ACBridges

Whatistheuseofacbridges?
findmanyapplications,bothlinearandnon
linear,includingininstrumentation,filtering
andpowerconversion.
Bestmethodfortheprecisemeasurementof
selfandmutualinductance,capacitance,
frequency,phaseangleandtemperature
directly.

merelycomparethevaluesofanunknown
componenttothatofknown.
Highmeasurementaccuracy
Duetoonnulldeflection
independentofthecharacteristicsofthedetector.
Sourcevoltagevariationinnotaffectingthenull
deflection.

Forbalancingtwoconditionsmustsatisfy
simultaneously
Magnitude
Phaseangle
1 4 2 3
Z Z Z Z =
1 4 2 3
u u u u Z + Z = Z + Z
Selfandmutualinductanceandcapacitanceby
acbridgesiscarriedoutinthesamewayas
resistanceismeasured.

balancingadjustmentismorecomplex.
Needtoconsiderthemagnitudeandphaseangle
ofthecircuitelement.

Balancingisdetected...
Notbygalvanometers
Butbymeansof
Telephonereceivers,headphones,vibrating
galvanometers,tunableamplifiersetc.
Examplesofacbridgedetectors

CLASSIFICATIONOFACBRIDGES
Maxwellsbridge
Maxwellweinbridge
Andersonbridge
Haybridge
Owenbridge
Desautysbridge
Scheringbridge
InductanceBridge
CapacitanceBridge
GeneralEquationforbridgebalance:
Figureshowsgeneralform
ofacbridge.
Fourimpedancearmanda
detector.
Balanceisobtainedthrough
theadjustmentof1ormorearms.
Adjustthearmtoget

and

1 2
E E =
3 4
E E =
1 1 2 2
3 3 4 4
I Z I Z
I Z I Z
=
=
1
2
Divideequation1by2,wehave

Separatemagnitudepartandphaseanglepart.
Itisnotnecessaryforthe4impedancestohaveidentical
phaseanglesandimpedancestobeofsamekind.
1 2
3 4
1 4 2 3
1 1 4 4 2 2 3 3
Z Z
Z Z
Z Z Z Z
Z Z Z Z u u u u
=
=
Z Z = Z Z
Complexform
Polarform
Maxwellsbridge

Suitableforaccuratemeasurementofmedium
inductances.
Unknowninductanceismeasuredintermsofknown
standardinductance.
L2shouldbeofsameorderasthatofL1.
Bridgehasfourarms,twoofthemcariespureresistance.
Balanceisobtainedbyvaryingstandardinductanceand
pureresistors.
Atbalancedcondition,currentthrough
thedetectoriszero.

Nowonnextside;

Divide1by2andseparate
realandreactivepart.

1 3
2 4
I I
I I
=
=
3 3 4 4
1 1 1 2 2 2
( ) ( )
I R I R
I R j L I R j L e e
=
+ = +
1
3 3 4 4
I R I R =
2
Wehave

And

ThusL
1
canbedetermined.
1 2 2
1 3
3 4 4
R R R
orR R
R R R
= =
3 2 1 2
1
3 4 4
R L L L
orL
R R R
e e
= =
I
1
R
3
=I
2
R
4
I
1
R
1
=I
2
R
2
I
1*
jL
1
=I
2*
jL
2
I
1
=I
3
I
2
=I
4
Maxwellweinbridge

Suitableforaccuratemeasurementofmedium
inductances.
Unknowninductanceismeasuredintermsofknown
standardvariablecapacitance.
Balanceisobtainedbyvaryingstandardcapacitanceand
pureresistors.

1 1 3 3
2 2 4 4
I Z I Z
I Z I Z
=
=
4
4
4
4
1
1 1
1
c
R
Z
j C
R jX
e
= =
+
+
Atbalancedcondition;

Crossmultiplyandseparaterealandimaginaryquantities.

Qfactor==R
4
C
4

( )
1 4 2 3
1 1 4
2 3
4 4
1
Z Z Z Z
R j L R
R R
j C R
e
e
=
+
=
+
1 4 2 3
2 3
1
4
1 4 2 3
R R R R
R R
R
R
L C R R
=
=
=
1
1
L
R
e
I
4
I
1
=I
2
I
3
I
c
V
V
2
=V
4
I
1
R
1
I
4
V
1=
V
3
I
1
L
1
AndersonBridge
Aim
Todeterminetheselfinductanceof
thecoil(L).
Tocalculatethevalueofinductive
reactance(X
L
)ofthecoilata
particularfrequency.
AlargenumberofACbridgesare
availableandAnderson'sBridgeisanACbridgeusedto
measureselfinductanceofthecoil.
modificationofWheatstone'sBridge.
Thebridgeisbalancedbyasteadycurrentbyreplacing
thedetectorbymovingcoilgalvanometerandA.Csource
byabattery,byvaryingR
2
,R
3
andR
4.
Thenbalancingbyadjustingthevariableresistance,ron
acsupply.
headphoneorvibratinggalvanometercanbeusedas
detector.
conditionforbalanceisthatthepotentialsatthe
terminalsDandEaresame.

1 2
3 4
r c
c
I I andI I
I I I
= =
= +
1 3
2 2
c
c
V V I r
I V I r
= +
= +
Usingstardeltatransformation
ScheringBridge
Usingforcapacitanceandrelativepermittivity
measurement.
Measuringunknowncapacitancebycomparingitwith
knownstandardcapacitance.
Imperfecteffectofcapacitanceisrepresentedasa
resistanceisserieswithcapacitor.
Dielectriclosscomponentbyasshuntresistance.

