Chapter 23

International Trade
Finance
23-2
The Trade Relationship
Trade financing shares a number of common characteristics with
the traditional value chain activities conducted by all firms.
All companies must search out suppliers for the many goods and
services required as inputs to their own goods production or
service provision processes.
Issues to consider in this process include the capability of
suppliers to produce the product to adequate specifications, deliver
said products in a timely fashion, and to work in conjunction on
product enhancements and continuous process improvement.
All of the above must also be at an acceptable price and payment
terms.
23-3
The Trade Relationship
The nature of the relationship between the exporter and
the importer is critical to understanding the methods
for import-export financing utilized in industry.
There are three categories of relationships (see next
exhibit):
Unaffiliated unknown
Unaffiliated known
Affiliated (sometimes referred to as intra-firm trade)
The composition of global trade has changed
dramatically over the past few decades, moving from
transactions between unaffiliated parties to affiliated
transactions.
23-4
Exhibit 23.1 Alternative International
Trade Relationships
Unaffiliated
Known Party
A long-term customer
with which there is an
established relationship of
trust and performance
Unaffiliated
Unknown Party
A new customer
which with exporter has
no historical business
relationship
Affiliated
Party
A foreign subsidiary
or affiliate
of exporter
Requires:
1. A contract
2. Protection against
non-payment
Requires:
1. No contract
2. No protection against
non-payment
Requires:
1. A contract
2. Possibly some protection
against non-payment
Exporter
Importer is .
23-5
The Trade Dilemma
International trade (i.e. between and importer and
exporter) must work around a fundamental dilemma:
They live far apart
They speak different languages
They operate in different political environments
They have different religions
They have different standards for honoring
obligations
In essence, there could be distrust, and clearly the
importer and exporter would prefer two different
arrangements for payment/goods transfer (next exhibit)
23-6
Exhibit 23.2 The Mechanics of Import and Export
Importer
Importer
Exporter
Exporter
I mporter Preference
Exporter Preference
1
st
: Exporter ships the goods
2
nd
: Importer pays after goods received
1
st
: Importer pays for goods
2
nd
: Exporter ships the goods after being paid
23-7
The Trade Dilemma
The fundamental dilemma of being unwilling
to trust a stranger in a foreign land is solved by
using a highly respected bank as an
intermediary.
The following exhibit is a simplified view
involving a letter of credit (a banks promise to
pay) on behalf of the importer.
Two other significant documents are an order
bill of lading and a sight draft.
23-8
Exhibit 23.3 The Bank as the Import/Export Intermediary
Importer
Exporter
Bank
1
st
: Importer obtains banks promise
to pay on importers behalf.
2
nd
: Bank promises exporter
to pay on behalf of importer.
3
rd
: Exporter ships to the bank
trusting banks promise.
4
th
: Bank pays the
exporter.
6
th
: Importer pays
the bank.
5
th
: Bank gives merchandise
to the importer.
23-9
Benefits of the System
The system (including the three
documents discussed) has been
developed and modified over centuries to
protect both importer and exporter from:
The risk of noncompletion
Foreign exchange risk
To provide a means of financing

