Algebra 1 - Herman Chernoff

Algebra I for Students Comfortable with Arithmetic
2001
c Herman Chernoff
February 6, 2002
2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Why should you learn Algebra I? I could elaborate on many reasons why
a knowledge of Mathematics beyond Arithmetic is of interest and of value
to people in the twenty-first century, but for the sake of brevity, I won’t.
It is enough to say that a high school curriculum demands it. What are
the basic concepts to master? They are the ability to translate quantitative
problems of the real world into symbolic statements and to manipulate those
statements to arrive at satisfactory answers.
As the title indicates, this book is written for students who are comfort-
able with Arithmetic. One problem with current books on Algebra I, is that
in order to be adopted by state agencies they must be suitable for students
of all levels of attainment, including some who are still unsure of themselves
with simple problems in Arithmetic. As a result, these books tend to be
full of detail and very large and heavy. To encourage the practice that is
required to fix the basic ideas, the students are asked to do many exercises,
which are essentially repetitions of the text, and not very challenging.
Assuming that the readers of this book are quite comfortable with Arith-
metic, and willing to do some experimenting, permits bypassing some of the
tedious details in text and exercises. This does not mean that the student
can avoid the necessary practice. It is hoped that he or she will get that
practice in working on more demanding problems. The student should be
prepared to use lots of scratch paper and graph paper in reading this text
and in doing the problems. The custom will be to have problem sets with
three different types of problems. There will be exercises. labeled Ex, to test
whether the reader has understood the text well enough to solve a slightly
modified variation of the material in the text. There will be problems, la-
beled Pr, which demand a more comprehensive knowledge of the past text
3
4 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
and some imagination. A few of them are quite difficult. There are not
many problems, and the reader reader should try all of them. If one seems
too difficult or complicated, he or she should not get hung up on it, but go
on with the book after a valiant try. It might be rewarding to return to
it after completing the text. Then there will be some puzzles, labeled Pu,
which are almost impossible without an illuminating insight.
The object of the problems is to provide an opportunity to experiment
with alternative approaches. It is expected that this experimentation will
provide the necessary practice to develop the basic underlying techniques
of the subject without boring repetition. On the other hand one should
be prepared to deal with getting wrong answers. Perhaps more important
than doing the problems correctly in the first place, is the task of finding out
where one went wrong, how to correct for it and to avoid similar errors later.
The ability to recognize when an answer is wrong by testing it in various
ways is also a useful talent. Finally, even when an answer is correct, a
review of the work will often indicate that the reasoning went in unnecessary
circles instead of a direct straight line. The task of refining a solution to
cut out unnecessary digressions often leads to a better understanding of the
essentials of the argument. Incidentally, mathematicians tend to refine their
work so much that the readers lose the excitement involved in tracking the
trail of the hunt, where strange ideas led to hints of how to proceed next to
get to the ultimate objective.
There are not many figures in this text, but the reader should be prepared
to use up lots of graph paper, drawing many figures to help his understanding
of the text, examples and problems.
Chapter 10 is a brief summary of the main ideas of the book. In Chapter
11, we shall present the answers to the exercises and problems. Some of
them will be detailed solutions of the problems. Such solutions are not
unique, and if the reader has another approach, that will not necessarily
be better or worse. The solutions presented will usually aim to be concise.
That does not necessarily mean they will be as insightful as they could be.
Finally there will be another section with hints for the puzzles. While it
sometimes took me a couple of days to solve some of these puzzles, they
usually became rather easy once the hint occurred to me. I have a Ph.D.
in Applied Mathematics and have been a professor of Mathematics and of
Statistics, so don’t be surprised if some of them defy your efforts without
the hint.
In summary, this should be a short book, freely available on the world
wide web, and its mastery should not take more than a couple of months by
the student willing to spend about 4 hours a week. It would be appreciated
5
if you spread the news about the availability of the book to friends near and
far. It is a good idea to collaborate with one or two others of comparable
ability. You should not be in the position where your collaborator does
all the heavy lifting or where you do all of it. That would put one of
you into too passive a mode to get what you should out of the work. An
occasional hint from a better trained friend is ok, but major dependence
will be counter productive. In the near future you may write to me with
complaints, suggestions for improvement (which will become my property),
and questions. I plan to spend a couple of hours a week on dealing with
such comments. My e-mail address is hchernof@fas.harvard.edu and I hope
to use the comments to improve the book. In the event that this book
becomes very popular, I might plan to publish it as a small soft cover text
to be sold at a modest price for students who don’t want to download it
from the computer.
Finally, a warning. This book is not appropriate for students who are
not comfortable with Arithmetic. On the other hand, the fact that a student
has the ability to master Algebra I does not automatically imply that this
book will be right for him or her. The approach that brings out the best in
a student differs very much from one student to another. It is possible that
a reasonably gifted student will not find this presentation suitable. If I knew
how to describe the characteristics that determine whether a student will find
this text useful, I would do so, but I don’t. I do feel that the willingness to
make some effort and to learn from one’s mistakes are important ingredients
for a successful use of this presentation.
6 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
Chapter 2
Arithmetic
2.1 Introduction
How well do we understand Arithmetic? With the availability of electronic
calculators, we no longer need to be able to add, subtract, multiply, or divide.
On the other hand, the ability to perform these operations is closely related
to a basic understanding. Moreover the ability to perform these operations
accurately and quickly requires a knowledge of the 10 × 10 addition and
multiplication tables.
I don’t recommend feats of memory in this text. Memorizing rules for
solving problems is usually a way of avoiding understanding. Without un-
derstanding, great feats of memory are required to handle a limited class of
problems, and there is no ability to handle new types of problems. However,
memorizing the multiplication and addition tables should not be a major
task, and studying them can even be informative. I strongly recommend it,
although I must admit that a friend who had a Ph.D. in Physics had to use
his fingers to add 8 and 5.
In this chapter we review Arithmetic and emphasize a couple of points
that are so well accepted that they are possibly not as well appreciated as
they should be. For example the fact that 3×5 = 5×3 is seldom questioned,
but perhaps it should be, because it means that 5+5+5 = 3+3+3+3+3 and
why is that obviously the case? The usual demonstration is to construct a
rectangle of 3 lines of five points each to represent 3 × 5. Turning this
rectangle around, we have 5 lines of 3 points each without changing the
total number of points. See Figure 2.1.1.
Readers who find this chapter difficult are probably not ready for the
rest of this text. Incidentally, the example discussed above is an example
7
8 CHAPTER 2. ARITHMETIC
of a general rule that goes under the name of the commutative property of
multiplication. To forget this name is no disaster as long as you can apply
the principle. Chapter 10 contains a list of such principles, major results,
and notation for reference when the text uses them. I doubt that you will
have many occasions to use this list.
Figure 2.1.1
• • •
• • •
• • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • •
2.2 Integers
The basic rules for Arithmetic with integers (whole numbers) are taught
in the early grades. The reader should test his ability to add a list of 4
three digit numbers with many large digits. Then subtraction of several
examples of 6 digit numbers, also with some large digits, should be tried.
Then multiplication of a couple of 3 digit numbers should be tried. Finally
we are ready for long division. Multiply 439 by 6347 to get a product. Now
see if dividing the product by 439 retrieves 6347. You can do several other
examples, using a calculator to save time in checking your reults.
If you have trouble at this stage, it is likely that this text is not appro-
priate for you.
2.3 Fractions
If a lawyer wants to divide 7 cents among 3 people, he will have a problem.
The integer 7 is not evenly divisible by 3, and he will have a remainder of 1
which he can dispose of by claiming it as his fee. Fat chance that a lawyer
would be satisfied with that fee. On the other hand if a cook has 7 pies to
2.3. FRACTIONS 9
be divided among three diners, he can give each two pies, and then divide
the remaining one into 3 equal parts.
Each of the small parts of the seventh pie is called one third of the pie.
Two of these parts would be called two thirds of the pie. If each of the seven
pies were divided into thirds, there would be 21 thirds, and each of the diners
would have seven thirds. We can regard six thirds as the equivalent of two
whole pies. In Arithmetic we write the solution of the cook’s problem as 7/3
or 2 1/3. The first form is a representation of the solution in fractional form
which is given by one integer over another. Once we introduce fractions,
then we have a solution of the problem of dividing one integer, the dividend
or numerator by another, the divisor, or demominator even when the first
integer is not an exact multiple of the second.
Having introduced fractions, we have to consider the arithmetic of frac-
tions. First we should notice that the fraction 7/3 is no different than 14/6.
In other words, if the pies were all cut into six equal pieces of 1/6 each, there
would be 6 × 7 = 42 pieces which would divide among 3 people equally if
each took 14 pieces, i.e. 14/6. Thus a given fraction can be represented in
many ways where two representations are equivalent. For example 14/6 and
21/9 are equal to each other. Essentially a fraction does not change value if
both numerator and denominator are multiplied by the same integer. Both
14/6 and 21/9 can be obtained from 7/3 in this way.
It is easy to add 4/3 and 7/3 to get 11/3. But, to add 4/3 and 7/5 is
not so easy. On the other hand 4/3 = 20/15, multiplying numerator and
denominator by 5, and 7/5 = 21/15. Now the two fractions have a common
denominator, and we can add them to get 41/15 = 2 11/15. To add 5/6 and
11/4 we can convert these fractions to 20/24 and 66/24 resulting in a sum
of 86/24 = 43/12. Here we multiplied the numerator and denominator of
each fraction by the denominator of the other fraction, thereby obtaining, as
common denominator, the product of the two denominators. This operation
can be unnecessarily tedious, involving huge denominators if we have to add
several fractions. That effort can be reduced somewhat by noticing that 6
factors into 2 × 3 and 4 into 2 × 2. We can get a common denominator by
taking 2 × 2 × 3. Then we can multiply the numerator and denominator of
5/6 by 2 and those of 11/4 by 3, getting 10/12 + 33/12 = 43/12. In this
example 12 is the least common denominator. While it is not necessary to
get the least common denominator, it is often a good idea to get as small a
common denominator as is readily available. The same appproach works in
subtracting fractions.
How about multiplication? It is no surprise that 2 × 7/3 is equal to 14/3.
Nor should it be surprising that 1/3 of 7/2 is 7/6. After all 7/2 = 21/6 and
one third of 21 is 7. In short, to multiply two fractions, we multiply the

numerators and the denominators. Often the result can be simplified by
dividing the numerator and denominator by a common factor. For example
3/7 × 2/9 = 6/63 = 2/21. It is customary to take advantage of factoring be-
fore doing all the multiplications. Factoring the 9 in the second denominator
into 3 × 3 permits us to cancel the 3 in the first numerator with one of the
threes in the seond denominator. While this device is trivial in this example,
it can result in substantial time savings in more complicated examples.
It remains to deal with the division of one fraction by another. To divide
3/4 by 2/5, the rule is to multiply 3/4 by 5/2. In other words we multiply
the dividend by the fraction obtained from the divisor by interchanging the
numerator and denominator of the divisor. What is the rationale for this?
Division is called the inverse operation of multiplication just as subtraction
is the inverse operation of addition. When we divide 18 by 2, we essentially
ask what multiplied by 2 will give us 18. What multiplied by 2/5 will
give us 3/4? Here we have 2/5 × (5/2 × 3/4) will give us 3/4 because the
2/5 × 5/2 = 1. Clearly the rule presented works.
To indicate a mastery of the arithmetic of fractions, you should be able
to do the following exercise.
Ex 2.3.1 Express 23 + 15 4 3
− 10 divided by 73 + 12
5 1
+ 18 as a fraction.
Pu 2.3.2. How do two boys divide a pie fairly so that no one could blame
anyone but himself if he gets less than his fair share? The standard answer
is to have one split the pie and the other to choose which part he prefers.
It isn’t so easy to find a resolution for this problem when there are three or
more boys to divide the pie. How do 3 or more boys divide the pie?
2.4 Real Numbers

