if any) on the package and consult
the manufacturers guide. If there is no information available, the SCR
must be tested.

Lesson 6 Page 4
2 PRACTICAL EXERCISE - TESTING AN SCR WITH A MULTIMETER

2.1 PRECAUTIONS

The same precautions apply as when using multimeters to test
components in Common Module 6 - Electronics Workshop.

2.2 PROCEDURE

Test the SCR provided using the digital multimeter as a diode tester.
Record your readings in the Results Table.

2.3 RESULTS TABLE

(A)TO(G)
+ -

mV

(G)TO (A)
+ -

mV

(A)TO (K)
+ -

mV

(K)TO (A)
+ -

mV

(G)TO(K)
+ -

mV

(K)TO(G)
+ -

mV

800

2.4 CONCLUSIONS

1. Complete the Conclusions Table below:

SCR CONDITION

SCR MATERIAL
HE
AL
TH
Y

FA
UL
TY
? SI
LI
C
O
N
GE
R
M-
AN
IU
M
?

2. Are the Gate to Cathode test results similar to an ordinary PN
junction diode? Explain why.
Answer: YES. BECAUSE THE PART OF THE SCR BETWEEN
THE
GATE AND CATHODE IS A SINGLE PN J UNCTION.
3. Why can you not obtain a low and a high reading when testing
between the Anode and Gate? Does this mean the SCR is faulty?
Answer: THE PART OF THE SCR BETWEEN THE ANODE AND
THE
Lesson 6 Page 5
GATE HAS 2 J UNCTIONS (PNP) SO WILL GIVE 2 INFINITE
READINGS. THIS DOES NOT MEAN THE SCR IS FAULTY.


1. Practical Tests:
6 correct readings - 6 x 5 points = 30 points


2. Conclusions:
Conclusion Table, - 2 x 15 points = 30 points
2 correct crosses



3 PRACTICAL EXERCISE - DC TESTS OF AN SCR

3.1 OBJECTIVES

1. To measure the minimum gate current at which an SCR starts to
conduct, which should be less than the Maximum Trigger Current
rating of the SCR (0.045 mA).
2. To measure the Minimum Holding Current for an SCR which is in
conduction mode.

3.2 PRECAUTIONS

This experiment involves testing on a live DC circuit. The standard
safety precautions apply, especially not touching live components.

3.3 EQUIPMENT

Labvolt Konnect-All Board SCR, 10 k and 500 k potentiometers
Analogue and digital multimeters47 , 4.7 k and 1 k resistors
DC power supply unit SPDT switch and PBNO button

3.4 PROCEDURE

1. Construct the circuit shown in Fig. 6-3 on the next page. Set POT
to maximum resistance and close SPDT.
2. Slowly reduce POT while pressing PBNO. Eventually a point is
reached where A-K current flows and the voltmeter reading changes.
Record the meter readings just before and after this point. Complete
the Results Table.
Lesson 6 Page 6

SPDT
PBNO POT
mA
ANALOGUE
47 ohms
V
DIGITAL
6 VDC
+
-
500 k-ohm

Fig. 6-3. Trigger Current Test Circuit

3. Reconstruct your circuit to look like Fig. 6-4:

SPDT
PBNO
POT
mA
ANALOGUE
47 ohms
V
DIGITAL
6 VDC
+
-
1 k-ohm
4.7 k-ohm
10 k-ohm

Fig. 6-4. Holding Current Test Circuit

4. Set POT to minimum resistance and close SPDT and depress then
release PBNO. The SCR should now be conducting.
5. Carefully increase POT while observing the meters. Eventually, the
current should stop flowing and the voltmeter reading will change.
Record the meter readings just before and just after this point.
Complete the Results Table.

3.5 RESULTS TABLE

TRIGGER CURRENT TEST

HOLDING CURRENT TEST

TIME

GATE
milli-
Ammeter

(A) - (K)
Voltmeter

TIME

ANODE
milli-
Ammeter

(A) - (K)
Voltmeter

BEFORE
CHANGE

0 mA
DC

6 V
DC

BEFORE
CHANGE

0.3 to
3 mA DC

0.6 to
0.85 VDC

AFTER
CHANGE

0.04 mA
DC (max)

