THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

The first problem that a graduate student faces in writing a research report is the
problem of finding a PROBLEM. In short, the student wants to find a topic to write on
and he does not know where to look for this topic.

First of all, what is a research problem? A research problem is characterized by the
fact that once the problem is answered, it will have advanced the state of knowledge in a
particular discipline. A problem in a Statistics class requiring the use of an Analysis of
variance, once solved, does not really advance the field of knowledge in Statistics. It is
therefore not a research problem.

A research problem has some significance. This significance may be of direct
contributory significance in the sense that will benefit a group of people or it may be
significant in the sense that it will have opened new vistas and avenues in a particular
discipline.

Problem Identification

All research is set in motion by the existence of a problem. A problem is a
perceived difficulty, a feeling of discomfort with the way things are, a discrepancy
between what someone believes should be and what is. While problems are the initiating
force behind research, not all problems require research. A potential research situation
arises when three conditions exist:

1. A perceived discrepancy between what is and what should be.
2. A question about why the discrepancy exists.
3. At least two possible and plausible answer to the question.

The last point is important. If there is only one possible and plausible answer to
the question about the discrepancy, then a research situation does not exist (Fisher, et al.,
1991:4).

Example of a Non-research Problem

Problem Situation: A recent survey in District A found that 1,000 women were
continuous users of contraceptive pills. But last months service statistics indicate that
none of these women are using contraceptives pills.

Discrepancy: All 1,000 women should be using contraceptive pills, but all 1,000
women are not using contraceptive pills.

Problem Question: What factors are responsible for 1,000 women discontinuing
their use of contraceptive pills?

Only One Plausible Answer: A Monsoon flood has prevented all new supplies of
pills reaching District A, and all old supplies have been exhausted (Fisher, et al., 1991:4).

But describing what a research problem is, does not really help the poor graduate
student look for one. Where and how does one look for a research problem?

1. The easiest place to find a research problem is the library of theses and
dissertations. Scan these research reports, read their problems, go to their finding and
conclusions, then look at the RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES. This
section describes some problems that may be pursued by a new researcher.

2. The next best place to look for a problem is the classroom. In your day to
day discussions on issues, there are certain issues that probably carry with them hidden
problems for research. Your professor may have mentioned some outstanding problems
in your specific discipline. Try to talk to him about these problems and see if the topics
interest you. For example, one of the outstanding problems in Mathematics is the
development of a formula for finding the roots of a quintic equation.

3. Finally, if you are presently working , then your workplace may be the best
place for you to look for a practical research problem. Do you have ideas on how best to
improve the productivity of your office? Are there things which you think hamper the
effectiveness of your organization? How do you fellow workers react to new policies and
regulations?

The Literature Review as an Aid in Formulating a Research Problem

The better route to the formulation of a research problem is, perhaps, to settle first
on a TOPIC. What topic do you wish to concentrate on? This is not the same as the
problem. It is, in a sense, broader than the research problem.

Example: The topic that you might want to study may deal with is Climate Change. You
can further narrow the scope of your search by delimiting it to MITIGATING THE
EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE.

Use the power of the internet to search for scientific research articles on the topic.
Read at least five (5) most recent researches on the topic. We recommend that you
download and read only pdf files because they are more reliable (in terms of accuracy).
For each article that you have read, take careful notes and answer the following:
1. What is the main thesis of the research article? What did the authors find?
2. What information are missing in the research article?

Example: You read a research article on Vulnerability of Indigenous People to the
Effects of Climate Change where the author claimed that indigenous people are more
vulnerable to the effects of climate change than other groups of people. He enumerates
evidences to support the thesis e.g. level of education of IPs are relatively lower, less
access to social service facilities etc. In the end, you found that that the author failed to
define exactly what is meant by VULNERABILITY. This will now be the focus of your
research problem. Your research problem may now be: How does one measure the
vulnerability of certain groups of people to the effects of climate change in terms of : (a.)
their sources of income, (b) their health, and (c.) social mobility?

Some topics for further studies are often topics that would require you to
investigate the effects of additional independent variables on a dependent variable. We do
not recommend this line of approach because any potential contribution that one may be
able to get out of such researches will be minimal. Instead, focus on the dependent
variables because these are often the variables of greatest interest in any discipline. You
may try, for example, a multivariate approach with several interesting dependent
variables and several independent variables.