In Algebra we shall deal with real numbers. The set of real numbers corre-
sponds to the distances along a horizontal line, where one point labeled 0 is
the origin. See Figure 2.4.1. A length of one is marked off to the right of
0. It corresponds to the integer one or the fraction 1/1. An equal distance
to the right of that point is another corresponding to 2 = 2/1. The positive
integers 3,4, etc. correspond to the points which are three, and four times as
far from 0 as is 1, etc. The negative integers correspond to equally distant
points to the left of 0. The rational numbers are the fractions with integer
numerators and denominators, and correspond to some of the points on the
line. For example 1/3 is the point one third of the way from 0 to 1. Similarly
−1/3 corresponds to the point one third os the way from 0 to -1.
2.4. REAL NUMBERS 11
Why have we introduced negative numbers and how do we ordinarily

interpret them? Of course we can use the interpretation of position along
the line. But there are other rationales for introducing negative numbers.
Suppose that we count how much money a man has. If he has $100 and buys
an item for $200, then he is in debt $100 and it makes sense to say that he
has −$100. Then we might reasonably say that 30 + 40 − 200 + 50 = −80 is
the amount a gambler won at the races if his profits were 30,40 and 50 and
his loss was 200. The result -80 would indicate a resulting profit of -80, or
equivalently, a loss of 80. One way to do the arithmetic of adding positive
and negative numbers is to add all the positive entries and all the negative
entries separately, and then to subtract the sum of the negatives from the
sum of the positives. Another interpretation of the above sum is that one
moves a point 30 units to the right of the origin, then 40 more to the right,
then 200 units to the left, and finally 50 units to the right, resulting in a
movement of 80 units to the left.
Figure 2.4.1
• • • o•o • • • •
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Let me explain the rationale for the following rule. The product of two
positive or two negative numbers is positive. The product of a positive and
a negative number is negative.
It is sensible to regard 2 times -3 or 2 × −3 = −6 using the above
interpretations of negative numbers. But what sort of interpretation would
make sense of −3 × 2? Consider a sheet of graph paper which is a page with
a grid of equally spaced and intersecting horizontal and vertical lines. See
Figure 2.4.2. Mark one of the intersections as the origin. For every point
on the sheet, we have a horizontal and vertical distance to the origin. The
horizontal distance is given a sign of plus or minus depending on whether it is
to the right or left of the origin and is called the abscissa or, more commonly,
the x-value. The vertical distance is given a sign of plus or minus depending
on whether it is above or below the origin, and is called the ordinate or,
more commonly, the y-value. Take the line which goes through the origin
and rises 2 units for every unit to the right of the origin. When the x-value
is 3 the y-value is 3 times 2 or 3 × 2 = 6. When the x-value is 2 the y-value
is 2 × 2 = 4. When the x-value is 1, the y-value is 1 × 2 = 2, and when the
x-value is 0, the y-value is 0 × 2 = 0. When the x-value is -1, the y-value
is -2 which can be reasonably interpreted as −1 × 2. Similarly when the
x-value is -3, the y-value can be regarded as −3 × 2 = −6. this is especially
comforting since it implies that −3×2 = 2×−3 = −6, and the commutative
law of Section 2.1 applies in this case involving a negative number.
Figure 2.4.2
6 • •
4 • •
y
2 • •
0 • x
-2 • •
-4 • •
-6 • •
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
How about the product of two negative numbers? Take the line which
goes through the origin and goes down 2 units for every unit to the right of
the origin. When the x-value is 3, the y-value will be -6. For this interpreta-
tion it makes sense to regard 3 × −2 = −6. Considering what happens to the
2.5. DECIMALS 13
second line when the x-value is -3, it also makes sense to regard −3×−2 = 6.
Thus multiplying a negative number by a positive number results in a neg-
ative product, and multiplying two negative numbers results in a positive
product.
While we have shown where the integers and fractions appear on the
horizontal line, one may wonder whether these represent all the points on
the line. It is apparent that we can find fractions or rational numbers in
every interval on the real line, no matter how small that interval is. However
we shall later show that these do not cover all points. In fact the square root
of 2, the number which when multiplied by itself yields 2, is not one of the
rational values represented by a fraction with an integer numerator and an
integer denominator.
2.5 Decimals
The Romans were outstanding engineers, many of whose accomplishments
continue to amaze us after 2,000 years. Brilliant engineers are not stopped
by a poor system of counting, but such a system can slow down progress, and
it can frustrate some of the less brilliant practitioners. The Roman number
system did not make arithmetic easy. Until recently, the English counting
system for money was unnecessarily complicated. A shilling was 12 pence,
and a pound was 20 shillings and a guinea was 21 shillings. This system
made sense for specialists where, for example, a dozen eggs at three pence
an egg was obviously 3 shillings. It did not make arithmetic easy, and the
English have since gone to a decimal system for money. The Americans still
use a non-decimal system for weights and distances, and the whole world
continues to use a non-decimal system for time. Most of the civilized world
is moving toward decimal systems for money, weights (grams), and distances
(meters). Thus a thousand grams is a kilogram and a thousand meters a
kilometer.
While the decimal system is not essential, it is convenient and does
facilitate the use of arithmetic in many practical situations. So we shall say
a few words about decimals. The amount $20.64 represents twenty dollars
and 64 cents. Actually a cent stands for one hundreth of a dollar. One way
to look at the amount above is to regard it as 2,064 cents or hundreths of a
dollar. Similarly 3.476 may be regarded as the fraction 3, 476/1, 000. When
doing arithmetic with decimals, we are essentially dealing with our familiar
integers, except that the units may be tenths or hundreths or even smaller
portions of one. Any real number can be arbitrarily well approximated by a
decimal with enough positions after the decimal point. Interestingly enough
some of the simple rationals, as for example, 1/3 can not be represented
exactly by a decimal with a finite number of positions after the decimal
point.
I shall assume that the reader has been properly trained in the arithmetic
of decimals and needs no further explanations.
Ex 2.5.1 (a) Add 2.6; 9.35; 15.16; -22.1; -3.124.
(b) Subtract -3.124 from -2.1.
(c) Multiply 26.2 by -3.71; -3.124 by -2.1.
(d) Divide 1,864.874 by 63.8. Carry 3 places after the decimal point.
Chapter 3
Algebra
3.1 Two Examples

The main point of this text is to demonstrate how the essentials of Algebra 1
consists of translating problems into algebraic expressions and manipulating
those expressions to derive meaningful answers to the questions raised. We
illustrate with two examples, one of which is very simple, and the other
which would be difficult if it were not the case that the answers were integers
and could be found by trial and error. In the discussion we will see how a
convenient notation is used before it is completely explained.
The solution of the first example is made relatively easy by the use of
Algebra, although it could be solved without the explicit use of that tool.
Example 3.1.1 Simon is upset because he invested some money in a stock
and lost $100. He doesn’t mind so much the money loss, but feels that there
was some funny business. The stock lost 20% in the first month. But then
it gained 20% in the second month, when he needed the cash and had to sell
out. Under these circumstances he feels that he should have come out even,
(not counting the broker’s charges of $20). But he lost $100. My problem
is to find out what was the original value of the stock that he bought.
To understand why he lost $100, forget the broker’s charges and suppose
that Simon had invested $1,000. When the stock lost 20%, the value went
down to $800. When it regained 20%, that 20% of 800 or 160, increased
the value to $960 and he lost $40 because 20% of the reduced amount is
less that 20% of the original amount. Thus for every $1,000 invested he lost
$40. If he had invested 100/40 = 2.5 times the $1,000, or $2,500 we would
have accounted for the loss of $100, not counting the broker’s fee of $20. To
account for that we must assume that the stock only lost $80 and that the
15
16 CHAPTER 3. ALGEBRA
original value of the stock purchased was $2,000.

This problem is not difficult, but slightly involved. It would become more
difficult if the broker’s fees were not fixed at $20, but used a rate depending
on the amount being traded.
How would we deal with this problem using Algebra? The main tool
is to represent an unknown quantity by a symbol, typically a letter of the
alphabet, and to do the arithmetic with that symbol. We illustrate. In this
case the unknown quantity, the original value of the stock, (in dollars), is
designated by x. When its value is decreased by 20%, its value shrinks to
80% of x represented by .8 × x. We find it convenient to suppress the times
sign when there is no ambiguity, and we have the reduced value of .8x, which
when increased by 20% becomes (1.2).8x. Here we have used parentheses
about 1.2 to separate 1.2 from .8 and to avoid the ambiguity of 1.2.8. We
express the statement that the loss of $100 is the original value minus the
final value plus the fee by the equation
x − (1.2).8x + 20 = 100
or
x − .96x + 20 = 100
.04x + 20 = 100
.04x = 80
x = 80/.04
x = 2, 000.
In ordinary usage these 6 steps would have been abbreviated consider-

ably and I would have written, after the first equation, the third and sixth
equations. For people familiar with algebraic manipulations, it is easy to
skip many steps, but I notice, as I grow older, that skipping leads to errors.
Let me review these steps in detail. The first step, that of writing down
the first equation, is fundamental, and involves translating the basic facts
or statement into an equation. The remainder consists of algebraic manip-
ulations of the underlying equation to yield an expression for the desired
quantity.
In the second equation, we converted (1.2).8x to .96x. In the third
equation, we used the fact that x − .96x is .04x. In the next equation we
eliminated the 20 on the left hand side of the equation by subtracting 20
from both sides. This equation tells us that a multiple of x is 80, in which
case x is 80 divided by that multiple. In summary, we solved the original
3.1. TWO EXAMPLES 17
equation by combining all multiples of x on one side of the equation and the
other quantities on the other side.
Some of these steps involve notions which are a little more sophisticated
than may seem necessary to the typical student who is used to doing arith-
metic. These are explained later.
Now I would like to introduce a more complicated example.
Example 3.1.2 Bill and John are two men, whose ages sum up to 91. Bill is
twice as old as John was when Bill was as old as John is now. How old are
they now?
Let b and j stand for their current ages, and b∗ and j ∗ for their former
ages. Then
b + j = 91
b∗ = j
b = 2j ∗ .
are obvious equations to fit this problem. We wish to find b and j, but
we have only three equation involving four unknowns, and it is typically
difficult to solve for more unknowns than we have equations. Is there a
hidden relationship in our problem statement or is this problem unsolvable?
There is another relationship, not overtly stated, but implicit in the
statement. The time interval between now and then is the same for Bill and
John. That means that
b − b∗ = j − j ∗ .
Note that we could have introduced another unknown, t for time interval,
and written the two equations b = b∗ + t and j = j ∗ + t. If we did that, we
would have 5 equations in five unknowns. As it is, we have four equations
involving four unknowns which should be plenty.
One way to handle this example is to use each equation to eliminate
one of the unknowns. We illustrate. Since b∗ = j, we can eliminate that
equation and replace every b∗ by j in the remaining equations. Thus the
last equation becomes b − j = j − j ∗ , which can be rewritten as b = 2j − j ∗
by adding j on both sides. Substituting for b in the first and third of the
original equations, they now become
2j − j ∗ + j = 91
2j − j ∗ = 2j ∗ .
Rewriting these two equations in j and j ∗ , we have
3j − j ∗ = 91
2j = 3j ∗ .
The last equation can be written j ∗ = (2/3)j. Susbstituting in the other

