heck - jo ‘2 Aedenmy of Moncgemeat Reraw 1903, Vel 18 Ne 621-655, A REVIEW AND AN-INTEGRATION OF RESEARCH ON JOB BURNOUT ESTEE Series CYNTHIA L, CORDES fae Binghamton University (SUNY) THOMAS W. DOUGHERTY University of Missouri Bumout fs a unique type of strexs syndbome, characterized by emo: Moaal exhawstion, deprsonalizction, and dimtaished personal ac. compltshiaeat, Although bursout hos been showa to he potantielly. ‘yery costly fa the helping professions, nich a ntusing, eduction, ead soctal work: little work box been douse thus for to establish itt gensralizability to industry, This article reviews the Ilersture on ‘bumoul and provides o conceptual framework desigued to leaprove the undermtoading of burzoct. Propositions are preaenied that are ‘Gimed at clarifying the dymamicr of burrow, including datermainante ‘of aad Interrelationships cmeng the thres buraoat compeneate, Empirical evidence has shown that bumout kas important dystunc. tional ramifications, implying substantial costs for both organizations and individue!s because of, for example, increases in turnover, absen- teciom, reduced productivity, aad human considerations (Juckson & Maslach, 1962; Leiter & Maslach, 1988; Shirom, 1989). Tact same research. points out the need to understand the many ‘actors and conditions that Contribute to bumout in a wide variety of service, industrial, and corpo- tate settings. The effective implementation of individual, managerial, and organizational practices to deal with bumout critically depends on managers’ clear and accurate understanding of the construct The purposes ef this article are to examine the construct of burnout, to consider how this constnuct has evolved, and to provide an overview of the literature on the antecedeats and coasequences of bumout, In addi- tion, propositions are presented regarding the process of burnout, the determinants of bumout, and the interrelationships among the bumou: components, The study of burmout has been unnecessarily limited to the helping professions. but it is experienced by « variety of occupational “groups beyond nurses, teachers, and social workers. This articl points to. ‘@ more widespread occurrence of bumout than hos previously been dis- The cuthors thank fim Wall, George Dreber, Dan Turbum, Fran Yemmarino, and Brace Arolio lor thoughtiul suggestions on earller drafts cf ths aricle. 621ez Accdemy of Menazement Review October (giss comparisons across studies. Thus, the studies reriened here (qj are Seiden et with fod bumout (thereby excluding, for instemes, research on Student or athlote burnout): (b) define burnout es erespouse syndrome of eastional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced Personal accom. plishment:(c) assess bumout using the most frequently used measure, the MBL ond (4) empirically test the degree of association between humout Gnd its antecedents or consequences. Studies were lores by both man- wo ins computer searches, cmd they were published te major social Science joumels primarily between 1983 amd 1092, (eadore con review foal eaten eke literature in Perlman axd Hartman, 1982 ) Nonempiz- ical articles or these Oppearing prior to 1983 were included oaly as they Pronged syndrome, we frequently refer to burnout and nero the specific propriate fo peso ROU believe the use of such om umbrella tone is ap. crentists for purposes of investication, but wedo believe a acceptable when discussing the phenomenon more generally, Thus, when we dis. out components. At other times, however, for ease of communication, we teler to bumout o: the components of burnout, BACKGROUND Providing usoful label, the parallel finding tonal strain was not unique to the healih me o tly something Mnique about "pesple work" that could result in burnout. ._, lm the nex! phase of development, researchers combined Pieces of information resulting from these early explorations into a working set of1989 Contos ond Dougbery 3 hypotheses ond designed systematic atudies to examine them. Much of this work consisted of cuthors’ personal experiences (e.9., Freuden- berger, 1974, 1977, 1877b) or narratives based on specific programs or case studies {e.g., Maslach & Pines, 1977; Pines & Muslach. 1978, 1980), and it was chazacterized by conceptual disagreement. Perlman and Hart- man (1982) compiled « listing of the. multiple conceptuclizctions used during this period. Definitions of bumout included (a) to fail, wear out, become exhausted; (L) a loss of creativity; (c) @ loss of commitment for ‘work (@)am estrangement from clients, co-workers, job, and agency: (e] a Yesponse to the chronic stress of making if fo the top: and finally (a syndrome of inappropriate attitudes toward clients and toward self, often qesocicted with uncomfortable physical cmd emotional symptoms, Al- . though these notions wore imilor, they lacked « common and precise measure of bumeut, It was not until the late 1970s and early 1880s that systematic empir- ical studies on burmout were conducted end published (e.g.. Iwanicki & Schwab, 1981; Maslach & Jackson, 1981). During these years, the concept of bumout was more clearly conceptualized and defined. Also during this period, an accepted, standardized, and psychometrically sound mstm- ment, the Maslach Bumout Inventory. wes developed to measure bumout (Maslach & Jackson, 1981, 1986). The Concept of Burncut Today, the most commonly ciccepied definition of burnout is the three- component conceptualizction used by Maslach and colleagues (Masiach. 1982; Maslaci & Jackson, 1981: Pines & Masiach, 1980). One component of |) bamout, emotional exhaustion, is characterized by a lack of energy ond a feeling {hat one’s om yesources ore used up. This “compassion fatigue” may coexist with feelings of frustration and tension as workers realize they cannot continue to give of themselves or be as responsible fox clients as they have been in the past. A common symptom is dread at the /~ Prospect of returning to work for another day. Another component, deper- (2) sonalization or dehumanization, is maked by the treatment of clients as objects rather then people. Workers may display a detached cnd an amo- tional callousness, and they may be cynicel toward co-workers, clisuts, and the organization, Visible symptoms include the uze of derogatory or abstract language (e.g,, the “kidney” in room 212), strict compartmental- ization of professional lives, intellectuclization of the situation, with- drawal through longer breaks or extended conversations with co-workers, end extensive use of jargon (Maslach & Pines, 1977). One classic analogy is that of a petty bureaucrat, going strictly “by the book” to deal with individual clients rather than becoming personally involved enough to tailor a solution or an epproach to the client's needs Daley, 1979). The fincl component of bumout, diminished persoaa! accomplish ment, is characterized by a tendency {9 evaluate onesell negatively. In- dividuals experience a decline in feelings of job competence and success eeee 624 Academy of Management Review October ful achievement in their work or inteructions with people. Frequently there is the perception