0.85 V
DC

AFTER
CHANGE

0 mA
DC

6 V
DC

Lesson 6 Page 7
3.6 CONCLUSIONS

1. For both tests, does the voltmeter reading change? Explain why!!
Answer: YES. WHEN THE SCR IS NOT CONDUCTING IT HAS
FULL
SUPPLY VOLTAGE (6 VDC) ACROSS IT. WHEN IT CONDUCTS,
THE VOLT DROP ACROSS IT IS THE FORWARD DROP (0.6 TO
0.85 V).
2. What is the Holding Current for this SCR?
Answer: 0.3 to 3.0 mA DC
3. What is the minimum Gate current for this SCR?
Answer: 0.04 mA DC (or less)


1. Practical Tests:
Correct circuit assembly - 2 x 10 points = 20 points
Results Table correct - 8 x 5 points = 40 points


2. Conclusions:



Uninterrupted Power Supply Inverters
Lesson 7 Page 1
LESSON
7
LECTURE
INVERTERS

Objectives
At the end of this Lesson, the Trainee will be able to explain the
importance of an Inverter in a UPS system; identify the symbol for
an Inverter; draw the circuits and explain the operation of
common Inverters; explain the use of Commutation SCRs and
Capacitors and Freewheeling Diodes.

1 AC ESSENTIAL SUPPLIES

There are certain important electrical loads which require AC current
instead of DC. These include emergency lighting, control computers
and essential pump motors.
To supply these AC essential loads during failure of AC mains power,
we need batteries and chargers, just as with DC Essential Loads. But
we also need an Inverter to convert the DC from the battery and
charger to AC for the loads. Refer to Fig. 7 -1:

~
~
---
---
RECTIFIER 1
RECTIFIER 2
BATTERY 1
BATTERY 2
ESSENTIAL
+
+
-
-
---
~
---
~
INVERTER1
INVERTER2
L N
~ ~
LOADS
STATIC SWITCH1
~ ~
STATIC SWITCH2
BUSBAR
~ ~
STATIC SWITCH3
AC MAINS 3
AC MAINS 2
AC MAINS 1
~
~
---
---
RECTIFIER 1
RECTIFIER 2
BATTERY 1
BATTERY 2
ESSENTIAL
+
+
-
-
---
~
---
~
INVERTER1
INVERTER2
L N
~ ~
LOADS
STATIC SWITCH1
~ ~
STATIC SWITCH2
BUSBAR
~ ~
STATIC SWITCH3
AC MAINS 3
AC MAINS 2
AC MAINS 1

Fig. 7 -1. UPS with Dual Redundancy and AC Bypass

The example above is a typical UPS system with dual redundancy. If
one charger, one battery or one inverter fails, the other UPS circuit can
supply all the essential AC loads. For maintenance or emergencies an
AC Bypass (AC mains 3) is also provided.
The two Inverters convert DC back to AC and the Static Switches
isolate faulty supplies from the AC busbars.
Lesson 7 Page 2
2 INVERSION

2.1 INVERTER SYMBOL

Inversion is conversion of DC to AC(the opposite of Rectification). The
typical symbol for an inverter is shown in Fig. 7 -1.
Inverters are usually constructed from SCRs in a similar way to
rectifiers. Also like rectifiers, PN J unction diodes are often used, but
not as inverting elements, as they would short circuit the DC power
supply, so diodes are only used for free-wheeling or for blocking
unwanted currents from flowing.

2.2 CENTRE-TAP TRANSFORMER INVERTER (HALF BRIDGE)

Refer to Fig. 7 -2 below:
+
SINUSOIDAL AC OUTPUT
C
DA1
TA2
DB1
TB2
ISOLATION TRANSFORMER
I I
A B
L
-
SMOOTH DC
INPUT VOLTAGE
+
SINUSOIDAL AC OUTPUT
C
DA1
TA2
DB1
TB2
ISOLATION TRANSFORMER
I I
A B
L
-
SMOOTH DC
INPUT VOLTAGE

Fig. 7 -2. Half Bridge SCR Inverter

Initially, no current flows because neither SCR is triggered. Now if TA2
is triggered, current IA flows through the left hand side of the
transformer primary from the centre-tap. The voltage across the
transformer primary will be a step wave, rising from zero to almost the
full value of DC supply instantly.