1
1
1 1
1
1
1
1
1
R
Z
j C R
j C
R
e
e
= =
+
+
2 2
Z R =
3
3
j
Z
C e

=
4
4
4 4
1
R
Z
j C R e
=
+
Underbalance

Equaterealandimaginaryparts,
1 4 2 3
Z Z Z Z =
1 4
2
1 1 4 4 3
. .
1 1
R R j
R
j C R j C R C e e e

=
+ +
( )
1 4 1 1 2
4 4
1 1 1 1 3
1
. 1
1 1
R R j C R jR
j C R
j C R j C R C
e
e
e e e

= +
+
( )
1 4 1 1 2
4 4
2 2 2
1 1 3
(1 )
1
1
R R j C R jR
j C R
C R C
e
e
e e

= +
+
1 4 4 4 2
2 2 2
1 1 3
1
R R C R R
C R C e
=
+
1
I
R1
V
1
=V
3
I
R4
V
2
=V
4
I
1=
I
2
I
c1
I
3=
I
4
I
c4

Fromvectordiagram

Substitutethisin1,

Againfromvectordiagram

also

1 1
2 2
1
1 1
cos
( ) ( )
c c
c R
I I
I
I I
o = =
+
1 1
2
2 2 2
1
1 1
2
1
V C
V
V C
R
e
e
=
+
2 2 2
2
1 1
2 2 2
1 1
cos
1
C R
C R
e
o
e
=
+
2
4 2
2 2
1 1 3
cos C R
C R C
o
e
=
2
3
1
2
1 4 2 1
cos C
C
C C R R
o
e
=
4 4 4
4 4
4
4
4
c
R
I V C
Tan C R
V
I
R
e
o e = = =
1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1
R
c
I V R
Tan
I CV C R
o
e e
= = =
2
V
2
=V
4
I
1
=I
2
I
C1
I
3
=I
4
I
C4
I

Therefore

Substitutethisin2,

Wherelossangleofcapacitorandsinisthepower
factorofcapacitor.
CircuitforImperfectcapacitorasaseriescircuit.

4 4
1 1
1
C R
C R
e
e
=
4
2
1 4 1
1
R
C C R e
=
2
3 4
1
2
cos C R
C
R
o
=
1
2 2
S
S
j
Z R
C
Z R
e

=
=
3
3
4
4
4 4
1
j
Z
C
R
Z
j C R
e
e

=
=
+
4
2
3
4
3
2
S
S
C
R R
C
R
C C
R
=
=
Thedeviceisbeingusedsince1889,popularity
raisedduring1920s.
Aninstrumentusedforhighresistanceand
insulationresistancemeasurement.
Theequipmentbasicallyuseforverifyingthe
electricalinsulationlevelofanydevice.
motor,cable,generatorwinding,etc.

Megger
TypesofMegger
Separatedintomainlytwocategories:
1.ManualType(HandOperated)
2.ElectronicType(BatteryOperated)
ManualType(HandOperated):
Consistshanddrivendcgenerator.
Directreadingohmmeter.
Permanentmagnetproducethefieldforboththe
generatorandohmmeter.
Movingcoilelementconsiststhreecoils
Currentcoil,pressurecoilandcompensatingcoil.
Allarerigidlyattachedtothespindle.

Thecoilsareconnectedtothecircuitbymeansof
flexibleleadsorligamentsexertsnorestoring
force.
ThecurrentcoilisconnectedinserieswithR
1
.
iebetweengeneratorterminalandTestterminalT
2
.
R
1
protectsthecurrentcoilincasetestterminals
areshortcircuitedandalsocontroltherangeof
instrument.
Pressurecoilisinserieswithcompensatingcoil
andprotectionresistanceR
2
.

Testingmethod:
Compensatingcoilprovidesbetterscale
compensations.
Currentfromgeneratorflowsthroughpressurecoil.
ProduceitsownfieldrightanglestothefieldofPM.
Nocurrentflowthroughthemovingcoilwhentest
terminalsareopened.
ThepressurecoilthusgovernsthemotionofMC.
Causingittomovetoitsextremecounterclockwise
position.
Thenpointerindicatesinfiniteresistance.
Currentcoiliswoundtoproduceclockwisetorque.
ShortcircuitedtestterminalsT
1
andT
2
,produce
enoughtorquetoovercomecountertorqueofPC.
Helpstomoveextremerightandindicatezero.

ResistanceundertestisconnectedbetweenT
1
andT
2
.
produceopposingtorquesoncoils,balanceseach
other,andpointercomestorest.
Scaleiscalibratedinmegaohmsand1000sofmega
ohm.

Aguardringisconnectedtoshunttheleakage
currentoverthetestterminalsorwithinthetester
itselftotheveterminalofthegenerator,without
passingthroughCC.

Testvoltagesare:
250V,500V,1kV,2.5kV
Handdrivengeneratorproducethesevoltages.
Aspecialtypeofslippingclutchisfittedonthehandleto
maintainconstantvoltage,whenhandlespeedisvariable.
Instrumentindicationsareindependentofthemagnetic
strength,asitisavailablefromthesamecommonmagnet
ThetestvoltagemustbeatleastdoubletheNominal
EquipmentVoltage(Vac).
ElectronicType(BatteryOperated):
Importantparts:
1.DigitalDisplay:showIRvalueindigitalform.
2.Wireleads:Twonosofwireleadsforconnectingmeggerwith
electricalexternalsystemtobetested.
3.Selectionswitches:Switchesusetoselectelectricalparameters
ranges.
4.Indicators:Toindicatesvarious
parametersstatusi.e.OnOff.
ForExamplePower,hold,Warning,etc.
Note:constructiondifferenceappears
manufacturetomanufacturebutbasic
construction&operationaresameforall.

AdvantagesofElectronicTypeMegger

Levelofaccuracyisveryhigh.
IRvalueisdigitaltype,easytoread.
Onepersoncanoperateveryeasily.
Worksperfectlyevenatverycongestedspace.
Veryhandy&safetouse.

DisadvantagesofElectronicTypeMegger
Requireanexternalsourceofenergytoenergies
i.e.Drycell.
Costlierinmarket.
Measurementofearthresistance

Measurementofearthresistancehasutmost
importance.
Resistanceismeasuredbetweenearthplateand
surroundingground.

TheFallofPotentialmethodisthemostcommonly
usedmethodoftesting.
Threeorfourpolemethodmayuse,thisreferstothe
numberofconnectionsmadetothegroundtester.
Theforthpoleofthe
connectionismadeifthe
wiretoconnecttothe
systemundertestis
particularlylong>4meters.
GroundTestingMethods
Theadditionalwirecancelsoutanerrorduetothe
extendedlengthofwireused.
TheEterminaloftheinstrumentisconnectedtothe
electrodeundertest.
ThetestspikeC2isplacedinthegroundsomedistance
fromelectrodeundertest(typically50meter).
ThevoltagespikeP2isplacedinthegroundsome
distancefromelectrodeundertest
(typically80feet~=25m).