of a lack of progress or even lost ground. The problem employee who is routinely receiving disciplinary citations from the supervisor, or the feelings one might imagine if one were bailing out aleaky boct and realized that the beat may sink, are symptomatic of this component, Burnout as a Process ‘The process of burnout, or the sequencing of the three components of burnout, has been conceptualized differontly cmong researchers of burs- out, Maslach (1978, 1992) originally suggested that emotional exhaustion appears first as excessive chronic work demands drain ix ‘eino~ tional resources, Perhaps G5 a détensive coping strategy, they limit their involvement with others and distente Themselves psychologically. This depersonalization provides an emotional buffer between the individual Gnd the imposing job demands. Finally, individuals recognize the dis- rope ee Cree cient clude aid feaben ginal ope aieticee fectations about their potential contributions society and to the agency or organization. As « result, individuals experience a sense of inade- quccy in terms of their ability to relate to people and to perform tiisir jobs. This sequence is based on findings from initicl interviews, surveys, and observations. Although she later retreated from such a process model (Maslach & Jackson, 1881, 1986), Maslach has reasserted the appropriate- ness of this original sequencing (Leiter & Mcslach, 1988), Studies by Leiter (0988), Leiter and Meechan (1886), and Leiter and Maslach (1988) provide support for such « model, whereas a study by Lee cd Ashforth (1993) found only partic! support. Othere have argued, however, that there is no fixed sequence; one component is nol on inevitable consequence of an- oihér (Schwab & Iwamicki, 18820). Another conceptualization of the burnout process is a sequence that was advanced by Golembiewski and Munzenrider (1981, 1984) and Go- lembiewski (1989). They hypothesized that significant depersonclizztion is necessary to diminish feelings of personal accomplishment, and sig- nificont reductions in personal accomplishment are necessary to result in high levels of emotional exhavstion. Using the medinm to divide each subscale into high and low groups, they generated eight phases based on @ “nile of sequential potencies"; that {s, the effect of each component is hypothesized to depend upon its place in the sequerice. Each phase is chorccterized by some combination of either high or low emotional ex- hatustion, depersonclization, and personal accomplishment, and it corre- sponds toa higher tofal bumout level or score tham the preceding phase. This methodology has been used in studies of police officers (Burke & Deszec. 1986; Burke, Shearer, & Deszec, 1984b)," life care workers at « retirement community Gountree, 1984), teachers Burke & Greenglass, 1989), middle managers across the public and private sector (Cahoon & Rowney, 1988), ond supervisors, managers, and executives from a variety - Rep = heed (oy ae > Snepwue Sel (Zfa G hay € hh ALS?198 Conder end Dougherty 625 of types of organizations (Cahoon & Rowney, 1984), (See the Journ! of Health and Human Resources Administrction, 1886, volume 9, end 1991, volume 13, for additional discussion and support of the phase modal of bumout.) These studies cre problematic, however, because the authors used c cross-sectional research design to draw explicit conclusions regarding causality or the process of bumout, Burnout as « Type of Stress Despite the growing consensus surrounding the concept of bumout, the distinction between bumout and stress has not been cloorly delin.. ected, It appears that, as Gansier and Scherubroeck (1991) have argued, bamont is, in fort, c type of stress—spacifically, « chronic afiective re. sponse pattern to stressful work conditions thot fedtures High level ct inferpersonal contact. Sunilor to the case of burnout, several different conceptuclizations of stress have been proffered. Although most researchers define stress as an outgrowth of person-environment interactions or “fit (e.g., French & Conlen, 1972; McGrath, 1978; Schuler, 1881) or as «result of dysfunctional role relationships (Kahn, Wolfe, Quinn, Snock, & Rosenthal, 1964), there has traditionally boon little definitional or operational agreement among Job strese conceptuclizations (Schuler, 1980), On this basis, « number of euthors cdvocated ths treatment of stress as a general concept that can provide a “iramework” for research on © number of problems (e.g., McGrath, 1876). Building on the work of McGrath (1976), howaver, Schuler (1980) pro- ‘Yided some much needed conceptual clatity, which has been widely ac cepted. and which has cleared up much of the previous confusion cbout the essential qualities of job stress. McGrath and Schuler defined stress ~) Shug ss a dynomic condition in which an individual is confronted with on opportunily, consticin!, or demand om beingiaving/doing what ene desires ond for which resolution is perceived t have uncerlainty but which will lead fo important outcomes. TRI phe ‘ion can Sub-” suine many different stress problems, including bumout. Bumout is « distinctive aspect of stress in that it has bees defined and studied pri- morily as a pattor of responses to stressors at work (Shirom, 1969), The > Cuenouf- bumont response syndrome Begins 1s & Geet SHiont oe a elt of demands (Schuler and McGrath's terminology), including interpersonal suessors. Thus, bumnout represents a particular type of job stress. in “which pattern of emoticnel extieustion, dépersonalization, and dimin- ae feu anle ished personal cccomplishment (stein) result Hoi @ variety oF werk demands (stressors), especially those of an interpersonal Satur” More- over, the concapts of tncenainiy ond @ es maieriace of outcomes should be as relevant to the experience of burnout as to other kinds of Stress responses generated by various work demands and constraints, The three-component model that burnout represents is unique cs « © stress phenomenon. At its core is emotional exhaustion, which is « tra. 4 DOAMBA FY anal UoorayAi Sh hes —> Gebs Sf ) buntas Academy of Manegement Review ‘Ortober ditional stress variable. The second component, depersonalization, is a new construct, not formerly appearing in the stress litereture Jackson, Schwab, & Schuler, 1986). Finally, although feelings of personal accom. Plishment (related to such concepts as gel-elficacy) are familiar to tho stress literature, the third component of burnout. a diminished leval of this variable, adds the assertion that self-evaluations axe central to the stress experience. BURNOUT: MEASUREMENT AND CONSTRUCT VALIDITY In the initial development of the Maslach Burnout Tnyentory (Maslach & Jackson, 1881), 47 items were administered to a sample of 605 individ- uals from a wide variety of service occupations. Teu factors emerged and, based on variety of eliminction criteria, four factors, composed of 25 items, were then administered to ¢ new sample of 420 individuals from similar occupctions. The same four factors emerged from this confirma- tory sample, three of which had eigenvalues greater than 1. These three factors, composed