Professional Documents
Culture Documents
~
=2 can be
achieved. The reinforced w alls can therefore be
considered as structural m asonry w alls for horizontal
actions. The horizontal displacem ent of the reinforced
m asonry w alls for the design earthquake m ust not
exceed the ultim ate displacem ent capacity of the
stiffest i.e. longest, unreinforced m asonry w all.
This is necessary to ensure that the vertical load-
bearing capacity of the unreinforced m asonry w alls is
preserved.
BP 13 Reinforce structural masonry
walls to resist horizontal actions!
13/1 13/2 Reinforced m asonry requires special bricks, particularly to
incorporate and coat the vertical reinforcing bars. W orldw ide
developm ents in reinforcing system s and adequate bricks are under
w ay. The tw o pictures show new developm ents in the clay m asonry
industry (Sw itzerland 1998).
Reinforce structural
masonry walls to
resist horizontal actions!
Minimum reinforcement
Edge reinforcement
Basic principles for the seismic design of buildings
13
Prof. Hugo Bachmann ibk ETH Zurich
35
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
13/4 13/5 Vertical pre-stressing can also im prove the earthquake
behavior of m asonry w alls by substantially increasing the vertical
force (Sw itzerland 1996).
13/3 This type of vertical reinforcem ent is anchored at the top and
bottom w ith U -shaped bars extending in 2 brick layers. The bars
used to anchor the w alls to the slabs or low er w alls are very im por-
tant (Sw itzerland 1998).
36
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
Page 37
13/8 It is also necessary to consider the capacity requirem ent
perpendicular to the w all (out-of-plane). This applies in particular
to gable w alls (cantilever), to other m asonry w alls that are poorly
restrained against horizontal forces and, for stronger earthquakes,
also to w alls supporting slabs. H ere the w alls in the upper floor,
w hich carried only a sm all vertical load, failed out-of-plane (Lom a
Prieta 1989). Reinforcem ent, vertical pre-stressing, or glued on plates
can also prevent such failure.
13/6 The strength and ductility of m asonry w alls in existing
buildings can be im proved w ith carbon fiber or steel plate
reinforcem ents (Sw itzerland 1996).
13/7 The plates m ust be glued on carefully and anchored in the
slabs (Sw itzerland 1997).
38
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
14/1 H ere, the non-structural partition w alls w ere destroyed,
although the fram e structure deform ed only little and is hardly
dam aged. Even the w indow s rem ained intact (A rm enia 1988).
14/2 A nd here, a collapsed partition w all is sim ply rebuilt until the
next earthquake... (A dana-C eyhan, Turkey 1998).
Page 39
14/3 The glass facade of this new m ultistorey building survived a
strong earthquake alm ost w ithout loss, ow ing to special flexible
fastenings for the facade elem ents (Kobe, Japan 1995).
If deform ation-sensitive non-structural partition w alls
and facade elem ents (e.g. of m asonry) are incorporat-
ed into a horizontally soft structure (e.g. a fram e
structure) w ithout using joints, substantial dam age
m ay develop even for relatively w eak earthquakes.
Experience show s that in such cases a building m ust
som etim es be dem olished, even though the structure
suffered no substantial dam age. A m odern earthquake
resistant design m ust therefore m atch the stiffness of
the structure and the deform ation capacity of the
non-structural partition w alls and facade elem ents.
The interstory drift ratio (i.e. the interstorey drift, ,
divided by the interstorey height, h) and the vulnerabil-
ity of the non-structural elem ents are crucial. The
skillful selection and com bination of structural
and non-structural elem ents can prevent dam ages,
even for relatively strong earthquakes.
BP 14Match structural and non-structural elements!
Match structural and
non-structural elements!
Governing size:
Inter-storey
displacement
Basic principles for the seismic design of buildings
14
Prof. Hugo Bachmann ibk ETH Zurich
40
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
In flexible skeleton structures, it can be beneficial to
separate non-strucutral partition w alls from the
structure by soft joints. This is particularly true for
inplane stiff and brittle m asonry w alls.This w ay,
dam age occuring even for w eak earthquakes can be
prevented. The joints run along colum ns, structural
w alls, and slabs, or beam s and m ust be filled by a very
flexible soundproof m aterial, e.g. boards of soft
rubber. Styrofoam , cork, etc. are too stiff in this case.
The necessary joint thickness (typically 20 to 40 m m )
depends on the stiffness of the structure and the
deform ation sensitivity of the partition w alls as w ell as
the desired protection level (dam age lim it state
earthquake < design earthquake) [D 0171]. G enerally
the partition w alls m ust also be secured against out-
of-plane actions (plate effect), e.g. by support angles.
BP 15 In skeleton structures, separate non-structural
masonry walls by joints!
Rubber
1040 mm
In skeleton
structures,
separate
non-structural
masonry walls
by joints!
Basic principles for the seismic design of buildings
15
Prof. Hugo Bachmann ibk ETH Zurich
15/1 H ere a vertical joint separates the m asonry w all and the
reinforced concrete colum n, but it is probably m uch too thin
(Sw itzerland 1994).
41
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
15/2 The joints thickness here a horizontal joint betw een a
m asonry w all and a slab and the capacity of the support angles
(bolts) m ust be m atched to the deform ation of the structure and
the capacity dem and for the desired protection level (dam age lim it
state earthquake) (Sw itzerland 1994).
15/3 This joint betw een a m asonry w all and a reinforced concrete
structural w all w as filled by expanded polystyrene boards. But
Styrofoam is too stiff for earthquake displacem ents; soft rubber
w ould be a m ore suitable m aterial (Sw itzerland 1994).
42
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
16/1 The diagonal cracks and shear failures in the short colum ns of
a m ulti-storey car park alm ost caused collapse (N orthridge, C alifornia
1994).
The shear failure of so-called short colum ns is a
frequent cause of collapse during earthquakes.
It concerns squat colum ns, i.e. colum ns that are
relatively thick com pared to their height, and are often
fixed in strong beam s or slabs. Slender colum ns can
be turned into short colum ns by the addition of
parapet infills in fram e structures (unintentionally
shortened colum ns).