Oncethestakesareinplacethe
testcanproceed.

Duringthetesttheinstrumentdrivesacurrentthrough
thetestspike,throughthesurroundingearthand
returnsthroughtheelectrodeundertest.
thepotentialcausedbythiscurrentismeasuredusing
theP2spike.

Fromthecurrentandvoltagemeasurementsmadeitis
possibletocalculateavalueofgroundresistance.
AnumberofreadingsshouldbetakenwiththeP2spike
atdifferentdistances,sayfrom20to35metersat3to5
meterintervals.

ThedistanceoftheP2spikeisvariedtoensurethatitis
positionedoutsideofthesphereinfluenceofthe
electrodeundertest.
Toavoidresistanceareaoverlap,P2ismovedto
differentpositions.
WhentheP2spikeisclosetotheelectrodeundertest
themeasuredvalueappearstobelowerandasit
becomesinfluencedbytheC2spikeandthemeasured
valuerises.
Theoptimalpointofmeasurementisoutsideofthe
influenceofelectrodeandC2spike.
Takingaseriesofmeasurementsandplottingthese
againstdistanceproducesthecurve.

Theoptimumvalueisthatindicatedontheflatpartof
thecurve.

Priortodesigningangroundingsystem:
thegroundmaterialshouldbeevaluatedbyresistivity
measurementbeforedesigningagroundsystem.
Initialtestonnewgroundsystems:
therealeffectivenessofnewgroundsystemsshouldbe
measuredbeforeconnectionfallofpotentialtest
Periodictestsongroundsystems:
groundsystemsshouldbecheckedperiodicallytoensurethey
arenotaffectedbychangesinthegroundorcorrosion
selectiveorstakelesstest

Whenandwhygroundtest?
Testingpriortoadditionofmajorloads:
priortoinstallationofsensitiveequipmentsuchas
servers,CTscanners,controlsystems,etc.
Safetytestsonmajorequipmentandplant
e.g.groundtestsonmachines,elevators,conveyor
belts,transformers,substations,boardsandmotors
selectivetestingespeciallyuseful.

TRANSDUCER

Transducerfordisplacementmeasurement
LVDT

WhatisaLVDT?
Electromechanicaltransducer
Coupledtoanytypeofobject/structure
Convertstherectilinearmotionofanobjectintoa
correspondingelectricalsignal
MeasuresDisplacement!!!!!!!!
PrecisionofLVDT
Movementsassmallasafewmillionthsofaninch
Usuallymeasurementsaretakenontheorderof12
inches
SomeLVDTshavecapabilitiestomeasureupto20
inches

DCvs.ACOperated
DCOperated
Easeofinstallation
Simplerdataconditioning
Operatefromdrycellbatteries(remotelocations)
LowerSystemCost
ACOperated
SmallerthanDC
MoreaccuratethanDC
Operatewellathightemperatures

LVDT
Mostwidelyusedinductivetransducer
fordisplacementmeasurement.
Translatinglinearmotionintoan
electricalsignal.
Whichisadifferentialtransformer.
Consisting
1primarywindingand2secondarywindings.
Woundonahollowbobbinofnonmagnetic&insulatingmaterial.
Secondarywindingsareplacedoneithersideofprimary.
Softironcoreattachedtothesensingelementmoves
throughit.
Coreismadeofnickelalloytoreduceeddycurrenteffects.
Primaryconnectedtoanacsourceof5to25V

Frequencyfrom50Hzto20kHz.
Whilecoremoves,couplingofprimarytosecondary
variesandproportionaldifferentialvoltageis
produced.
Secondarywindingsareconnectedinseries
opposition.
Differenceinvoltagegivestheamountof
displacement.
Outputvoltagese
1
ande
2
willbe180
o
outofphase.
Outputwillbelinearforlimitedrangeof
displacement(5mm).
Someresidualvoltagemayexistsinthesystem.
Maybedueto
Magneticunbalance
Electricunbalance
Presenceofharmonicsinsupply
Harmonicsproducedintheoutputvoltageduetomagnetic
saturation.

CommercialLVDTrange0.01mmto25mm.

FrictionFreeOperation
NOmechanicalcontactbetweencoreandcoil(usually)
InfiniteMechanicalLife
InfiniteResolution
Electromagneticcoupling
Limitedonlybyelectricalnoise
Lowriskofdamage
MostLVDTshaveopenboreholes
NullPointRepeatability
Zerodisplacementcanbemeasured
SingleAxisSensitivity
Effectsofotheraxesarenotfeltontheaxisofinterest
EnvironmentallyRobust
Stable/Strongsensorsgoodforstructuralengineeringtests!!!
Whyitis?
Translatingangulardisplacementintoelectricalsignal.
PrincipleissameasthatofLVDT.
Giveslinearityofapproximately1%fortravelof40
withsensitivityoftheorderof10mVperdegree.
Mainadvantageisthat,infiniteresolutionandlinear
operation.
RVDT
Whichhasconsiderableimportanceinprocess
industries.
Pressureisdefinedastheforceperunitareaand
refersonlytotheforceperunitareaexertedbythe
fluids.
Theinstrumentusedcanbe
Mechanical
Electromechanical
Electricalor
electronic
Mechanicaldevicesusedcanbeclassifiedinto
gravitationalandelastictypes.
PRESSUREMEASUREMENT
Formeasurementofforceorpressure,theapplied
parameterisfirstconvertedintodisplacement.
convertingdevicesare
Diaphragm
Capsule
Bellows
Bourdontube
Thendisplacementisconvertedintoelectricalsignal.
Pressuremeasurementbybellows.
Onesideofbelowisfixed
andothersideismovable.
Accordingtothenatureofpressure
itexpandsorcompresses.
PressuremeasurementbybellowandLVDT.
InsteadofLVDT,potentiometercanbeusedfor
pressuremeasurement.

Burdontubemethodofpressuremeasurement.

Burdontubeandresistancetransduceofpressure
measurement.

