NATURAL VENTILATION IN THE URBAN

ENVIRONEMENT

DISSERTATION
Submitted by

S HANANEEL

RANGANATHAN ARCHITECTURE COLLEGE

COIMBATORE 641109
DECEMBER 2014

RANGANATHAN ARCHITECTURE COLLEGE

COIMBATORE 641109
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
Certified that the Dissertation titled NATURAL VENTILATION IN THE URBAN
ENVIRONMENT is the bonafide work of Mr. S. HANANEEL, who carried out the
project work under my supervision. Certified further, that to the best of my
knowledge the work reported herein does not form any other dissertation on the basis
of which a degree or award was conferred on earlier occasion on this or any other
UG student.

Ar. G. VANI SOUNDARYA

Asst. Professor
GUIDE

~ ii ~

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I thank the almighty for his blessings for enabling me successfully to take up
this dissertation and complete it.
I whole heartedly thank Ar. G. Vani Soundarya, Asst Prof. for guiding me
and giving me a solid support in the whole process of study.
My sincere thanks to Ar. Roshni Shankar, Head of the Department for her
constant supervision and also in the finalization of my topic. I am grateful to her for
giving me the opportunity to work in this topic.
My special thanks goes to Ar. G. Ram Kumar, Principal and other staffs of
my college, Ranganathan Architecture College, Coimbatore.
Last but not the least, my heart full thanks along with lots of love and
affection to my daddy, mummy, my loving sister and my friends for their support
and encouragement during my whole dissertation study.

S HANANEEL

~ iii ~

ABSTRACT
The architectural decisions for building that use natural ventilation should be
taken in the initial stages of design when little information is available. A new
approach is to compare the potential natural ventilation of known buildings in a new
site and to adapt the design of the known example. The potential of natural
ventilation may be changed by the barriers to its application: reduced wind velocity,
higher temperatures, noise and pollution.
Building ventilation is necessary in providing acceptable Indoor Air Quality
(IAQ). It is a process of supplying fresh air and removing or diluting indoor pollution
concentration. With an increasing awareness of energy saving lately, people are
trying to rely more on natural ventilation to give better IAQ and thermal comfort.
However, due to not much of air movement via wind driven in high density urban
area, stack effect is seems to be more reliable than cross-ventilation. Stack
ventilating phenomenon is generated by the differences of inside and outside air
pressure to create air flow through its upper most and lowest building opening. Thus,
stack effect ventilation is highly depending on the size of the openings which will
influence the air pressure inside the building. Controlling the neutral plane level in
the building by the sizes of the openings is essential in driving the air in and out.
Besides that, the height between the upper most and lowest openings may also
contribute to the amount of air driven through the process.
Since the introduction of electricity and mechanical air-conditioning, building
designers could create islands of indoor comfort isolated from their climates. The
result is that the art of designing for comfort via natural ventilation is disappearing
among the building design community.

~ iv ~

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER NO.

TITLE

PAGE NO.

ABSTRACT

iv

LIST OF FIGURES

viii

LIST OF TABLES

ix

LIST OF SYMBOLS

ix

INTRODUCTION
1.1 PRELUDE

1.2 AIM

1.3 OBJECTIVE

1.4 SCOPE

1.5 METHADOLOGY

DETAILED STUDY
2.1 NATURAL VENTILATION
2.1.1 Natural Ventilation for Indoor Air

4
4

Quality
2.1.2 Easy to use Natural Ventilation?
2.2 URBAN HEAT ISLAND
2.2.1 Causes of Urban Heat Island Effect

6
7
8

Weather
2.3 CLIMATICE DETERMINANTS IN

ARCHITECTIRE AND URBAN FORM

2.3.1 Climate and the Built Form

~v~

10

2.4 URBAN CANOPY AND URBAN

12

BOUNDARIES
2.5 WINDS IN AN URBAN ENVIRONEMNT

2.5.1 Overview

13

2.5.2 General Aspects

15

2.5.3 The Heat Island Concept

15

PROSPECTS AND TECHNIQUE

3.1 PROSPECTS OF NATURAL

17

VENTILATION IN TALL OFFICE

BUILDINGS
3.1.1 Review of Naturally Ventilated tall

18

office buildings in hot and humid

climate
3.2 STACK EFFECT VENTILATION

19

3.2.1 Enhancing the Stack Effect

21

Performance
4

CASE STUDY AND EXAMPLES

4.1 OLD HAVANA, CUBA

22

4.1.1 Overview

22

4.1.2 History and Issues

22

4.1.3 Preliminary design recommendations

25

for residential buildings

4.2 EXAMPLES OF HOT DRY CLIMATES

~ vi ~

26

CONCLUSION

31

5.1 INDOOR VELOCITY MODEL (IVM)

31

5.2 PROPOSED DESIGN PROCEDURES

32

REFERENCE

33

~ vii ~

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2-1

Natural ventilation for indoor air quality.

~5~

Figure 2-2

Combined evolution of pollution level and energy demanded..

~5~

Figure 2-3

Urban and rural population in India.

~7~

Figure 2-4

Urban and rural population of the world..

~8~

Figure 2-5

Percentage of population in the Urban Areas..

~8~

Figure 2-6

Determination of built form.

~9~

Figure 2-7

Climatic effects on building forms..

~10~

Figure 2-8

Window configuration in hot-arid climates..