Illustrative Cases:

Example: Japos (1993) conducted a study on the focus of questions of the
panel of examiners at Urios College (now Fr. Saturnino Urious University, 2010), Butuan
City, for masters thesis in the last five years. Per se, the study is already interesting
because he found out, for example, that the bulk of panel questions were on format (e.g.
margins, numbering etc.) with minimal focus on Chapters 3 (to evaluate how reliable the
data sources are, how appropriate is the design, how good are the statistical treatment
etc.) and Chapter 4 (the Methodology and Analysis portion)

How can we develop a research problem out of this example? From the
findings of Japos, ask: Why is there a disproportionate emphasis on format during oral
examinations? Your research can look into the causes of an observed phenomenon. For
example, you might want to analyze the background of the members of the oral
examination tribunal: where and how were they trained in research during their graduate
studies days? What is their concept of a good research? and other similar questions.

Example: Padua and Alcala (2010) did a study on Determinants of the
Functionality of Marine Reserves in the Visayas Area by examining the functionality
and/or dysfunctionality of over 500 marine reserves in the area and their characteristics.
They found that those marine reserves managed by Non-Government Organizations and
private associations were more functional than those managed by a government agencies
or local government units.

What research problems can be evolved from this study of Padua and
Alcala? A natural question to ask, which may not have been validated in the report cited,
is : Why are NGO-managed marine reserves more functional than non-NGO-managed
marine reserves? Or perhaps, ask : Are the conclusions arrived at in this study true for all
other marine reserves in the country? If yes, why? If not, what conditions exist in other
marine reserves that are not the same as the conditions in the Visayas marine reserves?

Example: Daguay (1992) made a study on the predictive efficacy of
leadership behavior, organizational climate and socio demographic variables on
supervisory effectiveness of the Mindanao Polytechnic State Colleges heads. While the
study attempted to quantify the extent to which a set of variables influenced supervisory
effectiveness, its weakness, among others, lies mainly on the scope of applicability of the
results. Is the MPSC a representative of all State Colleges and Universities in the
country? (or even in the Region?) Thus, a research problem must possess some level of
generality which will make it a useful problem to investigate.

Thesis Problems

A thesis is a requirement for baccalaureate or masters degree. As such, it is the
belief of the authors that such research papers must focus on the verification of existing
theories in various disciplines. For example, Engels law in Economics states that: the
higher the income of a family, the lesser is the percentage expenditure of the family on
food as a proportion of the total income. In other words, the amount spent on food as a
proportion of the total income gets lesser as the family gets wealthier. Does this law hold
regardless of the culture of the people? There are cultures for example that manifest their
wealth through the oversupply and abundance of food in their refrigerators and frown on
expenditures for luxury items. This law certainly deserves a space for a thesis problem.

Example of a Research Problem Evolved from Gaps Analysis

Problem Situation: A recent family planning survey revealed great differences between
villages in the rate of contraceptive prevalence. Despite the fact that all
villages receive the same level of health and family planning services,
some villages have a prevalence rate as high as 80 percent, while others
have as low as 6 percent.

Discrepancy: All villages should have approximately the same rate of contraceptive
prevalence, but in fact there is great variation between villages. Why?

Reasons: 1. Villages differ in their socio economic environments. Some villages are
agriculture, some are fishing communities. Some villages are Hindu, other
are predominantly Muslim or Buddhist. Some villages have schools,
health clinics, electricity, and a good water supply; others do not have
these facilities. These socio economic difference affect the level of
contraceptives practices.

2. Villages differ in institutional support for contraceptives acceptance. In
some villages, local influential strongly support the national family
planning program. In other villages, there are no Mothers Clubs. These
differences in institutional support for family planning affect the level of
contraceptives practice. (Fisher, 1991:5)

Problem Definition

1. I ncidence and Prevalence. An epidemiologic diagnosis should always be made
of problems related to health and family planning. In other words, how
widespread is the problem? How often does it occur? An epidemiologic diagnosis
will help establish the parameters of the problem.