Speed/velocityMeasurement:
1.Stroboscope
Usedforspeedmeasurement
Whichemitsperiodicflashesoflightofveryshort
duration.
Iftheflashesfallsonceperrevolutionofarotating
body,itsseemstobestationarytotheobserver.
Ifflashingrateisslightlyless,thebodyseemstobe
rotatinginforwarddirectionandviceversa.
Stroboscopedoesnotconsumeanypowerfrom
rotatingmachine.
Frequencyofflashiscontrolledbyanoscillator.
Deviceiscalibratedtoreadthespeeddirectlyinrpm.
Frequencyofflashisadjusteduntilthebodyappears
stationary.
Nowtheadjustedfrequencycanbedirectlymeasured
fromthedial.
Flashingfrequenciesrangesupto14000/minutefor
visualand20000/minuteforphotographic
observation.
Measuresspeedsfrommanyhundredstomany
thousandsofrpm.
Measurementmethod:
Stroboscopicdiscisusedtomeasurethespeed.
Discispaintedwithgeometricalpatternsandisrigidly
attachedtotheshaftoftherotatingmachine.
Whichisthenilluminatedbyaseriesofperiodicflashes,
eachofveryshortdurationbetweensuccessiveflashes.
Frequencyofflashisadjustedsuchthatdiscseemstobe
stationary.
Thishappenswhenthediscmovesonepointpitch
duringthetimeintervalbetweentwosuccessive
flashes.
Ifno.ofpointsonthedisc=n
No.offlashesperminute=K
Speedofmachine=N
Diaofdisc=D
pointpitch=p=(D)/n
distancemovedbythediscduringtwosuccessiveflashes=
(DN)/K)=pitchp,
LHSofaboveequationsaresame,weget,(D)/n=(DN)/K)
orN=K/n
Knowingthefrequencyofflashes,speedcanbe
determined.

Neonlampwithtrippingcircuitisgenerallyused.
Neonlampisconnectedtoanoscillatorycircuit
suppliedfrom50Hz.
Circuitcanbeadjustedtogetflashes.

Demerits:
Notusableifsurroundingshavingambientlightabove
certainlevel.
Notaccurateasmuchofdigital,becauseofoscillatornature.

2.LinearVelocitymeasurement:
Linearvelocityismeasuredbyconvertinglinearmotioninto
anangularvelocitywhendistancetravelledislong.
Forsmalldistance,directmethodisused(movingcoil
magneticpickup).
Hereemfisinducedonmovingcoil,whenitmoves
perpendiculartothemagneticfieldandisproportionalto
thevelocity.
e=BLvsin

Fluxdensityofpermanentmagnetislimitedto0.5T.
Usingfinewiresoflargenumberofturns.
Henceitsresistanceishighandsohighresistancevoltmeter
mustuse,toavoidloadingeffect.

1.Eddycurrenttachometer(angularvelocity):
aninstrumentformeasuringthespeedofrotationofthe
shaftsofmachinesandmechanisms.
Centrifugal,mechanical,eddycurrent,andelectrictachometersare
mostcommon
pneumaticandvelocityhead,orhydraulic,tachometersareusedless
frequently.
Aluminiumdiscfacingthepole.
PMrotateswithshaft.
Springprovidesrestoringtorque.
2.DCtachometer(angularvelocity):
Usingpermanentmagnetsandanarmature.
Armaturerotatesandcollectingthevoltagebyvoltmeter.
Ithasmaintenanceproblemincommutator.
Typicalmeterhas11coils
Sensitivityof5Vper1000rpm
range6000rpm
Internalresistanceof300
70mmlong.
3.ACtachometer(angularvelocity):
Samecategoryasabove
Rectifierisusedtoconvertactodcandpassedthrough
filter.
PMMC,calibratedintermsofrotationalspeed,directlyuse.
Torqueisthetorsionaltwistingmomentorcouple
whichtendtotwistarigidlyfixedbody.
Variouselectromechanicalandelectronicsmethods
are:
Bystraingauge
Byinductivetransducers
Withmagnetostrictivetransducer
Byelectronicstechniques
Straingaugedloadcells
Byelectrictorquemeasurement

TorqueMeasurement
Forcesthatcauseextendedobjectstorotateare
associatedwithtorques.
Mathematically,thetorqueonaparticleisdefinedas
thecrossproduct:

TorqueMeasurementbystraingauge

Acircularshaftwithfourstrain
gagesmountedontwo
perpendicularhelices.
Gage1&3aremountedon
righthandhelix,senseapositive;
while2&4aremountedonleft
handhelixgivingnegativesense.
Theshearingstresstinthe
circularshaftisrelatedtothe
appliedtorqueTbythe
equation:

Torqueismeasuredbyeithersensingtheactualshaft
deflectioncausedbyatwistingforce,orbydetecting
theeffectsofthisdeflection.
Thesurfaceofashaftundertorquewillexperience
compressionandtension.
Tomeasuretorque,straingageelementsusuallyare
mountedinpairsontheshaft.
onegaugemeasuringtheincreaseinlength
theothermeasuringthedecreaseinlengthintheother
direction.

installeddirectlyonashaft.
excitationvoltageforthestraingageisinductively
coupledandtheoutputisconvertedtoamodulated
pulsefrequency.

Loadcellisapassivetransducerorsensorwhich
convertsappliedforceintoelectricalsignals.
Alsocalledelectromechanicaldevice[convertsforce
orweightsintoanelectricalsignal].
Widelyusedforstaticor
dynamicforcemeasurement.
Differentoperatingprinciples,
1.LoadCellsbasedonfluidpressure.
2.LoadCellsbasedonelasticity.
3.Basedonmagnetostrictioneffectorpiezoelectriceffect.
LoadCell
Heartofloadcellistheloadreceivingelement[an
elasticelementhavinghightensilestrength].
Thenbondedtostraingaugebridgenetwork.
LCderivesitsoutputfromthedeformationofthe
elasticelement,madeofhomogeneousmaterial
[steelalloy].
Itsdesignparametersincludes:
Relativesizeandshape
Materialdensityandmodulusofelasticity
Deflection
Strainsensitivityanddynamicresponse
Selectedmaterialsmustshowtheproperties:
Linearstressstrainrelationshipuptolargeelasticstrainlimit
[of5000microstrain].
Lowstrainhysteresisoverrepeatedusage
Verylowcreepoverlongperiodofloading.
Verylowplasticflowbecauseofstrain.
Otherpropertiesare
Ultimatetensilestrength,modulusofelasticityandits
variationwithtemperature,linearityofstress&easeof
fabrication.
Variousmaterialsused:
Mediumtohighcarbonsteelofchromiummolybdenum
andprecipitatehardenedstainlesssteel.
Working:
Cellconnectedtoabridge(ACorDC)andapplyavoltageas
input(millivolt).
Readoutdevicegivesbalancedstate.
Noloadcondition,nodeflection.
Ontheapplicationofload,bridgeunbalancesandgive2to
3millivoltspervoltofexcitation.
Loadcellsclassifiedbasedondesignofelement,
1.column
2.cantileveredbendingbeam
3.shearelement

