Gist of Chapters

Class XII Sub Biology

GIST OF UNIT -1 :- REPRODUCTION
CHAPTER -1 REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISM
The period between birth &natural death of an organism is called life span. Life span of some
organisms
LIVING ORGANISMS LIFE SPAN
Fruit fly 1 day
Butterfly 1-2 weeks
Wheat plant 6 months
Crow 15 years
Dog 25 years
Banana tree 25 years
Human 100 years
Parrot 140 years
Banyan tree 200 yearss
Reproduction is a biological process of continuity of race in which the grown up individuals
give rise to offsprings similar to them.
It performs following functions
(i) Species continue to live indefinitely (ii) Maintains life on the Earth
(iii) Creates variations among population.
The mechanism to produce offsprings shows large variations. Based on this,
Reproduction can be of following two types:
(i) Asexual reproduction (ii) Sexual reproductions
Asexual reproduction needs single parent to produceoffsprings. Types of asexual
reproduction:
(A) Fission
(1) Binary fission . Example Amoeba
(2) Multiple fission . Example Plasmodium
(B) Budding . Example Hydra
(C) Sporulation:
Spores can be of following types:
(i)Zoospores- Chlamydomonas and Ulothrix
(ii)Conidia- Penicillium
(iii)Sporangiospores- Rhizopus
(D) Fragmentation- Marchantia,Riccia
(E) Regeneration-Planaria,Hydra
(F) Vegetative Propagation in Plants
Some examples are:
Vegetative Parts Examples
Roots Dahalia,Asparagus,Dalbergia,Guava
Leaves Bryophyllum,Begonia
Bulbils Agave, Lily
Turions Potamogeton
CHAPTER-2 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
Flowers are the site of sexual reproduction in flowering plants.Sexual reproduction is
the process of fusion of haploid gametes, resulting into the production of a diploid
zygote, which develops into new organism.
Stamen represents male reproductive part. It has two parts:
(i) Anther It is a bilobed structure with each lobe having two theca. It has four
microsporangia containing pollen grains.
(ii) Filament
Structure of microsporangium-
Four wall layers,epidermfis,endothecium,middle layers &tapetum.
Outer three wall layers are protective in function.
Tapetum nourishes developing pollen grains.
The formation of microspore through the meiosis is called microspogenisis.
Structure of pollen grain
Outer hard layer exine is made up of sporopollenin.
Germ pore is present on exine where sporopollenin is not present.
Intine is made of cellulose &pectin.
Vegetative cell in pollen grain is bigger , which contains food reserves.
Generative cell is small, which floats on the cytoplasm of vegetative cell.
importance of pollen grains-
These are nutrient rich & thus are taken as food supplements
Harmfull effects of pollen grains-
It cause severe allergy, chronic respiratory disorder
Structure of ovule-
Ovule is attached to the placenta by funicle
Hilum is the junction between ovule &funicle
Each ovule has one or two protective envelops called integuments.
Micropyle is present at the tip & chalaza is opposite to the micropylarend.Nucellus have
food reserves.
Embryo sac or female gametophyte is located in the nucellus.
Megasporogenesis-
It is the process of formation of megaspore from megaspore mother cell
Development of female gametophyte-
One of the megaspore is functional while other three degenerate in majority of
angiosperm
Only the functional megaspore develops into the female gametophyte
Formation of embryo sac
Nuclear divisition result in the formation of 8 nucleate embryo sac
At the micropylar end there is egg apparatus , which consist of two synergids& one egg
cell. A filiform apparatus made of cellular thickenings of synergids at the micropylar end
plays an important role in guiding the polln tubes
At the chalazal end there are three anpodal cells
In the centre of the embryo sac, there are two polar nuclei.
Hence embryo sac is 8nucleate & 7 celled structure.
Pollination : It is the transfer of pollen grain from anther to the stigma of the pistil.
Types: (1) Autogamy: It is the transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma of
the same flower.
Chasmogamous flowers: Flowers with exposed anther and stigma
Cleistogamous flowers: Flowers do not open at all.
(2)Geitonogamy: Transfer of pollen to stigma of another flower of the same plant
(3)Xenogamy: Transfer of pollen to stigma of a different plant.
Characteristics of wind pollinated flowers: Light and non sticky pollen grains,
well exposed stamens and large feathery stigma.
Characteristics of water pollinated flowers: Pollens are protected by mucilaginous
covering, female flowers with long stalk.
Entomophilous flowers: By insects, flowers are large ,colourful, fragrant and rich
in nector.
Outbreeding devices:Promotes cross pollination and avoids self pollination.
Devices:- (1) Dichogamy (2) Self sterility (3) Unisexuality.
Pollen-pistil interaction involves following events:
(1)Pollen grains produce pollen tube
(2) Pollen tube reaches the ovary
Artificial hybridisation involves pollination of desired pollens (emasculation
,bagging,tagging)
Double fertilisation:- Syngamy + Triple fusion
Syngamy- results in zygote.
Triple fusion: results in endosperm.
Double fertilisation results in following changes:-
(1) Endosperm and embryo development.