C olum ns under horizontal actions in fram e structures
m ay be stressed up to their plastic m om ent capacity
(plastification or failure m om ent). In the case of short
colum ns w ith considerable bending capacity, an
enorm ous m om ent gradient and thus a large shear
force results. This often leads to a shear failure before
reaching the plastic m om ent capacity. Short colum ns
should therefore be avoided. A n alternative is to
design and detail the colum ns in accordance w ith the
rules of capacity design, w hereby the shear capacity
m ust be increased to account for the overstrength of
the vertical reinforcem ent [Ba 02] [PP 92].
BP 16 Avoid short columns!
Avoid short columns!
Enormous
moment gradient
shear failure!
Mpl
Mpl
l
Basic principles for the seismic design of buildings
16
Prof. Hugo Bachmann ibk ETH Zurich
43
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
16/3 Shear failure in the corner short colum n on the ground floor
led to near-failure of this com m ercial building (Erzican Turkey 1992).
16/2 H ere, the m asonry colum ns in the ground floor of a restaurant
behaved as short colum ns. They w ere highly dam aged by diagonal
cracks (U m bria, Italy 1997).
44
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
17/2 To the left of the destroyed colum n there used to be a w indow
opening sim ilar to the one on the far left of the picture. The already
dem olished m asonry w all under the w indow opening behaved like a
partial infill w all. It m oved to the right, pushed against the colum n
and sheared it off.
17/3 Better transverse reinforcem ent in the colum n (sm all spaced
hoops and ties) w ould probably have prevented the shear failure.
H ow ever, the source of the problem lies in the partial infilling of the
fram e that caused the short colum n phenom enon (lzm it, Turkey
1999).
The infill of parapet w alls into a fram e structure w ithout
the addition of joints can cause short colum n phenom e-
na (see previous basic principle). Shear failure occurs,
or in cases of sufficient shear strength a sw ay
m echanism develops w ith possibly significant second
order effects (P--Effect).
17/1 In this case, inserting parapet w alls into a fram e led to a short
colum n phenom enon. O w ing to the good confinem ent of the
transverse reinforcem ent, no actual shear failure occurred, but an
equally dangerous sw ay m echanism developed (Friaul, Italy 1976).
BP 17 Avoid partially infilled frames!
Avoid partially infilled frames!
Basic principles for the seismic design of buildings
17
Prof. Hugo Bachmann ibk ETH Zurich
45
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
17/6 A possibility to avoid or strongly reduce the unfavourable
effect of infill parapet w alls into fram es, is the addition of joints
betw een the infill w all and colum ns. The joint w as realized correctly,
since it is filled by a soft and therefore strongly com pactible rock
w ool sheet. H ow ever, the w idth only perm its a 1% free lateral drift
ratio of the colum n (Sw itzerland 2001).
17/4 H ere too, inserting m asonry w alls and long w indow openings
caused high additional stresses and colum n failure. The relatively
good behavior of the m assive colum n to the right in the picture con-
tributed to the fact that the building narrow ly escaped collapse.
17/5 This colum n illustrates unsatisfactory detailing (hoops w ith 90
instead of 135hooks, com pare w ith BP 25). W ithout the unfavorable
effect of the infill w alls it w ould how ever have behaved m uch better
(lzm it, Turkey 1999).
46
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
18/1 D iagonal elem ents w ith broad flange cross sections have
buckled about their w eak axis...
18/2 and have broken (Kobe, Japan 1995).
For the bracing of builidings, in particular industrial
buildings, steel truss system s can be used. It m ust
how ever, be carefully thought out and designed.
The com m on truss bracing w ith centre connections
and slender diagonal m em bers m ay show a very
unfavourable behavior under cyclic actions. The diago-
nals yield under tension, lengthen m ore w ith each
cycle and end up buckling under com pression. U nder
repeated cyclic m ovem ents, the stiffness of the truss
becom es very sm all at the zero deform ation point.
This, com bined w ith dynam ic effects, can contribute to
the failure of the structure. Such bracing m ust there-
fore only be designed for elastic behaviour, or if
necessary very low ductility. It is advisable m oreover to
check com patibility betw een the deform ations of the
bracing and those of the other structural and
non-structural elem ents. This can indicate the need for
m ore stiff bracing or other bracing system s, such as
w alls. Steel truss system s w ith eccentric connections
and com pact m em bers behave m uch better than
trusses w ith centre connections and slender m em bers
[Ba 02].
BP 18 Design diagonal steel bracing carefully!
Design diagonal
steel bracing carefully!
Basic principles for the seismic design of buildings
Prof. Hugo Bachmann ibk ETH Zurich
18
47
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
18/3 This truss structure also suffered buckling of truss elem ents and
m any local dam ages (Kobe, Japan, 1995).
48
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
19/1 This steel fram e suffered large perm anent deform ations. There
w as probably no lateral bracing and the connection detailing w as
inadequate for cyclic actions (Kobe, Japan 1995).
19/2 The bolts failed in this beam to colum n connection (Kobe,
Japan 1995).
Steel generally possesses a good plastic deform ation
capacity (strain ductility). N evertheless steel m em bers
and steel structures m ay show low ductility or even
brittle behavior under cyclic actions, particularly due to
local instabilities and failures. For exam ple elem ents
w ith broad flanges (colum ns and beam s) m ay buckle in
plastic zones or fail at w elds. Therefore, certain
requirem ents m ust be com plied w ith and addtitional
m easures m ust be considered during the conceptual
design of the structure and the selection of the
m em bers cross sections [Ba 02] [EC 8].
BP 19 Design steel structures to be ductile!
Design steel
structures to
be ductile!
Critical zones
Basic principles for the seismic design of buildings
19
Prof. Hugo Bachmann ibk ETH Zrich
19/5 19/6 There is a w ide crack at the bottom of this m ain fram e
colum n in a m ulti-storey steel building (to the right in the upper
picture). Possible causes include the high cyclic norm al loads, the
high strain rate m aterial defects, w eld defects, and therm al stresses
(Kobe, Japan 1995).
19/3 This picture show s the failure of a typical fram e connection.