ColumnTypeLC:
Thisdesigncancarry2250kgormore.
Twostraingauges,1calledactivegauges,are
bondedaxiallyandothertwo
calledpoisonsgauges,mounted90
o
totheprevious
one.
ThisLCisusableonlyto
compressiveforceasitcarries
itsreceivingbuttonattop.
Bottombasetothestructure.
FactorstobeconsideredwhileselectingLC:
Requiredaccuracy
Scalecapacity
Typeofloading
No.ofcellsrequired
Loadingconditions.
Environment
Spaceavailable
Desiredoutputcharacteristics

Deviceusedtomeasurestrain.
Strainisanormalizedlinear
deformationofthematerial.
Stressisameasureofelasticity
ofthematerial.
Straingaugescomeinmanyformsandtypes.
Anymaterial,combinationof
materialsorphysicalconfiguration
thatchangesitsresistancedueto
strainconstitutesastraingauge.
StrainGauge
Willrestrictourdiscussiontotwotypes,thataccount
formostofthestraingaugesinusetoday:
wire(ormetal)straingaugesresistive
semiconductorstraingauges
Wirestraingauge:
Alengthofwire,heldbetweentwoposts.
Whenaforceisappliedtothem,willdeformthewire
causingachangeinthewiresresistance.
Thismethodwasusedinthepastandisvalid
Itisnotverypractical(construction,attachmenttosystem,
changeinresistanceisverysmall).
Sometimes,multiplelengthsofwirewereused.
Metallicstraingauge:
Amorepracticalstraingaugeresistive.
Builtoutofathinlayerofconductingmaterial
Depositedonaninsulatingsubstrate(plastic,ceramic,etc.)
Etchedtoformalong,meanderingwire(figure)
Constantan(60%copper,40%nickel)ismostcommonmaterial.
negligibletemperaturecoefficientofresistance(TCRsee
Table).
Measuringsteps:
Thepropertiesofstraingaugesvarybyapplication.
Mostmetalgaugeshaveanominalresistancebetween
100and1000,(lowerandhigherresistancesareavailable).
Gaugefactorbetween25.
Dimensionsfromlessthan3x3mmtolengthsinexcess
of150mm(almostanysizemaybefabricatedifnecessary).
Rosettes(multipleaxisstraingauges)areavailablewith45,90
and120
o
axesaswellasdiaphragmandother
specializedconfigurations.

Typicalsensitivitiesare5m/.
Deformationisoftheorderof23m/m.
Muchhigherstrainscanbemeasuredwithspecialized
gauges.

Operatelikeresistivestraingauges
Constructionandpropertiesaredifferent.
Thegaugefactorforsemiconductorsismuchhigher
thanformetals.
Thechangeinconductivityduetostrainismuch
largerthaninmetals.
Aretypicallysmallerthanmetaltypes
Oftenmoresensitivetotemperaturevariations
(requiretemperaturecompensation).

Semiconductorstraingauges
Allsemiconductormaterialsexhibitchangesin
resistanceduetostrain.
Themostcommonmaterialissilicon.
Thebasematerialisdoped,bydiffusionofdoping
materials(usuallyboronorarsenideforporntype)
toobtainabaseresistanceasneeded.
Thesubstrateprovidesthemeansofstrainingthe
siliconchipandconnectionsareprovidedby
depositionofmetalattheendsofthedevice
terminal.
Themajoradvantageofusingasemiconductoror
piezoresistivestraingaugeisitsgreatersensitivity
whencomparedtoametallicstraingauge.
Gaugefactorsforasiliconsemiconductorgaugeis
approximately130,whereasthetypicalgaugefactor
forametallicequivalentis23.5.
SomeDisadvantagesofsemiconductorgauges:
thenonlinearoutputversusstrain,
thetemperaturedependenceofthegaugesensitivity
itsrelativefragility,
therelativelylimitedstrainrange(typically3000to10,000
microstrainunitscomparedtothe100,000microstrainunits
forametallicresistancegauge),
moreexpensivethanmetalgauges.
Maindifferencesbetweenconductorand
semiconductorstraingaugesisthatsemiconductor
straingaugesareessentiallynonlineardeviceswith
typicallyaquadratictransferfunction.
Mostimportantmeasurandvariableinanindustry.
Variousdevicesareavailablefortemperature
measurement.
Resistancethermometer
Thermistors
Thermocouples
Bimetallicthermometers
Semiconductorthermometers
Radiationpyrometersetc
Aboveareclassifiedintotwogroups:
1.contacttype
2.radiationtype
TemperatureMeasurement
Contacttypedevicesmakesdirectcontactwithheat
source.
Resistancethermometer,Thermistors,Thermocouples,
Bimetallicthermometers,Semiconductorthermometer
Radiationtypeoperateeitheronheatorlightfrom
thehotbody.
Mainlyusedforhightemperaturemeasurement.

Resistancethermometers,alsocalledresistance
temperaturedetectors(RTDs)
TheRTDelementismadefromapurematerial
platinum,nickelorcopper.
Asthetemperatureofametalincreases,the
metal'sresistancetotheflowofelectricity
increases.
ThemostcommonRTDspecificationis100,
whichmeansthatat0CtheRTDelementshould
demonstrate100ofresistance.
Resistancethermometer
Changeinresistancealmostdirectlyproportionalto
thechangeintemperature.
Generallychangeintemperature;R
t
=R
0
(1+t).

