1. What are flip flops ?

Ans: It is an electronic circuit (a bistable multivibrator) that has two stable states and thereby is capable
of serving as one bit of memory.
2. What is a multivibrator?
Ans: A multivibrator is an electronic circuit used to implement a variety of sample two state systems
such as oscillators, timers and flip-flops. It is characterized by two amplifying devices (transistors,
electron tubes or other devices) cross coupled by resistors and capacitors. The most common form is
the stable or oscillating type, which generates a square wave- the high level of harmonics in its output is
what gives the multivibrator its common name.
3. What is the purpose of multivibrator ?
Ans: The multivibrator is one form of relaxation oscillator, the frequency of which may be controlled by
external synchronizing pulses.
4. What is an astable multivibrator called so ?
Ans: There is no stable state where the circuit can come to rest, so this circuit is known as an astable
multivibrator.
5. Why is an monostable multivibrator called so ?
Ans: The monostable circuit has only one stable state (output low) hence the name monostable.
6. What is an astable multivibrator ?
Ans: Astable multivibrator is a two stage switching circuit in which the output of the first stage is fed to
the input of the first stage and vice versa. The output of both the stages are complementry. It has two
stable states and switches back and forth from one state to another, remaining in state for a time
depending upon the discharging of the capacitive circuit.
7. What is a monostable multivibrator ?
Ans: Monostable multivibrator often called a one shot multivibrator is a pulse generating circuit in
which the duration of this pulse is determined by the RC network connected externally to the 555 timer.

8. What is the purpose of monostable multivibrator ?

Ans: A monostable device, on the other hand, is only able to hold in one particular state indefinitely. Its
other state can only be held momentarily when triggered by an external input.

9. Give some examples of multivibrator.

Ans: The flip-flop is a free running multivibrator.

10. Mention the applications of multivibrator.

Ans: It finds applications in a variety of systems where square waves or timed intervals are required.
Simple circuits tend to be inaccurate since many factors affect their timing, so they are rarely used
where very high precision is required.
11. What is the principle of monostable multivibrator ?
Ans: All monostable multivibrators are timed devices. That is, their unstable output state will hold only
for a certain minimum amount of time before returning ti its stable state
12. How does a monostable multivibrator work in terms of the astable multivibrator ?
Ans: Like the astable multivibrator, one transistor conducts and the others cut-off when the circuit is
energized.
13. What is the disadvantage of an astable multivibrator ?
Ans: When the astable m/v was first energized, it was impossible to predict which transistor would
initially go to cut-off because of circuit symmetry.
14. What are the different types of multivibrator circuits?
Ans: There are three types of m/v circuits: Astable, Monostable, Bistable.

15. What is PAM?

Ans: Pulse amplitude modulation, acronym PAM, is a form of signal modulation where the
amplitude of a carrier consisting of a periodic train of rectangular pulses is varied in proportion
to the sample values of a message signal. In this type of modulation, the pulse duration is held
constant.
16. What are the drawbacks of PAM?
Ans: Before sampling a signal, it must be passed through a low-pass filter, so that the higher
frequencies are eliminated from the signal and the signal conforms to the requirement of the
sampling circuit. Also, the PAM technique has the same signal to noise ratio as the AM. Thus, it
is not employed in the practical circuits but may be employed to produce other forms of pulse
modulation.
17. How is demodulation done in PAM?
Demodulation is performed by detecting the amplitude level of the carrier at every period.

18. Mention the application of PAM.

Ans: PAM is widely used in baseband transmission of digital data, with non baseband
application having been largely superseded by pulse-code modulation and more recently by PPM.
19. What is PAM in practical circuits ?
20. What is the basic principle of PAM ?

Ans: In PAM, the amplitude of individual pulses in the pulse train is varied from its default value
in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal at sampling intervals.
The width of the pulse is kept constant.
21. What are the advantages of PAM ?
Ans: Main advantages of PAM are simple transmitter and receiver design. PAM is used to carry
information as well as to generate other pulse modulations.
22. What is a filter ?
23. What are the different types of filters ?
Ans: Low-pass, high-pass, Band-pass, Band-elimination ( also referred to as band reject or
notch).