The w elding betw een the colum n and the beam failed, resulting in a
w ide crack (Kobe, Japan 1995).
19/4 The rectangular colum n of this 3-storey fram e structure suf-
fered local buckling at its foot. The resulting cracking of the coating
w hite paint is visible (Kobe, Japan 1995).
49
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
50
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
20/1 The pounding of tw o sim ilar buildings w ith floors at the sam e
levels caused dam age to the faades as w ell as spalling etc. to the
structure (M exico 1985).
Pounding and ham m ering of adjacent buildings can
cause substantial dam age, if not collapse. The threat
of collapse is greatest w hen the floor slabs of adjacent
buildings are at different levels and hit against the
colum ns of the neighbouring building. In such cases
the joints m ust conform w ith the relevant design rules.
This im plies the follow ing:
1) the joints m ust have a certain m inim um w idth
(specified in the building codes)
2) the joints m ust be em pty (no contact points)
In order to enable free oscillations and avoid im pact
betw een adjacent buildings, it is often necessary to
have a substantial joint w idth. A s long as the structural
elem ents do not lose their load bearing capacity at
pounding, other solutions are also possible [EC 8].
BP 20 Separate adjacent buildings by joints!
Separate adjacent
buildings by joints!
Basic principles for the seismic design of buildings
20
Prof. Hugo Bachmann ibk ETH Zurich
51
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
20/3 The m odern reinforced concrete building to the left collapsed
after pounding against the older very stiff building to the right
(M exico 1985).
20/4 The collapsed building w as an extension of the older building
to the left. Either the joint w idth w as insufficient or the buildings
w ere not connected properly. D uring the earthquake, the older
building pounded against the new one and caused its collapse
(Kobe, Japan 1995).
20/2 Substantial dam age resulted from the pounding of these tw o,
very different, buildings (M exico 1985).
52
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
21/1 In order to allow building w ings oriented orthogonally to each
other to oscillate independently, they should be separated by a
sufficiently w ide and com pressible joint.
W hen designing a building, it is im portant to visualise
the dynam ic behaviour of the structure as realistically
as possible. In this L-shaped building, the stiffnesses of
the tw o w ings, respective to each principal direction,
are very different. The tw o w ings w ill tend to oscillate
very differently but w ill also hinder each other. This
leads to large additional stresses, particularly at the
corners of the floor slabs and at the end of each w ing,
and m ay necessitate heavy structural m easures. The
problem can be avoided by separating the tw o w ings
by a joint respecting relevant seism ic design rules.
The result is tw o com pact rectangular buildings that
are dynam ically independent.
BP 21 Favour compact plan configurations!
Favour compact plan configurations!
unfavourable better
Basic principles for the seismic design of buildings
21
Prof. Hugo Bachmann ibk ETH Zurich
22/1 A corner area of this building collapsed. The slabs consisted
only of precast elem ents w ithout reinforced concrete cover and
w ithout reinforced connections to the vertical load bearing elem ents
(A rm enia 1988).
In m ulti-storey buildings the floor slabs m ust be nearly
rigid diaphragm s. They m ust be properly connected to
all the gravity load bearing elem ents to act as section
shape preservers (diaphragm s). The slabs have to
ensure that all the vertical elem ents contribute to the
lateral resistance. They distribute the seism ic forces and
displacem ents betw een the various vertical structural
elem ents according to their individual stiffness.
Slabs m ade of prefabricated elem ents are not recom -
m ended. If this solution is adopted, the floor elem ents
m ust be covered w ith adequately cast in place
reinforced concrete of sufficient thickness. M onolithic
reinforced concrete slabs w ith eventual additional
boundary reinforcem ent bars are m uch better suited to
act as diaphragm s.
53
BP 22 Use the slabs to tie in the elements and
distribute the forces!
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
Use the slabs to tie in
the elements and distribute the forces!
unfavourable better
Basic principles for the seismic design of buildings
22
Prof. Hugo Bachmann ibk ETH Zurich
54
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
22/2 22/3 In these houses also, the slabs consisted only of precast
elem ents, w hich w ere insufficiently connected betw een each other
and w ith the w alls (A rm enia 1988).
55
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
D uctile (i.e. w ith large inelastic deform ation capacity)
structures usually offer substantial advantages in com -
parison to sim ilar brittle structures. M ost im portantly,
the required structural resistance can be reduced
bringing substantial savings and increased safety
against collapse. W henever possible the structure of a
building should be designed to be ductile. This is also
appropriate w here the structural resistance for other
reasons is so large that the design earthquake can be
accom m odated w ithin the elastic capacity range of the
structure. In this case, it is im portant because real
earthquakes do not read the codes (T. Paulay) and
m ay be substantially stronger than the design earth-
quake and bring the structure in its inelastic dom ain.
The capacity design m ethod offers a sim ple and
efficient approach to ductile structural design:
The structure is told exactly w here it can and should
plastify, and w here not. H ence, a favourable plastic
m echanism is created. A large and predictable degree
of protection against collapse can be achieved by good
capacity design [PP 92] [Ba 02].
BP 23 Ductile structures through capacity design!
Ductile structures through capacity design!
Fragile
structure
Ductile
structure
Failure
Basic principles for the seismic design of buildings
23
Prof. Hugo Bachmann ibk ETH Zurich
23/1 Static-cyclic tests on the low er part of 1:2 scale 6-storey
reinforced concrete structural w alls have clearly dem onstrated the
effectiveness of a ductile design [D a 99]. The capacity designed w alls
achieved, at little additional cost, a seism ic capacity 3 to 4 tim es
larger than that of w alls conventionally designed according to the
Sw iss building code SIA 162.
56
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
In reinforced concrete structures the reinforcing steel
m ust enable the developm ent of sufficiently large and
deform able plastic zones. Tw o param eters (ductility
properties) are crucial to ensure this:
strain hardening ratio R
m
/R
e
, i.e. the ratio betw een
the m axim um tensile stress R
m
and the yield stress R
e
total elongation at m axim um tensile stress A
gt
The strain hardening ratio is also very im portant for the
buckling resistance of reinforcem ent bars in com -
pression. The sm aller R
m
/R
e
, the low er the buckling
resistance [TD 01].
