Running head: SELF-DISCLOSURE IN THE WORKPLACE 1

Self-Disclosure in the Workplace

Hannah Dill, LaShaun Burress-Hathaway
Priscilla Molina, Elizabeth Oguguam, Jarett Williams
The University of Tennessee





















SELF-DISCLOSURE IN THE WORKPLACE !
Abstract
This study investigated how the application of the principles of the Uncertainty Reduction
Theory and self-disclosure affect overall communication, group cohesion, and business output in
the workplace. The participants of the study consisted of 104 respondents (74 male and 30
female) who work in legitimate business environments. The initial variables being measured by
the survey were men and women. The hypothesis being tested was that women self-disclose in
the workplace more often than men. Subordinates in the workplace self-disclose amongst each
other more than they would with their superiors, thus the variables measured were co-workers
and superiors. Also, the types of information shared more often from co-workers to co-workers
and co-workers to superiors were explored. Lastly, increased group cohesion amongst co-
workers within and outside of the workplace increased self-disclosure. The amount of time co-
workers interact inside and outside of the workplace was explored. Exploring these different
areas of self-disclosure will ultimately help to understand uncertainty reduction and self-
disclosure in the workplace.









SELF-DISCLOSURE IN THE WORKPLACE #
Self-Disclosure in the Workplace
There is a common problem in the workplace environment where a lack of self-disclosure
negatively affects employee relations and overall business output (Hsiao-Yen, M., Chien-Yu, C.,
& Ting-Hua, H., 2009). This problem is usually caused by a lack of uncertainty reduction within
the workplace. Uncertainty reduction can be defined as, the gathering of information that
allows the information seeker to predict someones attitudes and behavior (Antheunis, M.,
2012, p.760). This means that by gathering information about others, people are able to learn
about one another and be better prepared to interact with their peers. This method of information
gathering is commonly used in the workplace when a new employee is introduced or when
acquaintances want to strengthen their work relationship to gain more trust within each
other. Often, information of a more personal nature needs to be shared for this to happen; and
one of the best ways that this information is gathered is through a process known as self-
disclosure. Self-disclosure is defined as verbally communicating personal information about
the self to another person, (Forgas, J., 2011, p. 1). Self-disclosure and Uncertainty Reduction in
the workplace are important because higher levels of both can lead to better co-worker relations
in the workplace as well as an increase in employee production which will in turn help a business
to grow.
This study related to previous studies before it because it examined the effects that
differing levels of self-disclosure and uncertainty reduction have on the relationships that
humans accumulate and maintain every day. Previous studies have not focused specifically on
co-worker and supervisor relations in the workplace and the possible effects these relationships
have on the organization as a whole. Thus, this study differed from other studies in that it
focused mainly on the relationships maintained in the workplace between co-workers and
SELF-DISCLOSURE IN THE WORKPLACE $
supervisors. This study also differentiated between the male and female sexes to recognize that
in the workplace, there seems to be a tendency that females often disclose more than males
(Mokry!, M., Paluckait", U., & #ardeckait"-Matulaitien", K., 2012). Previous research by
Paluckait" Mokry! and Kristina #ardeckait"-Matulaitien" (2012) focused on sex differences in