Atypeofresistorwhoseresistancevariessignificantly
withtemperature.
ThermistorsdifferfromRTD,inthatthematerialused
isgenerallyaceramicorpolymer,butinlatercaseitis
pure.
Thermistor
Typicallyachieveahigherprecisionwithinalimited
temperaturerange,typically90Cto130C.
Thermistorsessentially
semiconductordevices.
Andbehavesresistorwithhigh
negativetemperaturecoefficient.
Usually0.04/
o
C@roomtemp25
o
C.
Atleast10timesasveasplatinum.

Nonlinearresistancetemprelation.
ResistanceatroomtemperatureTisR;

Resistanceinmostcasewithdifferenttemperatures
T
1
andT
2
;

Betaisdeviceconstant&expressedinKelvin(order4000).
referencetemperature25
o
C
assumedtobeconstantbutpracticallymaychangeduetemp.
Thecoefficientvaluetakesachangeasassumed.

clearthatisnotconstant.
T
R e
|
o =
1 0
(1 1 )
1 0
T T
R R e
|
=
1
1
2
( ) /
dR
R
dT T
|
o = =
Mostcommonandwidelyuseddevicefor
temperaturemeasurement.
Consists2dissimilarwiresinsulatedfromeachother
butbrazedtogetherattheirends,formjunctions.
Operationisbasedonseebeckeffect.
Iftwowiresofdifferentmetalsarejoinedtogether(ends)
andformsclosedpath,currentflowsthrough,whenits
junctionsarekeptatdifferenttemperatures.
Theemfproducediscalledthermoelectricemfandisa
functionoftemperature.

Thermocouple
e
2
e
1
Junctionsarekeptathotand
cold.
Emfgeneratedwillbesamefor
anypairmetals,notaffectedby
thesizeofmaterial.

Reverseofseebeckeffectiscalled
Peltiereffect.
Permitcurrenttoflowacross.
Heatiseithergeneratedorabsorbed
dependsupondirectionofflow.
Ifcurrentdirectionissameasseebeck,
heatabsorbsathotjunction&liberate
atcoldjunction.
A
B
T
2
+T
T
1
T
LawsgoverningThermocouples:
Measuringconnectionstothedevicesintroduces3
rd
metal.
Whichmaybeatdifferenttemperatures.
Lawsare:
1.Lawofhomogeneousmetals:
Thermoelectriccurrentcannotbesustainedinacircuitofa
homogeneousmaterial.
Consequenceofthislawisthat,2differentmaterialsarerequired.
2.LawofIntermediatemetals:
statesthat3
rd
homogeneousmaterialcanalwaysbeaddedtothecircuit
withnoeffectonnetemfofthecircuitaslongasitsextremitiesareat
sametemp.
Thislawhelpstoextendtheconnectionleadsofdifferentmetalto
thermocouple.

3.Lawofintermediatetemperature:
IftwodissimilarhomogenousmetalsproduceanemfE
1
,whenthe
junctionsareT
1
andT
2
.
AndE
2
,whenthejunctionsareatT
2
andT
3
.
ifjunctionsareatT
1
andT
3
,thenemfgeneratedwillbeE
1
+E
2
.
Thislawpermitsathermocouplecalibratedforagiventemptobe
employedwithanyotherreferencetemp.

Flowmeasurementisthequantificationofbulkfluid
movement.
Applicationoffloemeasurement:
Waterflow
Gasservicemeters
Gasolinepumping
Petroleumlinesetc
Commondevices:
Turbineflowmeters
Electromagneticflowmeters(basedonfaradayslaw)
Hotwireanemometer
Acousticflowmeters
FLOWMEASUREMENT
Aturbinewheelissetinthepathofafluidstream.
Theflowingfluidimpingesontheturbineblades,impartinga
forcetothebladesurfaceandsettingtherotorinmotion.
thespeedisproportionaltofluidvelocity.
Steadyspeedproportionaltothe
volumetricflowrateofliquid.
Whichismadetoprovidelinear
output(byreducingfrictionandother
lossestoaminimum.
Turbineflowmeter
Speedismeasuredbyusingmagneticpickup(electromagnetic
coil)attachedtothepipe.
Whichproducevoltagepulses.
Thesepulsesarefedtoanelectronicspulseratemeterand
totalflowisthetotalnumberofpulsesduringatimeinterval.
Humidityisthemeasureofwatervapourcontentinair.
Itmayberepresentedinvariousforms:
Absolutehumidity
Relativehumidity
Dewpoint
1.Absolutehumidityistheamountofwatervapouractually
presentintheair.
Expressedingramsperkilogramorinppm.
2.Relativehumidity:
Isthebestknownandperhapsmostwidelyusedwayofexpressingthe
watervapourcontentofair.
HumidityMeasurement
Itistherationofwatervapouractuallypresentintheairtothemaximum
amountofwaterthattheaircanholdatthesametemperature.
Ex[pressedinpercentage:100%means,aircontainsallthemoisturethatitcanhold.
higherthetemperatureofair,thenmorevapouritcanhold.
Henceitneedstheknowledgeoftemperatureandtheamountofwatervapourthatthe
aircanholdatvarioustemperatures.
Duepoint:
Definedasthesaturationtemperatureofthemixtureatthe
correspondingvapourpressures.
Verycommonandwidelyusedinscientificandindustrialapplications.

Hairhygrometer

Electrictypehumiditymeter
Resistivehygrometer
Electrolytichygrometer
Aluminiumoxidehygrometer.

Hairhygrometer:
usesstrandsofhumanorhorsehairwiththeoilsremoved
attachedtoleversthatmagnifyasmallchangeinhairlength.
Aninkpenandrotatingcylinder,knownasahygrograph,can
providearecordofhowrelativehumidityvaries.
Commondevices
Absorptionofmoisturecausesincreaseinlengthofthehair,
andtheamountofmoisturethatitcanholddependsonRH.
Elementisheldattensionbyaspring
Anychangeinlengthofhairproducedeflectiononthescale.
Usefultomeasurearangeof25%to95%RH,intemp18to
70
o
C.
Disadvantages:
thesearenotasaccurateasotherkindsofhygrometers.
Also,ahairhygrometerneedsfrequentadjustmentand
calibration.