equation
3j − (2/3)j = 91
which leaves us with one equation and one unknown. This kind of reduction
could have been done using one equation at a time in a different order. Now
we have
(7/3)j = 91
or
91
j= = 91(3/7) = 39.
7/3
Using the first equation, we have b = 91 − j = 52. These represent the
solution to our problem. As a matter of curiosity, what are b∗ and j ∗ ?
Obviously b∗ = j = 39 and j ∗ = (2/3)j = 26, and indeed, Bill is twice as
old as John was, and also the elapsed time is t = b − b∗ = 13. Incidentally,
it always pays to check out the solution to see that it satisfies the original
equations and the statement of the problem.
When I was a student, we were given certain types of special problems
and methods of solving these problems and expected to memorize those
methods. Such a method is called an algorithm. In my opinion this may be
a good policy for finding solutions to many examples of the same problem
differing only in the input numbers, but it is a very poor way to foster the
understanding which provides the flexibility to handle different variations of
these problems. There are very few algorithms worth memorizing. These
days they can be handled by computers, and putting numbers into a com-
puter algorithm is usually a poor way to learn something worthwhile besides
the answers to those specific problems.
Knowing that the answers to the last problem were integers, we could
have avoided algebra and used trial and error. We could have tried every
possible value of b from 46 to 91 till we found out where b and j = 91 − b
solved the problem. But if we were not told that the answers were integers,
that method would not work, although we could develop some idea for what
would constitute an approximate answer to the problem. A clever use of
graph paper could be helpful.
Pr 3.1.1 Suppose that in the first example, the broker charged 1% as the
transaction cost for buying and for selling the stock. If the original purchase
was for $2,000 worth of stock, he would get $20 for that purchase and more,
later, when he sold the stock. Granted that the stock went down 20% and
then came up 20%, and Simon lost $200 counting the broker’s fees, what
3.2. NOTATION 19
was the value of the stock he originally bought? (Not how much he spent
originally.)
Pr 3.1.2 It takes Bill 3 days to clear an acre. It takes John 5 days to do
the same task. How long will it take for the two, working together at their
natural rates, to clear 2 acres? Note: rate × time = amount of work.
Ex 3.1.3 In celebration of John’s birthday he receives a large gift and his
brother Bill gets a smaller one. The two boys are naughty and play cards
for money with Harry. Together Bill and John start out with $100. After
two hours, John has lost half his money and Bill has doubled his, and now
they have the same amount. What was the size of John’s gift?
Ex 3.1.4 John has $10 more than Bill. He earns $2 an hour and Bill earns
$10 per hour. In 5 hours, Bill has twice as much as John. How much do
they have then?
3.2 Notation
Up to now we have illustrated how the elementary symbolic methods of
Algebra can be used to solve problems that may be difficult to handle with-
out these methods. In the process we have cut a few corners in the hope
that the exposition was elementary enough to be understood without being
completely precise. We now take the opportunity to go into some of the
neglected details in notation and basic laws.
First we can use symbols, for example alphabetic letters, to represent
real numbers. Sometimes we may use subscripts as in x1 and x2 to represent
different numbers which are similar in some sense. It is customary, but not
essential, to use the later symbols of the alphabet to represent unknown real
numbers or variables and earlier symbols such as a, b, c to represent known
numbers which are temporarily unspecified.
Fortran is an early computer language which also uses symbols to repre-
sent real numbers. The rules for Fortran are different from those for Algebra
because Fortran was compelled to use the characters available on a keyboard
with limited ability to use different sizes and subscripts. While a human can
live with a certain amount of ambiguity, where context makes things clear,
the computer was not so flexible in the early days. On the other hand the
human doing Algebra requires displays which are easily interpreted or rela-
tively transparent to the observer, whereas the computer, as distinct from
the computer programmer, is not much concerned with such visual trans-
parency. This digression may help explain some of the following text.
In Fortran, computational efficiency made it valuable to distinguish be-
tween integers and real numbers. If a symbol started with an i, j, k, l, m, n

it was supposed to represent an integer, and otherwise a real number, unless
there was a declaration to the contrary. In Algebra, there is no such rule,
but the symbols i, j, k, l, m, n are often reserved for integers.
In Fortran, multiplication is represented by an asterisk which is readily
available on the keyboard. In Algebra, visualization is frequently enhanced
by omitting the multiplication sign, which can also be represented by the
mid-level dot, as in xy = x · y. Parentheses are used in both Fortran and
Algebra to group real numbers represented by a complex process, such as
in x(y + z). Whereas Fortran would use parentheses within parentheses
for something like x(y + (z + w)), the writing in Algebra is liable to use
brackets and braces or parentheses of different sizes to enhance the readers
understanding of what is going on, for example, x[y + (z + w)]. Fortran can
not do that because the keyboard does not allow different size parentheses,
and brackets and braces have special meanings in Fortran.
When we represent a relationship between x and y as in the graph of
the line in Figure 2.4.2, we are dealing with a function. We say that y =
f (x) = 2x + 3 represents y as a function f of x since this equation assigns a
value of y for each of a set of values of x. This introduces a certain amount
of ambiguity in our notation, for it could be interpreted as the product of f
and x. Unfortunately, this notational ambiguity is prevalent, and we shall
have to learn to live with it, and to make some declaration where the context
fails to make the proper interpretation quite obvious. Note that the above
function is a special case of y = ax + b where a and b are specified to be 2
and 3 respectively.
We will use |x| to indicate the absolute value of x , that is the distance
from x to 0. Thus |−4| = |4| = 4. The exponential notation uses superscripts
to express xn as the product of x with itself n times where n is a positive
integer. We will expand on this concept in Chapter 4.
We often wish to use inequalities. Here the useful symbols are >, ≥,
<, ≤, 6=, which stand for greater than, greater than or equal to , less than,
less than or equal to, and not equal to, respectively. For example x ≥ y,
means x is greater than or equal to y, while x 6= y means that x and y are
unequal.
Mathematicians have several favorite symbols to represent special num-
bers. Thus they use the greek letter π = 3.14159... to indicate the famous pi
which is important in the relationships among the diameter, perimeter and
area of a circle. The letter e is often used for a special value, 2.71828..., im-
portant to mathematicians. In a later chapter we shall introduce the Greek
capital sigma, Σ, to represent a sum.
3.3. BASIC LAWS 21
3.3 Basic Laws

Real numbers have some properties inherited from the integers and fractions,
that are so common that they are ordinarily used without special attention
paid to them. The commutative laws state that for all real x and y,
x+y =y+x
and
xy = yx.
Thus the order in which you add or multiply two reals is unimportant.
Implicit in these laws is the fact that addition and multiplication are dyadic
operations involving two elements. When we add three terms, x, y and z,
it is, in principle, necessary to state the order in which the additions take
place. Thus (x + y) + z would use the parentheses to indicate that first we
add x and y, and that sum is then added to z. The parentheses are used to
separate units that must be defined or calculated before further operations
take place.
Abstractly, there is no prior reason for a dyadic operation to be such
that (x y) z is the same as x (y z). However the associative laws
of addition and multiplication, two special dyadic operations, state that for
all real numbers x, y and z,
(x + y) + z = x + (y + z)
and
(xy)z = x(yz).
By combining the associative and commutative laws, it can be seen
that the order in which several items are added is irrelevant and that the
parentheses are unnecessary in representing such a sum. For example,
(x + y) + z = x + (z + y) = y + (z + x), and these can be repesented by
x + y + z without danger of confusion. The same applies to multiplication.
It is often neglected to point out that changing the sign of a real number
is considered to be a unitary operation (involving one real number). Thus
converting 6 to -6 is such an operation. One consequence, typically ignored
because it is so simple is that 6 + (−8) = 6 − 8. How are these two sides
considered so different that one must write such an equation? The left hand
side is the sum of two reals, one of which is negative. The right hand side is
the difference of two positive reals. That these are equal is often accepted
as too obvious to mention.
Another important property of real numbers, that deserves mention is

the distributive law. This states that for all real x, y and z,
x(y + z) = xy + xz.
For example 3 times 5 + 3 times 8 is equal to 3 times 13. That does not seem
to need much explanation for integers, and it holds true for real numbers
too. Nevertheless it is an important property, and it has been used in our
informal treatment of the examples of Section 3.1. For example we claimed
that x − .96x which is the same as 1 · x − .96x is equal to .04x, because,
1 · x − .96 · x = x · 1 − x · .96 = x(1 − .96) = x · .04 = .04x.
The dyadic operations, multiplication and addition, have inverse oper-
ations, subtraction and division. The difference y − x is that number z for
which x + z = y. Similarly, the quotient, z = y/x is that number z for which
xz = y. While subtraction always yields a unique solution, that is not the
case for division. If x = 0 and y 6= 0, there is no real number z for which
xz = y. If x = 0 and y = 0, then any real number z will do. For this reason,
it is important to avoid dividing by zero. One can easily generate apparent
paradoxes by using division by an expression which may be zero. We shall
illustrate later.
Both addition and multiplication have identity elements. The real num-
ber 0 is the identity for addition since x + 0 = x, and it has no influence on
the sum. Similarly the real number 1 is the identity for multiplication since
x · 1 = x. The unitary inverse operations are negative, −x, for addition since
x + (−x) = 0, and reciprocal, (1/x), for multiplication since x · 1/x = 1 for
x 6= 0. These convert a real number to the number which when added or
multiplied yields the identity element.
In other contexts, the properties mentioned here, or the lack of them
become important. We often use these properties without paying much
attention to them, and when we need to point them out, we will do so.
We review these laws briefly, mentioning only that it is no crime to forget
the names and that they can be extended in obvious ways to include more
variables.
x+y = y+x
xy = yx
(x + y) + z = x + (y + z)
(xy)z = x(yz)
x(y + z) = xy + xz
3.3. BASIC LAWS 23
One application of these laws is
(x + y)(z + w) = (x + y)z + (x + y)w

= z(x + y) + w(x + y)
= (zx + zy) + (wx + wy)
= xz + yz + xw + yw
First of all, we used the custom of not repeating the left hand side in each
step. Second it took us four steps to do what we would ordinarily do in
one step. Finally, we actually skipped a few of the obvious steps in the
final conclusion. Going from the next to last to the last step we used a
combination of the associative and commutative properties that technically
might have required about 3 additional steps. These are trivial steps and we
may feel free to add or multiply any number of reals in any order we wish
because of the laws mentioned.
Finally we present the apparent paradox formerly promised.
(x + 2)(x − 2) = x2 + 2x − 2x − 4
= x2 − 4
Now let x = 2. Then x2 = 2x, and x2 − 4 = 2x − 4 = 2(x − 2). It follows

that
(x + 2)(x − 2) = 2(x − 2).
Dividing both sides by x − 2, we have x + 2 = 2 or x = 0. But x = 2. How

did we get this contradiction? The simple explanation is that we divided
both sides of the equation by x − 2 which is equal to zero, and that is liable
to give us any result.
Pr 3.3.1 Use the commutative and associative laws to show that (x+y)+z =
y + (z + x).
Pr 3.3.2 Show that (x + y)(x − y) = x2 − y 2 .
Pr 3.3.3 Two dyadic operations are defined below. For each, does the opera-
tion have the commutative property? If yes, show why. If no, give a counter
example.
(a)x ⊕ y = x(y + 1).
(b)x y = |x/y − y/x| for positive x and y.
Pr 3.3.4 Win.com has $100,000 in the bank. The amount it spends this
month is $30,000, and is increasing by $5,000 per month. The income
Win.com brings in this month is $10,000, and is increasing by $7,000 per
month. Will Win.com go bankrupt? If not, when will it start making a

profit? If yes, how much more money does it need in the bank to survive?
Pr 3.3.5 Conservation of energy is an important principle in Physics. An
object of mass m and velocity v has a kinetic energy e which is half the
product of the mass and the square of the velocity. Translate that statement
into an equation.
Pr 3.3.6 Each town in Massachusetts is expected to aim at the goal of achiev-
ing 10% affordable housing. As long as the town has not achieved this goal
developers of apartments are entitled to special privileges if they devote
25% of their new apartments to affordable housing. If a town currently has
a proportion p < .10 of affordable housing and a current housing stock of
x units, find a formula for the number of additional units, y, built by such
developers, required to achieve the town’s goal.
Pr 3.3.7 Casting out nines is a method of partially checking addition and
multiplication that used to be popular many years ago. For each positive
integer i there are remainders r and r∗ after i and the sum, s, of the digits
that make up the decimal representation of i are divided by 9.
(a) Show that if i1 − i2 is divisible by 9, i1 and i2 have the same remainders
after division by 9.
(b) Show that i and s have the same remainder, and hence r = r∗ .
The method of casting out nines consists of checking the remainder of i1 +i2 +
· · ·+in against that of s1 +s2 +· · ·+sn . For example 37+438+7853 = 8328.
The remainders on the left are 1, 6, 5 whose sum is 12 with remainder 3.
The remainder on the right is that of 8 + 3 + 2 + 8 = 21 which is also 3. The
same rule applies to multiplication.
Show that if i1 and i2 have remainders r1 and r2 ,
(c) The remainder of i1 + i2 is the same as that of r1 + r2 , and
(d) The remainder of i1 i2 is the same as that of r1 r2 .
3.4 Inequalities
Dealing with inequalities can be a little tricky. The user of Algebra wouuld
be well advised to test his methods when working with inequalities by trying
them on a variety of simple examples. I admit that I often do that instead
of relying on my memory for special variations.
The basic rules can be summarized briefly. We say that x > y when
x − y is positive, i.e. x − y > 0. The basic rules are simple and they follow.
If x > 0 and y ≥ 0 then x + y > 0.
If x > 0 and y > 0 then xy > 0.
3.4. INEQUALITIES 25
If x > 0 and y < 0 then xy < 0.