self-disclosure during internet communications between unknown people. In their study,
researchers used an internet questionnaire to determine the depth and breadth of self-disclosure
and split the results according to male and female respondents. After reviewing this previous
research, H1 was formatted such that::
H1: Women self-disclose in the workplace more often than men.
The hierarchy of an organization can affect who self-discloses personal information to
others in the organization and because of this, this particular study mainly focused on co-worker-
to-co-worker disclosure and subordinate to superior disclosure. Previous research has shown that
if subordinates do not feel comfortable with their superiors then they are less likely to self-
disclose as much information as they would with people on their own level like their fellow co-
workers (Cramm, J., Strating, M., & Nieboer, A., 2013). A previous study by Shore, Tetrick,
Lynch and Barksdale (2006) shows that there are two types of exchanges that occur in the
workplace. These exchanges are known social and economic exchanges and the study found that
employees often engaged more in economic exchanges with their supervisors and social
exchanges with their fellow employees. It explained that employees often view their workplace
relationships as either an economic (strictly business) or social (more personal) type of
exchange. A social exchange relationship can be defined as, a relationship that emphasizes
socioemotional aspects of the employment relationship (i.e., feelings of obligation and
trust). An exchange relationship is, a relationship that emphasizes the financial and more
SELF-DISCLOSURE IN THE WORKPLACE %
tangible aspects of the exchange relationship (Shore, L. M., Tetrick, L. E., Lynch, P. and
Barksdale, K., 2006). Based on this research the following H2 is proposed:
H2: Subordinates in the workplace self-disclose amongst each other more than they do
with their superiors.
Finally, an increase in self-disclosure can lead to better overall group cohesion in the
workplace. Group cohesion can be defined as, the degree to which there is engagement and
acceptance among group members, conflict or tension between the group members regarding the
way in which the group is unfolding, and avoidance of key dynamics or issues within the group
or between group members (Owen, J., 2013, p. 1). If there is an increase in group interactions
and disclosure, then group cohesion will increase which could lead to better organizational
production. This general idea was tested by Lauring, J., & Selmer, J (2011) in their study where
they used data from a previous study to form their own conclusions. The data they needed
looked at university professors and the amount and type of personal information they shared with
each other. They found that in general there was an increase in productivity when it was found
that professors shared more personal information with their colleagues. To test this, the
following H3 was formed:
H3: Increased self-disclosure increases group cohesion within the workplace.
Method
Participants
The participants used in the study were recruited through convenience sampling. Participants
in the study included 30 females (28.8%) and 74 males (71.2%), totaling 104 participants, all of who
have a job where they work at least 20 or more hours a week (M=38.2, SD=8.9). The participants
ranged in age from 19 years old to 65 years old (M=32.5, SD=12.5). Those who participated in the
SELF-DISCLOSURE IN THE WORKPLACE &
study were from different ethnic backgrounds: White (60.6%), African-American (21.2%), Hispanic
(11.5%), Asian (1%), Pacific Islander (1%) or mixed races (4.8%). The participants highest
education level ranged from High School Diploma (5.8%), completing some college (41.4%),
Bachelor degree (39.4%), Master degree (9.6%), to Doctoral Degree (3.8%).