Resistivehygrometer:
Dunmoreelementandpopecellarethecommon%RH
electricaltransducers.
Dunmoresensormakesuseofbifilarwoundinertwiregridon
aninsulatedsubstrate,coatedwithlithiumchloridesolutionof
controlledconcentration.
Ithashygroscopicnature,
Absorptionofhumidity,decreasestheresistanceofsalt.
Theacresistanceofthetransducerisanindicationofthe
prevailing%RH.
Measuredwithacbridge.
Electrolytichygrometer:
ItutilizesacellcoatedwithathinfilmofP
2
O
5
.
Thecellhasbifilarwindingsofinertelectrodesonafluorinated
hydrocarboncapillary.
Dcvoltageappliedacrosselectrodes,dissociatesthewaterinto
hydrogenandoxygen,whichisabsorbedbyP
2
O
5

A
Twoelectronsarerequiredforelectrolyzingeachwater
molecule.
Hencecurrentinthecellrepresentsthenumberofmolecules
dissociated.
Furthercalculationbasedonflowrate,tempandcurrentyields
thehumidityinppm.
Adevicewhichoperatesonmagneticfield.
Magneticsensorsconvertmagneticormagneticallyencoded
informationintoelectricalsignals.
Crystaliskeptperpendiculartoamagneticfieldandadccurrent
ispassedthroughit.
Whichresultsinanelectricfieldperpendiculartothedirectionsof
boththemagneticfieldandcurrentwithamagnitude
proportionaltotheproductoffieldstrengthandcurrent.
Electronsconstitutingtheflowofcurrent,actuallyflowsinthe
directionoppositetotheconventionalcurrent.
HallEffectTransducer

Novoltagebuildup,whenmagneticfieldisabsent.
Onapplicationoffield,theelectronsareforcedtowardsbottom.
Henceelectronsdeficiencyattopandexcessatbottom.
Whenthemagneticfluxdensityaroundthesensorexceedsacertainpreset
threshold,thesensordetectsitandgeneratesanoutputvoltagecalledthe
HallVoltage,V
H
.
Magnitudeisverysmallandnoteasytodetect.

HallEffectSensorsconsistathinpieceofrectangularptype
semiconductormaterial.
suchasgalliumarsenide(GaAs),indiumantimonide(InSb)orindium
arsenide(InAs).
TwobasictypesofdigitalHalleffectsensorare:
BipolarandUnipolar.
Bipolarsensorsrequireapositivemagneticfield(southpole)tooperate
themandanegativefield(northpole)toreleasethem.
whileunipolarsensorsrequireonlyasinglemagneticsouthpoletoboth
operateandreleasethemastheymoveinandoutofthemagneticfield.
Applications:
rotatingspeedsensors(bicyclewheels,gearteeth,automotive
speedometers,electronicignitionsystems),
fluidflowsensors,currentsensors,andpressuresensors
measuremagneticfields,orinspectmaterials.
The important part of instrumentation amplifier is the
Differential amplifier.
It consists two inputs and output.
Output voltage is proportional to the difference of two inputs.

DifferentialAmplifier
V
V+
V
0
= A
d
(V
+
- V
-
)
A
d =
Difference gain
Voltage between V
0
and ground =
1
1 2
o
v R
R R +
Thecommonmoderejectionratio(CMRR)ofa
differentialamplifier(orotherdevice)istherejectionby
thedeviceofunwantedinputsignalscommontoboth
inputleads,relativetothewanteddifferencesignal.
CMMRistheratioofthedesiredsignaltoundesiredsignal.
InanidealamplifierCMMRisinfinity,andinpracticeitisnot
possibleandhasfinitevalue.
Largerthevalue,betteristheamplifier.
Or
Expressedindb,

CMMR
d
c
A
CMMR
A
=
10
20log
d
c
A
CMMR
A
=
An instrumentation (or instrumentational) amplifier is
a type of differential amplifier that has been outfitted
with input buffer amplifiers.
which eliminate the need for input impedance matching
and thus make the amplifier particularly suitable for use in
measurement and test equipment.
Differential amplifier with high input resistance is
used in instrumentation amplifier .
Instrumentationamplifier
Additional characteristics include
very low DC offset,
low drift,
low noise,
very high open-loop gain,
very high common-mode rejection ratio, and
very high input impedances
The instrumentation amplifier is a closed loop device with
carefully set gain.
It is a dedicated differential amplifier with externally high
input impedance.
It has a common mode rejection capability( i.e. it is able to
reject a signal that is common to both terminal.)
Instrumentation amplifiers are used to interface low level
devices such as stain gauges, pressure transducers, analog to
digital conversion.
Theinstrumentationamplifierconsistsoftwostages.
Thefirstinputstageoffersveryhighimpedancetobothinput
signalsandallowssettinggainwithasingleresistor.
Thesecondstageisadifferentialamplifierwithoutput,
negativefeedback.
Theinputstageconsistsoftwomatchedopamp.
EachinputV1andV2isappliedtononinvertinginputterminal.
ThisestablishesavoltagedropacrossRgainequaltothevoltage
differencebetweenV1andV2.
ThatvoltagedropcausesacurrentthroughRgain.
sincethefeedbackloopsofthetwoinputopampsdrawno
current,thatsameamountofcurrentthroughRgainmustbe
goingthroughthetworesistors(R)aboveandbelowit.
Thisopampprovidesveryhighinputresistance.
Theoutputofopampisconnectedthroughastringofresistors.
RandR
gain
.
Vo=(V
2
V
1
)(1+2R
1
/R
gain
)(R
3
/R
2
)
Vg=V1V2
Vg=Rg*Ig

Ig=Vg/Rg

Therefore
Vd=Vg(1+2R/Rg)

NowDifferentialoutputis

Vo=Vd(Rf/R1)

Vo=[(V1V2)(1+2R/Rg)]Rf/R1
Thereforedecreaseinvalueof
Rgwillincreasetheoutput
voltageVo.
Toincreaseinvalueofgainthe
valueofRghastobedecreased.

Therightmostamplifier,alongwiththeresistorslabeledR
2

andR
3
isjustthestandarddifferentialamplifiercircuit,
withgain=R
3
/R
2
anddifferentialinputresistance=2R
2

Theidealcommonmodegainofaninstrumentationamplifieris
zero.