~11~

Figure 2-9

Types of heat islands.

~12~

Figure 2-10

Wind pattern in Urban Building

~14~

Figure 2-11

Sketch of flow distortions by a rectangular building..

~14~

Figure 3-1

Typical energy consumption of office buildings... ~17~

Figure 3-2

Stack effect in a two storey house ~19~

Figure 4-1

Geographical location of the Island of Cuba near the Tropic

of Cancer.

~23~

Figure 4-2

Satellite photo and typical street of Old Havana

~24~

Figure 4-3

Urban block plan and bird-eye view... ~24~

Figure 4-4

Tower head designs ~26~

Figure 4-5

Multi opening wind catcher in Kerman Bazaar, Iran.

~27~

Figure 4-6

Example of single opening wind catchers in Al-Kufa, Iraq...

~27~

Figure 4-7

Single opening tower head is located at position where effect

of surrounding is minimal. ~28~

Figure 4-8

Examples of Hassan Fathys reintroduction of traditional

architectural design features ~28~

Figure 4-9

Modern design solutions, University of Qatar.

~29~

Figure 4-10

Birds eye view of the University of Qatar

~29~

~ viii ~

TABLES
Table 2-1

Summary of climatic impact on building form in selected hot

climates.......... ~11~

LIST OF SYMBOLS
RN

Net radiative balance at the ground

QS

Sensible heat

QE

Latent heat

QC

Heat transferred to the ground by condition

Estimated air flow rate (cf m)

Factor that accounts for orifice characteristics (assumed = 0.65)

Smallest value of inlet, stack throat, or outlet areas (sq ft)

Gravitational constant (32.2 ft / sec2)

Stack height (ft)

Ti

Higher of two differential air temperatures (R) Inside

To

Lower of two differential air temperatures (R) - Outside

~ ix ~

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 PRELUDE
Natural ventilation of buildings is the flow generated by temperature differences
and by the wind. The governing feature of this flow is the exchange between an
interior space and the external ambient. Although the wind may often to be the
dominant driving mechanism, in many circumstances temperature variations play a
controlling feature on the ventilation since the directional buoyancy force has a large
influence in the flow patterns within the space and on the nature of the exchange with
the outside. Two forms of ventilation are discussed: mixing ventilation, in which the
interior is at an approximately uniform temperature and displacement ventilation,
where there is a strong internal stratification. The dynamics of these buoyancy-driven
flows are considered, and the effects of wind on them are examined.
Consider the notions time, efficiency and interactivity in the context of
Architecture and instantly you may find your head clouded with images of
technocratic modernism. Think of ecology and environmental issues in relation to
buildings and what you get is either a vision of Arcadian green landscapes sparsely
populated with reed-roofed cottages or horrific projects with environmentally
responsible add-ons.
The application of natural ventilation is more difficult in urban than in rural
environment especially in street canyons due to reduced wind velocity, urban heat
island, noise and pollution, which are considered to be important barriers to the
application of natural ventilation. The wind, temperature, noise attenuation and
outdoor indoor pollution transfer are measured in large range of variation and
various types of urban configuration.
The prevailing paradigm in indoor environment control of buildings in the urban
area often excludes natural ventilation, due to the fact that its dynamic nature may
not be compatible with the close control of mechanical systems. The challenges will

be greater in terms of the potential high magnitudes of wind and buoyancy forces at
high levels of tall buildings which are present in the urban area.
A significant amount of the electricity consumed in tall buildings goes towards
fully air-conditioned commercial, institutional and residential buildings. The
situation is even more alarming in the case of tall buildings where greater energy
consumption is require to provide comfort. It is claimed that the cooling load is the
main cause of peak power demand and sometimes cause power shortages. It is
estimated that due to the air-conditioning load in the urban area buildings around
45% of the energy is consumed.
1.2 AIM
To understand the impact of natural ventilation in the urban environment.
1.3 OBJECTIVE

To provide basic scientific knowledge to date on natural ventilation process

as well as the existing methods.

To show realistic examples of applications carried out and evaluated and to

define technical barriers and limits of application of the techniques.

To provide with both easy-to-handle guidelines, necessary in the first step of

design.

1.4 SCOPE
The dissertation is divided into three parts. The first part (Chapter 2)
describes about the Natural Ventilation and how Urban Heat Island is affecting the
climate in the urban form. The second part (Chapter 3) deals with the available
prospects and techniques. The third part (Chapter 4) deals with the live examples and
case studies where the Natural Ventilation have been incorporated in the urban
environment.