Procedures
Using multiple convenience sampling methods, all participants were recruited to take the
survey by being contacted through email, phone calls, or word of mouth. Once participants
started the survey they were each informed, via a consent form, that taking the survey was
completely voluntary and that the survey would be measuring their workplace
relationships. Next participants were notified that the researchers guaranteed that all of the
responses were completely anonymous and confidential. Participants were also notified of all of
the possible risks and benefits upon completion of the survey.
Researchers administered an online survey that measured self-disclosure in workplace
relationships to the participants stated above. The study had a total of 104 participants complete
the survey with at least 30 men and 30 women participating. The survey asked questions about
how much or how often participants self disclose to co-workers or superiors in the work
place. There were three sections of the survey that targeted each of the three hypotheses being
observed. Two sections were composed of categorical questions and one section was composed
of quantitative questions. The research survey included reverse coded questions in order to
discern if the participant was answering the questions truthfully or not reading the questions at
all. Based on the final results, the proposed hypotheses will be accepted or rejected.
At the beginning and end of the survey, participants were asked to disclose whether or
not they were employed, number of hours worked per week, their age, gender, ethnicity, and
SELF-DISCLOSURE IN THE WORKPLACE '
highest education level completed. During the survey, the participants were asked to choose,
based on a 7 point Likert Scale, to what degree they agreed or disagreed with the statements
presented to them.
All responses were then collected and measured by utilizing an online survey website and
an application that organized the data collected into clearly understandable graphs, charts, and
tables. This data was then used to draw conclusions about the responses collected.