Using these basic rules, it follows, (see Pr3.4.1), that
x1 > y1 and x2 ≥ y2 imply x1 + x2 > y1 + y2 ,
x > y and z > 0 imply xz > yz, and
x > y and z < 0 imply xz < yz.
There are additional variations and extensions which follow from these.
We shall not use inequalities very often in this text.
Pr 3.4.1 Establish the last three consequences of the basic rules.
Pr 3.4.2 (a) Show that if x > y > 0 and z > 0, then z/x < z/y.
(b) Show that if x > 0 > y and z > 0, then z/x > z/y.
Ex 3.4.3 What is the minimum possible value of y = (x − 3)2 + 4?
Chapter 4
Exponents
4.1 Introduction
In the preceeding chapter we had occasion to use the exponential notation x2

to replace the clumsy expression xx to represent the product of x with itself.
Thus x · x is represented by x2 and x · x · x by x3 . In general, the expression
xn represents the product of x with itself n times. Thus x · xn = xn+1 .
Notice that we used the dot to represent multiplication here. Otherwise,
if we had written xxn , someone might have interpreted it as the symbol
xx multiplied by itself n times. We try, not always successfully, to avoid
ambiguities like that by tending to avoid the use of a pair of characters to
represent one variable. The dot, parentheses, brackets and braces are also
useful when we detect possible sources of misunderstanding. Incidentally
the use of subscripts is also helpful. The symbol n in the expression xn is
called the exponent.
4.2 Algebra of Integer Exponents
When we are dealing with positive integer exponents, it is obvious that

xn ·xm = xn+m and that (xn )m = xnm . Also, if m and n are positive integers
with m greater than n, indicated by the symbol m > n, then xm /xn = xm−n .
Suppose however that m is less than n, that is m < n. Then how should we
interpret xm−n and how should we interpret x with a negative exponent? It
seems very reasonable to take x−n = 1/xn if x 6= 0.
Pr 4.2.1 Which is larger, (1 + 1/4)4 or (1 + 1/2)2 ?
27
28 CHAPTER 4. EXPONENTS
4.3 Square Roots

The square root of a positive real number is that number which when multi-
plied by itself gives the original number. In algebraic notation, we can write
that y is a square root of the positive number x if x = y 2 . For each positive
number x, there are two square roots. For example the square roots of 4
are 2 and -2, which we can write as ±2. For x = 0, there is only one square
root, namely zero. Generally speaking, when we refer to the square root of
a number greater than 0, we will mean the positive square root. If we do
not wish to specify the sign, we will refer to a square root.
√
There are two ways used to indicate the square root. These are x
and x1/2 . The second representation is natural, considering our algebra of
exponents, for then (x1/2 )2 would be expected to be x2·1/2 or x1 = x.
4.4 Rational Exponents

Once we introduce the exponent 1/2, it makes sense to see whether we can
reasonably define expressions with other fractional or rational exponents. It
is easy to consider that x1/3 is a number y so that y cubed or y 3 = x. Then
x2/3 would stand for the square of x1/3 . Thus it makes sense to define xm/n
as y m where y n = x. In those cases where there is more than one possible
value of xm/n we may have to indicate whether we want only the positive
value. In those cases where n is odd, we can deal with both positive and
negative values of x.
When the exponent is 0, we get the value one except for the case where
x = 0. The expression 00 does not have a clear meaning. Otherwise the
algebraic rules in Section 4.2 apply to rational exponents.
In fact these definitions for rational exponents can be extended to apply
to real exponents also, but we will avoid that extension in this text, and will
always assume that the exponents are rational. In the meantime, it is easy
to establish the rules
xy xz = xy+z
and
(xy )z = xyz
for rational y and z and positive x. Also, if x and y are positive, and z is
rational, then
xz y z = (xy)z .
4.5. SQUARE ROOTS AGAIN 29
Ex 4.4.1 The software firm Google is named after the googol which was
defined to be 10100 , a very large number. The exponent can be written as
102 . How does a googol compare with (1010 )2 . Note that 1010 is ten billion.
Pr 4.4.2 Logarithms were introduced to simplify approximations for complex
calculations. If x = 10y , we say that y is the logarithm of x, and we write
y = log(x). Show that
(a) log(10x) = log(x) + 1,
(b) log(x1 x2 ) = log(x1 ) + log(x2 ) and
(c) log(xz ) = z log(x).
4.5 Square Roots Again

There is an algorithm for calculating square roots that I learned when I
studied Algebra. It is rather complicated to describe, and it makes more
sense to use a calculator to do that calculation. However there is an inter-
esting alternative method for calculating square roots in an iterative fashion
which I will describe here. Given a positive number x, let y0 be a rough
approximation to the square root of x. For example we might take for x = 2,
the value of y0 = 1 which is not an especially good rough approximation.
The next approximation is obtained by using the formula
yn+1 = .5(yn + x/yn )
Thus we √have y1 = 3/2 = 1.5, y2 = 17/12 = 1.416667, and y3 = 1.414215 . . .,

whereas 2 = 1.414213 . . .. Try this algorithm with a different value of y0
and possibly a different value of x.
We will now demonstrate that the square root of 2 is not rational, that it
can not be expressed as the ratio of two integers. Suppose that it is rational.
Then we can write √
2 = m/n
where m and n are positive integers. If they have a common factor, we
can divide by that factor, and so we may assume that they do not have a
common factor. But then
m2 = 2n2
which means that m must be even, say m = 2k where k is an integer. Then
m2 = 4k 2 = 2n2 and
n2 = 2k 2
from which it follows that n is also even, contradicting our assumption√that
m and n have no common factor. This contradiction establishes that 2 is
30 CHAPTER 4. EXPONENTS
not rational. Interestingly enough it can be shown that, in a certain special

sense, there are more irrational real numbers than there are real ones. This
sense is quite special, since there are infinitely many rational numbers.
While it is obvious that there is no real solution to the equation y 2 = −1,
there is an interesting branch of Mathematics which deals with an extension
of real numbers, called complex numbers, for which that equation has two
solutions called imaginary. We will not discuss complex numbers in this
text, even though they are especially useful in the study of Electricity and
Aerodynamics.
Pr 4.5.1 Find the square root of (x + y)2 − 4xy.
√
Pr 4.5.2 Let en = yn2 − x be a measure of the error in estimating x using
yn . Show that en+1 = e2n /4yn2 for the iteration rule of this section. Show
that for yn > 0, en+1 ≥ 0 and for en ≥ 0, en+1 ≤ en /4.
Chapter 5
Arithmetic and Geometric

Progressions
5.1 Introduction
There is a theory that the professions that people choose are much influenced
by a combination of special talents and psychological needs. Personally,
I have felt that one of the psychological factors that plays a role in the
decision to become a mathematician is an underlying belief in magic which
is seldom articulated. I suspect that it is this belief which leads one to make
conjectures for no other reason than that they look good. These conjectures
play an important role in the success of a mathematician’s work.
For example, since 1 = 12 , 1+3 = 22 , 1+3+5 = 32 , 1+3+5+7 = 42 and
1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + 9 = 52 , it is natural for one who notices this and believes in
magic to conjecture that this relation, indicating that the sum of the first n
odd numbers is n2 is true for all integer values of n. In fact this conjecture
is valid, but a practice of leaping to such conclusions inevitably leads to
false ones. To compensate, mathematicians have had to develop a highly
rigorous approach to checking or proving their conjectures. Thus, in what
seems paradoxical, a belief in magic leads to a habit of very cold hard logical
proof. Nevertheless, good mathematicians have always depended on flights
of fancy to raise conjectures, some of which have subsequently been soundly
established.
Let us return to the example of the sum of the first n odd integers. For
each positive integer i, the i-th even number is 2i and the i-th odd number
is 2i − 1. Each odd number differs from the previous one by 2. Thus we are
31
32 CHAPTER 5. ARITHMETIC AND GEOMETRIC PROGRESSIONS
interested in the sum of the first n odd numbers which may be written as
s = 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 3) + (2n − 1).
Writing the sum of the terms in reverse order, we have
s = (2n − 1) + (2n − 3) + · · · + 5 + 3 + 1
If we add the corresponding terms in the two equations, we see that on the
right hand side of the first equation, each term increases by 2, while for the
second equation each term decreases by 2. Thus each of the n sums remains
fixed at 1 + (2n − 1) = 2n. We have n such sums, and hence
2s = n · 2n = 2n2
and our conjectured claim that s = n2 has been demonstrated.
5.2 Arithmetic Progressions

The argument we have used can easily be generalized to get a result, which
is not as appealing to me, but very useful. We say that a sequence of
real numbers, a1 , a2 , , · · · , an form an arithmetic progression if each number
differs from the preceeding one by a fixed amount d. Then a2 = a1 + d, a3 =
a2 + d, . . .. In general, an = an−1 + d = a1 + (n − 1)d. Examples are 1,3,5,7
and 1,2,3,4 and 2,0,-2,-4,-6. The sum of an arithmetic progression is
s = a1 + a2 + · · · + an
s = an + an−1 + · · · + a1 .
Adding, we have the same sum a1 + an , n times and dividing by 2, we have
s = n(a1 + an )/2 = n[2a1 + (n − 1)d]/2. (5.1)
The middle expression in the above equations may be described as n times

half the sum of the first and last terms of the arithmetic progression. When
applied to the special example of the sum of the first n integers, we have
the conclusion that the sum satisfies s = n(n + 1)/2 which is often useful to
know. Check it out for n = 5.
Ex 5.2.1 For each integer n let an = an−1 + 2 and a1 = −5. Find the sum
s = a1 + a2 + · + a100 .
5.3. GEOMETRIC PROGRESSIONS. 33
5.3 Geometric Progressions.

A geometric progression is a sequence where each term is a multiple of the
preceeding one by the same multiple or factor, r, which stands for the word
ratio. Thus 1,2,4,8,16, and 3,1,1/3,1/9, and 2,-2,2,-2,2 are geometric pro-
gressions corresponding to the ratios 2, 1/3, and -1 respectively. We shall
now derive an expression for the sum of a geometric progression. Notice that
if a1 , a2 , a3 , · · · , an form a geometric progression, an = ran−1 = r · ran−2 =
r2 an−2 . It is easy to see that an = rn−1 a1 for all positive integers n. Then
the sum of a geometric progression can be written
s = a1 + ra1 + r2 a1 + · · · + rn−2 a1 + rn−1 a1
and
rs = ra1 + r2 a1 + r3 a1 + · · · + rn−1 a1 + rn a1 .
These expressions for s and rs sum the same terms with the exception of
the first term of s and the last term of rs. Subtracting we have
(r − 1)s = (rn − 1)a1
and, if r 6= 1,
rn − 1 1 − rn
s = a1 = a1 . (5.2)
r−1 1−r
The choice of which equality is more convenient to use depends on
whether r is greater or less than one in magnitude.For example 1 + 2 + 4 +
· · · + 2n−1 = 2n − 1 and 1 + 1/2 + 1/4 + · · · + 2−(n−1) = (1 − 2−n )/(1 − 1/2) =
2 − ( 21 )n−1 .
This last example raises an interesting issue on which we will rarely
elaborate in this text, with the exception of the next section. That issue is
one of limits.
Ex 5.3.1 What is the sum s of a geometric progression when r = −1 and (a)
when n is odd, and (b) when n is even.
Ex 5.3.2 Suppose an = 2an−1 and a1 = 3. What is the sum s = a1 + a2 +
· · · + a7 ?
Pu 5.3.3 Suppose an = 2an−1 + 1 and a1 = 1. Find an expression for an and
for sn = a1 + · · · + an .
Pr 5.3.4 The bank lends money at an annual interest rate of 6% compounded
monthly. That means that each month .5% is added to the principal or the
principal is multiplied by 1.005. I borrow $100,000.
(a) How much will I owe the bank at the end of 2 years?
The present value of x, paid in n months is x(1.005)−n .