(2) Ovules form seeds
(3) Ovary converts to fruit
Post fertilisation changes in floral parts:-
(1) Sepals,petals,stamens, stigma and style fall down
(2) Ovary forms fruit and ovules form seeds
(3) Synergids and antipodals degenerate
(4) Central cell becomes endosperm.
Endosperm types:-
(1) Nuclear type
(2) Cellular type
(3) Helobial type
Epicotyl:-The part of embryonal axis above the level of attachment of cotyledons
Hypocotyl:-The part of embryonal axis below the level of cotyledons
Seed or fertilised ovule is the final product of sexual reproduction.Seed consists of seed
coat,cotyledons and an embryonal axis.
Types of seeds:-
(1) Albuminous seeds (2) Non albuminous seeds
Ovary wall develops into pericarp and ovary forms fruit.
Types of fruit:- False fruit,True fruits, Parthenocarpic fruits.
Advantages of seed:- Dispersal, variations ,storage.
Apomixis:-Production of seeds without fertilisation and useful for seed hybrid industry.
Polyembryony:- Presence of more than one embryo in a seed.
Chapter 3 :- Human reproduction
Male reproductive system:- includes a pair of testes, accessory ducts and the external
genitalia
Female reproductive system:- includes a pair of ovaries,secondary sex organs,external
genitalia and mammary glands
Gametogenesis:- process of producing gametes.
Types:-(1) Spermatogenesis:-
Spermatogonia(2n)
Mitosis differentiation
Primary spermatocytes(2n)
Meiosis I
Secondary spermatocytes(n)
Meiosis II
Spermatids(n)
Differentiation
Spermatozoa(n)
Hormones in spermatogenesis- GnRH,LH,FSH.
Structure of sperm:- Head, neck, middle piece and tail
Oogenesis:- Oogonia(2n)
Mitosis differentiation
Primary oocyte(2n)
Meiosis I
Secondary oocyte(n) + Ist polar body
Meiosis II
Ovum(n) + second polar body
Menstrual cycle:- Phases:- Menstrual,Follicular or Proliferative,Ovulatory,Luteal or
Secretory
Fertilisation, Pregnancy and Embryonic development:-
Fertilisation:-Fusion of male and female gametes.It takes place in the ampullary-isthmic
junction of the fallopian tube lead and results in zygote formation.
Male - XY Female-XX
Implantation:-Zygote Morula(8-16 blastomeres) Blastocyst which gets implanted in
uterine wall
Preganancy:-It starts after implantation.
Changes during this:-
Both the uterine and chorionic villi become interdigitated with each other and jointly form a
structural and functional unit between the developing embryo and maternal body called placenta.
Function of placenta: oxygen and nutrient transport ,secretion of hormones( hCG ,hPL
,oestrogens,progesterone,etc.)
Umbilical cord connects the placenta with foetus.
Embryonic development starts after pregnancy with the following changes:-
The inner cell mass differentiates intoectoderm,mesoderm and endoderm. These germ layers
form the tissues and organs of the adult. The inner cell mass contain stem cells which have the
potency to give rise to all the tissues and organs.
Parturition:-After the 9 months duration of pregnancy, the foetus is ready for delivery and
the process of delivery of foetus is called parturition.Hormones involved in parturition
are :relaxin and oxytocin.
Lactation:- The process of milk production by the mammary glands in the female is
called lactation. During the initial few days of lactation the milk produced is called
colostrum which contain several antibodies and nutrients.
Chapter 4:- Reproductive Health
Reproductive Health:- It refers to healthy reproductive organs with normal functions.
RCH:-Reproductive and Child Health Care programmes. It includes:-
Creating awareness among the people about various reproductive related aspects
Providing facilities and support for building up of reproductively healthy society.
Successful implementation of action plans like providing medical assistance and care to
reproduction related problems like pregnancy ,delivery, STDs etc needs support and
infrastructural facilities.
Amniocentesis is a pre natal diagnostic technique in which a sample of amniotic fluid is
taken from the uterus of the pregnant woman to detect the early development of the
foetus. Benefits of amniocentesis: Diagnosis of chromosomal abnormalities, the sex of
foetus and development disorders.Its misuse is killing of female foetuses.
Population explosion:- Occurred due to increased health facilities and better living
conditions
Birth control: - raising the marriageable age , small family couples should be given some
incentives.
Methods:- (1) Natural methods:- periodic abstinence, coitus
interruptus,lactationalamenorrhoea
(2)Barrier methods:-Condoms, diaphragms,cervicalcaps,vaults,spermicidal creams.
(3)Intra Uterine Devices:- (a) Non medicated IUDs. e.g., lippes loop
(b) copper releasing IUDs e.g.,Cu-T, Cu-7
(c) hormone releasing IUDs e.g., LNG 20
IUDs:- increases phagocytosis of sperms, inhibit implantation
(4)Oral contraceptives:- Hormonal preparations in the form of pills(progestogens or
progesterone-oesterogen combination) which inhibit ovulation and implantation and prevent
entry of sperm
(5)Injectables and implants:- Mode of action is similar to oral contraceptives
(6) Surgical methods:-(a) vasectomy:- small portion of vas deferens is removed in males.
(b)tubectomy:- small part of fallopian tube is removed in females