Measures
Self-Disclosure. Self-disclosure can be defined as, verbally communicating personal
information about the self to another person (Forgas, J., 2011, p. 1). Questions pertaining to
self-disclosure generally focused on what types of information one shares with another and to
what depth or how much of the information was disclosed. There were twelve questions in total
that measured self-disclosure. Examples of these questions include, I frequently express my
personal beliefs and opinions in the workplace, or, I often disclose intimate, personal things
about myself without hesitation. The scoring of each question was a seven point Likert Scale,
scored from 1 to 7, measuring to what degree the participant either agreed or disagreed with the
statement. A low score was measured as a 1 and a high score was measured as a 7. A higher
score indicated a higher and deeper level of self-disclosed information. The Cronbachs alpha
coefficient for the 12 question scale to determine self-disclosure is 0.871. The coefficient proved
that the questions in the survey correlated, making them reliable. The scale that was replicated
from Bowman (2005) for this hypothesis had a Cronbachs alpha coefficient of 0.85.
Group Cohesion. Group cohesion is defined as, the degree to which there is an
engagement and acceptance among group members, conflict or tension between the group
members regarding the way in which the group is unfolding, and the avoidance of key dynamics
SELF-DISCLOSURE IN THE WORKPLACE (
or issues within the group or between group members (Owen, J., 2013). The questions that
were a measure of group cohesion focused on how well the participant worked and socialized
with his or her co-workers in the workplace. There were a total of five questions that measured
group cohesion. A few examples of these questions are, I spend time with a co-worker talking
about non-work related topics, and, I collaborate with coworkers on work topics, outside of the
workplace. Again, a seven point Likert Scale, measuring the degree of disagreement or
agreement, was used to measure group cohesion with a low score of 1 and a high score of 7. A
higher score in this case indicated that there is generally better group cohesion in the
participants workplace. The Cronbachs alpha coefficient for the scale of 5 questions, which
measure group cohesion, is 0.745. The Cronbachs alpha is not at a 0.8, but is only 0.055 away
and is still considered to be a reliable scale for measuring group cohesion. The scale that was
replicated from Mokry!, and #ardeckait"-Matulaitien" (2014) for this hypothesis had a
Cronbachs alpha coefficient of 0.788.
Subordinates and Superiors. A subordinate is, one who stands in order or rank below
another (Merriam Webster, 2014). There was only one question that pertained to measuring
this variable and it merely asked whether or not the participant has a current job or not. The
researchers made sure to not ask any business owners or CEOs because they are not considered
as a subordinate to another person. It was then found necessary to change the wording of the
scales so that the questions could measure participants responses to both questions about their
views towards co-workers and their views towards their superiors. There were 14 questions that
measured each viewpoint that were summed in the end data analysis. The Cronbachs alpha
coefficient for the 28 questions regarding self-disclosure and group cohesion amongst co-
workers as well as self-disclosure and group cohesion between subordinates and superiors in the
SELF-DISCLOSURE IN THE WORKPLACE )
workplace is 0.705. Although this coefficient is not 0.8, it is very close to it. Thus, a Cronbachs
alpha coefficient of 0.705 is still reliable in the context of correlation. The scale that was
replicated from Shore, et al. (2006) for this hypothesis had a Cronbachs alpha coefficient of
0.866.
Results
Hypothesis one suggested that women self disclose more than men in the workplace. This
was tested with an independent sample t-test. The data revealed that the data was not consistent
with hypothesis one. The statistics on the female sample were no more significant than that of
men. The statistics on female self-disclosure did not differ significantly (M=3.82, SD=0.94),
t(102)=1.18, p=0.796. Compared than that of male self-disclosure (M=4.04, SD=0.85). This
hypothesis was not supported.
Hypothesis two suggested that self-disclosure between subordinates would be higher than
self-disclosure shared among subordinates and superiors. This was tested with a paired sample t-
test. This hypothesis was not supported, as there was no difference between self-disclosure of
subordinates (M=4.47, SD=0.44) and self disclosure of supervisors (M= 4.21, SD=0.43), the t-
test read as t(107)=1.48, p=0.14.
Hypothesis three suggested that there is a positive correlation between self-disclosure and
group cohesion. This was tested with Pearsons r correlation. Scores showed that there is a
positive correlation between these two variables, r(109)=0.73, p=.000. The hypothesis is
supported.
Discussion
This study investigated how the application of the principles of the Uncertainty
Reduction Theory and self-disclosure affect overall communication, group cohesion, and
SELF-DISCLOSURE IN THE WORKPLACE *+
business output in the workplace. Lack of self-disclosure in the workplace is shown to negatively
affect employee relations and overall business output (Hsiao-Yen, M., Chien-Yu, C., & Ting-
Hua, H., 2009). The variables in this study were sex, self-disclosure, subordinates, and group
cohesion. The participants of the study consisted of 104 respondents (74 male and 30 female)
who work in legitimate business environments.