1.5 METHADOLOGY
Aim
Need for the Study

Objective
Scope

Natural Ventilation
Introduction
Urban Heat Island

Prospects
Development
Techniques

Old Havana Cuba

Case Study
Example of a climate

Conclusion

CHAPTER 2
DETAILED STUDY
2.1 NATURAL VENTILATION
Building ventilation is one of the important aspects in providing an acceptable
indoor air quality (IAQ). Good ventilation may help in supplying fresh air and
removing heat and air pollution. Ventilation can be provided either by natural or
mechanical. Houses with sustainable construction concept relies more on natural
ventilation to give better IAQ and thermal comfort to their occupants while
maintaining reasonable usage of energy. Natural ventilation is based on two different
principles which are cross and stack ventilation. Cross ventilation is the common
way to obtain natural air supply in the buildings. However, in order to drive the
system, this natural ventilating system relies on natural forces such as wind
availability and direction. The building should be integrated and oriented to these
factors to gain the ventilation.
In urban surrounding, there is not much of wind driven air movement due to
the physical development density.
2.1.1 Natural Ventilation for Indoor Air Quality Control
Natural ventilation as a strategy for achieving acceptable indoor air quality is
essentially based on the supply of fresh air to a space and the dilution of the indoor
pollution concentration. Optimum indoor air quality may be defined as air which is
free of pollutants that cause irritation, discomfort or ill health in the occupants. A
poor environment can manifest itself as a sick building, in which occupants may
experience mild illness symptoms during the period of occupation.
The quantity of ventilation needed to ensure an acceptable indoor air quality
depends n the amount and the nature of the dominant pollutant source in a space. If
the emission characteristics are known, it is possible to calculate the ventilation rate
necessary to prevent the pollutant concentration from exceeding a pre-defined
threshold concentration. Figure 2-1 gives a sketch of such a strategy. The pollution

~4~

level decreases exponentially with the airflow rate. If we know the recommended
pollution level, we can easily define the recommended airflow rate.

Figure 2-1: Natural Ventilation for indoor air quality

In naturally ventilated buildings, no energy is needed for moving the air; the
only energy required is that necessary to warm up the air during the heating season.
In this configuration, the energy demand will increase directly with the ventilation
rate, which, in a natural ventilation configuration, varies as a function of time and
depends on the wind characteristics and the thermal state of the building. At the same
time, occupant behaviour, such as opening or closing windows and doors, has a
substantial impact on the total energy consumption of a building. Figure 2-2 shows
the effect of the airflow rate on both pollution level and energy demand.

Figure 2-2: Combined evolution of pollution level and energy demand

~5~

Just as it is essential to ensure an acceptable indoor air quality by having a

sufficient air supply, it is also mandatory to avoid airflow rates that are too high.
Therefore, optimization is essential in order that a combined low energy demand and
an acceptable indoor quality can be achieved while keeping ventilation rates within a
certain range.
2.1.2 Easy to Use Natural Ventilation?
Natural ventilation is very attractive for designers or architects because it
offers robust solutions capable of providing an acceptable IAQ and meeting comfort
needs throughout the full range of climate conditions. In most cases, the minimum
ventilation rates needed for IAQ are easily reached and the maximum ventilation
rates needed for summer thermal control of the building are well identified.
Natural ventilation appears as a logical and suitable strategy for many types
of buildings, such as low-rise dwellings, schools, small or medium-sized offices,
recreation buildings and public buildings in moderate or mild climates. The openwindow environment associated with natural ventilation is often popular and offers a
wide range of creative design to architects, especially in pleasant environments.
Natural ventilation also appears very cost-effective compared with the capital,
maintenance and operational costs of mechanical systems and it does not need any
plant room space. In such an environment, any short periods of summer discomfort
will be easily tolerated by the user of the building.
However, natural also means that behaviour will be random and efficient
control of the building will be difficult. The physical phenomena to take into account
usually correspond to simple concepts like thermal mass, but they are not easy to
handle because of the many uncertainties, for instance the randomness of indoor
airflow patterns and the difficulty of determining the surface heat transfer between
the air and the walls.
Furthermore, in many urban environments, outdoor air conditions and
acoustics may not be acceptable because of air pollution and noise. In these
conditions, natural ventilation can be unsuitable or will need a special design in order

~6~

to avoid a direct link between indoor and outdoor environments. When a special
design using ducts is necessary, the duct dimensions are much bigger than those of
mechanical systems. In order to be effective, natural ventilation also needs a high
degree of permeability within the building. For certain buildings this can cause
security risks and conflicts with fire or safety regulations. In the case of deep-plan or
multi-roomed buildings, fresh air delivery or good mixing may not be possible
without some special design considerations.
2.2 URBAN HEAT ISLAND
Over the past few decades, the world has experienced a sudden increase in
migration. This migration is not only of number of people moving between
continents due to the advancement in the transportation but also in number of people
moving from rural areas to urban areas. This is due to changes in the economy and
work profile. From the Figure 2-3 it is clear that according to census 2011, 31.2% of
Indias population is residing in urban areas. The decadal urban growth rate of India
stands at 31% while rural growth stands at 12%, a decline of 6% in one decade.

Figure 2-3: Urban and Rural Population in India

Figure 2-4 illustrates that percentage of world population in urban areas
during 2007 and the projected values for the years 2025 and 2050. From Figure 2-5
we can infer that if the trend of migration of people towards the urban areas

~7~

increases, then by 2010 more than 50% of the worlds population will be living in
urban localities.