In Europe a large part of the reinforcing steel available
on the m arket has insufficient ductility properties, in
particular for the sm aller bars w ith diam eters up to 16
m m [BW 98]. In order to ensure that reinforced
concrete structures reach an m edium ductility, it is
necessary that the reinforcing steel fulfils the follow ing
m inim um requirem ents (fractile values):
R
m
/R
e
1.15
A
gt
6 %
D esignations such as reinforcing steel in accordance
w ith SIA building code 162 or fulfils the building
code requirem ents or ductile or very ductile etc.
are insufficient and m isleading because the current
building codes are them selves insufficient. It is
therefore highly recom m ended that clear requirem ents
are issued at the tim e of the invitation to tender and
that suitable tests are m ade before the purchase and
im plem entation of the reinforcing bars.
BP 24 Use ductile reinforcing steel with R
m
/R
e
1.15
and A
gt
6 %!
Use ductile
reinforcing steel
with:
R
m
/R
e
1.15
and A
gt
6 %!
strain hardening ratio
total elongation at
maximum tensile stress
Elongation [%]
S
t
r
e
s
s
[
M
P
a
]
Basic principles for the seismic design of buildings
24
Prof. Hugo Bachmann ibk ETH Zurich
Hysteretic Behaviour of Static-Cyclic Test Walls
B
e
n
d
i
n
g
m
o
m
e
n
t
(
k
N
m
)
B
e
n
d
i
n
g
m
o
m
e
n
t
(
k
N
m
)
Horizontal top deflection (mm)
Horizontal top deflection (mm)
A
c
t
u
a
t
o
r
f
o
r
c
e
(
k
N
)
A
c
t
u
a
t
o
r
f
o
r
c
e
(
k
N
)
24/1
Prof. Hugo Bachmann ibk ETH Zrich
24/1 These plastic hysteresis-curves of 2 different 6-storey reinforced
concrete structural w alls w ith (W SH 3) and w ithout (W SH 1) ductile
reinforcing steel clearly illustrate the difference in behaviour. The w all
w ith low ductility barely achieved a displacem ent ductility of
=
~
2,
w hile the ductile w all achieved
=
~
6. The ductile w all can therefore
survive an earthquake approxim ately 4 tim es stronger!
57
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
24/2 In this test w all, w ith reinforcem ent bars w ith insufficient strain
hardening ratio R
m
/R
e
, the plastic deform ations w ere concentrated at a
single crack (one-crack hinge according to [BW 98]). The reinforce-
m ent bars ruptured inside the w all (x) early in the test. This w eakened
the relevant section and concentrated the subsequent plastic deform a-
tions in it, causing the rupture of bars located at the edge of the w all.
The w all barely reached a displacem ent ductility
=
~
2 after 2 cycles
[D W 99].
24/3 24/4 The failure of the reinforcem ent bars having a relatively
low R
m
/R
e
value w as initiated by their buckling in com pression (left)
follow ed after a load reversal, by rupture in tension (right).
The rupture occurred w here the reinforcem ent bars had experienced
the largest buckling curvature [D W 99].
58
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
25/1 In this colum n of an industrial building m ade of precast
reinforced concrete elem ents, the hoops w ere too w idely spaced and
insufficiently anchored w ith only 90hooks. They consequently
opened, allow ing the vertical reinforcem ent to buckle (A dapazari,
Turkey 1999).
25/2 The hoops anchorage at the foot of this colum n in a fram e
structure also failed because the hoops only had 90 hooks (Turkey,
lzm it 1999).
Page 59
25/3 This transverse reinforcem ent hoops and ties at the edge of
a reinforced concrete structural w all is exem plary concerning anchor-
age w ith 135 hooks. H ow ever, the vertical spacing of the transverse
reinforcem ent is too large, i.e. s = 7.5d instead of s 5d as required
for steel w ith a relatively sm all strain hardening ratio (R
m
/R
e
= 1,15)
[D W 99][TD 01].
W ithin cyclically stressed plastic zones of reinforced
concrete structural w alls and colum ns, the concrete
cover spalls w hen the elastic lim it of the reinforcem ent
is exceeded. In these zones it is therefore necessary to
stabilise the vertical bars against buckling and to con-
fine the concrete to allow greater com pressive strains.
The stabilising and confining transverse reinforcem ent
(hoops and ties) m ust be anchored w ith 135 hooks.
D am aging earthquakes have repeatedly illustrated that
90 hooks are insufficient. The spacing of the trans-
verse reinforcem ent m ust be relatively sm all s 5d
(d = diam eter of the stabilised bar). This is a conse-
quence of the relatively poor ductility properties (sm all
strain hardening ratio R
m
/R
e
) of European reinforcing
steel, w hich result in an unfavourable buckling behav-
iour [TD 01].
Sim ilar rules apply to the plastic zones in fram e
structures [Ba 02].
W ithin the zones that are to rem ain elastic according
to the capacity design m ethod it is sufficient to apply
the conventional design rules.
BP 25 Use transverse reinforcement with 135 hooks and
spaced at s 5d in structural walls and columns!
Use transverse
reinforcement
with 135 hooks
and spaced
at s 5d in
structural walls
and columns!
Basic principles for the seismic design of buildings
25
Prof. Hugo Bachmann ibk ETH Zurich
60
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
26/1 This w ell designed earthquake w all has been com pletely
ruined by recesses placed in the form w ork, careless creation of
openings and brutal cutting of the reinforcem ent bars.
26/2 Expensive repair w ork, consisting of refilling the openings w ith
expansive concrete and gluing steel plates restored the designed
ultim ate resistance of the w all. H ow ever, it is alm ost im possible
to fully recover the ductile behaviour obtainable w ith the original
reinforcem ent (Sw itzerland 2001).
O n som e building sites there is a tendency to create
recesses in the structure for services, air ducts etc.,
or even larger openings for other purposes, w ithout
consulting the civil engineer. These recesses and
openings are often inserted into the form w ork of
reinforced concrete elem ents or even jack ham m ered
after concreting. The repercussions are particularly
serious w hen the openings are located in plastic zones.