The first hypothesis sought to understand whether someones sex affects his or her self-
disclosure. It was originally hypothesized that females would disclose more, however, the
statistics found by the study suggested that males might in fact self-disclose more than
females. There did not seem to be a statistically significant difference between the two data
points, but the fact that there was almost a full one point difference suggests that there could be a
certain validity to the findings. The statistics on female self-disclosure did not differ significantly
(M=3.82, SD=0.94), t(102)=1.18, p=0.796. Compared than that of male self-disclosure (M=4.04,
SD=0.85). This hypothesis was not supported. These findings could be explained with the idea
that men are trying to overcompensate and make up for not being seen as good
communicators. This could mean that men make more of an effort to seem more social to their
co-workers to gain better working relationships.
Another factor that affected the data could be whether or not there was a more male or
female dominated workplace environment. This could mean that male participants worked with
more male co-workers in their workplace and felt more comfortable disclosing to their male
counterparts rather than the females. It could also mean that the female participants also worked
in a more male dominated environment and may have felt less comfortable disclosing their
personal information to men rather than a more female oriented workplace.
SELF-DISCLOSURE IN THE WORKPLACE **
The second hypothesis sought to study self-disclosure between subordinates and
superiors. The statistics returned without any significant data to suggest a stronger relationship
between either of these groups disclosing to each other. Therefore, the hypothesis that
subordinates would disclose more to each other than to their superiors was rejected. This could
suggest that subordinates do not discern between their co-workers or superiors when it comes to
the amount of information they disclose. This might be due to a conscious decision or it may be a
more unintentional impartial code of conduct that subordinates abide by that governs their
decision making when it comes to disclosing information.
If it is in fact a conscious decision, then this could mean that whether a person is
somebodys subordinate or co-worker, that person will make a choice to not disclose more to a
fellow co-worker than to his or her superior. This could mean that there is generally a more
friendly or more social work environment that promotes equality and interactions across all
levels of employment. An example would be the relaxed and social environment that a company
picnic would provide.
The third hypothesis was about self-disclosure and group cohesion. Upon reviewing the
statistics, a positive correlation was found between self-disclosure and group cohesion. It can be
suggested that when co-workers self-disclose at increased levels, the higher group cohesion will
be. This occurrence could be explained with self-disclosure as a means of uncertainty reduction
as previously studied because when self-disclosure increases uncertainty decreases.
When subordinates disclose more personal information in the workplace it creates a
stronger connection amongst colleagues. That connection helps reduce tension and conflict while
increasing productivity. A previous study conducted by Shore, L. M. et al. (2006) explained that
there are two types of exchanges that occur in the workplace (Shore, L. M. et al., 2006). These
SELF-DISCLOSURE IN THE WORKPLACE *!
exchanges are known as social or economic exchanges; and the data collected by the survey
revealed that employees often engaged more in economic exchanges with their supervisors and
social exchanges with their fellow employees. As previously stated, people often disclose more
in social exchange relationships when compared to economic exchange relationships.
Limitations and Future Directions
Two significant limitations were observed after completing the research. The first
limitation was in regards to subordinates position in the workplace. A way this could be
overcome in future studies would be by adding questions that inquire about individual positions
within the workplace. For example, asking questions like are you a cashier, shift-manager, store
manager, etc. The second limitation observed was industry and income. The subordinates
industry and income could have an effect on personal disclosures. For example, subordinates in
the construction industry might disclose differently than subordinates in the banking industry.
Future studies could compare how different demographics such as industry and income affects
self-disclosures. Different industries and income levels may have a significant change in
personal disclosures. Another area of interest to study would be same sex self-disclosure and see
whether or not that has a negative or positive correlation.
Conclusion
This study discussed disclosures between subordinates by further investigating how the
combination of Uncertainty Reduction Theory and self-disclosure affect the people within the
workplace. Findings of the study also showed that men disclose more than women in the
workplace. Together, the findings could also explain that the increase in self-disclosure could
lead to an increase in-group cohesion. In sum, we found that males are more likely to disclose
than females, subordinates did not seem to have any significant preference in disclosing more to
SELF-DISCLOSURE IN THE WORKPLACE *#
their co-workers or to their superiors, and group cohesion appears to increase when self-
disclosure increases.