Figure 2-4: Urban and Rural Population of the world

Figure 2-5: Percentage of population in the Urban Areas

2.2.1 Cause of Urban Heat Island Effect Weather
When we discuss Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect, we are essentially
discussing a component of boundary layer, canopy layer or surface layer weather
system. Similar to weather systems UHI effects have a strong relationship with

~8~

weather parameters such as wind and cloud. In a smaller scale (individual building
scale) experiment by Hall et al. (1999) many of the meteorological and climate
characteristics were analyzed. The research demonstrated that aspect ratio, wind
direction, wall thickness of buildings, presence of opening and surface clutter have
significant effects on the heating and cooling of the surfaces, often altering them by
orders of magnitude. The study of UHI at Athens by Mihalakakou et al (2004)
demonstrated that the high pressure ridge mostly favour heat island phenomenon
whereas, intense northerly winds are responsible for its nonappearance.
2.3 CLIMATIC DETERMINANTS IN ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN
FORM
The unique combination of various forces that determine the built form
creates an urban context unique to the place and time in which the building is
situated. At the individual building level, climate has an essential role in defining the
most suitable architectural form.
Determinants of architectural form can be divided into physical and nonphysical components. While the emphasis, is on the role of climate as a force shaping
architectural form, the author recognizes the complex interaction between the built
form and its many determinants. This understanding is illustrated in the following
conceptual model:

Figure 2-6: Determination of built form

Non-physical forces include defence, religion, and socio-economic factors.
Although more difficult to circumscribe than the physical influences, non-physical
determinants offer broader range of explanations to match the diversity in the
architectural form. In contrast, the physical factors are easy to define and their effects

~9~

are easy to detect. Climate, site, technology, and other material resources are among
those physical forces that determine the built form.
2.3.1 Climate and the Built Form
Shelter is one of the basic purposes of the house. By definition, it protects
against climate elements and provides comfortable, safe and defensible domain.
Depending on the climatic condition, the built environment has taken various forms
to provide the basic requirements if shelter.

Figure 2-7: Climatic effects on building forms (a) Hot-dry climate (b) Warm-humid
region
Figure shows schematics of two primary patterns of building form adaption to
hot-arid and warm-humid climates. In order to maintain cool interior surfaces for
midday and afternoon indoor space uses, buildings in hot-dry climates require high
mass to delay heat transfer to the interiors (Figure 2-7a). Windows in this pattern are
as small as possible (Figure 2-8) to reduce passage of hot air and solar radiation.
Another characteristic of the windows in this climate is their location at higher levels
in the room to promote a thermal stack effect. Finally, buildings in hot-arid climates

~ 10 ~

are often as compact as possible to reduce the surface area of the structure exposed to
the solar radiation and the hot surroundings.

Figure 2-8:Window Configuration in hot-arid climates

In warm-humid climates the patterns is more towards the side of lightness
and airiness (Figure 2-7b). Examples if this pattern can be found in most parts of the
warm-humid regions of the world except in a few cases where cultural and social
reasons override environmental requirements.
Climate

Building Element

Hot Dry

Geometry

As compact as possible

Walls

Massive

Warm Humid
Elongated perpendicular
to wind direction
Light
As open as possible to

Windows

Aperture should be as

allow for maximum air

small as possible

velocity for occupants

comfort

Shading
Surface to volume ratio
Relation to ground

Important to shade at all

times

Shading is important

As small as possible

Not as important

Close or even

Elevated from the ground

underground

if possible

Table 2-1: Summary of climatic impact on building form in selected hot climates

~ 11 ~

2.4 URBAN CANOPY AND URBAN BOUNDARIES

When discussing the urban heat island effect a number of distinctions should
be made. Firstly there are three types of heat islands:
Urban canopy layer
Urban boundary layer
Urban surface heat
Warmer air forms a dome or plume over the city. the urban canopy layer
(UCL) is the layer of air closest to the surface in cities, extending upwards to
approximately to the mean building height as shown in the Figure 2-9. Above the
UCL, lies the urban boundary layer (UBL). This may be 1 km or more in height
during daytime, but as little as a few hundred meters at night. It is the UBL that
forms a dome of warmer air that extends downwind of the city. wind often changes
the dome to a plume shape. Both UCL and UBL are characterised by a warming of
air temperature, whilst the urban surface heat shows the relative warming of the
ground surface within in urban area.

Figure 2-9: Types of heat islands

~ 12 ~

Below roof level, in the urban canopy, wind act in the spaces between
buildings. Above the UBL the dome extends downwind as a plume into the
surrounding rural area. As can be seen above high buildings slow air movement and
also channel it into canyons between them. They can be powerful enough to make
buildings sway and knock people off their feet! A single tall building pushes air
above and to the side of it. It also causes air to descend behind it in its leeward side.
Air on the windward side of a building creates high pressure and is forced to
descend. This is increased with height. As it hits the ground it creates a vortex as it
sweeps around side corners. In the leeward side of the building there is a zone of
lower pressure which creates vortices. If two separate buildings are in close
proximity to each other they may be subject to the Venturi-effect where by the
pressure difference within the gap causes wind to increase in strength and to reach
high velocities. Where buildings are close to each other it produces complex patterns
of air flow. During calm and clear nights when the UHI is at its greatest there is air
movement from the cooler rural periphery into the warmer city centre.

2.5 WINDS IN AN URBAN ENVIRONEMNT

2.5.1 Overview
Generally speaking urban wind speeds are thought to be lowered by the
friction and barrier of the urban canopy. The surface are of cities is uneven because
of the varying height of the buildings. Buildings exert a powerful frictional drag on
air moving over and around them. This creates turbulence and can cause rapid and
abrupt changes in wind direction and speed. However, under intense heating strong
convectional process form low pressure thermals over cities than can draw in strong
localised winds.
As shown in Figure 2-10, the right large building interacts with wind to create
divergence and convergence and on the leeward side of buildings strong eddies. In
contrast to the windward side of a building where strong uplift can be observed.