APPLICATION:
Audio applications involving weak audio signal or noisy environment
Medical instruments
High frequency signal amplification in cable RF
Current/voltage monitoring
Data acquisition

Variouscomponentsofthesystemarelocatedatavastdistance
inmoderninstrumentation.
Hencenecessarytotransmitdatabetweenthem.
Definedasthescienceofmeasuringatadistanceandisused
inindustrial,commercial,military,andspaceapplications.
Requiresconversionofdataormeasurandintoarepresentative
signal.
Henceusingsuitableequipment'sandtransmittedoverproper
channel.
TELEMETRY
Telemetrysystemmayclassifiedintodifferenttypesonthe
basisofelectricalsignalused:
Voltage
Current
Position
Frequency
Pulseoranalogordigital
Alltheserequiresphysicalconnection.
Frequencyorpulsesystemcanbeusedeitherinwiredor
wirelesschannel.(telegraph,telephone,radio,ormicrowave).
Methodsinvolvedintelemetrydependsuponthetypeofdata
anddistance.
Hydraulicandpneumaticforshortdistance
Electricalandelectronicsforlongdistance.
ELECTRICALTELEMETRY:
Ithas3basiccomponentssendingend,receivingend
equipment's,channel.

1. Telemetertransmitter:primarysensoroutputisconverted
intoelectricalsignal.
2. Telemeterchannel:datatransmissionpath.
3. Telemeterreceiver:locatedatremoteplace.
Typestelemetrysystems:
1. Landlinetelemetry(ACorDC).
Uses,voltage,current,position,frequencyetc
2. Radiofrequencytelemetry
LandLineTelemetry:
Usesdirectphysicallink
Voltagetelemetry
Currenttelemetry
Positiontelemetering
Currenttelemetry:
Usingwiresorcablesforconnectivity.
Valueofcurrentisadjustedcorrespondtomeasurand.
Hasmorevariationsinlinecharacteristicsduetovoltagechange.
Hencewhichwasreplacedbyratiotypesystem.
Twowindingsenergizedfromcommonsource.
Onewindingdirectlyandotherthroughvariableresistance.
Hencemeasurementisbasedonratioofvoltage&current.

Readmore
Voltagetelemetry:
Sameasthatofcurrenttelemetry.
Thetransducerinthissystem,generateproportionalvoltage.
Tokeephighsignaltonoiseratio,propershieldingisprovided.
Demeritisthat,itsshortdistanceapplication(upto300mtr).

Thetransmittinginstrumentadjuststherelationbetween
thesignalsincorrespondencetothemeasurement,andthe
receivinginstrumentconvertsthesesignalinto
correspondingdisplacement.
Operationisbasedonthecomparisonof2ormoresignals.
Hencesystemrequiresatleast3conductorsbetween
transmitterandreceiver.
PositionTelemetry
Considerameasuringelementwhosepositionistobe
transmittedbybridgetypePTsystem,thenreceivingside
followstheinput.
Anydevicecanbeconnectedasoutputdevicetofollow
theinputposition.
Anothertypeiscalledsynchros.
Twosynchrosrequiredinthismethod(sendingside,receiving
side).
Therotorandstatorofsynchrotransmitterandreceiveris
connectedintorquetransmissionconfiguration.
Commonlyusedforangularpositionmeasurement.
Whenrotorofbothsynchros,areinsameposition,theemfs
inducedinthestatorofbothareequal.
Thennocurrentflowsthroughchannel.
Currentwillflow,whenthisconditiondisturbsandtorque
produces.
Hencereceiverturnstill
itassumesthesame
angularpositionof
transmitter.

InFT,thetelemeteredsignalsarerepresentedbyanacor
dcvoltageandcurrentofvaryingfrequency.

FrequencyTelemetry
T
r
a
n
s
m
i
t
t
e
r

Variablefreq
oscillator
Amplifier
Fixedfreq
Oscillator
Master
Oscillator
Modulator
Beat
Detector
Power
amplifier
Beat
detector
Receiver
Variablecapacitorusedhereistovarythefrequencyofthe
measuredsignal.
Fixedcapacitorsfrequencyisintherangeoffirstcapacitor.
Outfromtheoscillatorisabeatfrequencyofverylowmagnitude.
Whichisdetectedbyanelectronicscircuit.
Signalistransmittedoverlineafteramplifyingtoreceivingend.
Signalwhosefrequencyistobemeasuredisconvertedinto
atrainofpulses.
Onepulseforeachcycleofthesignal.
Thenumberofpulsesappearinginadefiniteintervalof
timeiscountedbymeansofanelectroniccounter.
Sincethepulsesrepresent,themeasureofunknown
signal,thenumberappearingisadirectindicationof
unknownfrequency.
Digitalmethodoffrequencymeasurement
Unknown
frequency
Start
stopgate
Schmitt
trigger
amplifier counter
Unknownsignalisconnectedtoinputterminal.
Amplifiedandfedtoschmitttrigger.
Schmitttriggerconvertthesignalintosquarewave,and
thendifferentiatedandclipped.
Henceoutputfromthisbecomesatrainofpulses.
Onepulseforeachcycleofstartstopgate.
Startgatepermitthesignaltopassintocounterand
register.
Stopgate,ceasetheinputpulseandstopscounting.
Thecounterdisplaythenumberofpulsesthathavepassed
throughitinthetimeintervalbetweenstartandstop.
Byknowingtheinterval,thepulserateandfrequencycan
beknown.

Nno.ofcountdisplayed
ttimeintervalbetweenstartandstop.
N
f
t
=
Periodmeasurement:
Periodisthereciprocaloffrequency.

Periodcanbemeasuredbyarrangingthecountersproperly.
1
, period T
f
=
Unknowninputsignalcontrolsthemaingateandthetime
basefrequencyiscountedinthedecadecounter.
Inputshapingcircuitselect+vegoingzeroaxiscrossing
cyclesastriggerpointsforopeningandclosinggate.
Asinfrequencycounting,themeasurementautomatically
repeatatadefiniterate.
Periodmeasurementallowmoreaccuratemeasurementof
unknownlowfrequencysignals.
Example: unknownfrequency=100Hz,andcounterwith8digit
displaywith10secondsgatetime,
displayedas=0000.1000KHz