Lesson 7 Page 3
The Commutating Capacitor, C, will charge up because its left side is
connected to the DC negative terminal through TA2 and its right side is
connected to the DC positive terminal through DB1.
After a certain time, TB2 is triggered. C now discharges through TB2
and TA2, helping TB2 to keep conducting and shutting down TA2.
Now the right hand side (limb) of the circuit conducts, allowing current
IB to flow through the right hand side of the transformer primary from
the centre-tap - the reverse of the previous direction (negative instead
of positive). Meanwhile, C charges up with reversed polarity.
So the voltage across the transformer secondary switches instantly
from positive to negative, forming a square waveform. When another
trigger pulse is applied to the Gate of TA2, the capacitor C discharges
through TA2 and TB2, shutting down TB2 and helping TA2 to conduct.
So we have a positive voltage again.
The only function of the diodes, DA1 and DA2, is to block the
commutating capacitor from discharging through the transformer.
The inductor, L, blocks sharp transient currents during switching of the
SCRs. The isolating transformer acts as a filter for the square wave
voltage, smoothing it to a roughly sinusoidal waveform. The
waveforms for this circuit are shown in Fig. 7 -3:

E
A
E
B
(NEGATIVE)
(POSITIVE)
AVERAGE
OF E
A
& E
B
SINUSOI DAL
OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
WAVEFORM
TRIGGER TA2TRIGGER TB
180
o

Fig. 7 -3. Inverter Waveforms

The two SCRs are triggered at 180 degree phase shifts. For a 60 Hz
output frequency, this corresponds to a time difference of 8.3 mS:

Phase Shift = = 180 degrees = radians

Lesson 7 Page 4
= 2ft, so t = = = 1
2f 2f 2f

Since f = 60 Hz, t = 1_ = 0.0083 seconds (8.3 mS)
120

The accurate trigger pulse timing required is usually provided by an
oscillator circuit, often incorporating a crystal.

3 FULL BRIDGE INVERTER

The simple Half-Bridge Inverter is not flexible enough for use in large
UPS systems, where some form of voltage regulation is needed to
cater for large fluctuating loads. Also, it does not produce a smooth
enough sinusoidal output voltage. So for large UPS systems, the Full
Bridge Inverter is used. Refer to Fig. 7 -4:

LOAD
+
-
T1
L1
T2
T3
T4
L4 L2
L3
D1
D4
D3
D2
CA CB
L1A
T1A
T4A
L4A L2A
T2A
T3A
L3A

Fig. 7-4. Full Bridge Inverter

T1, T2, T3 and T4 are the Inverting SCRs. CA and CB are the
commutating capacitors. D1, D2, D3 and D4 are freewheeling diodes
and also assist the commutating capacitors to turn off the inverting
SCRs. T1A, T2A, T3A and T4A are blocking SCRs. They operate with
CA and CB to turn off T1-T4.

3.1 INVERTING OPERATION

To understand the inversion process, the circuit has been simplified by
removing the blocking components - see Fig. 7 -5:

Lesson 7 Page 5
LOAD
+
-
T1
L1
T2
T3
T4
L4 L2
L3
LOAD
+
-
T1
L1
T2
T3
T4
L4 L2
L3

Fig. 7 -5. Inverting Circuit

If T1 and T2 are triggered together, current flows from left to right
through the load. When T1 and T2 are turned off and T3 and T4 are
turned on, current flows from right to left through the load.
The load will receive AC current instead of DC. However, the voltage
waveform applied at the load will be more square wave than
sinusoidal. This can be corrected by resonant filters (combinations of
capacitors and inductors) which remove the harmonics from the square
wave, leaving a sinusoidal waveform.
The only problem is that we have to find a way to turn the Inverting
SCRs off. They will not do this automatically, because the supply to
the circuit is smooth DC.

3.2 BLOCKING THE INVERTING SCRS

To simplify the explanation, we will only look at one of the Inverting
SCRs - T1. The condition when T1 is conducting, and supplying
current to the load, is shown in Fig. 7 -6:

LOAD
+
T1
L1
D1
CA
L1A
T 1
A
+ -
+ -
I
I
LOAD
+
T1
L1
D1
CA
L1A
T 1
A
+ -
+ -
I
I

Fig. 7 -6. T1 Conducting

Lesson 7 Page 6
D1 is reverse biased and T1A is not triggered, so they do not conduct.
CA charges up because there is a positive supply to the load.