2. Geographic Areas Affected. It is important to know if there are particular
geographic areas affected by the problem. Does the problem generally occur in
rural areas only? Does it also affect cities? Is the problem restricted to mountain
areas, coastal areas, or island areas?

3. Probable Reason for the Problem. A review of information on a problem should
suggest a number of probable reasons why the problems exist. What is the current
thinking about the reasons for the problems? Is there general agreement among
many people about the reasons, or are there many different, conflicting views?

4. Possible Solutions. Many projects and programs may have been directed at the
problem in an attempt to overcome it. What types of solutions have been tried in
the past? How successful have past efforts been? What approaches to solving the
problem seem to work? What approaches seem not to work?
5. Unanswered Questions. From the review of information on the problem, what
seem to be unanswered questions about the problem? What aspects of the problem
need to be researched further? (Fisher, et al., 1991:7)


FRAMING THE ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THEORY VALIDATION

One of the concepts that is often misunderstood by thesis writers is the concept of
a Theoretical Framework. If we survey the section called Theoretical Framework in
graduate theses, then we would probably find the following common characteristics of
this section in these research papers: (1.) a compilation of many theories espoused by
many authors (he-said-he-said kind of thing), (2.) a listing of concepts and ideas on the
subject of the study. Most of the time, we will find that this section does not contribute
anything to the research paper except , perhaps, to make the paper thicker. The main
reason for this confusion is the fact that graduate students do not understand the role of a
theoretical framework in a research study.

What is a THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK? The theoretical framework outlines
the theory that one wishes to validate or to verify in a study. It contains, among others,
the functional relationships of the variables involved and measurements that are to be
taken in order to quantify these variables. This naturally leads us to ask the question:
what is a theory?

A theory is a statement explaining why things happen as they do. A theory is
formulated based on repeated observations of a phenomenon. From the observations,
we form hypotheses about the relationships of certain variables that operate within the
observed phenomenon. From the hypotheses, we evolve propositions which are
statements that are derived from combinations of the hypotheses. The propositions,
when properly viewed, lead us to a theory. A theory is necessarily abstract and
general and hence, cannot be directly tested. You can only test the hypotheses from
which you based your theory on because they contain specific variables and factors that
can be directly observed and quantified.

Example: What defines the quality of life of the citizens of a nation? We shall,
operationally, say that the citizens of a country have good quality of life if: (a.) they are
healthy and have access to health facilities, (b.) they are financially stable. (c.) they
have relatively high educational attainment, (d.) they feel secure at home, in the streets
and elsewhere in the country.

Next , we observe say 50 countries whose citizens have good quality of life and
50 countries whose citizens do not enjoy the same level of quality of life. For each
country, we observe specific instances of the abstract concepts involved in the definition
of quality of life. For example: (a) malnutrition rate (to represent health), (b.) per capita
gross domestic product (to represent economic stability), (c.) literacy rate (to represent
education) , (d.) crime rate (to represent security). By observation, we find that:


Hypothesis 1: The higher the per capita GDP is, the lower is the level of malnutrition.
Hypothesis 2: The higher the literacy rate is, the higher is the per capita GDP.
Hypothesis 3: The higher the literate is , the lower is the crime rate.

Notice that all these hypotheses can be tested. Now, if we combine these hypotheses
we find that the following propositions appear to be reasonable:

Proposition 1: When the general population is well educated, then they become more
economically productive. Education increases the chances of the citizens to compete
economically.
Proposition 2: When the general population is economically stable, then they appear to
have better access to health facilities and are , therefore, generally healthy. Likewise,
economic stability appears to be a requisite requirement to security.

There are two things that you should carefully notice: (1.) Hypotheses are not
stated in a cause-effect form but propositions are, and (2.) Propositions use the
abstract concepts but hypotheses use the measurable specific instances of the abstract
concepts. There are many theories that you can now formulate based on Propositions 1
and 2. One of these is:

THEORY: The quality of life of a nation is defined by the high functional education of its
citizens because education increases the citizens ability to be economically productive
and to live secure and healthy lives.

Notice that despite the fact that we are looking at the same set of hypotheses and
propositions, we can still come up with different theories. This is a simple consequence
of the Durheim-Quine Principle: Given the same set of observations, then there are
infinitely many explanations that can be derived from them.