Medical termination of pregnancy(MTP) or induced abortion is voluntarytermination of
pregnancy before the full term of pregnancy.
MTPs are essential when pregnancy can be harmful to the foetus or the m other. It is safe during
the first trimester(upto 12 weeks). During 2
nd
trimester MTPs are unsafe. Govt. of India legalized
MTPs in 1971.
Sexually TransmittedDiseases(STDs) or Veneral Diseases(VD) or Reproductive Tract
Infections(RTI) are diaeases or infections which are transmitted sexually.
STDs:-Gonorrhoea,Syphilis,Genital Herpes, Trichomoniasis,Hepatitis B, AIDS etc.
Three viral infections such as AIDS,Genital Herpes and Hepatitis B are not curable.
Early symptoms of STDs:- (a)itching (b)fluid discharge (c)slight pain (d) swellings in the
genital region
These diseases are high in the persons of age groups 15-24 years.The late detection leads to
Pelvic Inflammatory Diseaes (PID),abortions, still births,infertility or even cancer in the
reproductive tract.
Methods of prevention of infections:-
Avoid sexual practices with unknown partners
Use of condoms during coitus
In case of any doubt, visit a doctor immediately to get treatment
Infertility:- Inability to produce children inspite of unprotected sexual practices. The
reasons can be physical, congenital diseases, drugs, immunological or even
psychological.
ARTs:- Assisted Reproductive Technologies are:-
(1) In-Vitro Fertilization (IVF) or Test tube baby programme
(a) Ova from female donor and sperms from male donors are collected and induced to
form zygote in the lab in the same condition as in the body. This is called IVF
(b) Embryo Transfer (ET): Zygote or early embryo is transferred into fallopian tube for
further development. It can be :-
ZIFT(Zygote Intra Fallopian Transfer):- embryos upto 8 blastomeres are
transferred into the fallopian tubes
IUT(Intra Utertine Transfer):- embryos of more than 8 blastomeres are
transferred into the uterus.
(2)GIFT(Gamete Intra Fallopian Transfer):-transfer of an ovum from donor female
into another female who is unable to produce ova, but can provide suitable conditions
for fertilisation
(3)ICSI(Intra Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection):- carried out by directly injecting sperms
into the ovum to form an embryo in the lab.
(4)AI(Artificial Insemination):- performed by collecting semen from the donor male
and artificially introduced into the vagina or into the uterus.
CHAPTER 5
PRINCIPLES OF INHERITANCE AND VARIATION
Relationship between genes and chromosome of diploid organism and the terms used to describe
them
Know the terms
Terms Meaning Example
Locus
Address/ location of a gene in a chromosome T,A.b,d etc
Allele Allelomorphs= alternative form of a gene T and t OR A and a etc
Homozygous Both alleles of a gene at a locus similar AA or aa
Heterozygous Both alleles of a gene at a locus dissimilar Aa or Tt etc
Homozygous
Dominant
Both alleles of a gene at a locus similar &
dominant
AA
Homozygous
recessive
Both alleles of a gene at a locus similar &
recessive
aa
1) Alleles - The different or alternate forms of a gene.
2) Genes - Units of inheritance which contain the information to express a particular trait in
individual.
3) Homozygous Individual in which the members of a pair of alleles for a character are similar.
4) Heterozygous Individual in which the members of a pair of alleles for a character are
dissimilar.
5) Phenotype The observable or external characteristics of an organism.
6) Genotype - The genetic constitution of an organism.
7) Dominant allele The allele which expresses itself in a hybrid where the members of a pair of
alleles for the character are different.
8) Recessive allele Allele which does not express itself in a hybrid, where the members of a
pair of alleles for the character are different.
9) Monohybrid cross Cross between two individuals of a species, when considering the
inheritance of a single trait.
10) Dihybird Gross Cross between two individuals of a species,when considering the
inheritance of contrasting pairs of two traits.
11) Emasculation Process of removal of anthers from a bisexual flower before the pollen grains
mature.
12) Incomplete dominance When neither of the two alleles of a gene is completely dominant
over the other.
13) Co-dominance When two alleles of a gene are equally dominant and express themselves
equally.
14) Multiple allelism When a gene has more than two alleles, it is called multiple allelism.
15) Linked genes Genes present on a chromosome and which tend to get inherited together.
16) Linkage Phenomenon, where two or more linked genes tend to get inherited together and
their recombination frequency in a test cross is less than 50%.
17) Non disjunction It is the phenomenon in which the members of a homologous pair of
chromosomes do not separate during meiosis.
18) Aneuploidy Phenomenon of gain or loss of one or more chromosomes that results due to
non-disjunction of chromosomes.
19) Trisomy Condition where a particular chromosome is present in three copies in a diploid
cell.
20) Monosomy Condition where a particular chromosome is present in one copy in a diploid
cell.
21) Male heterogamety A condition where the male produces two different types of gametes.