To turn off T1, a trigger pulse is first applied to T1A. T1A turning on
provides a path for CA to discharge through L1, D1, L1A and T1 as
shown in Fig. 7 -7:

LOAD
+
T1
L1
D1
CA
L1A
T1A
+ -
+ -
I
I
CA
CA
LOAD
+
T1
L1
D1
CA
L1A
T1A
+ -
+ -
I
I
CA
CA

Fig. 7 -7. CA Discharging

The reverse polarity current from the capacitor, ICA, blocks the load
current leaving T1. So the current in T1 drops below its Holding
Current and T1 turns off. As CA discharges, ICA drops below the
Holding Current level for T1A, so T1A turns off.
While T1 is being turned off, T2A and CB are performing the same
process on T2. So the Inverter Bridge is now ready for trigger pulses
to be applied to T3 and T4, to provide a negative half cycle of load
current.

3.3 FREEWHEELING AN INDUCTIVE LOAD

Essential loads usually contain a lot of inductance (from motors,
transformers and solenoids). When the Inverting SCRs are suddenly
turned off, this inductance will generate a back-emf to try to keep
current flowing. So we need to discharge this emf to prevent damage
to the SCRs.
Diodes D3 and D4 provide a freewheeling path for positive half cycles
of load current, when T1 and T2 are turned off. Likewise, D1 and D2
freewheel for negative half cycles of load current, when T3 and T4 turn
off.

3.4 VOLTAGE REGULATION

The obvious way to operate the Inverter Bridge is to fire and turn off T1
and T2 together to provide positive load current. Likewise, T3 and T4
should be operated together to provide negative load current. The
output voltage at the load is a square wave, as shown in Fig. 7 -8:

Lesson 7 Page 7
LOAD
+
T1
L1
D1
CA
L1A
T1A
+ -
+ -
I
I
CA
CA
LOAD
+
T1
L1
D1
CA
L1A
T1A
+ -
+ -
I
I
CA
CA

Fig. 7 -8. Square Waveform

T1 and T3 are triggered at 180o intervals and conduct for 180o. The
same applies to T2 and T4. By firing the Inverting SCRs separately,
we can alter the waveform from a square wave to a stepped wave, as
shown in Fig. 7 -9:

DEG.
LOAD
VOLTAGE
1/2
2/4
3/4
2/4
1/2
AVERAGE VALUE
OF A HALF CYCLE
90
360
DEG.
LOAD
VOLTAGE
1/2
2/4
3/4
2/4
1/2
AVERAGE VALUE
OF A HALF CYCLE
90
360

Fig. 7 -9. Stepped Waveform

T1 and T3 are still triggered at 180o degree intervals, but they are
turned off after a 90o conduction time. The trigger points of T2 and T4
have both been advanced by the same 90o to give them a 270o
conduction time. So what T1 and T3 lose, T2 and T4 gain.
The Average Value of each half-cycle of this stepped wave is half that
of the square wave. Therefore, after harmonic filtering, the RMS Value
of the sinusoidal output waveform will also be half the size.
So, by altering the turn-off times of T1 and T3 and adjusting the trigger
times of T2 and T4 to match, we can regulate the RMS Value of the AC
output voltage. (With some negative feedback to the SCR trigger
circuits, we can automatically keep the output voltage constant.)

4 THREE-PHASE INVERTERS

4.1 THREE-PHASE FOUR-WIRE INVERTER

Where the Essential AC Load is large, it is cheaper to use a three-
phase Inverter than a single-phase one. This also means that three-
phase motors can be supplied by the UPS.
Where there is likely to be a large imbalance between the loads on the
three phases a three-phase four-wire Inverter is needed.

Lesson 7 Page 8
This is basically three separate single-phase Inverters connected in
star formation with a common neutral. So each Inverter supplies one
phase. By using three separate units, we can supply any amount of
imbalanced load - even full load on two phases with zero load on the
other.

4.2 THREE-PHASE BRIDGE INVERTER

Where the loads are balanced (e.g. three-phase motors) we can use a
single Inverter connected as a three-phase bridge. Fig. 7 -10 shows
the basic circuit. All commutating components except the free-
wheeling diodes are removed for clarity.

+
T1
T4
T5
T6
T3
T2
U V W
-

Fig. 7 -10. Three-Phase Bridge

Because of the complex conditions caused by six SCRs being
triggered and turned off rapidly, and with a three-phase inductive load
freewheeling through six diodes, it is possible for an SCR to be turned
off at the wrong time. So instead of one trigger pulse a pulse train is
applied to the SCR Gate, to ensure it keeps conducting until it is
deliberately turned off.
U, V and W are the three AC output terminals of the Bridge. Normally
they would supply a delta-connected load (e.g. 3-phase induction
motors) but balanced (3-wire) star-connected loads can also be
supplied.
In this example the SCRs are triggered to conduct for 180o each in 60o
steps, as shown in Fig. 7 -11, which also shows the phase-to-phase
output voltage for terminals U-V. The phase-to-phase voltages across
V-W and W-U are the same waveform, but are delayed by 120o and
240o respectively.