cf 22 items, make up the subscales of the MBI, Respon- dents indicate the frequency and the intensity with which each item is experienced, with the scale ranging from | ('a few times a year") to 6 Covery day") for frequency, nd from 1 ("very mild, barely noticeable") to 7 (very strong, major") for intensity, A space is provided to indicate if the item is never experieuced by the respondent. Although high secres on emotional exhaustion and depersonalization reflect high burnout, the Personal accomplishment eubseale is reverse scored; ihus low scores Teflect high burrout. The instrument does act measure the presence or bsence of burnout per se. Rather, experienced levels of burnout follon a continuum. For instance, high scores on the emotional exhaustion and depersonalization subscales and low scores on the personal cccomplich- tment subscale (this subscale is reverse scored) reflect high levels of bum. out and vice versa. No predictions are made conceming critic! threshold levels. Subsequent research using the MBI has rovecled that the iniensity and frequency dimensions of bumout ore highly correlated (Anderson & Iwemicki. 1984: Brookings, Bolton, Brown, & McEvoy. 1985: Gaines & Jermier, 1989}, sc the revised version of the MBI (Maslach & Jackson, 1986) includes only the frequency dimension. Despite this conelation, ¢ num: ber of researchers have continued to use the intensity dimension alone (Friesen, Prokop, & Sarros, 1983; Friesen & Sazres, 1989; Jackson, Tumor, & Brief, 1987; Leiter & Meechan, 1986), The user's manuel of the MET resectch editicn also includes normative data for a variety of demo- graphic varicbles and helping cccupations (Maslach & Jackson, 1988), Researchers have emelyzod the convergent and discriminant validity of the socld in « number of ways (Masloch & Jackson, 1981, 1986), For exemple, to test for convergent validity, comelations were analyzed be- fween MBI scores cad behavioral ratings made independently by @ pers1980 Condes end Dougherty ex son who knew the respondent well. As predicted, co-workers’ ond spouses’ ratings were sigaificantly positively correlated with the respon- sents’ own ratings of emotional exhcustion and depersonalization ond Were significantly negatively correlated with the respondents’ ratings of Personcl accomplishment. Also, correlations were analyzed between MBI scores and certain job characteristics hypothesized to contribute fo burn out (e.g., a greater number of clients is positively correlated with emo- tonal exhaustion and depersonalization aad negatively correlated with Personal accomplishment), Finally, correlations between MBI scores end_ measures of various ouicomes hypothesized to be related to burnout were anelyzed. Again, the empirical avidenco is consistent with the hypothe. sized relationships, Support for the discriminant validity of the scale is seen in a signif icant, clthough small, positive correlation between MBI scores and job satisfaction (Maslach & Jackson, 1986; Wolpin, Burke, & Greenglass, 1981). In addition, correlations between MBI scores and the Crowne. Marlowe Socicl Desirability Scale were not significant, Thus, responses to the burnout scule do not xppecr to be influenced hy asccial desisability response set. Iwenicki and Schwab (1981) and Gold (1984) cross-validated. the MBI 6n ¢ group of teachers, finding the same basic constructs. Ii should be emphasized that a systematic assessment of the convergent cad discriminant validity using the Multitrait-Multimethoed Matrix ap- proach has not appeared in the literature. Even though there is growing evidence of the psychometric scund- ness of the MBI, several authors have reporied high correlations between emotional exhaustion amd depersonatization (e.g., Koeske & Koeske, 1935; Lee & Ashforth, 1990; Wolpia et al., 1991). Some researchers have found ‘support for a two-component model (Brookings et al., 1985), whereas oth- ers have axgued for « three-component model (Green & Walkey, 1938: Lee & Ashforth, 1850). Results of confirmatory factor cnalyses, however, seem: to general'y support the existence of three distinct components of bumout (imion & Blanton, 1987: Gold, 1984; Golembiewsld & Munzenrider, 193]; Green & Walkey, 1988; Maslach & Jeckeon, 1981, 1985), Tt has also been suggested that the items assessing the three com- Ponents of burnout con be summed to form on overall measure of burnout (Golembiewski & Munzenrider, 1981; Meier, 1984). Golembiewsii and Munzemzider (138!) found thet a total burnout score covaried significantly and in expected directions with a vatiety of variables hypothesized to be imporlant aspects of the worksite. Meier (1984) argued ther greater num- ber of items would contribute to greater relichility for the bumout instra- ment. He also argued that « total evore has good intemal consistency (88 study), Maslach, however, has arqued against viewing bumout os a unitery sencept. Empirical evidence supports the idec that emotional exharastion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment are conceptually dis. tinct components (Iwomicki & Schwab, 1981; Maslach & Jackson, 1881), The7] . Acadeaty of Management Review October importemce of mointaining three distinct components is also illustrated by the differential patterns of correlations between each component end other study varicbles, such as age, workload, utanomy, job.challeage, satisfaction with status and recognition, role conflict, and role ambiguity riesenet al. 1998; Jackson etal, 1986; Maslach & Jackson, 1984; Schwab & Iwanicki, 1982a). That is, som? variables are differentially cortelated, or even uncorrelated, with eack of the three components, clthough tin ings have not been highly consistent. Further, if other variables ae dif- ferentially associated with buraont components, then it is plausible that intervention strategies would also be differentially effective, depending on the pattiewlar bumout camponent that is heing addressed. Thus, on evercll measure of burnout results in ¢ loss of information. ANTECEDENTS OF BURNOUT / The many demands, cons:raints, and other factors that compose the + (© Gmtecedents of bumout can be grouped into three broad categories. The UD) first category consists of job and role characteristics. It appears from the literature that the most critical variables ate the characteristics of the employee-client relationship. Role charccteristics consist of role over. oad, ambiguity, and conilict. The second category. orgemizational char. (2°) acteristics. includes variables such os job context and contingency of rewerds end punishments. The final category addresses personel char (3 ) acteristics, PWN Re AUS Ge ae “Tob and Role Characteristics The role of the client in service-provision interactions, and the erpec- tations of the service providers themselves, have been shown to contrib- ute to on explenction of experienced burnout. Client interactions thet are more direct, frequent, or of loager duration, for example, or client prob- Jems that are chronic (versus ccute) are associated with higher levels of bumout. Role conflict, role ambiguity, and role overlogd have been shown to