~ 13 ~

The pattern of wind movement around buildings can be incredibly complex,

with horseshoe vortex systems developing down the flanks of buildings and strong
eddies developing as air descends on the leeward side of the buildings. Due to
variations in surface temperature, localised pressure gradients can occur that help
form stronger localised guests of wind. City structures and city design can also create
urban canyoning where the placement of building artificially increases the intensity
and direction of wind movement between buildings.

Figure 2-10: Wind pattern in Urban Buildings

Figure 2-11: Sketch of flow distortions by a rectangular building (from Hosker

1979)

~ 14 ~

2.5.2 General Aspects

In an urban environment, the presence of numerous obstacles significantly
increases the roughness of the ground as compared to a rural environment and thus
increases the effect of friction on the airflow. The concept of vertical variation of
wind velocity as a function of the nature of the terrain, also applies to the city from a
height approximately equal to twice that of the average roof level.
For moderate to strong winds, and for a height of 20 m above the ground a
reduction of 20% to 30% in the average wind speed is observed when moving from
the countryside into an urban environment. Conversely, the turbulence intensity
increases by 50% to 100%. With strong winds, the friction due to the city also creates
a cyclonic rotation by the flow (up to 10).
Another effect of the urban boundary layer, in the case of moderate winds, is
to provoke an upward of the air. This vertical velocity can reach 1 m s-1.
Weak winds are 5% to 20% more frequent in a city than in the countryside.
However, for wind velocities less than a threshold of 4 m s-1, the wind velocity is
higher in the centre than in the periphery of the city. This can be attributed to
turbulence generated by the numerous obstacles and to the relatively unstable state
that characterizes the urban boundary layer as compared to that in rural atmosphere.
Furthermore, as the temperature increases when moving from the countryside into the city centre, the air converges at the centre of the city under the effect of
the pressure gradient induced by the horizontal temperature difference. Thus, the
continuity of the flow creates an upward movement of air, which stops at a given
height. The countryside breeze, which mainly blows in the late evening and the early
morning, can reach 2 to 3 m s-1.
2.5.3 The heat-island concept
The urban heat-island effect is related to summer temperatures in urban areas
being higher than in rural surroundings. Factors influencing the heat-island effect
include climate, topography, physical layout and short term weather conditions.

~ 15 ~

The heat-island effect can be partly explained by the relative scales of the
different terms of the energy balance at a given place:
RN = QC + QE = QS
Where;
RN is the net radiative balance at the ground;
QS the sensible heat;
QE the latent heat;
QC the heat transferred to the ground by conduction.
Atmospheric pollution is the main cause of solar radiation differences
observed between rural and urban environments. Pollution, characterized by an
increase in the concentration of aerosols and nuclei of condensation, also increases
cloud generation.

~ 16 ~

CHAPTER 3
PROSPECTS AND TECHNIQUE
3.1 PROSPECTS OF NATURAL VENTILATION IN TALL OFFICE
BUIDLINGS
A significant amount of the electricity consumed in office buildings goes
towards fully air-conditioned commercial and institutional buildings. The situation is
even more alarming in the case of tall buildings where greater energy consumption is
required to provide comfort. It is claimed that the cooling load is the main cause for
peak power demand and sometimes causes power shortages. It is suggested that the
air-conditioning load accounts for around 45% of the energy consumed in a typical
office buildings on a daily basis. (Figure 3-1)

Figure 3-1: Typical energy consumption of Office buildings

Natural ventilation for low-rise buildings widely acknowledged to be an
energy efficient ventilation strategy with several advantages such as popularity,
lower cost than other ventilation systems, and minimum maintenance.

~ 17 ~

The design of non-domestic tall buildings which adopt a purely natural

ventilation strategy is now increasingly common in many parts of the world (mainly
in the mild climate). However, the adoption of natural ventilation in tall buildings for
a hot and humid climate is less common. This is not surprising in view of the
potential risks to a successful design as suggested by Etheridge and Ford (2008).
The prevailing paradigm in indoor environment control of office buildings
often excludes natural ventilation, due to the fact that its dynamic nature may not be
compatible with the close control of mechanical conditioning systems. However, the
tools and design strategies available for naturally ventilated buildings rarely interpret
their observations with reference to occupant comfort. Because of the potential
magnitudes of wind and buoyancy forces in tall buildings, the challenges for natural
ventilation design are even greater.
3.1.1 Review of Naturally Ventilated tall office buildings in hot and humid
climate
Over years, a number of naturally ventilated towers have been built and
evaluated using the concept of atria and double facades. The main advantages of a
double skin or ventilated cavity are that it can provide a thermal and acoustic buffer
between interior and exterior. As suggested by Irwin et at. (2008), double shells
protect operable windows at higher elevations from high wind speeds and reduce
acoustical problems from operable windows at the same time. One early example of
such a building is the Commerzbank building in Frankfurt. The building features a
double faade, with operable windows in the interior shell. To control stack effect,
the building is subdivided into independent segments which also include four-storey
atria with gardens.
From the aspect of atria design, Megri and Al-Dawoud (2007) compared the
energy performance between the integration of HVAC system with covered atrium
and an atrium open to the sky at the courtyard top. The multi-zones simulation
program was adopted for investigating the effect of glazing type, glazing percentage
and number of storeys under the hot and humid weather condition.