22) Female heterogamety A condition where the female produces two different types of
gametes.
23) Autosomes Chromosomes that are not involved in the determination of sex of an individual
are called autosomes.
24) Sex chromosomes - Chromosomes that are involved in sex determination of an organism.
25) Pedigree analysis Analysis of the distribution and movements of traits in a series of
generations in a family.
Mendels laws of inheritance
1) Law of Dominance It states that when two individuals of a species, differing in a pair of
contrasting characters are crossed, the form of the trait that appears in the F1, hybrid is dominant
and the other form that is not expressed is recessive.
In a cross between tall and dwarf garden pea plants in the F1 generation only tall plants are
seen. This means that tall form is dominant over dwarf form.
2) Law of Segregation -
Although the parents contain two alleles or a pair of factors during gamete formation, the
factors or alleles separate at the time of gamete formation such that only one of the factors enters
a gamete. On random fertilisation, the paired condition is restored.
3) Law of Independent Assortment It states that in the inheritance of two pairs of contrasting
characters, the factors of each pair of characters segregate independently of the factors of the
other pair of characters.
TEST CROSS
A cross devised by Mendel to find out the genotype of the F1 or offspring. Here the F1 or the
offspring with unknown genotype is crossed with an individual homozygous recessive for the
trait.
DEVIATIONS FROM MENDELS LAWS
1) Incomplete dominance
Example- Snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus )
Cross between red flowered plant and white flowered plant gives F1 ratio-all pink; and when
pink flowered F1 plants are selfed, the F2 ratio is 1 red : 2 pink: 1 white.
The phenotypic and genotypic ratios are the same in this case.
2) Multiple Allelism and Co-dominance
Example - Inheritance of ABO blood groups in man.
Gene for blood group has three alleles IA,IB and i. Therefore it is an example of
multiple allelism.
When alleles IA and IB are together, they are equally dominant and both glycoproteins A and
B are produced and hence the person has AB blood group which is an example of co-dominance.
CHROMOSOMAL THEORY OF INHERITANCE
Given by Sutton and Boveri in 1902.
Gave following similarities between genes and chromosomes
(i) Both occur in pairs in normal diploid cells.
(ii) Both segregate during gamete formation and the paired condition is restored at the time of
fertilisation.
(iii) Members of each pair segregate independently of the other pair.
MORGAN AND HIS WORK
Did his experimental work on Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly ) because:
(i) They could be grown on simple synthetic medium in one corner of the lab.
(ii) Their life cycle could be completed in about 2 weeks.
(iii) A single mating could produce large number of fruit flies.
(iv) Male and female flies are distinct in a number of characters which are easily
observable.
Linkage and Recombination
Tendency of two genes to be inherited together is called linkage. It can be due to presence
of the two genes on the same chromosome and with very less distance between them.
Recombination is the property of the genes to produce new combinations by segregating
independent of each other. It is due to-
(i) Presence of the 2 genes on different chromosomes.
(ii) When present on the same chromosome, have large distance between them.
SEX DETERMINATION
Henking discovered the X chromosome but could not explain its role. Later X chromosome
was designated as the sex chromosome and all the rest of the chromosomes as autosomes .
Types of sex determinations
X O type X Y type 2 W type
Example - Large no of insects like Grasshopper. Males have XO type of sex chromosome i.e.
have only one X chromosome whereas the females have XY type i.e. the males have one
chromosome less than the females.
Eg.- Mammals like human beings. Males and females have equal number of chromosomes.
Males are heterogametic i.e. have XY type of sex chromosomes and form two different gametes:
autosomes + X and autosomes+Y. Females are homogametic and have XX chromosomes.
Eg.- Birds. Males and females have equal number of chromosomes. Here males are
homogametic i.e. have ZZ type of sex chromosomes and females have ZW type of sex
chromosomes.
Mutation
A phenomenon which results in the alteration of DNA base sequences or a change in
the base which results in the change of genotype and phenotype of an organism. Many
chemical and physical factors induce mutations .Eg. UV radiations. These are called
mutagens.
Pedigree analysis
It is done to study inheritance pattern of traits in human beings. The inheritance pattern of a
trait is represented in the family tree over generations.
Genetic disorders
A) Mendelian Disorders
Haemophilia
Sex linked recessive disease
Passed from carrier female to male progeny .
Individual with a simple cut has non-stop bleeding as a protein involved in clotting of blood is
affected.
Was seen in Queen Victorias family.
Sickle cell Anaemia
Autosome linked recessive trait.
Disease controlled by a single pair of allele HbA and HBS .
Defect caused by substitution of Glutamic acid by Valine at the 6th codon of beta-globin