be associated with bumout to varying degrees. Individuals who __ Teport higher levels of these role voriables also report higher levels of / burnout. (ak Hole of interpersonal relations. Most of the systematic reseerrch on the ‘oncept of burnout has focused on individuals in the helping professions, Specifically health, socia! services, and tecching, where burnout is typi- cally believed to he most frequently and intensely experienced because of the high level of crousui from direct, frequent, and rother intense inter actions with clients. As q result, the term client has taken on a more - narrow, limiting copnotation. In this acticle, client refers to any individ-. ual, internal or external, with whom one interacts ona professional basis. ~ Maslach (1978) theorized that the potential for emotionel strain is greatest for workers in the helping professions because they are con- stantly dealing with other people‘and their problems. Theix work involves13983 Corcies ond Dougherty eg extensive and direct face-to-face contact with other ‘people in emotionally charged situations. In many of these professions, feedback from either the client or the exganizction sources is either nonexistent, or is almost ex- clusively negative. The potential stresstuiness of these interactions is likely to be at- fected, in port, by the stoncé of the clients during these interactions, Depending on the situction. clients may be aggressive, passive. dependent, or defensive (Maslach & Jackson, 1934). Further, these clients ere relying on tho service providers to help thein, The belie! of the service provider thet he or she alone is responsible for ensuring the futuze well- being of this client con be an awesome and exhausting burden (Maslach. 1882). The problem or strain is ofter compounded by an excessively heavy client load, As a result, research has focused on the role of the client and ‘he employee's caseload in contributing to bursout. Jackson and colleagues (1986) suggested that caseload con be divided into quantitative and qual- itative dimensions. The quantilctive dimensions include frequency of contest, daration of contact, number of interactions, and percent of time spent with clients. The quantitative espects of client caseload most com- monly investigated are Lumber of interactions or clients and amount of time spent with clients, Most of these investigations have teporied on the xelationship of classroom size to burnout end the effect of emount of break time, or time outs, on burnout (Maslach & Pines, 1977; Pines & Maslach, 1978). As the number of clients increases, the demands on the employee's Personal resources increase. If these demands are continuous, rather than intermittent, the employee "may be vulnerable jo burnout. alitative dimensions of client caseload involve interpersonal dis. tence (e.g., phone contact versus face-to-face contact) end client cherac- teristics (e.¢., chronic versus ceute, child versus teenager). Both of these qualitative dimensions represent a kind of psychological or interpersonal! intensity of contacts with clients. The qualitative dimension most com. mealy studied involves the effects of the type of client problem at issue. Grode level tought (Anderson & Iwanicki, 1984; Gold, 1985; Schwruls & Iwanicki, 1982b) and severity of a student's mental handicep (Zabel & Zabel, 1882), for example, affect experienced levels of the bumout com- Ponents for teachers. Theoretically. the nature of the eliont’s situation can be described as more or less stronsful, it con be chronic or acute, and it can have « higher or lower probobility of success or cure. In many cases, there may be a lack of obvious change or improvement in the situations of & large propoition of the clients ce a result of the services rendered. Several clients may disappear alter service provision, only to retum later with essentially the same needs, These factors hypothetically affect both the intensity and the duration, which, in turn, affect the overall stress associated with the interaction (Moslach, 1976). Studies by VanYperen, Buunk, and Scheufeli (1992) and Leiter and Maslach (1888) examined additionel aspects of interactions. VonYperen530 Academy of Management Review Scteber ond colleagues (1992) found that nurses’ perceived imbalance in their relationships with patients was associcted with higher levels of bumout. That is, nurses who believed they invested more in their patients than thoy received in return, in the form of positive feedback, health improve- monts, appreciation, and gratitude, also reported higher levels of emo- tional exhaustion, depersonlization, and diminished personal accom- plishment, In a study of workers in @ mental health organization, Leiter and : Maslach (1988) investigated the effects of different sources and types of interpersonal contact. They looked et contact with co-workers and. super- visors. and distinguished between pleasant and unpleasent co-worker and supervisor contacts. Among the group cf nurses, unpleasant supe: visor contact was positively related to emctionel exhaustion, whereas pleasant superriser contact was negatively related to deperscnclization and pleasant co-worker contact was positively related to personal accom- Plishment. Although these variables have been viewed mainly but not exclu- sively in the context of client or service recipieat contacts (e.g.. nurse- patient or teacker-siudent interactions), they may provide insight into the generalizability of bumout. Maslach and Jackson (1884) and Shiro (1989) noted that there are many ocrupotions not included under the mubricef the’ helging professions, but where interpersonal contacts cause strcin, in which employees may therefore be vulnerable to bumout, Pines and Frouson (1981), for exemple, found thot dentists experience bumout. Jack- son and Schuler (1983) and Jackson (1984) have speculated that managers emd supervisors also may experience burnout because thay are required Woe help their employees resolve job-related and personal difficulties 4.2) Role conflict aud role ambiguity. Role conflict occurs as a result of ~Ancohgruity or incompatibility of expectations communicated to a role incumbent by his or her role senders (Kahn, 1978: Kein et al., 1984). Role ambiguity is associated with one’e need for certainty ond predictability. especially regarding one’s goals and mean’ of accomplishing them It may occur if ca individual lacks edequate informetion to accomplish required activities, as, for example, when informetion is restricted or not clectly defined or articulated Jackson & Schuler, 1985), Lack of clarity regarding proper procedures for performing job tasks or criteria for jper- formance evaluations (Miles & Perreault, 1676) results in role exabiguity. Role conflict amd ambiguity have received atlention in the bumout litercture, Schwab ed Twemicki (1982a) found that théce two variables accounted for a significant amount of vorionce in the emotional exhaus- tion and depersonclization dimensions for @ sample ol 463 teachers, whereas Tole ambiguity accounted for @ significant, though much smaller, amount of variance in personal