~ 18 ~

3.2 STACK EFFECT VENTILATION

Stack effect is a phenomenon of air movement from a high density area of air
to a less density area of air. Technically, because of the temperature difference, the
air inside the building is either more or less dense than the air outside. A natural air
flow will be caused if there is an opening high in the building and another low in the
building. In tropical climate countries, where normally the air inside is cooler than
that outside, the air will rain out the low opening, being replaced with a fresher air
from outside through the high opening. Stack effect works best when the air intakes
are as low as possible and the height of building spaces is great as possible.
Like many other environmental principles, the stack effect can either be a
problem or an opportunity. While it may encourage the natural ventilation system of
a house, it may also bring the hot and humid air of tropical climate countries into the
building. This demand a proper design solution on how to preserve and improve the
temperature level of indoor air while at the same time encouraging the air movement
in order to balance the humidity level.

Figure 3-2: Stack Effect in a two storey house

However, stack effect seems to be the least considered when dealing with the
process of cooling a house but yet may contribute a significant result. As shown in
Figure 3-2, stack effect is the movement of air into and out of buildings, chimneys
and flues and is driven by a difference in indoor-to-outdoor air density resulting from

~ 19 ~

temperature and moisture differences. Less dense hot air rises and is replaced by
denser, cool air. The greater the thermal difference and the height of the structure, the
greater the stack effect process take place.
The potential for stack-effect ventilation can be estimated during the design
process through use of the following equation:
V = 60 K A [g h (Ti To) / Ti ] 1 / 2
Where;
V is the estimated air flow rate (cf m);
K is a factor that accounts for orifice characteristics (assumed = 0.65);
A is the smallest value of inlet, stack throat, or outlet areas (sq ft);
g is the gravitational constant (32.2 ft / sec2);
h is the stack height (ft);
Ti (inside) is the higher of two differential air temperatures (R);
To (outside) is the lower of two differential air temperatures (R).
From a design perspective, there are three variables that will affect the rate of
stack-effect ventilation:
i.

Area of openings (inlet, outlet, and stack size with the smallest of these
three areas ruling)

ii.

Differences in elevation height between the inlet and the outlet.

iii.

Differences in dry-bulb air temperature between the stack inlet and outlet.
Of these three variables, the areas and the height are most amenable to

architectural and engineering decision making. Although temperature difference can

be modified through design decisions (location of inlet, solar augmentation, and the
like) it is probably a less controllable variable as it fundamentally relies on micro
weather conditions surrounding the building.

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While traditional house may exploit the potential of stack effect in cooling
the house to the most, house in urban area is likely to face the hot surrounding due to
compact development and urban heat
3.2.1 Enhancing the Stack Effect Performance
As stack effect performance is very much related to the temperature
difference between indoor and outdoor environment, understanding the climate
characteristic is essential. The average temperature and humidity is relatively high
and consistent throughout the year.
As the daytime temperature is considered quite high, a building has to be able
to insulate the indoor surrounding in providing a good thermal comfort for the users.
This can be achieved by using proper building materials combined with good design.
Maintaining a significant lower temperature inside compared to the outdoor
temperature may help in enhancing the air flow into the house via stack effect
ventilation process. However, encouraging rapid air flow into the building during
daytime may also bring heat into the building. Thus, proper consideration on how to
slightly cool the air before entering the building is important.

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CHAPTER 4
CASE STUDY AND EXAMPLES
4.1 OLD HAVANA, CUBA
4.1.1 Overview
The Historical Centre of Old Havana in Cuba is currently undergoing a
comprehensive preservation and urban recovering process. Housing units are built in
existing vacant plots of the old city. The design of the new buildings should be
integrated in the compact urban structure that has developed throughout the past
centuries. This compact morphology however obstructs the breezes that are an
essential component to achieve thermal comfort in compact by passive means in
warm and humid climates. New courtyard buildings should be designed in such a
way that natural ventilation and thermal comfort are enhanced.
4.1.2 History and Issues
This Historical Centre of Old Havana in Cuba comprises the former
intramural Colonial City and other surrounding areas. Because of the large amount of
valuable buildings from a historical and architectonic point of view and the highqualified urban environment, UNESCO declared the Fortress System and the
Historical Centre of Old Havana a World Cultural Heritage in 1982. The Old
Havana urban structure is very compact, which has a negative impact on the potential
for natural ventilation and thermal comfort. Cuba, and Havana in particular, is
located close to the Tropic of Cancer as illustrated in Figure 4-1. The climatic
conditions are less extreme than in Continental Tropical regions thanks to the sea
breezes, but nevertheless, as in other islands with Marine-Island Tropical climate,
there is a combination of relatively high values of air temperature and high values of
relative humidity that can produce uncomfortable conditions during long periods of
the year. The August daily mean maximum temperature is 31.4C, the daily mean
minimum temperature is 23.8C, the August daily mean maximum relative humidity
is 91% while the daily mean minimum is 68%.