Components of Theoretical Framework

A theoretical framework is a model and like any other models, it is an abstraction
of some real life phenomenon. A model captures only the essential features of the
system being modeled and as such, can never replicate the performance of the system
with 100% accuracy. It cannot also explain all aspects of the system being modeled,
and therefore, there will always be questions that will be left unanswered by any
theoretical framework.

A Theoretical Framework consists of elements called the COMPONENTS of the
system together with their INTERRELATIONSHIP. The components interact with one
another in a certain way and these interactions are diagramed or symbolized in
mathematical or equations forms. Some interactions are stronger than others and the
strengths of these interactions are reflected in the values of the PARAMETERS
associated with each relationship. The researchers problem is to identify and estimate
the parameters in a model or framework. Strictly speaking, a Theoretical Framework,
as used in the context of a thesis, puts the testable hypotheses in diagram or symbolic
form (note that it does not put the theory in symbolic form but the elements of the
hypotheses). The challenge for the thesis writer is to find the most efficient design for
testing a set of hypotheses which would either confirm the theory or falsify the theory.


Example: Consider the theory proposed in the previous example. Here are two
examples of designs, one ineffective and the other effective, for validating the theory:

Design 1: We consider the level of education (X) of the citizens of the country and
correlate this with their economic stability (ES) , health (H ) and security (S).

Why Ineffective? First, the concepts to be correlated are still in their abstract form (e.g.
how will you measure economic stability (ES)?) , and so, we cannot do any scientific
test of hypothesis. Second, even if we succeed in correlating the level of education with
the other concepts of economic stability , health and security, we still have not
succeeded in providing evidence of the truth or falsity of the theory. The theory is saying
something else: level of education spurs economic stability, in turn, economic stability
leads to security and healthy citizenry.

Design 2: We consider literacy rate (X) as a surrogate of the concept of education.
Correlate this with the per capita GDP of the country (ES) as a measure of economic
stability. Next, correlate the per capita GDP (ES) with both malnutrition rate (H) and
crime rate (S) taken singly and in combination. This design calls for testing the following
hypotheses:
Hypothesis 1: Correlation (X, ES) = 0
Hypothesis 2: Correlation (ES, H) = 0 and correlation (ES, S) = 0

Note that if you accept hypothesis 1 (literacy rate is not related to per capita GDP), then
the theory is already falsified (i.e. there is evidence that the theory may not be true).
There is no need to proceed to testing the second hypothesis. If, on the other hand,
hypothesis 1 is rejected (literacy rate is significantly related with the per capita GDP),
then we must proceed to test hypothesis 2. In order for the theory to be validated (at
least in this instance), you must also reject hypothesis 2 based on your test statistics.
Rejection of hypothesis 1 and rejection of hypothesis 2 lead to full validation of your
theory; rejection of hypothesis 1 and acceptance of hypothesis 2 lead to partial
validation of your theory. Acceptance of hypothesis 1 alone falsifies your theory.

NOTE: Be careful in interpreting your theory. The design of the study must lead to either
full validation, partial validation or outright rejection of your theory.

A visual representation of Design 2 is shown in the diagram below. Compare this
diagram with the visual representation of Design 1













Independent Variable Intervening Variable Dependent Variables
E: Literacy Rate ES: per capita GDP H: malnutrition rate
S: crime rate
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF AN EFFICIENT DESIGN FOR VALIDATING A THEORY ON QUALITY OF
LIFE (DESIGN 2)





















The diagram below illustrates the internal relationships of various research variables.






Configuration 1: Independent versus Dependent Variables

















Configuration 2: Independent Intervening - Dependent Variables














Configuration 3: A Sample of Configuration 2
Independent
variables

Cause or Determinant
Or influence
Dependent
variables

Intervening
variables
Acting and
Operating Through
Cause or Determinant
Or influence

Independent
variables

Dependent
variables

Peoples knowledge,
Attitudes, beliefs
Acting on and
operating through

Cause or Determinant
Or influence

GOVT
Program

Contraceptive
acceptance

Independent Variable Dependent Variables
E: Education ES: Economic Stability
H: Health
S: Security

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF AN ERRONEOUS DESIGN FOR VALIDATING A THEORY ON QUALITY OF
LIFE (DESIGN 1)

From Verbal Description of a Framework to Model Formulation

In most instances, research reports, particularly in the Social Sciences and
Education, have their theoretical frameworks written in words. These verbal descriptions
are often accompanied by diagrams and drawings but only in very few instances do we
find clear and precise mathematical formulation of such frameworks. In this section, we
will attempt to assist the student in formulating their Theoretical Frameworks in
mathematical and symbolic forms. This technique will also help the students get used to
encoding their data into the computer.