chain.
Shape of the RBC changes to elongated sickle shape
Phenylketonuria
Autosome recessive trait.
Caused due to lack of an enzyme that converts amino acid phenylalanine to tyrosine.
Results in mental retardation and byproducts are excreted through urine as it poorly absorbed
by the kidneys.
(B) Chromosomal disorders
Aneuploidy is the loss or gain of a chromosome in a cell and results from failure of segregation
of chromatids during cell division.
Examples of chromosomal disorders:
Downs Syndrome
First described by Langdon Down.
Is caused due to the presence of an additional copy of 21st chromosome.
Affected individuaal is short, has a small round head, furrowed tongue, mouth partially open.
Physical, psychomotor and mental development retarded.
Broad palm with characteristic palm crease.
Klinefelters syndrome
Caused due to the presence of an additional copy of X-chromosome resulting in XXY
condition.
Individual has an overall masculine development with feminine characters like gynaecomastia.
Individuals are sterile.
Turners syndrome
Chromosome number is 45 because of the absence of one X chromosome in females, resulting
in XO condition
Females are sterile with rudimentary ovaries
Secondary sexual characters are also not developed.
CHAPTER 6 MOLECULAR BASIS OF INHERITANCE
Anticodon : A sequence of three nitrogenous bases on t RNA which is complementary to the
codon
on mRNA.
Transformation : The phenomenon by which the DNA isolated from one type of a cell, when
introduced
into another type, is able to express some of the properties of the former into the latter.
Transcription : The process of copying genetic information from one strand of DNA into RNA.
Translation : The process of polymerisation of amino-acids to form a polypeptide as dictated by
mRNA.
Nucleosome : The structure formed when negatively charged DNA is wrapped around positively
charged histone octamer.
DNA Polymorphism : The variations at genetic level, where an inheritable mutation is
observed.
Satellite DNA : The repetitive DNA sequences which form a large portion of genome and have
high
degree of polymorphism but do not code for any proteins.
Operon : A group of genes which control a metabolic pathway.
Exons : The regions of a gene which become part of mRNA and code for different regions of
proteins.
Introns : The regions of a gene which are removed during the processing of mRNA.
Euchromatin : The region of chromatin which is loosely packed and transcriptionally active.
Heterochromatin : The chromatin that is more densely packed, stains dark and is
transcriptionally
inactive.
Capping : Adding of methyl guanosine triphosphate to the 5 end of hnRNA.
Splicing : The process in eukaryotic genes in which introns are removed and the exons are
joined
together to form mRNA.
Replication fork : The Y shaped structure formed when double stranded DNA is unwound upto
a point during its replication.
VNTR : Variable Number Tandem Repeats
YAC : Yeast Artificial Chromosome
BAC : Bacterial Artificial Chromosome
SNPs : Single Nucleotide polymorphism
HGP : Human Genome Project
hnRNA : Heterogenous nuclear RNA. It is procursor of mRNA.
Chemical Structure of Polynucleotide Chain (DNA/RNA) : A nucleotide has three
components
1. Nitrogen base
(i) Purines : Adenine and Guanine
(ii) Pyrimidines : Cytosine, Thymine and Uracil Thymine in DNA and Uracil in RNA.
2. Pentose Sugar : Ribose (in RNA) or Deoxyribose (in DNA).
3. Phosphate Group
Nitrogen base is linked to pentose sugar through N-glycosidic linkage.
Nitrogen base + Sugar = Nucleoside
Phosphate group is linked to 5OH of a nucleoside through phosphoester linkage.
Nucleoside + Phosphate group = Nucleotide.
Two nucleotides are linked through 35 phosphodiester linkage to form a dinucleotide
A polynucleotide chain has free phosphate group at 5end of ribose sugar and 3OH
group at other end.
RNA is highly reactive than DNA : In RNA nucleotide has an addition OH group at 2position
in the
ribose.
Double-helix Structure of DNA : Proposed by Watson and Crick in 1953.
(i) DNA is made up of two polynucleotide chains.
(ii) The backbone is made up of sugar and phosphate and the bases project inside.
(iii) Both polynucleotide chains are antiparallel i.e. one chain has polarity 5-3 and other chain
has
35.
(iv) These two strands of chains are held together by hydrogen bonds i.e. A==T, C==G.
(v) Both chains are coiled in right handed fashion. The pitch of helix is 3.4 nm with 10 bp.
GRIFFITH TRANSFORMATION EXPERIMENT TO PROVE THAT DNA IS
GENETIC MATERIAL
Frederick Griffith 1928 conducted experiments with Streptococcus pneumoniae bacteria.
There are two strains of bacteria-
(i) S- type forming smooth colonies & virulent
(ii) R- type forming rough colonies & non- virulent.
Conclusion R- strain bacteria had been transformed by the heat killed S- strain bacteria.
Avery, MacLeod & McCarty (1933-44) suggested that DNA caused the transformation.
Hershey and Chase Experiement : In 1952, Hershey and Chase performed an experiment on
bacteriophages (Viruses that infect bacteria) and proved that DNA is the genetic material.
....
Bacteriophage Bacteriophage
Radioactive (35S) Radioactive (32P)
labelled protein coat labelledDNA