It is necessary to avoid this practice because it can lead
to the prem ature failure of carefully designed critical
structural elem ents and therefore to serious safety
problem s.
O n the other hand, it is generally possible to place
recesses and even larger openings in the elastic zones
of the structure. The recesses and openings m ust be
w ell planned and positioned, and the reinforcem ent
around them m ust be strengthened eventually based
on a fram e calculation [D 0171].
BP 26 No openings or recesses in plastic zones!
No openings or
recesses in plastic zones!
prohibited!
Basic principles for the seismic design of buildings
26
Prof. Hugo Bachmann ibk ETH Zurich
26/3 H ere, an excessively large hole w as created and the reinforce-
m ent w as brutally cut. H ad the engineer been consulted the pipes
could have been grouped and a m uch sm aller hole could perhaps
have been created w ithout w eakening the reinforcem ent.
26/4 H ow ever, it w as possible to repair the dam age to a certain
extent and, in contrast to the preceding case (p. 60), to restore som e
of the planned behaviour (Sw itzerland 2001).
61
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
26/5 This type of unplanned insertion of pipes can also im pair the
seism ic behaviour of a reinforced concrete structural w all
(Sw itzerland 2001).
26/6 U nder certain conditions, it is perm issible to insert openings in
elastic zones of earthquake relevant structural elem ents (here a
slender reinforced concrete structural w all). C areful planning w ith the
engineer is essential (Sw itzerland 2001).
62
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
The connections in prefabricated buildings are often
designed for construction gravity loads only. Such
buildings can therefore be very vulnerable to earth-
quakes. Short support lengths, w eak or m issing
dow els, and unsatisfactory overturning restraints of
girders are frequently the cause of collapse. Therefore,
m obile bearings m ust have a m inim um support length
(b
m in
) in accordance w ith the seism ic building codes,
and fixed bearings m ust have dow els designed for the
forces accounting for the overstrength of the plastic
zones (capacity design m ethod). A dditionally, the
beam s m ust usually be secured against lateral
overturning m ovem ent. In case of prefabricated floors
adequately reinforced concrete cast in place m ust
cover and connect the floor elem ents in order to
guarantee a diaphragm action (see also BP 22).
BP 27 Secure connections in prefabricated buildings!
Secure connections in
prefabricated buildings!
Mobile
bearing
Dowel
In addition:
secure against lateral buckling
Fixed
bearing
Basic principles for the seismic design of buildings
27
Prof. Hugo Bachmann ibk ETH Zurich
27/1 The dow els on the colum n corbels of this prefabricated factory
building did not provide sufficient stability. The support area failed
and the m ain beam s overturned (in the direction of the longitudinal
axis of the building)...
27/2 and the entire roof structure collapsed (A dana-C eyhan,
Turkey 1998).
Page 63
27/3 The consequences of bad planning and insufficient design and
detailing of a prefabricated industrial building (A dapazari, Turkey 1999).
64
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
To ensure that seism ic forces can be transferred to the
soil it is advisable to study the force path in the
foundation structure. The allow able soil stresses under
dynam ic action m ay be higher than the corresponding
static stresses, but care should be taken to ensure that
plastic deform ations of the soil are avoided under all
circum stances [SK 97].
28/1 H ere soil anchors w ere installed to prevent the lift off of the
ductile reinforced concrete shear w alls (Sw itzerland 1999).
The ability of the foundation structure to bear the
seism ic actions is im portant for the overall earthquake
resistance of the building. U sually, cantilever w alls, as
w ell as fram e colum ns, rest on one or m ore basem ent
storeys (rigid box) or on a m assive raft. A ccording to
the principles of the capacity design m ethod, the foun-
dations should be able to transfer the overstrength
sectional forces of the plastic zones to the ground
w ithout yielding [PB 90] [PP 92]. Foundation structures
should alw ays rem ain elastic since plastic deform ations
generally lead to an unpredictable behaviour and
additional displacem ents and stresses in the building
structure. Besides, repairs are usually substantially
m ore difficult to execute in the foundation than in the
building structure. The reinforcem ent m ust therefore
be strengthened directly below the plastic zones and
detailed accordingly [D 0171].
W hen the foundation structure form s a rigid box m ade
up of reinforced concrete w alls and slabs, it should be
checked that the path of com pression, shear, and
tensile forces can be transferred from the plastic zones
of the structural w alls through the slabs to the exterior
w alls and to the raft. It m ay be necessary to reinforce
these structural elem ents (accounting for possible
recesses and openings) and to increase locally the
depth of the raft and to account for a local increase in
bearing pressure acting on the soil beneath the w alls.
BP 28 Protect foundations through capacity design!
Protect foundations
through
capacity design!
Overstrength
sectional forces
Basic principles for the seismic design of buildings
28
Prof. Hugo Bachmann ibk ETH Zurich
29/1 A t the site of a building w ith planned base isolation
(m ounted on special earthquake bearings) the grounds predom inant
eigenfrequency m easured in nearby drill holes w as 0.65 to 0.85 H z,
w hich corresponds to an eigenperiod from 1.2 to 1.5 s.
The developm ent of a site specific response spectrum show ed that
the acceleration in this period range w as substantially higher than
that of the relevant building code spectrum . H ence this spectrum
w as raised and for a period greater than T=1.5 s a constant displace-
m ent w as assum ed. In order to elim inate the possibility of resonance
and to m inim ize accelerations, a target eigenperiod of T
0
=
~
3s
(f
0
=
~
0.33 H z) w as selected in the seism ic design w ith base isolators
(Sw itzerland 2000).
In certain soils, the local ground m otion param eters
and structural response m ay differ substantially from
the values obtained w ith the design response spectrum
of the building codes. This can be the case:
in soft soils w ith a shear w ave velocity less than
approxim ately 200 m /s, and/or w ith large thicknesses
of soil layers
in certain valleys w ith alluvial or glacial sedim ents
(depth to w idth ratio greater than ~ 0.2).
generally in cases of suspected resonance betw een
soil and building
U nder such conditions, the ground is likely to experi-
ence strong vibrations even for a m oderate earthquake
(significant am plification of the ground shaking from
the bedrock to the surface). In such cases, it is neces-
sary to perform a site specific investigation, especially
for im portant buildings. If no m icrozonation study has
been conducted yet, it is necessary to determ ine the
grounds predom inant eigenfrequency and to develop
the design response spectrum valid for the local soils
param eters and layer thicknesses (acceleration and
displacem ent spectrum ).