Example: Refer back to the previous example. What we want to do is to convert
the schematic diagram in symbolic form so that we know exactly what to do when data
become available.

First, we transform the first hypothesis relating literacy rate (E) and per capita
GDP(ES) into mathematical form by saying: per capita GDP (ES) depends (or is a
function of) on literacy rate or

ES = f(E).. (per capita GDP is a function of literacy rate E)

Next, we transform the second hypothesis into mathematical form. The second
hypothesis says that malnutrition rate (H) and crime rate (S) depend on economic
stability or per capita GDP:

H = g(ES) and S = j(ES).

The functions f, g, and j are to be determined based on data or observations. The
general mathematical expression is given by:

Dependent variable = f(independent variables)

which says that if we are given the values of the independent variables then we can
compute the value of the dependent variable. In Chapter 4, we shall look at the various
ways in which we can find the functions f,g, and j from the given observations. You will
notice here that there is a very intimate connection between the way we formulate our
theoretical framework and the corresponding statistical model that we will use to
quantify the framework.

In general, when we transform a theoretical framework into its quantitative
statistical framework, then we put the entire research in the realm of Quantitative
Research as opposed to Qualitative Research. The two research approaches are
complementary rather than distinct and separate approaches. For example, when we
find by quantitative methods that education (E) is significantly correlated with
economic stability (ES), then qualitative research deals with the more in-depth
question: how and why does education (E) improve ones economic stability? To
answer this latter question, one uses qualitative research methods (e.g. grounded
theory, phenomenological hermeneutics etc.).

Statement of Hypotheses

Some problems require a hypothesis while others do not. A hypothesis is a
statement about the probable values of the parameters in a model. As a general rule,
descriptive problems do not require a hypothesis while inferential problems require
hypotheses. Profile questions and those that involve mere counting and tabulation are
examples of descriptive problems. Problems which require statistical tests are
considered inferential problems.

The following are examples of hypotheses:

(a) H
o
: = 0 (mean is zero. Here the parameter is the mean)

(b) H
o
:
1

2
= 0 (mean difference is zero. Here the parameters are the means)

(c) H
o
: = 0 (correlation is zero. Here the parameter is the correlation
coefficient).

(f) H
o
: = .5 (correlation is 0.5. Here the parameter is the correlation coefficient).

Given the hypothesis, a data analyst then tries to devise a statistical test that
would determine the truth or falsity of the hypothesis. There is no single and unique test
that can be prescribed to test various kinds of hypothesis and that is why there is a
need for you to work closely with your data analyst.

Example: The hypotheses we prescribed in our Quality of Life Theory can be written:

Hypothesis 1: Literacy rate (E) is not related to per capita GDP (ES) or:
Correlation (E, ES) = 0, or

(E,ES) = 0

Hypothesis 2: per capita GDP(ES) and malnutrition rate (H) are not related and
per capita GDP (ES) and crime rate (S) are not related

(ES,H) = 0 and (ES, S) = 0

Statistical hypotheses are always written in their null form. The reason for this is
quite technical and goes something like this: For each statistical hypotheses, we
formulate a test statistic based on observations such that once the value of the statistic
is known , we are able to decide whether to reject or accept the hypothesis. Now, the
test statistic itself is a random quantity (because it is computed from random
observations). The exact probability distribution of the test statistic will be known only
under the null hypothesis and will, generally, be unknown under a different (non-null)
hypothesis. However, you will need the exact probability distribution of the test statistic
in order to establish the critical value for rejection or acceptance of the hypothesis.
Hence, you need to state your hypothesis in its null form.

Assumptions of the Study

An assumption is different from a hypothesis. An assumption is a given without
which the study cannot be undertaken. On the other hand, a hypothesis is a statement
with which the study may be able to proceed. An assumption is NEVER tested while a
hypothesis is ALWAYS tested.

SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY

The scope of the study tells you the event of applicability of the results of the
investigation. The delimitations of the study gives you an information on the
shortcomings of the investigation and where the results may fail to apply.


SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The significance of the study indicates to whom the study will be most useful,
why the study would be useful to them, and how the study will aid them in their
particular disciplines. In writing the significance of the study, the writer must take care to
be specific and precise without beating around the bush.

In justifying the importance of a research problem, it is helpful to ask yourself a
series of questions and then try to answer each of them.

a. Is the problem you wish to study a current and timely one?
Does the problem exist now?

b. How widespread is the problem? Are many areas and many people affected by
the problem?

c. Does the problem affect special groups, such as mother or children?

d. Does the problem relate to ongoing program activities

e. Does the problem relate to board social, economic, and health issues, such as
unemployment, income maldistribution, the status of women, education, and
child health?

f. Who else is concerned about the problem? Are top government officials
concerned? Are medical doctors and other professionals concerned?

Review your answer to these questions, and arrange them into one or two
paragraphs that justify the importance of the research problem.


DEFINITION OF TERMS


Universally accepted terms are not defined in a research study. Terms whose
meanings may be different in the context of the investigation need to be defined in this
section. Operational definitions of terms are preferred over dictionary definition of terms.
Note that in mathematical research, definitions come before the statement of a theorem
and hence, the format of basic research in the sciences do not necessarily follow the
format prescribed here.

SAMPLE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Studies in the past have shown that education empowers an individual to pursue
his economic goals (Edwards, 2007; Matherson, 2008). According to these studies, a
well-educated individual becomes more rationale in his decision-making, adopts
strategies that optimize his economic returns and develops a scientific system of
choosing a best option out of many possible options. For this reason, governments all
over the world invest on education with varying outcomes. The more developed nations
succeed in providing quality education to their citizenry but the less developed ones
produce less than desirable outcomes in education.

The connection between good quality higher education and national productivity
had also been empirically studied in the past (Umpa, 1997). In this study, for instance,
Umpa(1997) found that in countries where the quality of higher education is good, the
number of advanced degree holders (Ph.Ds) correlated significantly with their national
productivity. However, in countries where quality of education is dubious, the number of
advanced degree holders (Ph.Ds) showed weak to marginal correlation with national
productivity as in the case of the Philippines. We , thus, conclude that it is not just a
matter of providing education to every citizen that counts but providing good quality
education (the kind of education that empowers an individual to become productive).

Economically stable countries were likewise found to have excellent health and
social service systems. The World Economic Forum (WEF, 2009) ranked countries
nationwide in terms of their global competitiveness indices (GCI) and found that, indeed,
the top 100 countries registered the highest Gross National Products (GNP) and were
rated high in terms of their Basic Requirements Index (Social Services Index) and
Economic Competitiveness Index. It is therefore not surprising to find that when global
migration statistics were analyzed, the top 100 countries under the WEF (2009) ranking
system were also the same countries favored as destinations for migrant workers.
People all over the world migrate to the most globally competitive countries in the belief
that the quality of life in these countries is better than the quality of life in their own
countries.


The Theory

It appears, thus, that the quality of life of the citizens of a nation is mainly defined
by the quality of education that they have. Well educated citizenry are able to sustain
themselves economically. In turn, economic stability seems to ensure access to health
and other social services thereby translating into satisfied citizens enjoying life to the
fullest.


The Propositions and Research Hypotheses to be tested

We consider literacy rate (X) as a surrogate of the concept of education. Correlate this
with the per capita GDP of the country (ES) as a measure of economic stability. Next,
correlate the per capita GDP (ES) with both malnutrition rate (H) and crime rate (S)
taken singly and in combination. This design calls for testing the following hypotheses:

Hypothesis 1: Literacy rate and per capita GDP of nations are strongly related
Hypothesis 2: Per capita GD is inversely related with crime rate and malnutrition
rate.



The Schematic Diagram


Independent Variable Intervening Variable Dependent Variables
E: Literacy Rate ES: per capita GDP H: malnutrition rate
S: crime rate
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM FOR VALIDATING A THEORY ON QUALITY OF LIFE