accomplishment, Broolands and colleagues (1985) reported statistically significant relationships between perceived role conflict and role ambiguity «nd all three burnout compo- nents for 135 female human service professionals. Jackson and her col-1989 Cordes end Doughery eat Jeagues (1986), however, found zole conilict to ba significantly associated ‘with emotional exhaustion, but not with personal accomplishment or de- peisonclization in their study of 248 teachers: role ambient wastoacd to be significantly related to personal accomplishment, Leiter and Mesiach (2988) found role conflict was éignificantly related to emotional exhaus- tion for ¢ sample of nurses, whereas Jackson and her-colleagues (1987) found it was reloted to emotional exhaustion.cs well as depersonalization for $91 public service lawyers. Fimiem and Blanton (1987) found hoth role variables were related to total burnout for a sample of teachar trainees and first-year teachers. . Although only c few studies have investigated the effects of role ambiguity cnd'role conflict on burnout, the findings across them are vesy consistent. Because role conflict cmd role cmbiguity are not limited to human sarvice professions, the relationship between these role variables nd burout would be expected to be equivalent in corporate and indus- ta l settings as well. (4.@ / Role overload. As originally conceptualized. burnout was believed to sult partially fom qualitative end quontitetive overload (Moslach & Jackson, 1984). Individuals experiencing qualitative overload feel they lack the basic skills or talents necessary to complete the task effectively. ‘Quantitative overload refers to the individual's perception that the work sannol be done in the allotied time (chu, 1978; Pines & Maslach, 1978). In mony organizations this may come abou! because of resource sconcity gnd the continual threat of cutbacks (Jackson, 1964). As o result, staff workers may often be overloaded with eases, clients, or students (Maslach. 1876). Empirica! investigation to date hus focused on the eifects of quanti- tative overload on individuals’ bumout scores, with very consistent find- ings. Higher stcff-child xahos in day-care centers (Maslach & Pines, 1977) gnd school classrooms (Russell, Altmaier, & Van Velzen, 1987), for exam- ple, are associated with higher experienced levels of the burnout compo- nents. Giver. the theoretical basis for observing on effect of qualitetive overload on bumout levels, however, future studies should focus on this relationship, especially as it applies in cozperate and industrial settings, $/ Organizational Characteristics Even though many researchers have investigated how varicbles as- sociated directly with the job‘or task contribute to burnout. the question of how variables associated with the organization itself amd its policies may be related to burnout has received comparatively little attontion. In this .. Section, we consider how this category of variables, specifically contin- jency of organizational outcomes and job context, might affect bumout. Contingency and noncontingency 6{ organizationel outcomes. The role of contingency of orgenizational outcomes (.e., the exient to which rewards and punishment are linked to performance) in contributing to burnout has both intuitive appeal and theoretical justification. The two awn62 Academy of Management Review October Problematic conditions are lack of contingent rewards ond the Presence of te ater ee tt Punishment, This phenomenon, hawever, haz received Iit- tle attention in the Literature, Jackson and colleagues (1986) studied con- tlagency of organizational outcomes in two ways, First, they examined contingency of outcomes os a job condition that might contribute to burn- phmet organizational expectations, In neither case, however did they find significant relationships, Alwhough they suggested thet tae Ince of Se omtzelationships may have beea due to methodological problems, > he theoretical arguments appear to justify further investigation of dng ™ variable as a patential contributor to burnout, & Job context. Empirical evidence indicates that specitie context affects the incidence of stress and bumout in the workplace (Gaines & Jemmies, 1286; Parasuramen & Alutto, 1991; Protty, McCarthy, & Catano, 1900 The context is characterized by a variety of factors, such as Subsystem, work Z— Shift. Gnd psychological environinent, which have been shows io costes ulete E scussed previously, « critical factor contributing to, Dumout may be the ature of the employee-client relationshin. If job con- (gut aitle: significantly by the types o! interaction that characterise the (e-g., fequency, intensity), context would, in turn, be differentially re- lated to bemout. For example, managers whe pertoim boundery- gumatletized by much lees froquent or intense interpersonal contact, Similarly. service representatives ot sales Teptesentatives, who act wieinly cs boundary panners, have more interpaisonl confect hee wil! informetion system, specialists. Froity cud colleagues (1992) studied the effects af Peychological en. Ferlenced tore emotional exhcustion and depersonalization if they were “Ronmnamayers, whereas men experienced more emotional exhaustion and depersonclization if they were menagers, Ca Personal Choracteriatics : nally, certain demographic characteristics have been sho tocon- tribute to cn explanation of why some individuals experience burnout sed why others remain virtually wnatiected Ey it fere ition, social sup-1988 Cordes aad Dougherty oa Port, defined in a variety of professional and personel ways, is generally elated fo lower levels of the burnout compononts, Employees whose or ganization and achievement expectotiona are more discrepant from the current reclities of the workplace report higher levels of burnout. Finally, the relationship between burnout and one’s career Progress hos not yet \been investigaied. be Demographic variables. Men cnd women often report differences in Jevels of the three bumout components, but there is mized evidence con- cerning the pattern aad complexity of relationships (lemkau, Rafferty, Purdy. & Rudisill, 1987; Maslach & Jackson, 1931, 1985; Pretty et al., 1982: Schwab & Iwanicki, 1982b). Younger individuals consistently report higher levels of the burnout cOmponents Tson & Iwonicki, 1884; Masfach & Jackson, 1861; Hussell et ol., 1987; Schwab & Iwanicki, 1882b: Stevens & ONeill, 1983; Zabel & Zabel, 1982), but oe study found that more experienced employees reported lower levels of emotional oxhaus- tion and depersonolization (Anderson & iwaxicki, 1884), There is some evidence that mamied individuals report lower levels of the burnout com. ponents (Maslach & Jackson, 1985), and individuals with childen comsis- tently report lower levels of the bumout components (Maslach & Jackson, 1985). These'results ure summarized in Table 1, ‘The moderating effects of these varlobles have either not been studied or their results were not significa: ond thus not reported. An exception is Gaines and Jermior's (2983) study of emotional exhaustion in a police erganization. They found significant interactive effect between departmental context and geuder, but not between context and either years in position or mayitel stqtus. 