Infection : E.Coli E.Coli

Blending : Viral coats removed from the bacteria.

Contrifugation : Viral particles separated from the bacterial cell.


No radioactive (35S) Radioactive (35P)
detected in bacterial detected in baterial
but detected in cells but not in
supernatant supernatant
Conclusion : DNA is the genetic material.
Meselson and Stahls Experiment :
Meselson and Stahl performed the experiment in 1958 on E.coli to prove that DNA replication
is semiconservative.
E.coli was grown in 15NH4Cl for many generations. 15N was incorporated into newly synthesized
DNA.
This heavy DNA could be differentiated from normal DNA by centrifugation in coesium Chloride
(CsCl) density gradient.
Then they transferred these E.coli into a medium with normal 14NH4Cl.
After 20 minutes, it was found that all the DNA molecules of daughter cells were hybridFirst
generation.
After 40 minutes, it was found that 50% DNA molecules were hybrid and 50% were normal.
Transcription in Prokaryotes : In prokaryotes the process of transcription is completed in three
steps:
1. Initiation : RNA polymerase binds with initiation factor (sigma factor) and then binds to promotor
site.
2. Elongation : RNA polymerase separates from sigma factor and adds nucleoside triphosphate
as substrate. RNA is formed during the process and remains bound to enzyme RNA polymerase.
3. Termination : On reaching terminator region RNA polymerase binds with rho factor (terminator
factor). As a result nascent RNA separates.
Transcription in Eukaryotes :
In eukaryotes three types of RNA polymerases found in the nucleus (apart from RNa polymerases
are found in the organelles) are involved in transcription.
RNA Polymerase I : Transcribes rRNAs.
RNA Polymerase II : Transcribes hnRNA (which is precursor of mRNA).
RNA Polymerase III : Transcribes tRNA, 5 srRNA and snRNA.
The primary transcript has both exon and intron regions. Introns which are non-coding regions
removed by a process called splicing.
hnRNA undergoes two additional processes :
(a) Capping : An unusual nucleotide (methylguanosine triphosphate) is added to 5-end of hnRNA.
(b) Tailing : Adenylate residues (200-300) are added at 3end. It is fully processed hnRNA, now
called mRNA.
Lac Operon
The concept of operon was proposed by J acob Monod. Operon is a unit of prokaryotic gene
expression.
The lac operon consists of one regulatory gene (the i-gene) and three structural genes (z, y and a).
The i-gene codes for repressor of lac operon. Lactose is an inducer.
Gene Z - Codes for -galactosidase
Gene Y - Codes for permease
Gene A - Codes for transacetylase.
In the absence of Inducer (lactose)
Repressor (i-gene) binds with operator (o)