Lesson 7 Page 9
60 120 180 240 300 360
DEG.
T1
T2
T3
T4
T5
T6
AVERAGE OF
HALF CYCLE
1/2
1/3
3/6
2/6
2/1
U-V
E

Fig. 7 -11. Bridge Output Waveforms

The relative Firing Angles are:

T1 - 0o T3 - 120o T5 - 240o
T2 - 300o T4 - 60o T6 - 180o

By turning off T2, T4 and T6 slightly earlier or later, the average output
voltage can be controlled.
Uninterrupted Power Supply Inverter Auxiliaries
Lesson 8 Page 1
LESSON
8
LECTURE
INVERTER AUXILIARIES

Objectives
At the end of this Lesson, the Trainee will be able to explain how
resonant filters and transformers are used to convert square
waves to sinusoidal; the function of a static switch and the basic
elements of an Inverter trigger circuit.

1 HARMONIC FILTERS

The square or stepped voltage waveform produced by an Inverter must
be converted to a sinusoidal waveform to be used by the AC loads.
This is quite easy, because the square and stepped waveforms are
both a Fundamental Sine Wave with a number of small sinusoidal
Harmonics added to it:
Fundamental Waveform - 60 Hz
Second Harmonic - 120 Hz
Third Harmonic - 180 Hz
Fourth Harmonic - 240 Hz.........etc...
All we have to do is remove the harmonics, leaving the Fundamental
Sine Wave to supply the AC load. This is often done using Resonant
Filters.

1.1 SERIES RESONANT FILTER

A series resonant filter consists of an inductor and capacitor connected
in series, as shown in Fig. 8-1:

LOAD
L C
FILTER CIRCUIT LOAD
L C
FILTER CIRCUIT

Fig. 8-1. Series LC Filter

Total Filter Reactance = XT = XL + XC

XT = jL + _1_
jC

Lesson 8 Page 2
Maximum power transfer is when XT is zero. At this point, L and C are
resonant with each other. Therefore:

jL = _-1_
jC

jL x jC = -1

Since (j x j) = -1,

2 LC = 1

2 = _1_
LC

So for Resonance:
= _1_

LC

Since = 2f, we can match the required values of L and C to the
Fundamental Frequency (f0) required. All higher frequencies (i.e.
harmonics) will see a high impedance and be eliminated or greatly
reduced.
Example:
A series resonant filter is used to remove harmonics in a square wave
of frequency 50 Hz. If the capacitor is 500 F, calculate:
1. The size of inductor required.
2. The impedance to third harmonics.

Answer:

1. = 2f = 2 x x 50 = 100

2 = _1_ L = _1_
LC 2C

L = ______________1______________
100 x 100 x x x 500 x 10-6

L = __ _1____ = 0.02 H = 20 mH.
x x 5

2. For third harmonics, frequency = 3 x 50 = 150 Hz.

= 300 and XT = jL + _1_
jC

XT = j x 300 x 0.02 + ________1__________
j x 300 x 500 x 10-6

Lesson 8 Page 3
XT = (j x 6) + _-j__
0.15

XT = j( 6 - __1_ )
0.15

XT = j(18.852 - 2.114) = j16.74

From the above example, it should be obvious that the Series
Resonant Filter acts as a short circuit to the Fundamental Frequency,
but is an inductive reactance to any higher frequencies (i.e.
harmonics). The higher the harmonic frequency, the greater is the
blocking reactance. This is called attenuation, as the ratio of:
Output voltage becomes smaller as harmonic frequency rises.
Input Voltage
The capacitor is only in the circuit to cancel out the inductor at the
Fundamental Frequency. For high frequency harmonics, it has very
little effect, whereas the inductor has a very high reactance.