4.4] Social cupsert. The effects of social support on stress and bumout ‘ave received extensive attention in the literature (Caplan, 1974; Cohen & Wills, 1935; Constable & Russell, 1986; Maslach & Juickson, 1884). Social Support appears to have a positive effect on individuals’ well-being through two different processes (Cherniss, 1$80b). First, support has been identified cs a buffer or moderator between job-related stress and the pathogenic influences of stressful events. This moy occur in one of tro ways. Support can help individuals redefine the potential harm in the situation, or it oan enhance their belief that they can cope with the situ- ction by increasing their perception that others will provide the necessary sesources (Coben & Wills, 1985). In addition, the buffering model suggests that social support buffers the relationship of stressors with use of aderp- tive coping (Kirmeyer & Dougherty, 1988). Second, social support com have « snain or direct effect on experi- enced stress. Social support is positively related to psychological and physical health, irrespective of ie esas Conte ot te oe preseace of Gbsence of life or work sbeasers (Dignam, Sarrere, & West, 1986). The accumulating evidence has provided support for both the buffering mode! and the direct model of social support. Both models seem to be correct in certain situations, but each represents a different process through which social support alfects -well-being (Coben & Wills, 1985). Numerous studies relcting support to burnout have considered theTABLE 1 Summory of Relationship Between Demographic Variables and the 2 Se ee Burnout Components* MatieVFomily ShudytSompl Sistas ‘Eepartezce Anderaca B "Mere experienced Trees 1984) ‘worker epee STS toochors SEE KDE. Gaines & feriler T expectonce > Yo sation No relation betwee. asm 168 Ez between MS expacience and police officers ed any ‘aay bumest ‘ond support Juraout components persconel components. Gad 0BH 462 Ferpriesce < Young Single Re colton betwen eochers Troni> PA, experiance > sperlatce> experience at EF ond DP but EEend DP. same school and also > PAL ony burnout corsponente, Lemioietal. ” Novelatica ie (SENG fanily between, prosice geoder ond Phyatelass feny burnout - couponea!s. Meslach & Mewperionce > -Youxg Teckson (1981) DPend>PA —expeviance > Proty etal. 0862) “Mexperionse > ‘islecomm. EE DPE ‘workers Russell a al, ‘sen s16 teachers Schwab Feemicli (cea) 469, fecchate Zabel & Zabel ‘052 100 special ection Smee ES NN as a ea lid ae esi ce EE ~ emotions! eshaustion, DP = doparscealization. PA = personal egeomplishmest, M = male, F = femal1988 Cordes ond Dougherty butiering effect. Greater perceived social support from co-workers or u- pervisors in day-care centers (Maslach & Pines, 1877), elementary end secondary schools Jackson etal., 1996;Russell et al., 1987; Zabel & Zabel, 1982), hospitals (Constable & Russell, 1986), and U.S. legal agencies Jack- son ef al., 1987) is associeted with lower reported levels of the burnout - components, < 33 ss Ing series of studies, Leiter (1988, 1890, 1891) explored the direct effect of several facets of sociai support. Ina study of workers in c:mental health organization, he recognized the role of personal, informal, and profes- sional support (Leiter, 1988). He found that informal contacts or support was positively related to personal accomplishment, Professional support, however, played q dual role of both alleviating «nd aggravating bumout, Although professional suppor! was related to higher feelings of personal accomplishment, it was also positively related to emotional exhaustion. In a related study, Leiter (1990) defined personal support as fomily re- sources and organization support as skill utilizetion, that is, the opportu- nity for implementation and davelopment of skills. He found thet personal support was negatively related to emotione] exhaustion and depersonal- ization, whereas organization support was negatively related to deper- sondlization ond diminished personal accomplislanent. In a third study, Leite: (1891) examined three types of organizition supports: skill utiliza- tion, co-worker support, amd supervisor support. As before, skill utiliza tion wes posifively related te personal cccomplishment, but it was neg- atively related to emotional exhaustion. Co-worker support was negc- tively related to depersonalization and positively related to personal accomplishment. Supervisor support was rot significantly related to any of the components. This line of research highlights the distinct pattern of relationships among variables and the three bumout components, andit also points out the complicated nature of support and the role it plays in bumout. Not only are the sources of support differenticlly effective on the burnout components, they may also have negetive effucis. This research suggests that professional and personal sources of support axe lexgely indepen- dent of one another. It is important for future researchers to atiempt to identify the specific sspects of support that either contribute to or result in a reduction of bumont. Furthermore, although couceptual research cn bumout identi- fies both professional and personal sources of social support, most of the research to date has investigated the professional or organizational re- sources. A better understanding of the effects of personal sources of social suppor! can contribute to an understanding of the zelative importance of the variables associated with bumout. This understending becomes in- creasingly important as the number of households with two employed Gdulis continues to increase. A better understanding of the intricacies of the work-nonwork interface, and the implications thet this interlace bas for personal sources of support, is cm important and timely concem.os Academy of Menogemeat Review October Peruonel expectations. Employees’ expectations about the profes- sion, the organization, und their own personal efficacy also make sig- nificant contiibution to bumout (Chemiss, 1980; Jackson & Schuller, 1363; Maslach & Jackson, 1984) and represent « source of “demands” placed upon themselves in their work. Jackson and colleagues (1985) referred to these as achievement expectations and organizational expectations. Achievement expectations are the individuals’ beliefs about what they willbe able in accomplich with clionts. Organizational expectations refer to the individuals’ expectations about the nature of the professional sys- tom in general and the job in particular, Many of these expectations are inculcated by the individual's most recent treining envionment (Gold, 1865) or are shaped by recruiters interested in selling the organization io applicants (Wonous, 1973), Besides hich expectations, unmet expectations can also be a source of bumout. As individucls enter the profession or change their organiza- tional atiiliction, they compare their expectations with their experiences, The resulting discrepancy will influence employees’ reactions to their jobs (Porter & Steers, 1973). The grecter the discrepancy, the greater the effects are Likely to be for both the new employee and the organization (Wanous, 1973, 1876). Jackson ond her colleagues (1986) studied the effects of unmet expec- tations oa reported burnout of 248 teachers. They hypothesized that emo- tional exhaustion, feelings of depersonclization, and feelings of low per- sonal accomplishment would be associated with higher lovels of unmet expectations, but they found no support for theic hypothesis. They sug- gested that this lock of association was because the inet expectations of their rospendents were assessed without regard to tenure on the job. Such « measure is contaminated by the effects of memory deterioration. In addition, the measure they used requized respondents to calculate and report, in a single step, the discrepancy between their early expectations and the current situation for a variety of job factors. A more precise and direct measure of u.met expectations would result if sespondonts report ou their early expectations aad the current situation ceparately, lecrving the discrepancy calculation for the researchers. nother expectation varichle that may contribute to burnout concems shifts in expectations. Research has shown that older, more experienced employees tend to experience lower levels of burnout than do younger employees. One explanation for this discrepancy may he that older em- ployees have actually shifted their expectation set to'fit reality based on their experionces. For example, individualls may lower their oxpectations of the levels of client gratimde and erganizational resources, Stevens and * ONeill (1983) examined the roles that expestations and expectation shifts ploy in burnout and found that total expectation score was correlated with Perceptions of diminished personcl accomplishment, Expectation shifts were conelated with all three burnout scales; higher levels of burnout were associated with negative expectation shiits (Le., organizational re3999 Corcies ead Dougherty or + alities aro worse than originally expected). Less experienced employees maintained client-locused expectations anc thus reporied higher levels of burnout, whereas more experienced employees shifted their expectations from client progress, for example, to their own competencies. Those find. ings, however, stemmed from a ctoss-sectionall methedclogy. Career progress. Individuals who have had greatet upward career movement may experience loss bisrhbiit, [fone keéps the symptoms of the ~ throe components of burnout in mind, there may he three possible expla- nations for this hypothesized relationship. First, repeated promotion is generally accompenied by a reduction in client contact (Maslach, 1982), This change reduces an individual's susceptibility to emotional oxhaus- tion resulting from the demands of client interaction. Second, greate: career advancement relative to peers may signily to individuals thet they cre making « positive contribution. In fact, in some cases, this may be ¢ } sare piece of positive feedbuck, This measure of accomplishment can kelp counter any feelings of diminished personal accomplishment stemming from other sources. Finally, individuals who kava had reasonable carey Progress are more likely to helieve that the organization has appropriate Policies and procedures and tht the policies aad procedures regarding Promotions are fair ond equitable. An environment that is perceived as being predictable and fair is lees likely fo induce leamed helplessness: therefore, the depersonclization that often ensues from such leamed help. Jessness is likely to be minimized. Despite its theoretical merit, this yori ‘able has not received cttention in the litercture on bumout, INDIVIDUAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL CONSEQUENCES OF BURNOUT ~ The importance of bumout as a precticel coacern is illustrated by its sssociation with negative organizational outcomes and various types of persencl dysfunction. Although many of the consequences discussed here } are not unique to burnout, they illustrate how potentially costly and dam- ‘aging bumout can be and highlight the importance! hettex mamagement to deal with the problem. In a racont review, Kahill (1988) grouped the Sonsequences of bumout into five categories: physical, emotional, inter- Personal, attitudinal, amd behavioral. Although empirical evidence sup- Porting these relationships is scant (especially evidence that meets the criteria set forth im the beginning of this article), certain general conchi- sions com be drawn. . &S Physical and Emotional Consequences The burnout components have been linked with @ variety of mental and physical heelth problems Gurke & Deszca, 1886; Maslach & Pines, 1977). Deterioration of mental health is characterized hy decreases in _/ 4 aN : foolings of self-esteem, depression, irritability, helplessness, or onEISty Uackson & Mastach, 1982; Xchill, 1588). Pua health problems include. hernog & Hecered fe lplemrery@ 638 : Academy of Management Review Octsber for example, fatigue, insomnia, headaches, and gastrointestinal distur- Dances (Keihill, 1888). Inq:study of supervisors and managers from a public welfare agency, Lee and Ashforth (1880) found psychological and physiological strain and helplessness to be associated with higher levels of emotional exhaustion and depersonolization, Burke and Desucc (1986) assessed how often re- spondents experienced 18 physical conditions, including poor eppe‘ite, headaches, and chest pains, and found that thic measure of psychoso- matic symptoms was positively related to the bumout components. Sim- ilarly, on the basis of selfreports and reports of spouses, Juckson and Maslach (1882) reported that police workers who experienced significant levels of the burnout components retumed home from work tense and anxious. Interpersonal Conseque fcr perstael Comes reny The deleterious effects of job-related activities on individuals’ rela- tiénships with family and friends and on their personal lives have gained increasing recognition as researchers have become aware of the link between work and nonwork domains (ackeon & Maslech, 1982). In par- ticular, the links between bumout and the deterioration of social and fe relationships and the links between bumout ond worknonwork ee empirical support Burke & Deszec, 1986; Jackson & Maslach, 1982). In ¢ study of 142 couples (where one spouse was a police officer), Jackson od Maslach (1882) found thet individuals experiencing burnout tended to withdraw from their friende ond reduced their socializing. In addition, the police officers reported being uagile to shake off the pro- fessional role when they left the job. The spouses reported that the cffic- ers, when dealing with the children, hundled them cs they would some- one in a professional situation. Burke and Deszoa (1985) and Burke and colleagues (1$84a) studied the relationship between bumout and work-nonwork conflict alse among po- lice workers, They assessed the impact of the officers’ job and jok de- mands on nine areas of personal, home, and family life, and they com- bined these areas into @ single measure of work-nonwork conflici. They found that those individuals who reported higher levels of the burnout compvneuts also reported a greater negative impact of the job demands on thelr personal, home, and family lives. 