24. What are active filters ?

Ans: Active filters are the circuits that use an operational-amplifier as the active device in
combination with some resistors and capacitors to provide an LRC-like filters performance at
low frequencies.
25. What is a low-pass filter ?
Ans: a low pass filter is a filter that passes low frequency signal but attenuates signal with
frequencies higher than the cut-off frequency.
26. Why inductors are not often used in active filters ?
Ans: Inductors are bulky and costly and may have large internal resistive components.
27. What is an ideal low pass filter ?
Ans: An ideal low pass filter is a network which passes all the frequency up to cut-off frequency
fc, and blocks all frequencies above fc.

27. What is difference between an ideal and a practical low pass filter ?
Ans: The transition region present in practical filters doesnt exist in an ideal filter. An ideal
low-pass filter can be realized mathematically by multiplying a signal by the rectangular function
in the frequency domain or, equivalently, Convolution with a sinc function in the time domain.

28. What is high-pass filter ?

Ans: a high pass filter is a circuit that attenuates all signals below a specified cut-off frequency.

29. What does the term pass mean in any low-or-high pass filters ?
Ans: Pass: to cause or permit to go past or through a barrier.

30. What does roll-off mean ?

Ans: It means that if you set the cut-off frequency for say 450Hz, any signal coming through to
the input of the filter is 96dB down at 900 Hz. Set it for 1KHz, signals at 2KHz are down 96dB.
31. What are passive filters ?
Ans: Passive filters are implemented using only passive components such as resistors, capacitors
and inductors. These filters do not produce any amplification of the input signal.
32. What is a pass band ?
Ans: The range of frequencies that is transmitted.
33. What is drop band ?
Ans: The range of frequencies that is attenuated.
34. Why is butterworth filter used most often ?
Ans: in many low pass filter applications, it is necessary for the closed loop gain to be as close to
1 as possible within the baseband. Butterworth filter is best suited for this type of application.
35. What is Band pass filter ?
Ans: It passes a band of frequencies and attenuates frequencies on both sides of the pass band.
You make take an example of series resonant circuit for the explanation.

36. What is sn idesl band pass filter ?

Ans: The ideal band pass filter can be used to isolate the component of a time series that lies
within a particular band of frequencies.
37. What are band reject circuits ?
Ans: Band reject filters are tuned circuits that prevent the passage of signal within a specified
band of frequencies. These devices are also known as band stop or notch filters.

38. Name the types of band rejection filters.

Ans: Twin-T & active Wein-Robinson circuit.

39. What are signal filters ?

Ans: Signal filters block or decrease unwanted frequencies or signal wave characteristics.
40. What are digital filters ?
Ans: Digital filters use digital signal processing (DSP) to perform numerical calculations on
sampled values of a signal.

41. What is precision rectifier ?

Ans: It is an op-amp voltage follower, with a diode inserted between the op-amp output terminals
and the circuit output point.

42. Why use an op-amp as a rectifier ?

Ans: In diode rectifiers circuit, the voltage drop that occurs with an ordinary semiconductor
rectifier can be eliminated to give precision rectification.

43. What is a precision full wave rectifier ?

Ans: a full wave precision rectifier consists of a summing circuit and a precision half wave
rectifier which has a voltage gain of 2.

44. What are the advantages of precision amplifier ?

Ans: Gain of upto 100 can be achieved in this configuration, which is useful for signal
conditioning of low output of transducers in mV range.

45. What is DAC ?

Ans: The process of conversion of digital signal to analog signal is called so.

46. What are the different types of DAC technique?

1) R-2R DAC 2) Binary weighted DAC.

47. What is an R-2R ladder network?

Ans: A 4-bit R-2R ladder network consists of digitally controlled switches, current to voltage
converter and a resistance network.
Note: For more detail about R-2R ladder, go through your book.
48. What is an oscillator?