1.2 SHUNT RESONANT FILTER

This filter consists of an inductor and capacitor connected in parallel,
as shown in Fig. 8-2:

LOAD
L C
FILTER CIRCUIT
LOAD
L C
FILTER CIRCUIT

Fig. 8-2. Shunt LC Fillter

_1_ = _1_ + _1_
XT jL 1/jC

Maximum power transfer is when XT is infinite. At this point, L and C
are resonant with each other. Therefore:

jC = _-1_
jL

jL x jC = -1

2 LC = 1
Lesson 8 Page 4
2 = _1_
LC

So for Resonance:
= _1_

LC

Note that this is the same equation as for the Series Filter.
Since = 2f, we can match the required values of L and C to the
Fundamental Frequency (f0) required. All higher frequencies (i.e.
harmonics) will see a low shunt impedance and be diverted from the
load through the shunt filter.
Example:
A shunt resonant filter is used to remove harmonics in a square wave
of frequency 50 Hz. If the capacitor is 500 F, calculate:
1. The size of inductor required.
2. The impedance to third harmonics.
Answer:
1. We have already done this calculation for the series filter:

L = __ _1____ = 0.02 H = 20 mH.
x x 5

2. For third harmonics, frequency = 3 x 50 = 150 Hz.

= 2f = 300

_1_ = _______1______ + j x 300 x 500 x 10-6
XT j x 300 x 0.02

_1_ = -j_ + j x 0.15 = j( -0.053 + 0.471)
XT 6

_1_ = j 0.418 XT = 2.24
XT

From the above example, it is obvious that the Shunt Resonant Filter
acts as an open circuit to the Fundamental Waveform, which bypasses
it, but is a low capacitive reactance to harmonics.
The higher the harmonic frequency, the lower is this reactance. The
inductor is only in the circuit to cancel out the capacitor at Fundamental
Frequency. For high frequency harmonics, it has very little effect.
For good harmonic filtering, the series and shunt filters are usually
combined to produce the Resonant-Arm Filter shown in Fig. 8-3 on the
next page.

Lesson 8 Page 5

LOAD
L C
2
2
L
1
C
1
LOAD
L C
2
2
L
1
C
1

Fig. 8-3. Resonant-Arm Filter

2 TRANSFORMERS AND STATIC SWITCH

2.1 TRANSFORMERS

Many Inverter systems often do not need Harmonic Filters. Adequate
filtering of the square wave is often done by a simple transformer.
Small single-phase Inverters have a Ferro-Resonant transformer
connected at their output. Besides isolating the Inverter from the AC
load, this transformer is constructed so that the flux in its iron core
resonates at the fundamental frequency (60 Hz). The fundamental
frequency is allowed to pass easily through the transformer, but the
harmonics are blocked. The simple Half-Bridge Inverter described in
Lesson 6 uses a Ferro-Resonant transformer.
Three-Phase Inverters use three-phase transformers to block the third
harmonic, which is much larger than the other harmonics. Blocking is
achieved by including a Delta-Winding in the transformer, as shown in
Fig. 8-4:

DELTA PRIMARY
(FROM INVERTER)
STAR SECONDARY (TO LOAD)
A
B
C
a
b
c
n
DELTA PRIMARY
(FROM INVERTER)
STAR SECONDARY (TO LOAD)
A
B
C
a
b
c
n

Fig. 8-4. Delta/star Transformer

Lesson 8 Page 6
The triplen (3rd, 6th, 9th) harmonics cannot generate a voltage in the
star secondary winding because they are in-phase and cancel each
other out.
The fundamental frequency voltages are 120 degrees out-of-phase, so
form a vector triangle and easily generate voltages in the secondary.
The result is a fairly smooth sinusoidal output. The voltage vector
diagram for a transformer vector group of Dy11 is shown in Fig. 8-5:

A
B C
a
b
c
PRIMARY VOLTAGES SECONDARY VOLTAGES
n
A
B C
a
b
c
PRIMARY VOLTAGES SECONDARY VOLTAGES
n

Fig. 8-5. Voltage Vector Diagram

2.2 STATIC SWITCH
Refer back to Fig. 7-6-1 of Lesson 6. The Essential AC Loads Busbars
receive power from two inverters and a backup AC supply. The reason
is to provide redundancy of inverters - one inverter can be lost (due to
maintenance or a fault) without affecting the essential AC loads.
However, if one inverter does become faulty (due to insulation or SCR
failure) it must be isolated from the Essential AC Loads Busbars as
quickly as possible. Otherwise a short circuit in the faulty inverter may
be backfed from the busbars, causing major damage and loss of
supply.
Circuit breakers and relays take a long time to isolate the faulty
inverter. To achieve fast isolation times, we use the Static Switch,
which is simply two SCRs connected in opposed parallel. A typical
configuration is shown in Fig. 8-6:

---
~
+
-
INVERTER
ESSENTIAL
AC LOADS
L N
x
STATIC SWITCH
T1
T2
---
~
+
-
INVERTER
ESSENTIAL
AC LOADS
L N
x
STATIC SWITCH
T1
T2

Fig. 8-6. Static Switch
Lesson 8 Page 7

One way to obtain power for the trigger circuits of the two SCRs is to
use a centre-tapped transformer at the Inverter output, as shown in Fig.
8-7. When the inverter is healthy, T1 conducts positive half cycles and
T2 conducts negative ones.

T1
TRIGGER
TRIGGER
CIRCUIT
CIRCUIT
T2
L L
N N
T1
TRIGGER
TRIGGER
CIRCUIT
CIRCUIT
T2
L L
N N

Fig. 8-7. SCR Trigger Supplies

If the Inverter output fails, the current in the SCR which is conducting
falls below the Holding Current and the SCR turns off. The busbars
cannot backfeed the Inverter because the SCR is off.
The SCR which was not conducting at the time of failure cannot turn on
for the next half-cycle because it has no trigger supply.
So we have an almost instant method of isolating the faulty inverter
which is static (does not have any mechanical moving parts). Manual
isolation can then be done by opening the circuit breaker.
Because the Static Switch converts AC to AC, its circuit symbol has
two sine waves inside it, as shown in Fig. 7-6-1.
The operation mode described above means the Static Switch is ON
unless there is a fault in the Inverter. This is only one of many ways to
use a Static Switch.
Another common way to use the Static Switch is as a Bypass. In this
case, the Static Switch is normally OFF and only switches in when
the Inverter is faulty.
Refer to Fig. 8-8 on the next page. The Inverter supplies the load
directly. A monitoring device in the Inverter senses that the Inverter is
about to fail and initiates a start signal for the Static Switch trigger
circuits.

Lesson 8 Page 8
The standby AC mains supply is therefore brought in parallel with the
Inverter output. The total time taken for this is usually about 20 mS.
The Inverters output contactor then automatically opens, isolating the
faulty Inverter from the load in a further 30 mS.

---
~
+
-
INVERTER
L N
x
BYPASS STATIC SWITCH
x
TRIGGER INITIATED BY
" INVERTER FAULTY"
SIGNAL
CONTACTOR
STANDBY AC SUPPLY
---
~
+
-
INVERTER
L N
x
BYPASS STATIC SWITCH
x
TRIGGER INITIATED BY
" INVERTER FAULTY"
SIGNAL
CONTACTOR
STANDBY AC SUPPLY

Fig. 8-8. Static Bypass

3 SCR TRIGGERING

The SCRs in rectifiers and inverters need trigger pulses for their gates.
So we need Pulse Generators (trigger circuits). With SCR rectifiers,
the pulse generator is relatively simple, because it can use the same
AC supply as the SCR. Synchronising and timing of the pulses is quite
easy, as explained in Lesson 5.
With Inverters there is only DC power. So we have to use Oscillators
as the pulse generators. An oscillator is supplied with smooth DC
voltage and produces alternating waveforms. These waveforms can
be square wave, sawtooth wave, sinusoidal or pulses.
Capacitors are used in all oscillators to give the Time Delay needed to
produce the required waveform. The other main components may be
BJ T or FET Transistors, Unijunction Transistors (UJ Ts), Programmable
UJ Ts (PUTs), Crystals or Integrated Circuit Operational Amplifiers.
The oscillator design varies enormously from one inverter to another.
Popular types are Astable Multivibrators and Crystal Oscillators.
The SCR triggering system is also the Voltage Controller. Remember
from Lesson 6 that altering the relative firing of the SCRs alters the
shape (and so the Average Voltage) of the output from the Inverter.
A block diagram of a typical trigger/voltage control system is shown in
Fig. 8-9 on the next page. The Pulse Generator takes DC power from
the batteries and produces a square-wave output of fixed frequency
(60 Hz).

Lesson 8 Page 9
The Trigger Circuit for T1 amplifies the square-wave and supplies the
gate of SCR T1 with one positive pulse every 16.67 mS. T1 and T2
provide the positive half-cycles of Inverter output. A similar
arrangement exists for T2, except that the trigger pulses can be
advanced or retarded compared to those for T1, providing voltage
control.