(b) If I pay $4,000 per month starting at the end of the month, what is the
present value of how much I have paid at the end of 2 years?
(c) What will be my remaining principal (what I still owe) at the end of 2
years?
5.4 Infinite Geometric Progressions

.
In the last example, we notice that if n becomes large, the last term in
the sum becomes small and gets arbitrarily close to zero for n large enough.
In that case we can regard the sum of the progression 1 + 1/2 + 1/4 + · · ·
with infinitely many terms, as the limiting value of the finite sums or simply
2.
The infinite geometric progression with initial term a and ratio r where
|r| < 1 is easily seen to have the sum
s = a/(1 − r).
Thus 1 + 1/3 + 1/9 + · · · = 3/2 while 1 + 1/4 + 1/16 + · · · = 4/3. We formerly

pointed out that the decimal expansion of 1/3 does not terminate. It consists
of an infinite sequence of threes. In mathematical terms, it can be regarded
as 3/10 + 3/100 + 3/1000 + · · ·. By the rules of sums of infinite geometric
progressions this sum should be (3/10)/(1 − 1/10) = 3/9 = 1/3 which is a
verification of what we expected. On the other hand the decimal .9999 . . .
should equal (9/10)/(1 − 1/10) = 1 This has the strange interpretation that
the infinite decimal consisting of all nines is equivalent to 1.
In our problem sets we explore the fact that every rational number can
be expressed in decimal notation as either having a finite number of nonzero
digits after the decimal point, or having a repeating sequence of digits such
as .25343434 . . . which is the sum .25 + .0034 · (1 + .01 + .0001 + · · ·) =
.25 + .0034(1 − 1/100) which is obviously rational. Thus the fact that such a
repeating sequence is rational is not surprising. What is a little less obvious
is that every rational can be so expressed.
Pu 5.4.1 Show that every rational number can be represented by a decimal
with a repeating part.
Pu 5.4.2 There is an anecdote about Von Neumann, a famous mathematician
and physicist. He was given a puzzle, and the method he used to solve it
would determine whether he was primarily a physicist or mathematician.
Two trains head toward each other at 50 miles per hour and 30 miles per
5.5. SUMMATION NOTATION 35
hour respectively. They start out 80 miles apart. A fly flies from one train
to the other at 100 miles per hour, and instantly reverses to fly to the first
train and continues to shuttle between them until it is crushed. How far has
the fly flown?
Von Neumann answered instantly. He was told that he was a physicist
because the mathematician would have figured out how far the fly flew each
time till he was crushed, and added the infinite series. A physicist would
have used a much faster and simpler calculation. When this was explained
to him, he admitted that he had added the infinite series. The simpler
calculation is a puzzle for the reader. The infinite series is a problem which
is complicated and difficult, but not very tricky. Try both approaches if you
can think of the physicist’s. In any case, do the infinite series.
5.5 Summation Notation

I have tried to minimize the amount of algebraic notation used in this text.
However good notation plays a useful role in making more transparent what
may seem very complicated otherwise. The down side is that it takes practice
to become familiar with a great deal of notation, and the usefulness declines
if there is little opportunity to use it. The standard notation for sums
involves the greek letter capital sigma which follows, Σ. The sum of a
sequence of terms such as a5 + a6 + · · · + a15 is represented by capital sigma
with the lower and upper limits below and above the sigma. That is
15
X
a5 + a6 + · · · + a15 = ai .
i=5
In this notation the character i seems to come out of nowhere. What is it

doing? It is called a dummy index. The right hand side is saying that we
are adding all the numbers ai where the symbol i varies in steps of 1 from
5 to 15. It is a dummy because the right hand side would be the same if
we changed i to j or any other symbol that had not previously been given
a meaning. The sigma notation is useful, because the alternative we have
been using is sometimes clumsy and misleading. I often like the alternative,
but it is embarassing to write a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an−1 + an when n is one
or two.
One should keep in mind that the usual convention for the use of sigma
has the upper index greater than or equal to the lower index. Otherwise
there is some confusion. Using this notation, the result for arithmetic and
geometric progressions can be written in the following equations.

n
X
a + (i − 1)d = n[2a + (n − 1)d]/2
i=1
n
X
ari−1 = a(1 − rn )/(1 − r)
i=1
Chapter 6
Polynomials
6.1 Introduction
Consider the relation
y = P1 (x) = ax + b.
As we saw, this can be represented on a graph by a straight line, and it is
therefore called a linear function. On the other hand
y = P2 (x) = ax2 + bx + c
involves the second power of x and is called a quadratic relation if a 6= 0.
Figure 6.1.1
15
10 y
5
0 x
-5
-10
-1 0 1 2 3 4
More generally, we have an n-th degree polynomial which has the form
y = Pn (x) = a0 xn + a1 xn−1 + · · · + an−1 x + an
37
38 CHAPTER 6. POLYNOMIALS
when a0 6= 0, and n is a positive integer. If we plot y = x3 − 3x2 + x − 7, we

see that y becomes large for large x and highly negative for large negative
values of x. (See Figure 6.1.1.) As x increases y rises from highly negative
values to a local peak and decreases to a local valley before rising again,
crossing the x-axis near x = 3.3. There are a variety of curves that can
be represented by a third degree polynomial. We shall concentrate on the
linear and quadratic cases.
The form y = ax + b yields a straight line which intercepts the y-axis
at x = 0 and y = b. The usual convention is to designate that point as
(x, y) = (0, b). As x increases by 1, y increases by the slope a if a is positive.
If a is negative the line slopes down and y decreases by |a| for each increase
of 1 in x.
Ex 6.1.1 Plot y = 4x−3; y = x2 −3x+4; y = −x+5; y = −x2 ; y = x2 −6x+2
6.2 Quadratic Functions

The quadratic polynomial
y = P2 (x) = ax2 + bx + c
with a 6= 0 is represented by a curve called a parabola where y rises as |x| gets

large if a > 0 and y decreases as |x| gets large if a < 0. This parabola either
never crosses the x-axis (y = 0), or it crosses it twice, or simply touches
the x-axis at one value of x. This geometric statement has an algebraic
interpretation which involves solving the equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0
for the value or values of x in terms of a, b and c.

To solve the equation we use the method called completing the square.
Since
b 2 b2
a(x + 2a ) = a(x2 + ab x + 4a 2)
b2
= ax2 + bx + 4a
b 2 b2
ax2 + bx + c = a(x + 2a ) + (c − 4a ) = 0
b 2 b2 −4ac
a(x + 2a ) = 4a
b 2 b2 −4ac
(x + 2a ) = 4a2
.
6.3. POLYNOMIALS AS PRODUCTS 39
Finally, if the discriminant d = b2 − 4ac ≥ 0,

√
b b2 − 4ac
x+ =±
2a 2a
or √
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= . (6.1)
2a
The three cases we considered were those where d < 0 (no solution),
d > 0 (two solutions), and d = 0 (one solution). When d < 0 there is no
solution because there is no real square root of a negative number. Note that
if we introcuced the concept of an imaginary number i, such that i2 = −1,
and complex numbers of the form u + vi where u and v are real, we could
extend the concept of solutions of quadratic equations so that there were
two solutions when d < 0.
The formula for the solution of the quadratic equation is one of the few
that I have committed to memory. I don’t recommend forcing yourself to
memorize this equation, but I would suggest recalling the idea of completing
the square.
Ex 6.2.1 If there is a solution, solve for x in
(a) x2 − x − 6 = 0,
(b) x2 + 8x + 16 = 0, and
(c) 2x2 + 6x + 5 = 0.
Pr 6.2.2 For what value of x is 3x2 + 5x − 2 minimized? Hint: Complete the
square.
6.3 Polynomials as Products

Let us address polynomials from another point of view. Consider the product
y2 = (x − x1 )(x − x2 ) = x2 + bx + c
where b = −(x1 + x2 ) and c = x1 x2 . Then y2 = 0 if and only x = x1 or

x = x2 . Similarly,
y3 = (x − x1 )(x − x2 )(x − x3 ) = x3 + a1 x2 + a2 x + a3
where a1 = −(x1 + x2 + x3 ) , a2 = x1 x2 + x1 x3 + x2 x3 , and a3 = −x1 x2 x3 .

In English terms, −a1 is the sum of the xi , a2 is the sum of the products
two at a time, and −a3 is the product of all three. This result generalizes
for polynomials which are the product of n factors of the form (x − xi ).
A special case of interest is that of y2 = (x−x1 )2 = x2 −2xx1 +x21 . In that

case there is only one solution of y2 = 0. That is x = x1 . But in this case x1
is considered a double solution, because (x − x1 ) can be factored out of the
polynomial for y2 twice.. There is a sophisticated theorem in the analysis
of complex variables that states that every polynomial of degree n can be
factored into a0 times the product of n terms of the form (x − xi ), where
the xi are complex numbers. Since we will concentrate on real numbers
in this text, we shall not use that theorem directly, but it implies that
every polynomial with real coefficients, a0 , a1 , · · · , an can be factored into a
product of terms of the form (x − xi ) or ((x − ui )2 + vi2 ), where xi ,ui and
vi are real. Since the latter term is always positive, the polynomial can be
0 only for the values of x = xi .
6.4 Rational Functions

Just as the fraction m/n , where m and n are integers, is called a rational
number, the ratio of two polynomials y = P1 (x)/P2 (x) is called a rational
function. If P1 and P2 have a common factor P0 (x), that can be factored
out, so usually we assume that they have no common factor.
Let us show, by example, how P1 can be divided by a linear polynomial
P2 . The procedure is basically the same as the one used in ordinary long
division. Let P1 (x) = 6x3 + 4x2 + 7 and P2 (x) = 2x + 1. We note that,
taking the lead terms, 6x3 /2x = 3x2 . Thus we have
6x3 + 4x2 + 7 = 3x2 (2x + 1) + R1 (x)
where R1 (x) is the remainder (6x3 + 4x2 + 7) − (6x3 + 3x2 ) = x2 + 7. This

step has eliminated the highest power of P1 (x). Now x2 /2x = x/2 and we
have
x2 + 7 = (x/2)(2x + 1) + R2 (x)
where R2 (x) = (x2 + 7) − (x/2)(2x + 1) = −x/2 + 7 is the next remainder.

Finally (−x/2)/(2x) = −1/4, and
−x/2 + 7 = (−1/4)(2x + 1) + R3 (x)
where R3 (x) = (−x/2 + 7) − (−x/2 − 1/4) = 7 + 1/4 = 29/4. Thus we have,
6x3 + 4x2 + 7 29/4

= 3x2 − x/2 − 1/4 + .
2x + 1 2x + 1
6.5. REDUCED FORM 41
Just as in ordinary long division, we indicate an algorithm which puts

the above process into a regular format.
3x2 +x/2 −1/4

2x + 1 6x3 +4x2 +0 · x +7
6x3 +3x2
x2 +0 · x
x2 +x/2
−x/2 +7
−x/2 −1/4
29/4
More generally, if P1 (x) is a polynomial of degree n in x, and P2 (x) is
linear, we have a quotient Q(x) of degree n − 1 and a remainder R which is
a constant. The remainder is 0 if and only if P2 (x) is a factor of P1 (x). In
that case, if P2 (x) = bx + c, and hence vanishes at x = x0 = −c/b, so will
P1 . Otherwise we will have
P1 (x) R
= Q(x) + .
P2 (x) bx + c
If R 6= 0, the expression 1/(bx + c) behaves strangely for x near x0 . To

appreciate this, simply plot y = 1/(2x + 1), and note that for x slightly
larger than -1/2, y is very large, and for x slightly less than −1/2 , y is
highly negative. For x far from -1/2, y becomes small. The plot consists of
the two branches of a curve called a hyperbola.
A similar process of division can also be carried out when the divisor is
not linear. For example, if P2 (x) = 3x2 + 6x + 5, the procedures described
above need be modified in only the most trivial fashion. In this case the
remainder may be a constant or a linear polynomial in x.
Pr 6.4.1 Divide 2x4 − 6x2 + 3x + 5 by x2 − 3x + 1. Find the quotient Q and
the remainder R.
6.5 Reduced Form

In the arithmetic of fractions it is often desirable to represent the fraction
in reduced form where the numerator and denominator are integers with no
common factor. A similar reduction problem appears when dealing with
square roots. For example, we can simplify
√
2+ 3
y= √ .
4−3 3
√
If we note that (a + b (c))(a −√b c) = a2 − b2 c, we can multiply numerator
p
and denominator of y by 4 + 3 3, to get

√ √
(2 + 3)(4 + 3 3) √
y= = −17/11 − (10/11) 3,
16 − 27
which is a simpler looking form than that offered originally.
Chapter 7
Analytic Geometry
7.1 Introduction
Combining methods of Algebra and Geometry has often proved to be very
insightful in both fields. We will not expand much in this area of Mathemat-
ics, but the theorem of Pythagoras is useful in calculating distances between
two points on a graph and in appreciating some important facts.
In the following problems use is made of the fact that for 0 < w < 1,
the quantity (1 − w)x1 + wx2 = x1 + w(x2 − x1 ) represents a point which is
w part of the way from x1 toward x2 . In particular (x1 + x2 )/2 is half way
between x1 and x2 , while (2x1 + x2 )/3 is only one third of the way from x1
to x2 .
Pr 7.1.1 (a) Let 0 < w < 1. Show that
(1 − w)x21 + wx22 ≥ [(1 − w)x1 + wx2 ]2
with equality if and only if x1 = x2 .