Operator turns off

RNA polymerase stops the transcription

Structural genes (z, y and a) do not produce mRNA and enzymes
In the presence of Inducer (lactose)
Repressor binds to inducer (lactose)

Operator (o) turns ON

RNA polymerase starts the transcription

Structural genes (z, y and a) produce mRNA and enzymes
(-galactosidase, permease and transacetylase respectively)
CHAPTER 7 (EVOLUTION)
Origin of Life Big Bang , Millers Expt.
Evolution of life forms Oparin & Haldane theory
Evidences for Evolution
Industrial Melanism
Adaptive Radiation
Biological Evolution- Lamarck , Darwin ,Natural Selection
Mechanism of Evolution- Saltation
Hardy-Weinberg Principle
Founder Effect
A brief account of evolution- plants & animals
Human Evolution

CHAPTER 8

CHAPTER 9
CHAPTER 10
Chapter -11, 12 BIOTECHNOLOGY AND ITS APPLICATION
Biotechnology
It is the branch of science that deals with the industrial scale production of biophaemaceuticals
and biologicals using genetically modified microbes,fungi,plants and animals.
Three research areas of biotechnology:-
1.) Providing improved organism/microbe/pure Enzyme.
2.)Creating conditions through engeneering for above organism to act.
3.)Down stream processing technology to purify protiens.
Biotechnological Applications in agriculture.
1.) Genetically modified organism(GMOs)
whose genes have been altered by manipulation
To prepare for tolerence to abiotic stress.
Chemical pesticides.
To reduce post harvest losses.
To enrich nutritional value of food.
2.) Insect resistant plants
They are prepared by incorporating genes encoding for insecticidal protiens.
eg. cry gene of Bacillus thuringienesis codes for insecticidal crystal protiens which is toxic for
insects.
Pest resistant Plants
These are developed on the basis of RNA interference(RNAi)
RNAi is method of cellular defence in which mRNA of pest is silenced by binding with a
complementary to form ds RNA.
Using Agrobacterium vectors-the nematode specific genes were introduced into the host plant.
Biotechnology application in medicine
Genetically Engineered Insulin:
Human insulin consits of two polypeptide chains A & B chain linked together by disulphide
bridges.The extra stretch called C peptide is removed during maturation.
Eli lily prepared two DNA sequences corresponding to A&B chains of human insulin introduced
them in plasmids of Ecoli.Chains A&B are produced are extracted and combined by disulphide
bonds to form human insulin.
Gene Therapy:
The Gene Therapy involves the delivering of a normal gene into individual or embryo to
compensate for non functional gene.
For eg. In ADA deficiency a functional ADA. cDNA is introduced into lympocytes are
periodically introduced into patient.
Moleculear Diagnosis:
PCR(polymer chain reaction) is one to amplify the content of DNA,to detect HIV in suspected
AIDS patient and to identify genetic disorders and mutuations.
ELISA is based on principle of antigen-antibody interaction.
Transgenic Animals:
Animals whose DNA is manipulated to possess and express a foreign gene.
Transgenic Animals are used to study gene regulation and gene functioning.
Study of disease and treatment.
to produce biological producet.
to test vaccine safety.
to test toxicity of drugs/chemical.
Ethical Issues:
GEAC (Genetic Engineering Approval Comittee)is an organisation which make decisions
regarding.
(1)validity of GM research.
(2)Safety of introducing GM organisation.
Biopiracy:
It is use of bio resources by multinational companies and other organisation without proper
authorisation from the countries or people concered.