---
~
INVERTER
HARMONIC
FILTER
STATIC SWITCH
~ ~
~
RECTIFIER
& DC
FILTER
VOLTAGE
COMPARATOR
Does E
out
= E
ref
?
DC
PHASE
SHIFTER
(R-C BRIDGE)
CIRCUIT
FOR T1
TRIGGER
PULSE
GENERATOR
INVERTER
(NOT GATE)
TO T3/T4
CONTROLS
TO T1 GATE
TO T2 GATE
TRIGGER
CIRCUIT
FOR T2
---
~
INVERTER
HARMONIC
FILTER
STATIC SWITCH
~ ~
~
RECTIFIER
& DC
FILTER
VOLTAGE
COMPARATOR
Does E
out
= E
ref
?
DC
PHASE
SHIFTER
(R-C BRIDGE)
CIRCUIT
FOR T1
TRIGGER
PULSE
GENERATOR
INVERTER
(NOT GATE)
TO T3/T4
CONTROLS
TO T1 GATE
TO T2 GATE
TRIGGER
CIRCUIT
FOR T2

Fig. 8-9. Trigger/Voltage Control

The sinusoidal output voltage from the Inverter and Harmonic Filter is
rectified and filtered and fed to a Comparator, where Eout is compared
with Eref (the Reference Voltage from a Zener Diode). Any error
voltage is then fed to the Phase-Shifter circuit, where it varies the
resistance in an R-C Bridge. The square-wave from the Pulse
Generator is the input to this R-C Bridge and the output waveform will
be phase-shifted (advanced or retarded). This output waveform
supplies the Trigger Circuit for T2.
The Logic Inverter (Not Gate) phase shifts the output waveform of the
Pulse generator by 180 degrees to supply the triggering for SCRs T3
and T4 in the Inverter, which provide the negative half-cycle of the
Inverter output.
An element not shown is the Synchronising Circuit which is used to
ensure the output voltage from the Inverter is synchronised with any
existing voltage on the Load Busbars before the Static Switch is
closed.

F F I I G G U U R R E E S S I I N N D D E E X X

Figure No. Page No.
Fig. 1 1. . 1 1 .. 1 1

Fig. 1 1. . 2 2 .. 2 2

Fig. 1.3 .. 4

Fig. 1.4 .5

Fig. 1.5 5

Fig. 1.6 ....6

Fig. 1.7 7

Fig. 2.1 .1

Fig. 2.2 ... 2

Fig. 2.3 .3

Fig. 2.4 3

Fig. 2.5 .6

Fig. 2.6 6

Fig. 2.7 . .7

Fig. 2.8 ... 8

Fig. 2.9...8

Fig. 2.10 9

Fig. 2.11 ...10

Fig. 2.1211

Fig. 2.13 .. .11

Fig. 3.1 .. 1

Fig. 3.2 .2

Fig. 3.3 .2

Fig. 3.4 ....3

Fig. 3.5 4

Fig. 3.6 .4

Fig. 3.7 ....... 5

Fig. 3.8 .....5

Fig. 3.9 ...6

Fig. 3.10...6

Fig. 4.1 ...1

Fig. 4.2 ....2

Fig. 4.3 .2

Fig. 4.4 ....4

Fig. 4.5 5

Fig. 4.6 .5

Fig.4.7 .... 6

Fig. 5.1 .1

Fig. 5.2 .3

Fig. 5.3 ....4

Fig. 5.4..4

Fig. 5.5 .5

Fig. 5.6 ... 6

Fig. 5.7 .7

Fig. 5.8.8

Fig5.9...9

Fig.5.10 12

Fig. 6.1 .1

Fig. 6.22

Fig. 6.3 ....6

Fig. 6.4 6

Fig. 7.1 .. .1

Fig.7.2 .... 2

Fig. 7.3 3

Fig. 7.4 ... 4

Fig. 7.5 ..5

Fig. 7.6...5

Fig7.7.....6

Fig.7.8 ..7

Fig. 7.9 .7

Fig. 7.108

Fig. 7.11...9

Fig. 8.1 .1

Fig. 8.2..... 3

Fig.8.3 ..5

Fig. 8.4..5

Fig8.5....6

Fig.8.6...6

Fig. 8.7.7

Fig. 8.8..8

Fig. 8.9....9

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