65
BP 29 Develop a site specific response spectrum!
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
Develop a site
specific
response spectrum!
Basic principles for the seismic design of buildings
29
Prof. Hugo Bachmann ibk ETH Zurich
Site specific response spectrum
Lutzelhof site
EC 8, soil class B
EC 8, soil class A
EC 8, reduced for rock
Period (s)
S
p
e
c
t
r
a
l
a
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
/
s
2
)
29/1
Prof. Hugo Bachmann ibk ETH Zurich
66
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
30/1 This building sank evenly about 1 m due to soil liquefaction.
The displaced soil caused a bulge in the road (Izm it, Turkey 1999).
30/2 This inclined building sank unevenly and leans against a neigh-
bouring building (Turkey, lzm it 1999).
C ertain sandy or silty soils saturated w ith w ater can
display a sufficient static load-bearing capacity. H ow ev-
er, w hen vibrated, such as during an earthquake, they
w ill suddenly behave like a liquid. Entire buildings or
sections thereof m ay sink, or tilt if the soil is inhom o-
geneous or unequally liquefied, often leading to total
collapse. Sandy or silty soils m ust therefore be studied
for their liquefaction potential. C ounter m easures such
as consolidation by injections, pile foundations etc.
can be necessary.
BP 30 Assess the potential for soil liquefaction!
Assess the potential for soil liquefaction!
Basic principles for the seismic design of buildings
30
Prof. Hugo Bachmann ibk ETH Zurich
30/4 This tank also tilted due to the liquefaction of the sandy
artificial landfill (Kobe, Japan 1995).
30/3 This solid building tilted as a rigid body and the raft foundation
rises above ground. The building itself suffered only relatively m inor
dam age (A dapazari, Turkey 1999).
67
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
68
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
31/2 Seism ic high dam ping rubber bearings (60 cm diam eter, 30 cm
high) w ere incorporated into the eight reinforced concrete colum ns.
W hen designing the seism ic im provem ent of existing or
planned buildings, m any architects and civil engineers
think of strengethening them , i.e. increasing their lateral
resistance. A strengthening alw ays stiffens the building,
thereby raising the eigenfrequencies. U nder certain condi-
tions how ever, it m ay prove m ore beneficial to soften a
structure rather than to strengthen/stiffen it [Ba 01]. By
installing special horizontal relatively soft seism ic bearings
above the foundation (base isolation), a frequency shift
tow ards the low er area of the design response spectrum
can be achieved. A s a result, and because dam ping is
usually also increased, a significant reduction of the seism ic
forces and thereby the dam age potential is achieved.
H ow ever, relative displacem ents increase notably, w hich
requires sufficient clearance around the isolated buildings.
In addition service pipes m ust be sufficiently flexible.
BP 31 Softening may be more beneficial than
strengthening!
Softening may be
more beneficial than
strengthening!
Softening Strengthening
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
Frequency
Frequency
Basic principles for the seismic design of buildings
31
Prof. Hugo Bachmann ibk ETH Zurich
31/1 A softening strategy w as im plem ented to seism ically im prove
this 700 t liquid gas industrial tank carried by a reinforced concrete
structure (Sw itzerland 1999).
Page 69
31/3 The acceleration and displacem ent design response spectra
illustrate the com bined effect of the reduction of the fundam ental
frequency to ~0.5 H z and of the increase in dam ping.
Prof. Hugo Bachmann
ibk ETH Zrich
Frequency (Hz)
Site specific response spectrum = 5%
Site specific response spectrum = 8%
Spectrum for medium-stiff soil according to SIA 160 = 5%
Frequency (Hz)
Increase in damping
Frequency shifted due to base isolation
Increase in damping
Frequency shifted due to base isolation
D
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t
(
m
m
)
A
c
c
e
l
e
r
a
t
i
o
n
(
m
/
S
2
)
Design spectra for industrial tank
70
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
32/1 The structure of this building did not collapse, but heavy and
insufficiently anchored facade panels fell to the ground (Kobe, Japan
1995).
32/2 These light concrete panels, cladding an only slightly dam aged
steel structure, w ere also destroyed (Kobe, Japan 1995).
The facade elem ents anchoring is frequently designed
for vertical gravity loads only. O ften facade elem ents
sim ply rest on corbels and are lightly fixed at the top.
D uring earthquakes, the friction from the dead loads
can be overcom e by horizontal and vertical accelera-
tions. The collapse of facade elem ents and the
resulting threat to pedestrians, vehicles, etc. becom es
inevitable. The facade elem ents anchoring m ust
therefore be designed and detailed not only for gravity
loads but also for horizontal cyclic forces (tension /
com pression). A dditionally, the anchorages and
possible connections betw een the facade elem ents
should be able to follow the expected deform ations
of the structure.
BP 32 Anchor facade elements against horizontal forces!
Anchor facade
elements against
horizontal forces!
insufficient better
Basic principles for the seismic design of buildings
32
Prof. Hugo Bachmann ibk ETH Zurich
71
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
32/3 This facade cladding w as insufficiently anchored and could not
follow the deform ations of the reinforced concrete fram e structure
(N orthridge, C alifornia 1994).
32/4 A glance into this side street reveals a vast am ount of fallen
facade m aterials. Rescue w ork, fire trucks access, etc. is seriously
ham pered (Kobe, Japan 1995).
72
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
33/2 and the cornice and parapet dam aged the overhanging
roof panel w hen they fell (Lom a Prieta, C alifornia 1989).
33/3 C antilever w alls not anchored in the foundation can tip over
(Kobe, Japan, 1995).
A n overturning m om ent occurs under rapid horizontal
displacem ents and corresponding inertia forces. U nless
they are adequately anchored or fixed, slender
elem ents m ay tip over.