23-10
Elements of an Import/Export
Transaction
Each individual trade transaction must cover three
basic elements: description of goods, prices, and
documents regarding shipping and delivery
instructions.
Contracts:
An import or export transaction is by definition a contractual
exchange between parties in two countries that may have
different legal systems, currencies, languages, religions or
units of measure
All contracts should include definitions and specifications for
the quality, grade, quantity, and price of the goods in question
23-11
Elements of an Import/Export
Transaction
Prices:
Price quotations can be a major source of
confusion
Price terms in the contract should conform
to published catalogs, specify whether
quantity discounts or early payment
discounts are in effect, and state whether
finance charges are relevant in the case of
deferred payment, and should address other
relevant fees or charges
23-12
Elements of an Import/Export
Transaction
Documents:
Bill of lading issued to the exporter by a common carrier
transporting the merchandise
Commercial invoice issued by the exporter and contains a
precise description of the merchandise (also indicates unit
prices, financial terms of the sale etc.)
Insurance documents specified in the contract of sale and
issued by insurance companies (or their agents)
Consular invoices issued in the exporting country by the
consulate of the importing country
Packing lists
23-13
International Trade Risks
The following exhibit illustrates the sequence
of events in a single export transaction.
From a financial management perspective, the
two primary risks associated with an
international trade transaction are currency risk
(currency denomination of payment) and risk
of non-completion (timely and complete
payment).
The risk of default on the part of the importer
is present as soon as the financing period
begins.
23-14
Exhibit 23.4 The Trade Transaction Time-Line
and Structure
Time and Events
Price
quote
request
Export
contract
signed
Goods
are
shipped
Documents
are
accepted
Goods
are
received
Negotiations
Backlog
Documents Are
Presented
Cash
settlement
of the
transaction
Financing Period
23-15
Letter of Credit (L/C)
A letter of credit (L/C) is a banks conditional
promise to pay issued by a bank at the request
of an importer, in which the bank promises to
pay an exporter upon presentation of
documents specified in the L/C.
An L/C reduces the risk of noncompletion
because the bank agrees to pay against
documents rather than actual merchandise.
The following exhibit shows the relationship
between the three parties.
23-16
Exhibit 23.5 Parties to a Letter of Credit (L/C)
I ssuing Bank
Beneficiary
(exporter)
Applicant
(importer)
The relationship between the importer and the
exporter is governed by the sales contract.
The relationship between the
importer and the issuing bank is
governed by the terms of the
application and agreement
for the letter of credit (L/C).
The relationship between the
issuing bank and the exporter
is governed by the terms of the
letter of credit, as issued by
that bank.
23-17
Letter of Credit (L/C)
The essence of the L/C is the promise of the issuing bank to pay
against specified documents, which must accompany any draft drawn
against the credit.
To constitute a true L/C transaction, all of the following five elements
must be present with respect to the issuing bank:
Must receive a fee or other valid business consideration for issuing
the L/C
The L/C must contain a specified expiration date or definite
maturity
The banks commitment must have a stated maximum amount of
money
The banks obligation to pay must arise only on the presentation of
specific documents
The banks customer must have an unqualified obligation to
reimburse the bank on the same condition as the bank has paid
23-18
Letter of Credit (L/C)
Commercial letters of credit are also classified:
Irrevocable versus revocable
Confirmed versus unconfirmed
The primary advantage of an L/C is that it reduces risk
the exporter can sell against a banks promise to pay
rather than against the promise of a commercial firm.
The major advantage of an L/C to an importer is that
the importer need not pay out funds until the
documents have arrived at the bank that issued the L/C
and after all conditions stated in the credit have been
fulfilled.
23-19
Exhibit 23.6 Essence of a Letter of Credit (L/C)
Bank of the East, Ltd.
[Name of I ssuing Bank]
Date: September 18, 2003
L/C Number 123456
Bank of the East, Ltd. hereby issues this irrevocable documentary Letter of Credit
to Jones Company [name of exporter] for US$500,000, payable 90 days after sight
by a draft drawn against Bank of the East, Ltd., in accordance with Letter of
Credit number 123456.
The draft is to be accompanied by the following documents:

1. Commercial invoice in triplicate
2. Packing list
3. Clean on board order bill of lading
4. Insurance documents, paid for by buyer
At maturity Bank of the East, Ltd. will pay the face amount of the draft to the
bearer of that draft.
Authorized Signature
23-20
Draft
A draft, sometimes called a bill of exchange (B/E), is
the instrument normally used in international
commerce to effect payment.
A draft is simply an order written by an exporter
(seller) instructing and importer (buyer) or its agent to
pay a specified amount of money at a specified time.
The person or business initiating the draft is known as
the maker, drawer, or originator.
Normally this is the exporter who sells and ships the
merchandise.
The party to whom the draft is addressed is the drawee.
23-21
Draft
If properly drawn, drafts can become negotiable instruments.
As such, they provide a convenient instrument for financing the
international movement of merchandise (freely bought and sold).
To become a negotiable instrument, a draft must conform to the
following four requirements:
It must be in writing and signed by the maker or drawer
It must contain an unconditional promise or order to pay a
definite sum of money
It must be payable on demand or at a fixed or determinable
future date
It must be payable to order or to bearer
There are time drafts and sight drafts.
23-22
Exhibit 23.7 Essence of a Time Draft
Name of Exporter
Date: October 10, 2003
Draft number 7890
Ninety (90) days after sight of this First of Exchange, pay to the order of Bank
of the West [name of exporters bank] the sum of Five-hundred thousand U.S.
dollars for value received under Bank of the East, Ltd. letter of credit
number 123456.
Signature of Exporter
23-23
Bill of Lading (B/L)
The third key document for financing
international trade is the bill of lading or B/L.
The bill of lading is issued to the exporter by a
common carrier transporting the merchandise.
It serves three purposes: a receipt, a contract,
and a document of title.
Bills of lading are either straight or to order.
23-24
Documentation in a Typical
Trade Transaction
A trade transaction could conceivably be
handled in many ways.
The transaction that would best illustrate the
interactions of the various documents would be
an export financed under a documentary
commercial letter of credit, requiring an order
bill of lading, with the exporter collecting via a
time draft accepted by the importers bank.
The following exhibit illustrates such a
transaction.
23-25
Exhibit 23.8 Steps in a Typical Trade Transaction
Exporter
Bank X Bank I
Importer
Public
Investor
1. Importer orders goods
2. Exporter agrees to fill order
6. Exporter ships goods to Importer
4. Bank I sends
L/C to Bank X
9. Bank I accepts draft, promising to pay in 60
days, and returns accepted draft to Bank X
7. Exporter presents
draft and documents
to its bank, Bank X
12. Bank I obtains
importers note
and releases shipment
3. Importer
arranges L/C
with its bank
13. Importer
pays
its bank
8. Bank X presents draft and
documents to Bank I
5. Bank X
advises
exporter
of L/C 10. Bank X sells
acceptance to investor
14. Investor presents acceptance
and is paid by Bank I
11. Bank X
pays
exporter
23-26
Government Programs
to Help Finance Exports
Governments of most export-oriented industrialized countries
have special financial institutions that provide some form of
subsidized credit to their own national exporters.
These export finance institutions offer terms that are better than
those generally available from the competitive private sector.
Thus domestic taxpayers are subsidizing lower financial costs for
foreign buyers in order to create employment and maintain a
technological edge.
The most important institutions usually offer export credit
insurance and a government-supported bank for export financing.
23-27
Export Credit Insurance in India
Provided by Export Credit & Guarantee
Corporation of India (ECGC).
ECGC provides a range of services to
exporters against loss of goods.
Offers guarantees to banks and financial
institutions which are involved in export
financing.
Provided overseas investment insurance
to Indian companies investing abroad.
23-28
EXIM Bank of India
Exim Bank of India, provides financial assistance to promote
Indian exports through:
1. Direct financial assistance,
2. Overseas investment finance,
3. Term finance for export production and export development,
4. Pre-shipping credit,
5. Buyer's credit,
6. Lines of credit,
7. Relending facility,
8. Export bills redixcounting,
9. Refinance to commercial banks.
10. The Exim Bank also extends non-founded facility to Indian
exporters in the form of guarantees.
23-29
Setting Up EOUs
The Government amended in November 1983 a
concession scheme to facilitate the setting up
of export-oriented units (EOUs) in order to
enable them to meet requirements of foreign
demand in terms of pricing, quality, precision
etc.
EOUs can be set up anywhere in the country
and may be engaged in the manufacture and
production of software, floriculture,
horticulture, agriculture, aquaculture, animal
husbandry, pisciculture, poultry and sericulture
or other similar activities.
23-30
Marketing Finance from EXIM Bank
Exim Bank seeks to create and enhance export
capabilities and international competitiveness
of Indian companies.
Under the lending programme for Export
Marketing Finance, the Banks addresses the
term finance reqirement for a structured and
strategic export marketing and development
effort of companies.



23-31
Trade Financing Alternatives
In order to finance international trade
receivables, firms use the same financing
instruments as they use for domestic trade
receivables, plus a few specialized instruments
that are only available for financing
international trade.
There are short-term financing instruments and
longer-term instruments in addition to the use
of various types of barter to substitute for these
instruments.
23-32
Forfaiting
Forfaiting is a specialized technique to eliminate the
risk of nonpayment by importers in instances where the
importing firm and/or its government is perceived by
the exporter to be too risky for open account credit.
The following exhibit illustrates a typical forfaiting
transaction (involving five parties importer, exporter,
forfaiter, investor and the importers bank).
The essence of forfaiting is the non-recourse sale by an
exporter of bank-guaranteed promissory notes, bills of
exchange, or similar documents received from an
importer in another country.
23-33
Exhibit 23.10 Typical Forfaiting Transaction
Exporter
(private industrial firm)

Importer
(private firm or government
purchaser in emerging market)
FORFAITER
(subsidiary of a
European bank)
Importers Bank
(usually a private bank in
the importers country
Investor
(institutional or individual)

Step 1
Step 3
Step 2
Step 7
Step 5
Step 4
Step 6
23-34
Countertrade
The word countertrade refers to a variety of
international trade arrangements in which goods and
services are exported by a manufacturer with
compensation linked to that manufacturer accepting
imports of other goods and services.
In other words, an export sale is tied by contract to an
import.
The countertrade may take place at the same time as
the original export, in which case credit is not an issue;
or the countertrade may take place later, in which case
financing becomes important.
23-35
International Trade Financing by
Commercial Banks in India.
Indian commercial banks offer Trade finance related fund needs
for both pre shipment and post shipment activities.

1. Various schemes to provide financing to exporters are as follows.

Rupee Export Credit (Pre-Shipment and Post-Shipment)
Pre-Shipment Export Credit
Post-Shipment Export Credit
Pre-Shipment Credit in Foreign Currency (PCFC)
Getting Started - Opening a PCFC
Operating PCFC
Export Bill Rediscounting
Letter of Credit
2. Various schemes to provide financing to importers are as follows.

Foreign Currency import credit
Supplier's credit