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Figure 4-1: Geographical location of the Island of Cuba near the Tropic of Cancer
(Havana: 23.1 north latitude, 82.3 west hemisphere)
The very compact of Old Havana urban structure has kept the same street
network for centuries (Figure 4-2). Most of the Cuban cities were founded during the
process of colonisation after the arrival of Spaniards in 1492. Havana was founded in
1519 and it was built with climatic factors in mind, but those of the dry climate of
Southern Spain and not those of the humid conditions of the Caribbean Islands. As a
result, the urban scheme and architectonic patters followed since the beginning
(contiguity of houses, each with a courtyard) was that of the hot-dry lands and
somehow with the influence of the Islamic tradition which gave the houses an
introverted character. As time passes, the envelope of those introverted houses
walls, roofs and windows was gradually adapted to the local climatic requirements,
but the existing fabric and urban structure were never abandoned. During the 20 th
century, due partly to land speculation, a process of densification started in the
Historical Centre. Nowadays, the urban blocks of each building, most of which are
very small (Figure 4-3). The streets are very narrow allowing shade during the day
hours bus obstructing natural ventilation. Research has indeed shown that in narrow
passages and streets between buildings, the so-called Venturi-effect is almost
negligible, and that street ventilation can decrease rather than increase when the
streets get narrower. This is important because natural ventilation by wind is often

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the only available strategy to achieve thermal comfort or at least to diminish the hot
sensation of occupants. The large majority of the population in Cuba and in many
other tropical and humid regions cannot afford the use of air-conditioning. In the
present global energy crisis, sustainable solutions should be found to reduce energy
use while increasing the quality of life of the people.

Figure 4-2: (a) Satellite Photo of the Historical Centre of Old Havana. (b) View of a
typical street in Old Havana

Figure 4-3: (a) Typical Urban block and the location of inner courtyards on each
plot. (b) Bird-eye view of a courtyard house

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Due to lack of maintenance, the centre of Old Havana currently comprises

many vacant plots, buildings in ruins and houses declared uninhabitable and
practically irrecoverable. In the other hand, there is a high demand for new dwellings
inside the existing urban tissue. The Historian Office of Havana, which is the main
institution that is in charge of the recovery of the Historical Centre, is leading the
construction of new housing on the vacant plots. The new dwellings should be
integrated in the compact urban structure. At the same time, their design should be
directed towards providing better thermal comfort to the inhabitants. However, the
present urban and building and building regulations do not contain specific thermal
and natural ventilation requirements.
4.1.3 Preliminary Design Recommendations for residential buildings in Old
Havana
Based on the study of the evolution of residential architecture in Old Havana
and on the results of the field measurements and the thermal sensation survey, a set
of preliminary design recommendations has been proposed for residential buildings
in the Historical Centre of Havana. These recommendations focus on the need for
cross ventilation and protection from solar radiation. The following general
recommendations are provided:
Combining a main wide courtyard with smaller secondary courtyards to
provide cross ventilation in rooms that are not directly connected to the street.
Providing a ratio of open space inside the plot that is higher than the 15%
required by the present regulations, to provide larger possibility to design
areas for courtyards.
Establishing an interconnection between the street and the courtyards and
among the courtyards through a circulation path on ground floor in order to
promote ventilation inside the courtyards and the connected rooms.
The wider courtyards should have a proper solar protection both on the
windows and on the courtyards are less exposed to solar radiation in general,
solar protection should be considered for the top floor rooms.
It is important to keep using louvers for the windows at every floor.

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4.2 EXAMPLES OF HOT-DRY CLIMATES

In many locations in the middle east, north Africa, and the north-western
corner of the Indian subcontinent, a traditional ventilation and cooling system has
developed. This system is known as wind towers or wind catchers in Egypt. These
are all vented towers or vertical projections in the rood intended to catch or remove
air from the interior spaces.
Ventilation towers in most cases act as wind scoops capturing air at roof level
and diverting it to indoor spaces. The temperature of inlet air is sometimes cooled by
passing it through underground enclosures. In dry climates, the air is cooled and
humidity raised by passing the airflow over water-filled jars or though wetted pads.
The design of the inlet portion of ventilation towers depends on the prevailing
wind direction. A single opening tower suits cases where the prevailing wind comes
from a single direction, while multi opening tower head best suits cases where the
wind comes from different compass directions (Figure 4-4).

Figure 4-4: Tower head designs

The tower head configuration affects interior and exterior building design.
Because it requires maximum expose to different wind directions, a ventilation tower
with a multi opening head usually becomes a dominant architectural features (Figure
4-5). This exterior dominance is often reflected in the interior plan. The multi
opening tower is usually connected to a large interior space where the cool air is

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delivered. In contrast, single opening towers are usually less prominent in both the
exterior and interior plan. This configuration is a product of restricting tower head to
a single wind direction. To maximise exposure to prevailing wind direction, the
ventilation tower is often located at the perimeter facing the roof of the building
instead of the exterior (Figure 4-6). This location allows the wind tower to face the
airflow unaffected by surrounding buildings. (Figure 4-7).

Figure 4-5: Multi opening wind catcher in Kerman Bazaar, Iran

Figure 4-6: Example of single opening wind catchers in Al-Kufa, Iraq

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Figure 4-7: Single opening tower head is located at position where effect of
surrounding is minimal
Hassan Fathy is one of the most influential leaders if the revivalist movement
in the Arab world. His traditional work exemplified in Gourna involved the
reintroduction of construction materials and climate responsive solutions suitable for
the project. Figure 4-8 illustrates the use of massive walls, small windows and
mashrabiahs (a screen made of timber and located over large windows for privacy
and shading). This shading device does not only reduce solar radiation but also
provides relatively large openings on building exteriors and / or courtyards.