33/1 This neo-classic reinforced concrete building did not suffer
large dam age and even the w indow -panes rem ained intact. H ow ev-
er, the parapet on the roof terrace turned over
BP 33 Anchor free standing parapets and walls!
Basic principles for the seismic design of buildings
33
Prof. Hugo Bachmann ibk ETH Zurich
Anchor free
standing parapets
and walls!
Horizontal
seismic force
Overturning
moment
Page 73
33/4 These dry stone garden w alls also turned over (N orthridge,
C alifornia, 1994).
74
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
The fall of suspended ceilings and light fittings can
present a serious danger to people. A s w ell as the
dead load, the connections m ust be able to safely carry
the forces from vertical and horizontal accelerations
and vibrations. The sam e applies to the fixings of air
ducts and service pipes of all kinds, w hich are installed
betw een suspended ceilings and structural floor slabs.
BP 34 Fasten suspended ceilings and light fittings!
Fasten suspended
ceilings and
light fittings!
Basic principles for the seismic design of buildings
34
Prof. Hugo Bachmann ibk ETH Zurich
34/2 that hang from thin w ires only constitute a safety threat to
people (N orthridge, C alifornia 1994).
34/3 34/4 Poorly fastened light fittings, such as these, can fall and
endanger people (San Fernando, C alifornia 1971).
34/1 Suspended ceilings and ceiling panels
75
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
35/2 C ontainers and m achines can tilt if they are not sufficiently
anchored (Kobe, Japan 1995).
35/3 In this chem istry laboratory, unsecured glass containers broke
w hen they fell from the table and through open cabinet doors (San
Fernando, C alifornia 1971).
It is very im portant to guarantee the integrity of installa-
tions and equipm ent that m ust rem ain operational after a
strong earthquake, including equipm ent outside the
building, on roofs etc. This concerns prim arily lifeline
structures w hich are vital for rescue operations and recov-
ery (buildings of class III according to SIA 160), such as hos-
pitals, m ain pharm acies, fire-fighting facilities, operational
com m and centres, com m unication installations etc. It can
also include industrial facilities w hose business interruption
w ould cause significant financial losses. A ll installations
and equipm ents such as pipelines, w ater fire sprinklers,
laboratory instrum ents, containers, cabinets, shelving units
etc. and if necessary also production lines m ust be system -
atically exam ined for seism ic adequacy. If necessary they
m ust be secured by m eans of suitable fixings or bracings.
35/1 Pipelines especially of large diam eter are very vulnerable unless
they are adequately fastened (San Fernando, C alifornia 1971).
BP 35 Fasten installations and equipment!
Fasten installations
and equipment!
Basic principles for the seismic design of buildings
35
Prof. Hugo Bachmann ibk ETH Zurich
76
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
35/6 Because books represent a considerable m ass, strong anchor-
age and bracing of the shelves in both m ain directions is necessary
(W hittier N arrow s, C alifornia 1987).
35/4 Filing cabinets can tip over, particularly if the draw ers are not
secured (M organ H ill, C alifornia 1984).
35/5 O pen bookshelves em pty them selves at each strong earth-
quake. Valuable books can be secured by the use of retaining bars or
inclined shelves (Lom a Prieta, C alifornia 1989).
35/7 W ell-secured battery groups and em ergency pow er generators
can guarantee a pow er supply, even after a strong earthquake
(C alifornia 1980).
77
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
35/9 A nd even storage fram es for w ine barrels can be tested on an
earthquake sim ulator (shaking table) (Berkeley 2000).
35/8 These valuable bottles in a liquor store w ere secured by
spring w ires (C alifornia 1978).
78
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
The photographs and figures com e from the follow ing
persons and institutions:
W alter A m m ann, D avos: 11/2, 20/1, 20/2, 20/3
H ugo Bachm ann, Zrich: Schem atic figure 1 and 3 to
35, E/1, E/2, 1/1, 1/2, 2/1, 2/2, 4/9, 4/10, 6/1, 7/1, 8/1,
8/2, 9/1, 9/3, 9/4, 10/1, 12/1, 12/2, 12/3, 12/4, 12/5,
15/1, 15/2, 15/3, 17/6, 21/1, 25/1, 26/1, 26/3, 26/5,
26/6, 27/3, 31/3
M arc Badoux, Lausanne: 30/1
A lessandro D azio, San D iego C A : C over photograph
w ith rebars, 9/2, 23/1, 24/1, 24/2, 24/3, 24/4, 25/3
M artin Koller, C arouge: 28/1, 29/1
Pierino Lestuzzi, Lausanne: 4/2, 4/3, 11/3, 11/4, 17/2,
17/3, 17/4, 17/5, 25/2, 30/2
Eberhard Luz, Stuttgart: 14/1, 22/1, 22/2, 22/3
Roland M adry, Basel: 31/1
Paul M issbauer, Sion: 31/2
Kaspar Peter, Lausanne: 14/2
M eta Sozen, Illinois: 30/3
D ieter W epf, Flaw il: 11/1, 16/3
Thom as W enk, Zrich: C over phtograph w ith build-
ings, shem atic figure 2, 4/4, 4/5, 4/6, 4/7, 4/8, 5/2,
5/3, 6/2, 6/3, 6/4, 6/5, 6/6, 13/6, 13/7, 14/3, 16/2,
27/1, 27/2, 30/4, 32/1, 32/4
A rchitectural Institute of Japan: 5/1, 18/1, 18/2, 18/3,
19/1, 19/2, 19/3, 19/4, 19/5, 19/6, 20/4, 32/2, 32/3,
33/3
Earthquake Engineering Research Institute, O akland
C A : C over photograph w ith pipes, 16/1, 32/3, 33/1,
33/2, 33/4, 34/1, 34/2, 34/3, 34/4, 35/1, 35/2, 35/3,
35/4, 35/5, 35/6, 35/7, 35/8
Losinger A G , Lyssach BE: 13/4, 13/5
M unich Re G roup: Schem atic figure E/3
Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research C enter,
Berkeley C A : 35/9
Sw iss brick industry, Zrich: 13/1, 13/2, 13/3
Stahlton A G , Zrich: 26/2, 26/4
N N .: 4/1, 13/8, 17/1
Illustration credits
79
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
[PB 90] Paulay T., Bachm ann H ., M oser K.:
Erdbebenbem essung von Stahlbeton-
hochbauten. Birkhuser Verlag Basel
Boston Berlin 1990.