SELF-DISCLOSURE IN THE WORKPLACE *$
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SELF-DISCLOSURE IN THE WORKPLACE *%
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Retrieved July 29, 2014, from http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/subordinate

















SELF-DISCLOSURE IN THE WORKPLACE *&
Appendices
Appendix A
- -Do you have a job?
- -Do you work at least 20 hours a week?
- -Once I get started, I intimately and fully reveal myself in my self-disclosures.
o Self-Disclosure
- -I frequently express my personal beliefs and opinions in the work place.
o Self Disclosure
- -I often disclose intimate, personal things about myself without hesitation.
o Self-Disclosure
- My co-workers and I usually talk about a broad range of subjects.
o Self- Disclosure
- I feel like I can confide in my co-workers about anything.
o Self-Disclosure
- -I would never tell a co-worker anything intimate or personal about myself.
o Self-Disclosure
- Communication with my co-workers is typically surface topics.
o Self -Disclosure
- I feel close to my co-workers.
o Self-Disclosure
- My relationships with my fellow employees are strictly a business relationship I Just
work with them
o Self-Disclosure/ Group Cohesion
SELF-DISCLOSURE IN THE WORKPLACE *'
- I do not care what my fellow employees do for me in the long run, only what they can do
for me now.
o Self-Disclosure/Group Cohesion
- I make less of an effort to socialize with my fellow employees than I do to keep or excel at
my position within the company
o Self Disclosure/Group Cohesion
- I only want to work with other employees when I know that they are willing to do
something for me.
o Self-Disclosure/Group Cohesion
- I take note of what I receive from other employees, relative to what I contribute to them.
o Self-Disclosure/ Group Cohesion
- All I really expect from my co-workers are for them to allow me to get my work done.
o Self-Disclosure/ Group Cohesion
- My co-workers make a significant effort to get to know me.
o Self-Disclosure/Group Cohesion
- The relationships I form with co-workers today will benefit my business relationships in
the long run.
o Self-Disclosure/ Group Cohesion
- I worry that all my efforts to socialize with co-workers will never pay off in the future.
o Self-Disclosure/ Group Cohesion
- There is a lot of give and take in my relationships with my co-workers.
o Self-Disclosure/ Group Cohesion
SELF-DISCLOSURE IN THE WORKPLACE *(
- I don't mind working hard to get to know my coworkersI know they will help me when I
need help.
o Self-Disclosure/ Group Cohesion
- My relationships with my co-workers are based on mutual trust.
o Self-Disclosure/Group Cohesion
- I try to look out for my fellow employees best interests because I can rely on them to take
care of me.
o Self-Disclosure/ Group Cohesion
- Even though I may not always receive a thank you from my co-workers that I feel I
deserve, I know my efforts to socialize with them will benefit me in the future.
o Self-Disclosure/Group Cohesion
- My relationships with my superiors are strictly business relationships I Just work for
them.
o Self-Disclosure/Group Cohesion
- I do not care what my superiors do for me in the long run, only what they can do for me
now.
o Self-Disclosure/Group Cohesion
- I make less of an effort to socialize with my superiors than I do to keep or excel at my
position within the company.
o Self-Disclosure/Group Cohesion
- I only want to work with my superiors when I know that they are willing to do something
for me.
o Self-Disclosure/Group Cohesion
SELF-DISCLOSURE IN THE WORKPLACE *)
- -I take note of what I receive from my superiors, relative to what I have contributed to
them.
o Self-Disclosure/Group Cohesion
- -All I really expect from my superiors are for them to allow me to get my work done.
o Self-Disclosure/Group Cohesion
- My superiors make a significant effort to get to know me.
o Self-Disclosure/Group Cohesion
- The relationships I form with my superiors today will benefit my business relationships in
the long run.
o Self-Disclosure/Group Cohesion
- I worry that all my efforts to socialize with my superiors will never pay off in the future.
o Self-Disclosure/Group Cohesion
- There is a lot of give and take in my relationships with my superiors.
o Self-Disclosure/Group Cohesion
- I don't mind working hard to get to know my superiors I know they will help me when I
need help.
o Self-Disclosure/Group Cohesion
- My relationships with my superiors are based on mutual trust.
o Self-Disclosure/Group Cohesion
- I try to look out for my superiors best interests because I can rely on them to take care of
me.
o Self-Disclosure/Group Cohesion
SELF-DISCLOSURE IN THE WORKPLACE !+
- Even though I may not always receive a thank you from my superiors that I feel I
deserve, I know my efforts to socialize with them will benefit me in the future.
o Self-Disclosure/Group Cohesion
- I participate in social activities outside of work.
o Group Cohesion
- I privately chat with coworkers frequently.
o Group Cohesion
- I spend time with a coworker talking about non-work related topics.
o Group Cohesion
- I collaborate with coworkers on work topics, outside the workplace.
o Group Cohesion
- My coworkers share personal information with me.
o Self-Disclosure
- I share about family life with coworkers.
o Self-Disclosure
- I share my aspirations and dreams with coworkers.
o Self-Disclosure
- I share about romantic relationships with coworkers (marriage, partners)
o Self-Disclosure
- I share about personal struggles (work, financial, private) with coworkers.
o Self-Disclosure
- -Gender
- -Ethnicity
SELF-DISCLOSURE IN THE WORKPLACE !*
- -Hours per week
Appendix B
Figure 1. Self-Disclosure and Sex

Gender N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean
Self Disclosure Male 74 4.0413 .84474 .09820

Female 30 3.8192 .93769 .17120

Figure 2. Self-Disclosure between subordinates and superiors

Gender N Mean Std.
Deviation
Std. Error
Mean
Self disclosure between subordinates Male 74 4.2464 .44580 .05182

Female 30 4.2636 .41720 .07617
Self disclosure between subordinates
and superiors
Male 74 4.1685 .43187 .05020

Female 30 4.3760 .43285 .07903

Figure 3. Correlation of Group Cohesion and Self-Disclosure

Group Cohesion

Self Disclosure
Group Cohesion Pearson Correlation (r) 1


Significance
(2-tailed)

.000

N 109

109
Self Disclosure Pearson
Correlation (r)
.726**

1

Significance
(2-tailed)
.000


N 109

124
SELF-DISCLOSURE IN THE WORKPLACE !!

** Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)