Figure 4-8: Examples of Hassan Fathys reintroduction of traditional architectural

design features
Figure 4-9 shows a view from the University of Qatar. The university campus
contains design features that reflect revived traditional elements such as wind towers
and courtyards. The designers used multi opening ventilation towers in combination

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with water fountains to evaporative cool the interior spaces. Other features include
the use of mashrabiahs and light towers. The latter is an attempt to minimize the use
of windows. This was attained by separating the functions of a window into
ventilation and day lighting, each of which is provided by a separate design element.
This separation gives the designer the freedom to control airflow for ventilation and
cooling of interior spaces without concern about lighting needs through the same
opening. The result is an architectural style responsive to the climate and unique in
morphology (Figure 4-10).

Figure 4-9: Modern Design Solutions, University of Qatar

Figure 4-10: Birds eye-view of the University of Qatar

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In all the examples, wind plays an important role in shaping the form of
individual buildings as well as the architectural style of the region. The examples
also demonstrate the effect of the wind in shaping the urban morphology. To
incorporate wind in the design of individual buildings or urban layouts, knowledge of
wind behaviour around buildings is paramount. Tools and / or algorithms if
available should be used to predict wind flow patterns in urban areas.

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CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
Thermal comfort issues in designed spaces should not be tackled as fixes to
environmental problems arising from the specific design solution. Instead, early
consideration of climatic impact on space and form should be an integral part of the
design process.
Airflow is among the climatic elements that a designer may manipulate to
achieve thermal comfort for occupants of architectural spaces. The study aimed at
providing designers with the ability to predict indoor air velocity of buildings located
in an urban setting.
The shielding effect of multiple obstruction blocks can be computed or
estimated by averaging the shielding effect of individual blocks. However, averaging
alone produces a weighted value that does not take into account the effect of the gaps
between the surrounding buildings. The effect of gaps can be added to the average
shielding effect of windward obstruction blocks. Thus providing a complete
description of the obstruction field of view as seen by the surface of interest.
Analysis shows that neither gap width nor its distance from the surface
influences the gap effect. Instead, the effect is directly correlated to the position of
the gap relative to the building surface.
5.1 INDOOR VELOCITY MODEL (IVM)
The proposed IVM is aimed at providing the designer with a tool to predict
natural ventilation in indoor environments based on the knowledge of the
surrounding buildings. With this knowledge, the designer would be able to
incorporate natural ventilation into the design of residential and other comparable
buildings in the context of a built-up area. The benefits of this incorporation can be
categorized in the following:
The IVM developed in this study can be used to help the designers to predict
energy uses of a space. The pressure prediction component of the model provides a

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key step towards predicting energy uses resulting from infiltration-driven thermal
loads. Indoor velocity derived can used to predict thermal comfort and night time
structural cooling.
If indoor thermal comfort in ventilated buildings could be accurately
predicted, one would expect energy efficiency to benefit from such knowledge. By
considering the surrounding building and gaps, the designer can obtain more realistic
predictions of natural ventilation in urban settings.
With the IVM, operable windows for ventilation can be better incorporated in
the architectural design. Since surrounding buildings affect airflow in or around the
building wall surfaces, this model could play a role in the selection of window
location and sizing.
The ability to accurately and reliably predict natural ventilation can help
reduce air-conditioning use as a supplement to the overall cooling system. As a result
of the partial reduction in cooling loads, smaller air-conditioning units would be
saved. In addition, by accounting the effects of the surrounding buildings, the
resulting surface pressures which are usually lower than those of published data may
further reduce the air-conditioning component sizes as a result of the lower expected
infiltration rates.
5.2 PROPOSED DESIGN PROCEDURES
The conceptual design phase The ventilation requirements are defined
according to the ventilation purpose.
The second phase (design development) The explicit method and implicit
method of the envelope low model (EFM)
The third design phase The performance evaluation includes two different
modelling stages, namely the dynamic thermal simulation with an air flow
network and Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation.
The final design phase The building bioclimatic chart (BBCC) is adopted
to demonstrate the viability of comfort ventilation according to the predefined
comfort boundary.

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REFERENCE
1. Adil M. K. Sharang-Eldin, Predicting Natural Ventilation in Residential
Buildings in the context of Urban Environemnt, Dissertation - University of
California, Berkeley, 1998, 10-13, 21-27, 209-213.
2. Pei-Chun Liu, A modelling study of segmentation of naturally tall office
buildings in a hot and humid climate, Thesis University of Nottingham,
2012, 1-2.
3. Francis Allard, Natural Ventilation in Buildings A design handbook, James
& James (Science Publishers) Ltd., 1998, 3-4, 22.
4. Urban Heat Island Effect and its Mitigation Strategies, TARU Leading Edge,
1-3.
5. Izudinshah Abd, Wahab and Lokman Hakim Izmail, Natural Ventilation
Approach in Designing Urban Tropical House, Universti Tum Hussein Onn
Malaysia, 4-5.
6. A. Tablada and F. De Troyer and B. Blocken and J. Carmeliet and H.
Verschure, On Natural Ventilation and thermal comfort in compact urban
environments the Old Havana Case, 2009, 1-2, 11.

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