[PP 92] Paulay T., Priestley M .J.N .: Seism ic D esign of
Reinforced C oncrete and M asonry Struc-
tures. John W iley & Sons, N ew York 1992.
[Sc 00] Schum acher R.: Zur rechtlichen Verantw or-
tung fr die Erdbebensicherung von Bauw -
erken . D ocum entation SG EB/SIA D 0162
Erdbebenvorsorge in der Schw eiz
M assnahm en bei neuen und bestehenden
Bauw erken, Socit suisse des ingnieurs et
architectes, Zurich 2000.
[SIA 160]SIA 160 (norm e): A ctions on Structures.
Sw iss society of engineers and architects,
Zurich 1989.
[SK 97] Studer J., Koller M .G .: Erdbebengerechter
Entw urf und Kapazittsbem essung eines
G ebudes m it Stahlbetontragw nden.
D ocum entation SG EB/SIA D 0171, Socit
suisse des ingnieurs et architectes, Zurich
2002.
[TD 01] Thiele K., D azio A ., Bachm ann H .:
Bew ehrungsstahl unter zyklischer
Beanspruchung. Institut fr Baustatik und
Konstruktion (IBK), ETH Zrich. Bericht N r.
264, Birkhuser Verlag Basel Boston Berlin
2001.
[Ba 02] Bachm ann H .: Erdbebensicherung von
Bauw erken. 2. A uflage. Birkhuser Verlag
Basel Boston Berlin 2002.
[Ba 01] Bachm ann H .: Softening as Seism ic
U pgrading Strategy Requirem ents and
C ase Studies. Proceedings 20th European
Regional Earthquake Engineering Sem inar
Sion, Septem ber 3-7, 2001. Sw iss Society for
Seism ic Engineering and Structural D ynam ics
SG EB, Sion 2001.
[BW 98] Bachm ann H ., W enk T.: U ngengende
D uktilitt beim Bew ehrungsstahl. Schw eizer
Ingenieur und A rchitekt, H eft 29, Juli 1998.
[D W 99] D azio A ., W enk T., Bachm ann H .: Versuche
an Stahlbetontragw nden unter zyklisch-sta-
tischer Einw irkung. Institut fr Baustatik
und Konstruktion (IBK), ETH Zrich. Bericht
N r. 239, Birkhuser Verlag Basel Boston
Berlin 1999.
[D 0150] Bachm ann H ., D arbre G .R., D eichm ann N .,
Koller M .G ., Studer J., Tini S., Tissires P.,
W enk Th., W ieland M ., Zw icky P.: H and-
lungsbedarf von Behrden, H ochschulen,
Industrie und Privaten zur Erdbeben-
sicherung der Bauw erke in der Schw eiz.
D ocum entation SG EB/SIA D 0150, Socit
suisse des ingnieurs et architectes, Zurich
1998.
[D 0171] Bachm ann H ., D azio A ., Bruchez P., M ittaz
X., Peruzzi R., Tissires P.: Erdbeben-
gerechter Entw urf und Kapazittsbem essung
eines G ebudes m it Stahlbetontragw n-
den. D ocum entation SG EB/SIA D 0171,
Socit suisse des ingnieurs et architectes,
Zurich 2002.
[EC 8] Eurocode 8 (N orm ): D esign of structures for
earthquake resistance. N orm SIA
V160.811/812/813 as European prestandard
EN V 1998-1-1/-2/-3. Sw iss society of engi-
neers and architects, Zurich 1997.
[La 02] Lang K.: Seism ic Vulnerability of Existing
Buildings. Institut fr Baustatik und Kon-
struktion (IBK), ETH Zrich. Birkhuser Verlag
Basel Boston Berlin 2002.
[M R 00] M unich Re G roup: Topics 2000: N atural
C atastrophes The current position.
M nchener Rckversicherungs-G esellschaft.
M nchen 1999.
Bibliography
80
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
http://w w w .bw g.adm in.ch
Federal O ffice for W ater and G eology
C oordination C entre for Earthquake Risk M itigation
Lndtestrasse 20
C H -2501 Bienne
Sw itzerland
http://w w w .eda.adm in.ch
Federal D epartm ent of Foreign A ffairs
Sw iss A gency for D evelopm ent and C ooperation
Freiburgstrasse 30
C H -3003 Bern
Sw itzerland
http://w w w .uvek.adm in.ch
Federal D epartm ent of the Environm ent, Transport,
Energy and C om m unications
G eneralsekretariat U VEK
Kochergasse 10
C H -3003 Bern
Sw itzerland
http://w w w .ibk.baug.ethz.ch
Institute of Structural Engineering,
Structural D ynam ics and Earthquake Engineering
ETH H nggerberg
C H -8093 Zrich
http://seism o.ethz.ch/gshap/
G lobal Seism ic H azard A ssessm ent Program
http://w w w .eqnet.org
Earthquake Inform ation N etw ork
http://w w w .m unichre.com /pdf/topics_sh2000_e.pdf
M unich Re G roup
Topics 2000 : N atural catastrophes
The current position
http://w w w .eeri.org
Earthquake Engineering Research Institute
http://w w w .w orld-housing.net/about/abouttp.asp
W orld H ousing Encyclopedia
Encyclopedia of H ousing C onstruction Types in
Seism ically Prone A reas
http://w w w .iaee.or.jp/
International A ssociation for Earthquake Engineering
Contacts / Links
81
Appendix
Basic principles for engineers, architects, building ow ners, and authorities
Global Seismic Hazard MAP
Produced by the Global Seismic Hazard Assessment Program (GSHAP),
a demonstration project of the UN/International Decade of Natural Disaster Reduction, conducted by
the international Lithosphere Program.
Global map assembled by D. Giardini, G. Grnthal, K. Shedlock, and P. Zhang