Easy Scroing Areas
Biotechnology and its application
Application of biotechnology in agriculture.
GMO's
Pests resistant plant-Bt cotton.
Genetically Engineered Insulin.
Biopiracy
Transgenic animals
Chapter- 13,14 , 15 & 16
Gist & Important points of Lesson
A. Biodiversity
1. India is one of the worlds 12 biodiversity centre of origin of cultivated plants
2. India has 14 biosphere reserves 89 National parks, 492 wildlife sanctuaries, 2
biodiversity hotspots
3. Benefits of biodiversity
a) Existence of diverse forms of life provide immense Economic , Ecological and
Asthetic or Cultural benefits.
4. Levels of biodiversity
a) Genetic diversity
b) Species diversity
c) Ecological diversity
5. Patterns of biodiversity
a) Latitudinal gradients:- India tropical latitude more than twelve hundred species
of world
Tropical Amazonian rain forest in South America as greatest biodiversity
on earth.
Special about tropics For greater biological diversity tropical latitude
remain undisturbed for millions of year, less seasonal more constant and
predictable.
Availability of more solar light.
b) Species Area relationship - a species richness increased with increasing explode
area but only upto a limit.
6. Conservation of biodiversity two basic strategies
a) In situ (Onside) - Endangered species are protected in natural habitat. Eg.
Natural parks and sanctuaries .
b) Ex-situ (Offside) Man-made habitat , botanical gardens, zoos & DNA bags.
7. Major threat categories of species.
a) Critically endangered
b) Endangered
c) Vulnerable
8. Biodiversity hotspots
a) 25 hotspots covering 1.4% of land surface of earth.
b) Two Indian hotspots eastern Himalayan hotspots and western ghat hotspots.
9. International efforts for conserving biodiversity
a) WCN (World Conservation Union)
b) IUCN (International Union of Conservation of nature and natural resources)
B. ECOSYSTEM
Relationship between abiotic community and abiotic environment .
1. Components of ecosystem
a) Biotic (living component) Producers, Consumers and decomposers
b) Abiotic (Non- living component) light , temperature, wind, humidity.
2. Components of ecosystem to function as aunit
a) Productivity- rate of biomass production
Primary productivity rate of biomass production in green plants
Gross primary productivity (GPP)
Net primary productivity (NPP)
Secondary productivity rate of increase in production of biomass in
heterotrophs.
b) Decomposition - Breakdown of complex organic matter by decomposers to
inorganic rawmaterial
Process fragmentation
Leaching action
Catabolism
c) Energy flow Green plants absorbs 50% of total solar radiation of the incident
solar radiation. Less than 50% of it is photosynthetically active radiation.
Single pathway (Food chain)
Network of pathway (Food web)
d) Food Chain Single energy pathway where energy is transferred from producer
to consumer
Producer are able to synthesize food (green plants)
Consumers unable to synthesize food and consume food prepared by
producers. (Lion, Goat etc.)
Types of foodchain
Grazing foodchain producer to consumer
Detritus foodchain - dead organic matter to detritus feeding
organisms .
e) Food web Network of various foodchains which are interconnected with
eachother.
f) Trophic level each step in foodchain at which energy and foodtransfer takes
place
g) Transfer of energy in food chain
h) Each trophical level has a certain mass of living material at a particular time or
nutrient material present.
Standing crop living material at particular time
Standing state nutrient material presents in soil.
i) Ecological pyramids graphic representation of certain specific parameters.
Pyramids of numbers.
Pyramids of biomass
Pyramids of energy
j) Ecological succession : Definite and orderly sequences of community change in
an area.
Primary Successions
Secondary successions
Climax successions
Based on nature of habitat ecological succession is of two types.
Hydrarch Succession (takes place in wetter areas)
Xerarch Succession (Takes place in dry areas)
k) Nutrient Cycle Storage and transfer of nutrients through eco-system
Gaseous type (nitrogen cycle)
Sendimentary type (Phosphorous cycle)
C. Organism and Population
1. Ecology relationship between organisms and its environment . ecology has four
levels of biological organisations.
Organism
Population
Communities
Biomass
2. Environment Some total of biotic (living) and abiotic factors .
Abiotic factors
Temperature
Water
Soil
Light
3. Temperature few organism can live in wide range of temperature (eurythermal)and
few live in narrow range of temperature (stenothermal)
4. Water for aquatic organism chemical composition, pH, Salanity and temperature of
water are important
Euryhaline Organism tolerant to wide range of salanity
Stenohaline Organism receipt to narrow range .
5. Response to abiotic factors
Regulators Maintainenace of steady internal environment by organism
Conformers change according to external environment , donot maintain
home stasis .
Migration movement of organism temporarily by stressful conditions .
Suspensions Suspension of metabolic function during stressful period and
resume their function at the return of favourable condition.
6. Adaptation in plants
Deserts plants (eg. opuntia)
Aquatic plant
7. Population attributes - birth rate, death rate,
Representation of pyramids for human population
Population growth
Exponential growth
Logistic growth
8. Population interaction
Mutualism both the interacting species are benefitted
Predation one animal (predator) kills and consume the other weaker animal
(prey)
Parasitism depends on host
Commensalism one benefited while the other benefit nor harmed.
Competition individual of same species.
Environmental issues
a) Pollution
b) Pollutants biodegrable and non -biodegrable
c) Air pollution
Pollutants- particulate pollutants / gaseous pollutants
Harmful effects injury to plants, premature death of plants.
Control electrostatic precipitation, scrubber, catalytic converters
d) Water pollution
e) Greenhouse effect increase in gaseous (Co
2
, N
2
O, CFC etc.)
f) Deforestation