(b) Interpret this result for the graph of y = x2 .
Pr 7.1.2 (a) Show that for positive x1 and x2
1 1 1 1

+ ≥
2 x1 x2 (x1 + x2 )/2
(b) Let 0 < w < 1. Show that for positive x1 and x2 ,
1 1 1
(1 − w) +w ≥ ,
x1 x2 (1 − w)x1 + wx2
43
44 CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
7.2 Theorem of Pythagoras

The main point of this section is to announce the fact that the distance d
between two points on a graph with coordinates (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) satisfies,
d2 = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 ,
p
and hence the distance from (x, y) to the origin is x2 + y 2 .
This fact is an application of the Theorem of Pythagoras which states
that the length
p of the hypoteneuse of a right triangle with sides of size x
and y, is x + y 2 . This statement uses several technical terms in geome-
2
try, and a proof requires the use of additional technical terms like square,
rectangle, perpendicular, orthogonal, right angle, and areas of triangles and
of rectangles.
Figure 7.2.1
• •
y z
x y
• •
Figure 7.2.1 is the basis of a proof of the theorem, which we outline

without most of the details that justify the statement that the areas of the
outer square, each of the inner triangles, and the inner square are
(x + y)2 , xy/2, and z 2 respectively. Totalling the areas,we have
(x + y)2 = z 2 + 4xy/2
but
(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y 2 ,
and it follows that
x2 + y 2 = z 2 ,
where x and y are the sides of the right triangle with hypoteneuse z.
7.3. CIRCLES AND ELLIPSES 45
7.3 Circles and Ellipses

The points (x, y) for which
x2 + y 2 = r2
where r > 0, are r units away from the origin, and characterize a circle of
radius r, and diameter 2r with center at the origin.
The points (x, y) for which
x2 y 2
+ 2 =1
a2 b
is called an ellipse with major and minor axes a and b. The major axis
corresponds to the larger of a and b. One characteristic of an ellipse, is that
it has two focal points and that the sum of the distances from the points on
the ellipse to the focal points is constant. Figure 7.3.1 presents a circle with
radius r = 1, and an ellipse with a = 3, and b = 2. The circle is a special
or degenerate case of an ellipse where the two focal points coincide at the
center.
Figure 7.3.1
2
y
1
0 x
-1
-2
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Pr 7.3.1 Find the point on the line y = 2x + 7 which is closest to the origin,
and how far it is from there.
Pr 7.3.2 Find the point on the parabola y = x2 − 4 closest to the origin, and
how far it is from there.
46 CHAPTER 7. ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
Pr 7.3.3 (a) Show that if a ≥ b and the

p two focal points of the ellipse above
are at (c, 0) and (−c, 0), then c = (a2 − b2 ), and that the sum of the
distances to the focal points is 2a. (b) Establish that indeed for all points
on the elipse, the sum of the distances is 2a. This problem is not easy. Use
a pencil and two tacks, holding down the ends of a cord to draw an ellipse.
Chapter 8
Simultaneous Equations
8.1 Two Linear Equations

Example 8.1.1. Consider the two equations in which x and y appear in linear
form (to the first power).
3x + 2y = 7
x + y = 9.
Is there a solution which yields values of x and y for which both equations are
satisfied? The answer is yes. We take y = 9−x from the second equation and
substitute for that in the first equations yielding 3x + 2(9 − x) = x + 18 = 7
from which it follows that x = −11 and hence y = 20. To check we see that
3 · (−11) + 2 · (20) = −33 + 40 = 7 and −11 + 20 = 9.
Graphically,these two equations represent straight lines in the (x, y)
plane and these two lines intersect at the one point which corresponds to
the solution of the two simultaneous equations. Those equations are called
linear equations because both x and y appear only in the first power. Is it
always the case that two such equations have a unique soluton? No. For
example, 3x + 2y = 7 and 6x + 4y = 9 represent two parallel lines which
never intersect, and have no solution. On the other hand the equations
3x + 2y = 7 and 6x + 4y = 14 both represent the same line, and thus every
point on that line satisfies the two equations. More generally, if we put these
equations in the form
a1 x + a2 y = a0
b1 x + b2 y = b0
47
48 CHAPTER 8. SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
these two equations have a unique solution if and only if the coefficients
(b1 , b2 ) are not proportional to (a1 , a2 ). Another equivalent form of that
condition is that a1 b2 6= a2 b1 . If a1 b2 = a2 b1 , then we have either no
solution or infinitely many solutions depending on whether or not the two
equations represent two parallel lines or the same line.
Another approach to solving these two equations when a1 b2 6= a2 b1 is
indicated in the next example.
Example 8.1.2. Consider the equations
2x + 3y = 11
3x + 5y = 15.
Multiply both sides of the first equation by 5 and of the second by 3 to get
10x + 15y = 55
9x + 15y = 45.
Now that the coefficients of y in the two equations are equal we can subtract
the second equation from the first to obtain
x = 10
from which it easily follows that 3y = 11 − 2x or y = −3, which checks with

the original equations.
We can deal with 3 linear equations in three variables x, y, and z by
either of the two methods indicated above. We could substitute in one
equation to find an expression for one of the variables in terms of the other
two. Substituting that expression in the other two equations, leads to two
equations in the two remaining variables. That is an extension of the substi-
tution method, and we used that in Chapter 3. The analogue of the method
of equating coefficients used above, is to multiply two equations by the co-
efficients which make those of one of the variables match. Subtracting the
resulting two equations leads to a fourth equation with one of the three vari-
ables missing. Then apply the same technique to another pair of the original
equations to equalize the coefficients of the variable that was cancelled be-
fore. Once more we get another equation in the other two variables. Either
way we get two equations in two variables. We can use either method to
solve for one of the variables. Use the remaining equations to solve for the
other variables. This may sound a bit abstract, but trying the techniques
on the problems will show how the method works.
8.2. NONLINEAR EQUATIONS 49
Geometrically, we see that each linear equation represents a plane in

three-dimensional space. If two of the equations do not represent parallel
planes, they intersect in a straight line. If that straight line is not in the
plane of the third equation, or parallel to that plane, the planes will intersect
in one unique point. Otherwise we may have no solution or many possible
solutions.
The general theory of determinants and matrices was developed to solve
n linear equations in n unknowns. We shall not elaborate on that theory
here.
Ex 8.1.1 Solve the following equations for x and y.
6x + 7y = 33
5x − 2y = 4.
Pr 8.1.2 Solve the following equations for x, y and z.
3x − 2y + z = 1
2x − 5y = −1
4x + 3y + 2z = 4.
Pr 8.1.3 Find a solution of the two simultaneous equations below in terms

of the coefficients assuming that a1 b2 6= a2 b1 .
a1 x + a2 y = a0
b1 x + b2 y = b0
8.2 Nonlinear Equations

We now consider a special example where one equation is linear, but the
second is not.
Example 8.2.1 Let
3x + 2y = 13
x2 + 2y 2 = 17
What are the values of x and y?

Before solving these equations, it is well to note what they mean graph-
ically. The first equation is a straight line with a y-intercept of 6.5,
√ and the
second√ equation is an ellipse which goes through the points ±( 17, 0) and
±(0, 8.5) and is centered at the origin. The solution or solutions corre-
spond to those points, if any, where the line intersects the ellipse.
50 CHAPTER 8. SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
We proceed algebraically. From the first equation, we have y = 6.5−1.5x.

Substituting that in the second equation, we have x2 + 2(6.5 − 1.5x)2 =
x2 + 84.5 − 39x + 4.5x2 = 17. Collecting terms with the same powers of x,
we have
5.5x2 − 39x + 67.5 = 0
√
which is a quadratic equation, with discriminant d = 1521 − 1485 = 6 and
solutions (39 ± 6)/11 or x = 3 and x = 45/11. The corresponding values of
y are y = 2 and y = 4/11.
Pr 8.2.1 Solve for x and y .
2x − y = 6
xy = 3.
Pr 8.2.2 Find the value of b for which the line y = 2x + b is tangent to the
parabola y = x2 . That means that the line touches the parabola, but does
not cross it at the point of contact. What is the point of contact?
Chapter 9
Combinations and
Permutations
9.1 Introduction
Combinations and permutations are useful tools for the study of Probability
involving equally likely events. While we won’t pursue the field of Proba-
bility, we will find the elementary results very useful to derive the Binomial
Theorem which provides a representation of an expression for (a + b)n for
integer values of n.
9.2 A Fundamental Rule

A fundamental rule is that if one thing can be done in m ways, and a second
thing can be done in n ways for each of the first m ways, then the two things
can be done in mn ways. We illustrate with 3 examples.
Example 9.2.1. Select a number from 1 to 4 and a color from red and black.
How many possible selections of these two items are there?
According to the fundamental rule, there should be 8. If we list all pos-
sibilities systematically, we get 1R,1B,2R,2B,3R,3B,4R,4B, where R stands
for red and B for black. Indeed there are 8 such possibilities.
Example 9.2.2. Select a card from a pack of 4 cards labeled 1 to 4, to be
the first choice and then a second card from among those remaining. How
many possible selections can be made?
The possible selections of a first and second card can be labeled, 12, 13,
14, 21, 23, 24, 31, 32, 34, 41, 42, 43. There are 12 possibilities, and they
51
52 CHAPTER 9. COMBINATIONS AND PERMUTATIONS
satisfy the fundamental rule since there are 4 ways of selecting the first card,
and for each of those, there are 3 ways of selecting the second card.
If repetitions had been allowed in Example 9.2.2, that is to say that we
could select the second card from the same four cards, we would have had
16 possible pairs. We now consider a third example, a variation of Example
9.2.2.
Example 9.2.3. Suppose that we wish to select a committee of 2 individuals
from a group of 4 people. How many possible such committees are there
where no attention is paid to the order in which they are selected?
If we label the people from 1 to 4, and keep track of the order in which
they were selected, we would have the previous list of 12 pairs. But each
committee of 2 individuals is counted twice in that list. There are only
12/2=6 such committees. They are 12, 13, 14, 23, 24, 34.
9.3 Permutations
If we are given the n integers from 1 to n, any ordered arrangement of these
integers will be called a permutation of those integers. In the same way,
an ordered arrangement of any n distinct items is a permutation of these
items. How many permutations or different arrangements can be made of
the n integers or of any n distinct items? There are n ways of selecting the
first item. For each of these there are (n − 1) ways of selecting the second
item. Thus there are n(n − 1) ways of selecting the first pair. For each of
these there are n−2 ways of selecting a third item. Proceeding in this way, it
is clear that altogether there are 1·2·3 · · · (n−1)·n different permutations of
the n items. For convenience we introduce the term n factorial to represent
the product of the first n integers. The notation for n factorial is given by
the exclamation mark, n!. Thus 1! = 1, 2! = 2, 3! = 6, 4! = 24 and 5! = 120.
It will be convenient to define 0! = 1, for then n! = n(n − 1)! for all positive
integers n.
While we have found that the number of permutations of n items is n!,
we are also interested in the number of ways we can select, in order, r out
of n items where r is a positive integer less than n. But our derivation of
n factorial incidentally answered this question. It is clear that the number
of such permutations of n items r at a time is given by Pn,r which is the
product of the r integers decreasing from n. That is
Pn,r = n(n − 1) · · · (n − r + 1) = n!/(n − r)!.
A special case is the one with which we started. That is Pn,n = n!/0! = n!
9.4. COMBINATIONS 53
Notice that Example 8.2.2 in the preceeding section gave us P4,2 = 12.
9.4 Combinations
The term combination is used to indicate a subgroup formed from a group
of distinct individuals. In Example 9.2.3 above, a committee represented a
subgroup of 2 of the 4 individuals, where the order was not important, and
hence a combination of 2 out of 4. How many combinations of r out of n
distinct members of a group are there?
The amount Pn,r represented the number of arrangements of r items of
the group of n where order was important. But for any choice of r members,
there are r! permutations which are counted in Pn,r . Thus, the number of
combinations of n items, r at a time,is given by
n!
Cn,r = Pn,r /r! =
r!(n − r)!
Another way to look at this quantity is as the quotient of two products.
The numerator is the product of r successive integers going down from n
to, and including, n − r + 1, and the denominator is the product of the first
r integers. The equation above highlights one important property of the
number of combinations. That is, for 0 ≤ r ≤ n
Cn,r = Cn,n−r .
From a certain point of view, this property is not surprising. For each
committee of r members selected, there is a corresponding committee of
n − r members who were not selected.
The Pascal Triangle below is another interesting representation of com-
binations.
1
1 1
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
Each horizontal line is formed by starting with a 1 in the middle for
the apex. Then each following line is obtained by adding the two numbers
immediately to the right and left on the preceeding line. The n-th line below
the apex represents the number of combinations Cn,r for r = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n.
To show that this is the case one must demonstrate
Cn,r = C(n−1),(r−1) + C(n−1),r
Note that we have defined C0,0 = 1. Two properties of the Pascal Tri-
angle that are worth noting are that the sum of the elements of the n-th
row is 2n , and if we alternated signs in that row, the sum would be zero.
For the odd numbered rows, the latter property is not surprising because
of the symmetry in those rows. But it is not immediately obvious that we
should expect 1 − 4 + 6 − 4 + 1 = 0 These properties are a consequence of
the binomial theorem. described in the next section.
Combinations and permutations play an important role in probability
theory, on which we shall not expend much text. But combinations are also
fundamental in the binomial theorem.
Pr 9.4.1 Show that the equality above for Cn,r is valid.
Pr 9.4.2 I have 13 black balls and 10 red balls.
(a) In how many ways can I select 6 black and 2 red balls?
(b) In how many ways can I select 8 balls from the 21?
9.5 Binomial Theorem