49. What is amplitude modulation?

Ans: The process of amplitude modulation consists of varying the peak amplitude of a sinusoidal
carrier wave in proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulation signal.
50. What is modulation?
Ans: Modulation may be defined as the process by which some parameters of a high frequency
signal termed as carrier, is varie in accordance with the signal to be transmitted.
51. What are the different types of analog modulation?
Ans: 1) Amplitude modulation 2) angle modulation.
52. What si the need for modulation?
Ans: Consider, for example, picture signal of a T.V camera. It has frequency spectra of DC to
5.5MHz.such a wide band of frequency cant be propagated through ionosphere. However, if this
signal is modulated with a carrier in VHF and UHF range, the percentage bandwidth becomes
very small and the signal become suitable for transmission through atmosphere.
53. What are the objectives met by modulation?
Ans: Length of antenna is shortened, signal loss is reduced, ease of radiation, adjustment of
bandwidth, shifting signal frequency of the assigned value.
54. What are the advantage of PAM and PWM?
Ans: PWM system gives a greater signal to noise ratio as compared to PAM but requires a larger
bandwidth to achieve this.
55. What is Pulse position modulation?
Ans: Pulse position modulation (PPM) is the process in which the position of a standard pulse is
varied as a function of the amplitude of the sampled signal.
56. What is the advantage of PPM over PWM and PAM?
Ans: The phase deviation are usually small. The noise produces a smaller disturbing effect on the
time position of the modulating pulse train and as a result, PPM waves have a better performance
with respect to signal to noise ratio in comparison to PAM and PWM systems.
57. What are the applications of pulse position modulation?
Ans: It is primarily useful for optical communication systems, where there tends to be little or no
multipath interference. Narrowband RF (Radio frequency) channels with low power and long
wavelength (i.e., low frequency) are affected primarily by flat fading, and PPM is better suited.
Q58. What is the purpose of using differential pulse position modulation?
Ans: It is possible to limit the propagation of errors to adjacent symbols, so that an error in
measuring the differential delay of one pulse will affect only two symbols, instead of effecting all

successive measurements.
59. What are the advantage of PPM?
Ans: One of the principle advantages of pulse position modulation is that it is an M-ary
modulation technique that can be implemented non-coherently, such that the receiver does not
need to use a phase-locked loop (PLL) to track the phase of the carrier. This makes it a suitable
candidate for optical communications systems, where coherent phase modulation and detecting
are difficult and extremely expensive. The only other common M-ary non-coherent modulation
technique is M-ary frequency shift keying, which is the frequency domain dual to PPM.
The other advantages of pulse position modulation are:
The amplitude is held constant thus less noise interference.
Signal and noise separation is very easy.
Due to constant pulse widths and amplitudes, transmission power for each pulse is same.
60. What are the application of PPM?
Ans: PPM is employed in narrowband RF channel systems, with the position of each pulse
representing the angular position of an analogue control on the transmitter, or possible states of
binary switch. The number of pulse per frame gives the number of controllable channels
available. The advantage of using PPM for this type of application is that the electronics required
to decode the signal are extremely simple, which leads to small, light-weight receiver/decoder
units. (Model aircraft require parts that are as lightweight as possible).
61. Explain the principle of PPM?
Ans: The amplitude and the width of the pulse is kept constant in this system, while the position
of each pulse, in relation to the position of a recurrent reference pulse is varied by each
instantaneous sampled value of the modulating wave. This means that the transmitter must send
synchronizing pulses to operate timing circuits in the receiver. The PPM has the advantage of
requiring constant transmitter power output, but the disadvantage of depending on
transmitter-receiver synchronization.
62. What is the puprpose of PPM?
Ans: PPM may be used to transmit analog information, such as continuous speech or data.
63. What are the analog analogies of PAM, PPM & PWM?
Ans: PAM is similar to AM; PPM and PWM is similar to angle modulation.
64. What is Frequency modulation (FM)?
Ans: Frequency modulation is the process of varying the frequency of a carrier wave in
proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal without any variation in the
amplitude of the carrier wave.

65. What is PWM or Pulse length modulation or pilse duration modulation?

Ans: In PWM, the pulse amplitude is kept constant but the leading edge, trailing edge or both
may be varied as a function of the amplitude of the sampled signal and care must be taken to
ensure that the pulse dont overlap in a TDM system.
66. What are the disadvantages of PWM?
Ans: PWM, in general, requires a greater average power than PAM systems. Also, the PWM
system requires a greater bandwidth than PAM.
67. Explain the principle of PWM?
Ans: Pulse-width modulation (PWM) of a signal or power source involves the modulation of its
duty cycle, to either convey information over a communication channel or control the amount of
power sent to a load. PWM uses a square wave whose pulse width is modulated resulting in the
variation of the average value of the waveform is directly dependent on the duty cycle D.
68. Mention the applications of PWM.
Ans: PWM can be used to reduce the total amount of power delivered to a load without losses
normally incurred when a power source is limited by resistive means. This is because the average
power delivered is proportional to the modulation duty cycle. With a sufficiently high modulation
rate, passive electronic filters can be used to smooth the pulse train and recover an average
analog waveform.