The binomial theorem deals with an expression for (a + b)n . First we note
that
(a + b)2 = a2 + ab + ba + b2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 ,
Then
(a + b)3 = (a + b)(a + b)2

= (a + b)(a2 + 2ab + b2 )
= a3 + a2 b + 2a2 b + 2ab2 + ab2 + b3
= a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3 .
Note that the coefficients of the terms in (a + b)2 and (a + b)3 are the
combinations that appear in the second and third rows below the apex of
the Pascal Triangle. This is no accident. We shall derive
(a + b)n = Cn,0 an + Cn,1 an−1 b + · · · + Cn,i an−i bi + · · · + Cn,n bn .
This equation can also be represented using the summation symbol, as

n
X
(a + b)n = Cn,i an−i bi .
i=0
Before deriving this equation we may observe that taking a = b = 1,

implies that the sum of the n-th row below the apex of the Pascal Triangle
9.5. BINOMIAL THEOREM 55
is 2n . By taking a = 1, b = −1 , we obtain the fact that the sum of the

items with alternating signs is zero.
There are several ways of deriving the theorem. I choose the following,
which is easier to follow if one writes (a+b) in a vertical column n times.
How do we multiply these n terms to get (a + b)n ? We sum all possible
products where one of the items a and b is taken from each row. A typical
product is an−i bi where i of the n terms in the product were b’s and the rest
were a’s. How many such terms are there? As many as the number of ways
we can select i out of n rows to carry the b. In other words there are Cn,i
products of the given form
√ and the binomial expansion is validated.
Pu 9.5.1 The quantity ( 2 + 1)500 is irrational, and has an infinite decimal
representation. Find the digit in the 95-th location after the decimal point.
Pr 9.5.2 The fact that (x + y)m (x + y)n = (x + y)m+n implies a formula in-
volving Cn,r when coefficients of xm+n−k y k are matched. Find that formula,
and check it out for a simple case.
Chapter 10
Summary
An essential element in the application of Algebra to solving relevant prob-

lems is the ability to translate those problems into symbolic statements,
using a convenient notation which makes potentially complex relationships
relatively simple and transparent. A major tool is that of manipulating
symbols that represent quantities that are unknown or unspecified.
10.1 Notation
In ordinary conversation, it is possible to speak imprecisely with a certain
amount of ambiguity, and still have oneself clearly understood. The listener
often uses the context to deduce the actual intended message, sometimes
even when the conversation has errors. The algebraist who writes equations
is expected to be quite precise and, except for some conventions, very little
ambiguity is tolerated. The product of two numbers x and y is designated
by xy or x · y. If we have x multiplying y + z, we can not write x · y + z,
because that would be interpreted as x multiplying y and then adding z to
that product. Instead, we use parentheses, as in x(y + z), to separate y + z
from x. For more complicated expressions we sometimes find parentheses of
different sizes, brackets and braces to be useful to make visually transparent
what is going on.
In algebraic notation we tend to avoid using symbols which have several
characters. Instead we often find it useful to use subscripts to indicated
several variables of a similar kind. Superscripts are usually used to represent
exponents or powers. Thus xn+1 = x · xn , and x1/n is the n-th root of x, i.e.
a number y for which the n-th power, y n = x.
It is customary to use the symbols i, j, k, l, m, n to represent integers,
57
58 CHAPTER 10. SUMMARY
but this is not always the case. In more advanced mathematics, many
symbols tend to be used in conventional ways. For example the greek lower
case pi, π = 3.14159... relates the circumference and area of a circle to its
diameter. The letter e = 2.71828 . . . has a special interpretation. There are
so many conventional symbols that mathematicians make use of much of the
Greek alphabet. Even the Hebrew letter aleph has a special conventional
interpretation.
The product of the first n integers is called factorial n and designated
by the symbol n!. Here n is a positive integer, but it is convenient to
define 0! = 1!. As in conversation, the context will often tend to eliminate
ambiguity. For example, in the expression
x1 + x2 + · · · + xi + · · · + xn
both i and n are understood to be positive integers. The expression repre-

sents the sum of the first n variables xi where i is a dummy index running
from the integers 1 to n. This is not a very precise notation because it would
be misleading for n = 1 or 2. A more precise notation for that expression
that is used often in more advanced Mathematics is
n
X
xi
i=1
where use is made of the capital greek sigma. We have seldom used this
notation in order to minimize notational innovation.
Inequalities are represented by >, ≥, <, ≤, 6=, which stand for greater
than, greater than or equal, less than, less than or equal, and not equal
respectively. The absolute value of x which represents the distance from x
to 0 is given by |x|.
One of my major problems in communication as a statistician dealing
with scientists is that we often have different conventional notations for the
same thing. In Algebra we often use letters in the last part of the alphabet
for unknown quantities, and in the first part of the alphabet for as yet
unspecified quantities which are often known by the user of the algebra.
Thus y = ax + b is often used in cases where a and b are known, to indicate
a relation between x and y. In Physics the symbols for v often stands for
volts or velocity, while i stands for current and m for mass. The symbol c
stands for the velocity of light, while in Algebra it is often used to represent
a constant. In the problem sets, we will occasionally come across these
different uses of conventional symbols, but this should not be so frequent as
to cause difficulty.
10.2. BASIC LAWS 59
10.2 Basic Laws

Fundamental properties of real numbers that lead to useful methods are
given below.
x + y = y + x commutative law of addition
xy = yx commutative law of multiplication
x + (y + z) = (x + y) + z associative law of addition
x(yz) = (xy)z associative law of multiplication
x(y + z) = xy + xz distributive law
x + (−x) = 0 inverse for addition
x · x−1 = 1 inverse for multiplication for x 6= 0
If x is positive and y is real, there is a unique positive z for which z = xy ,

with the following properties.
xy · xu = xy+u for x > 0
xy · uy = (xu)y for x > 0 and u > 0
(xy )u = xyu for x > 0
x0 = 1 for x 6= 0
x−1 = 1/x for x 6= 0
For positive and negative integer exponents x need not be positive for xn to
satisfy the above rules, but 00 is not defined.
For inequalities, we have
x + y > 0 if x > 0 and y ≥ 0
xy > 0 if x > 0 and y > 0
xy < 0 if x > 0 and y < 0

60 CHAPTER 10. SUMMARY
10.3 Major Results

We have introduced the Binomial Theorem which states that for positive
integers n,
(a + b)n = an + Cn,1 an−1 b + · · · + Cn,i an−i bi + · · · + bn
where
n!
Cn,i =
i!(n − i)!
and 0! = 1, and for positive integers n, n! or n factorial is the product of the
first n integers. The number of combinations of n items taken r at a time
is Cn,r . The number of permutations of n items taken r at a time is
Pn,r = Cn,r r! = n!/(n − r)!
The sum of an arithmetic progression is given by
s = (a + l)/n
where a, l, and n are the first and last terms of the sequence of n terms.
The sum of a geometric progression of n terms with initial term a and ratio
r 6= 1 is given by
s = a(rn − 1)/(r − 1) = a(1 − rn )/(1 − r).
The linear equation
ax + b = 0
has the solution x = −b/a if a 6= 0. The quadratic equation
ax2 + bx + c = 0
has the two solutions p
(b2 − 4ac)
−b ±
x=
2a
2
if a 6= 0 and d = b − 4ac > 0. By completing the square we can write
ax2 + bx + c = a(x − b/2a)2 − (b2 − 4ac)/4a
Most of the material in this summary should be so obvious to the reader
of this text that very few feats of memory are required. A few of the items
worth memorizing are the formula for the binomial theorem, the solution
of the quadratic equation, and the sums of the arithmetic and geometric
progressions. More important than memorizing these formulae, which can
be looked up in references, are the ideas and methods used in deriving them.
Chapter 11
Solutions and Hints for

Puzzles
11.1 Solutions for Exercises and Problems

Pr 2.3.1 2/3 + 4/15 − 3/10 = 20/30 + 8/30 − 9/30 = 19/30
7/3 + 5/12 + 1/18 = 84/36 + 15/36 + 2/36 = 101/36
19/30 19·6
101/36 = 5·101 = 114/505.
Ex 2.5.1 (a) 1.886; (b) 1.024; (c) -97.202; 6.5604 (d) 29.230
Pr 3.1.1 Let x be the original value in dollars. Simon paid 1.01x. He
received .99(1.2).8x. His loss is 1.01x − .99(1.2).8x = 200, .0596x = 200,
and x = 3, 356.
Pr 3.1.2 Let B = rate for Bill, and J = rate for John. Then 3B = 5J = 1.
The combined rate is B + J, and the time is t where t(B + J) = 2 and
t = 2/(1/3 + 1/5) = 30/8 = 15/4.
Ex 3.1.3 B + J = 100 and 2B = J/2. Then B = J/4; 5J/4 = 100; and
J = 80 and B = 20.
Ex 3.1.4 J = B + 10; B + 50 = 2(J + 10); B + 50 = 2(B + 20); B = 10; Bill
has 10 + 5 · 10 = 60 then and John has 20 + 5 · 2 = 30 then.
Pr 3.3.1 (x + y) + z = (y + x) + z = y + (x + z) = y + (z + x) using the
commutative, associative, and commutative laws in order.
Pr 3.3.3 (a) no. 3 ⊕ 2 = 9 while 2 ⊕ 3 = 8. (b) yes. x y = |x/y − y/x| =
|y/x − x/y| = y x.
Pr 3.3.4 Let m be the number of additional months needed to break even.
30 + 5m = 10 + 7m; 2m = 20; m = 10. The cumulated losses, in thousands
of dollars, is 20 + 18 + 16 + · · · + 2 = 110. Win.com will go bankrupt unless
it can raise $10,000 more.
61
62 CHAPTER 11. SOLUTIONS AND HINTS FOR PUZZLES
Pr 3.3.5 e = mv 2 /2.
Pr 3.3.6 px + .25y = .1(x + y); (.1 − p)x = (.25 − .1)y; y = [(.1 − p)/.15]x.
Pr 3.3.7 (a) Let i1 = 9k1 + r1 , i2 = 9k2 + r2 where 0 ≤ r1 ≤ 8, 0 ≤ r2 ≤ 8.
Then i1 − i2 = 9(k1 − k2 ) + (r1 − r2 ), and r1 − r2 is divisible by 9. This is
possible only if r1 = r2
(b) If the digits of i are m0 , m1 , m2 , · · · , mn , then
i = m0 + 10m1 + 100m2 + · · · + 10n mn
and
s = m0 + m1 + m2 + · · · + mn .
Then
i − s = 9m1 + 99m2 + · · · + 99 . . . 9mn
is divisible by 9 and i and s have the same remainder.
(c) If i1 = 9k1 + r1 and i2 = 9k2 + r2 , then (i1 + i2 ) − (r1 + r2 ) is divisible
by 9, and i1 + i2 and r1 + r2 have the same remainder.
(d) If i1 = 9k1 + r1 and i2 = 9k2 + r2 , then i1 i2 = 81k1 k2 + 9(r1 + r2 ) + r1 r2
and i1 i2 − r1 r2 is divisible by 9, and i1 i2 and r1 r2 have the same remainder.
Pr 3.4.1 (a) (x1 +x2 )−(y1 +y2 ) = (x1 −y1 )+(x2 −y2 ) > 0 since (x1 −y1 ) > 0
and (x2 − y2 ) ≥ 0.
(b) xz − yz = (x − y)z > 0.
(c) xz − yz = (x − y)z < 0 .
Pr 3.4.2 (a) z/xy > 0. Then z/y − z/x = (x − y)(z/xy) > 0. (b) similar
proof except that −z/xy > 0.
Ex 3.4.3 4
Pr 4.2.1 (1 + 1/4)4 is larger than (1 + 1/2)2 .
Pr 4.4.1 The googol is much larger.
Pr 4.4.2 (b) If y1 = log(x1 ) and y2 = log(x2 ), x1 = 10y1 , x2 = 10y2 and
x1 x2 = 10y1 +y2 and y1 + y2 = log(x1 x2 ). Note that we have used exponents
that are not necessariy rational. (a) follows from (b) since log(10) = 1. (c)
If y = log(x), x = 10y , and xz = (10y )z = 10yz .
Pr 4.5.1 ±(x − y).
Pr 4.5.2
1 x

yn+1 = yn +
2 yn
" #
2 1 2 x2
yn+1 = yn + 2x + 2
4 yn
" #
2 1 2 x2
yn+1 −x = yn − 2x + 2
4 yn
11.1. SOLUTIONS FOR EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS 63
en+1 = (yn − x/yn )2 /4

= e2n /4yn2 .
Since e2n and yn2 are nonnegative, en+1 ≥ 0. If en ≥ 0, en = yn2 − x < yn2
(assuming x > 0). In that case, en /yn2 < 1, and en+1 = e2n /4yn2 ≤ en /4.
In fact the rate at which en approaches 0 accelerates rapidly, for en+1 is
approximately e2n /4x, and as en becomes small, e2n becomes considerably
smaller.
Ex 5.2.1 s = 100(−10 + 99 · 2)/2 = 9400.
Ex 5.3.1 (a) s = a1 ; (b) s = 0.
Ex 5.3.2 s = 3(27 − 1) = 381.
Pr 5.3.4 (a) 100, 000(1.005)24 = 112, 716;
(b)v = 4, 000(1.005)−1 [1 − (1.005)−24 ]/[1 − (1.005)−1 ] = 90, 251 ;
(c) (1.005)24 (100, 000 − v) = 10, 989.
Pr 5.4.2 For some problems it is easier to keep track of important issues by
using notation, even for quantities that are known. We will let v0 , v1 and v2
represent the velocities of the fly and the two trains. Suppose that they are
d miles apart and the fly goes from the first train to the second in time t1 . It
goes a distance d − t1 v2 at a velocity v0 , while the remaining distance apart
becomes d1 = d − t1 (v1 + v2 ). Thus d − t1 v2 = t1 v0 and t1 = d/(v0 + v2 ).
On the return to the first train, it takes time t2 = [d − t1 (v1 + v2 )]/(v0 + v1 )
by the same reasoning. It follows that the fly has traveled v0 (t1 + t2 ) =
2dv02 /[(v0 + v1 )(v0 + v2 )] = a and the distance apart has been reduced from d
to d∗ = d−(t1 +t2 )(v1 +v2 ) = d(v0 −v1 )(v0 −v2 )/[(v0 +v1 )(v0 +v2 )] = rd. The
total distance traveled by the fly shuttling back and forth is the sum of the
infinite geometric series, a+ar +ar2 +· · · = a/(1−r) = dv0 /(v1 +v2 ) = 100.
Pr 6.2.1 (a) x = 3, −2; (b) x = −4; (c) no real solution
Pr 6.2.2 3x2 + 5x − 2 = 3(x + 5/6)2 − 2 − 3 · 25/36 = 3(x + 5/6)2 − 49/12
which is obviously minimized when x = −5/6 with the minimum value of
−49/12.
Pr 6.4.1 Q = 2x2 + 3x + 1; R = 3x + 4.
Pr 7.1.1 [(1−w)x21 +wx22 ]−[(1−w)x1 +wx2 ]2 = w(1−w)(x1 −x2 )2 ≥ 0 with
equality if and only if x1 = x2 . This means that the chord connecting two
points on the parabola y = x2 lies above the curve since (1 − w)x1 + wx2 =
x1 + w(x2 − x1 ) is the point w part of the way from x1 toward x2 .
Pr 7.1.2 [(1 − w)/x1 + w/x2 ] − 1/[(1 − w)x1 + wx2 ] = w(1 − w)(x1 −
x2 )2 /x1 x2 [(1 − w)x1 + wx2 ] ≥ 0.
Pr 7.3.1 The squared distance from a point on the line to the origin is
x2 + y√ 2 = x2 + (2x + 7)2 = 5x2 + 28x + 49 which attains its minimum value
of 1.4 5 = 3.13 at (x, y) = (−2.8, 1.4).

64 CHAPTER 11. SOLUTIONS AND HINTS FOR PUZZLES
Pr 7.3.2 The squared distance from a point on the parabola to the √ origin is
2 2 2
x + (x − 4) = x − 4 2
√ 7x + 16 which attains its minimum value of 3.75 =
1.936 at (x, y) = (± 3.5, −.5).
Pr 7.3.3 (a) The sum of the distances √ to (a, 0) is (a − c) + (a 2+ c) = 2a. The
sum of the distances to (0, b) is 2 b + c = 2a. Therefore a = b + c2 . (b)
2 2 2
Let the two distances from (x, y) be d1 and d2 where d21 = (x − c)2 + y 2 =
x2 +y 2 +c2 −2cx and d22 = (x+c)2 +y 2 = x2 +y 2 +c2 +2cx. We wish to show
that d1 = 2a − d2 or d21 = 4a2 − 4ad2 + d22 or 4ad2 = 4a2 + d22 − d21 = 4a2 + 4cx
or d2 = a + cx/a or d22 = x2 + y 2 + c2 + 2cx = a2 + 2cx + c2 x2 /a2 . But y 2 =
b2 (1 − x2 /a2 ). It suffices to show that x2 + b2 − b2 x2 /a2 + c2 = a2 + c2 x2 /a2
or x2 (1 − b2 /a2 − c2 /a2 ) = a2 − b2 − c2 . Since b2 + c2 = a2 , both sides of the
last equation are equal to 0.
Pr 8.1.1 (x, y) = (2, 3)
Pr 8.1.2 (x, y, z) = (3/4, 1/2, −1/4).
Pr 8.1.3 Multiplying the first equation by b2 and the second by a2 and
then subtracting we find x = (a0 b2 − a2 b0 )/(a1 b2 − a2 b1 ). Similarly, we get
y = (a1 b0 − a0 b1 )/(a1 b2 − a2 b1 ). √ √
√ are two√solutions for (x, y). These are [(3 + 3)/2, (3 − 3)]
Pr 8.2.1 There
and [(3 − 3)/2, (3 + 3)].
Pr 8.2.2 x2 = 2x + b must have one solution. The discriminant,4 + 4b = 0.
Thus b = −1 and (x,y)=(1, 1).
Pr 9.4.2 (a)C13,6 C10,2 = 77, 220; (b) C21,8 = 203, 490.
Pr 9.5.2 Σki=0 Cm,i Cn,k−i = Cm+n,k where Cn,j = 0 for j > n.
11.2 Hints for Puzzles

Pu 2.3.2 If you think that a piece is too big you should cut it down.
Pu 5.3.3 Let an = 2n bn or cn = an + 1 = 2cn−1 .
Pu 5.4.1 Reduce the case to m < n for the rational m/n. Apply long
division. Wait till the remainder coincides with a previous remainder after
the decimal point.
Pu 5.4.2 It√takes one hour for √
the trains to meet.
Pu 9.5.1 ( 2 + 1) 500 = m + n 2 where m and n are integers.
√ √
( 2 − 1)500 = m − n 2 < 10−100 is very small.
11.3 Solutions for Puzzles

Pu 2.3.2 If there are 3 boys, the first is asked to cut out what he regards as
a fair share. The next boy can cut it down if he thinks the piece is too large.
11.3. SOLUTIONS FOR PUZZLES 65
He then passes it to the third who can take it if he thinks it is fair or better.
If he thinks it is too small, it goes to the last person who cut into the pie.
The remaining boys divide what is left of the pie. This solution also works
for more than three boys.
Pu 5.3.3 an = 2n − 1 and sn = 2(2n − 1) − n.
Pu 5.4.1 In the long division process the remainder must be an integer less
than n, and so within n steps one of the remainders must coincide with a
former one after the decimal point. Then the decimal representation begins
to repeat.
Pu 5.4.2 The fly√flies one hour
√ at 100 miles per hour. 100 miles.
Pu 9.5.1 (m + n 2) + (m − n 2) = 2m is an integer with just zeros √ after the
decimal point. Subtracting the very small second term, m − n 2 , leaves
well over 100 nines after the decimal point.

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Algebra I for Students Comfortable with Arithmetic

one third of 21 is 7. In short, to multiply two fractions, we multiply the

2.4 Real Numbers

Why have we introduced negative numbers and how do we ordinarily

3.1 Two Examples

original value of the stock purchased was $2,000.

In ordinary usage these 6 steps would have been abbreviated consider-

The last equation can be written j ∗ = (2/3)j. Susbstituting in the other

tween integers and real numbers. If a symbol started with an i, j, k, l, m, n

3.3 Basic Laws

Another important property of real numbers, that deserves mention is

One application of these laws is

(x + y)(z + w) = (x + y)z + (x + y)w

Now let x = 2. Then x2 = 2x, and x2 − 4 = 2x − 4 = 2(x − 2). It follows

(x + 2)(x − 2) = 2(x − 2).

Dividing both sides by x − 2, we have x + 2 = 2 or x = 0. But x = 2. How

month. Will Win.com go bankrupt? If not, when will it start making a

If x > 0 and y < 0 then xy < 0.

In the preceeding chapter we had occasion to use the exponential notation x2

4.2 Algebra of Integer Exponents

When we are dealing with positive integer exponents, it is obvious that

4.3 Square Roots

4.4 Rational Exponents

4.5 Square Roots Again

yn+1 = .5(yn + x/yn )

Thus we √have y1 = 3/2 = 1.5, y2 = 17/12 = 1.416667, and y3 = 1.414215 . . .,

not rational. Interestingly enough it can be shown that, in a certain special

Arithmetic and Geometric

s = 1 + 3 + 5 + · · · + (2n − 3) + (2n − 1).

Writing the sum of the terms in reverse order, we have

and our conjectured claim that s = n2 has been demonstrated.

5.2 Arithmetic Progressions

s = n(a1 + an )/2 = n[2a1 + (n − 1)d]/2. (5.1)

The middle expression in the above equations may be described as n times

5.3 Geometric Progressions.

s = a1 + ra1 + r2 a1 + · · · + rn−2 a1 + rn−1 a1

(r − 1)s = (rn − 1)a1

The present value of x, paid in n months is x(1.005)−n .

5.4 Infinite Geometric Progressions

Thus 1 + 1/3 + 1/9 + · · · = 3/2 while 1 + 1/4 + 1/16 + · · · = 4/3. We formerly

5.5 Summation Notation

In this notation the character i seems to come out of nowhere. What is it

geometric progressions can be written in the following equations.

involves the second power of x and is called a quadratic relation if a 6= 0.

y = Pn (x) = a0 xn + a1 xn−1 + · · · + an−1 x + an

when a0 6= 0, and n is a positive integer. If we plot y = x3 − 3x2 + x − 7, we

6.2 Quadratic Functions

with a 6= 0 is represented by a curve called a parabola where y rises as |x| gets

for the value or values of x in terms of a, b and c.

Finally, if the discriminant d = b2 − 4ac ≥ 0,

6.3 Polynomials as Products

where b = −(x1 + x2 ) and c = x1 x2 . Then y2 = 0 if and only x = x1 or

where a1 = −(x1 + x2 + x3 ) , a2 = x1 x2 + x1 x3 + x2 x3 , and a3 = −x1 x2 x3 .

A special case of interest is that of y2 = (x−x1 )2 = x2 −2xx1 +x21 . In that

6.4 Rational Functions

6x3 + 4x2 + 7 = 3x2 (2x + 1) + R1 (x)

where R1 (x) is the remainder (6x3 + 4x2 + 7) − (6x3 + 3x2 ) = x2 + 7. This

where R2 (x) = (x2 + 7) − (x/2)(2x + 1) = −x/2 + 7 is the next remainder.

−x/2 + 7 = (−1/4)(2x + 1) + R3 (x)

where R3 (x) = (−x/2 + 7) − (−x/2 − 1/4) = 7 + 1/4 = 29/4. Thus we have,

6x3 + 4x2 + 7 29/4

Just as in ordinary long division, we indicate an algorithm which puts

3x2 +x/2 −1/4

If R 6= 0, the expression 1/(bx + c) behaves strangely for x near x0 . To