2 Interpersonal consequences clso include changes in the nature or frequency of interactions with clients and co-workers Gackson & Schuler. 1983), In studies conducted at day-care cantérs, Child care workers who experienced higher levels of the bumout components éxperioncod greater impatience end moodiness ond less tolerance. They also reported with- drawing more from clients, either by telking with other staff more or by teking longer breaks and lunch periods (Maslach & Pines, 1977), In theiz study of public contact workers, Maslach and jetckson (1985) clso found cesa 5 = ass Condes and Dougherty 2 support for the link between the bumout components and the desire to spend less time with the public az wall as link between the burnout components and poorer co-worker relations. Attitudinal Consequences Attitudinal consequences involve the development of negative atti. tudes toward clients, the job, the orqanizction, or oneself 7 TOES). studies of police workers (Burke et cl, 1984ar fackson & Maslach, 1992) nd public contact workers (Marlech & Juclaom, 1985), for example, em- Ployees reported higher levels of dissatisfaction. In Jackson and Mas- Jach's (1982) study, even the spouses of the workers developed negutive attitudes toward the police officer's ish. The bumout components also have been linked to lower levels of organizational commitment for Public ‘service lawyers Jackson et al., 1987) ond nurses (Leiter & Maslach, 1988). Behavioral Consequences Behavioral consequences of burnout entail work- or organization: related behaviors as well as consumption behaviors. Organizational out. ‘Somes include tu:noyer Jackson et ai., 1585), Gbsenteeism (Firth & Britton, 1989), and decreases in the quality ond quantity of job periormance QMaslach & Jackson, 1985). Consumption behaviors include beheriore such cs smoking and drug ond alcohol use. In studies of police workers Burke & Deszza, 196; Burke, Sheurer, & Deszea, 18a Jackson & Marlech, 1922}, individuals reporting higher levels of the burnout components were more likely to report intentions to leave their jobs. They also reported higher levels of drug, alcohol, and tobacco use. Jackson and her collecgues (1986) found that teachers’ thoughts about leaving their jobs were significantly associated with their reported levels of all three bumout compenenis, but actual turnover lev- els were significantly associated with emotional exhaustion. Tnomother study. Firth and Britton (1989) investigated the relationship between burnout ond tumover and between burnout and absentecismn smong nurses. They found that actual turnover of nurses was associated only moderately with depersonclization, and there was no significont relationship between tumover ond either emotional exhaustion or jeel- ings of reduced personal accomplishment. Absenteeism wos reported to be higher tor those nurses experiencing highar levels of omotional ex. boustion Firth & Britton. 1989). although this relationship was significant only for longer periods of absence, Finally, azioug public contact employ- ces ina federal service agency, Maslack and Jeckson (1985) found thar the burout components are linked not only to inteat to leave @job but also to poorer job preparation. Thus, as the scant but growing body of evidence illustrates, the con. Sequences of burnout have some very real physical, emotional, interper- Soncl, attitudindl. and behavioral implications. Not only does the indi- ~ vidual suffer, but the employee's family and friends, the organization,0 dlcademy of Management Review October (22d the people with whom the employee interacts during the work day all bear the costs of this crganizational problem, RESEARCH PROPOSITIONS: TOWARD AN UNDERSTANDING OF BURNOUT Stress theorists such as McGrath (1978) and Schuler (1980) have de- scribed stress as resulting from demands, constraints, or opportunities Presented to employees. Employees experience the strongest responses: (strains) to these demands when they percoive uncertainty about the ability to handle the demands and when the consequences of handling the demands are important. Burnout is a response to demand stressors (eg. workload) placed upon an employee, and it is distinguishable from other forms of stress because it represents « set of responses to a high level of chronic worl demands, entailing very important interpersonal obligations and responsibilities, Becouse of the high level of croucal, employees begin to fee] emotionally exhcusted after repeated oxposure to these important demands, using depersenatization of clients as a coping strategy. Finally, they begin to feel a diminished sense of personal ac. complishinent, especially when their work environment provides little feedback ond few rewards for work accomplishments, These relation. sbips exe summarized in Figure 1. 1 Many reseorchers cousider emotional exhoustiou to be the key to the experience of bumout, and the first stage of the Bitabut process (Gaines & Jermier, 1983; Maslach, 1982). Bumout (and especially emotional ese haustion) has bsen consistently shown to he direct'y related to high levels of work demand (Shitom, 1988). We believe that the key determinate of emotional exhaustion reflect both organizationel and personal demends placed upon employees. For example, quantitative work overload (the Perception of toc much work to accomplish in the time available) is on important determinant of emotional exliaustion, Individuals’ cttempts to Worlload that were linked to e:motional exhaustion have been found fe the works of Presen and Scrros (186), Jackson and her colleagues (1986, 1867). Maslach and Pines (1977), and Pines and Maslach (1976) <1, diols conflict is also a job demand that can contribute to emotional ‘exhaustion in the bumout process, Employees may experience « variety of different kinds of conilicting role expectations from difforent anurcee © sole senders (Kahn et al, 1954), Intersender conflict, for exampls, occurs when demands from one's supervisor conflict with the demanae from chi- ents, Person-role conflict occurs when expaciations frat one’s job conflict with one’s values cr personal beliefs. Attempts-to reconcile conflictingAL woyeayouonodeg wojny jouonowy | gue eE 5 Cardes ond Dougherty Giyeneiay Aouonbauy vontpang seoupagg ‘sanp}2D19)0) poucezadsoquy uorteag punuieg Hsodozg jnoumg soj yromuIDa4 Jomjdoau0y 1 suaD1a shoving + sale oi«42 Academy of Management Reviow Oxtober demands may be frustrating and emotionally taxing (Fisher & Gitelson, 1983). Numerous studies have found links between role conflict and emo- tional exhaustion (6.g., Jackson ot al., 1996; Jackson et al., 1987). In addition to orgemization and role demands, individuals may place demands on themselves that lead to emotional exhaustion. Maslech (1982), for example, has written about expectations for achievement as & key factor, suggesting that those who begin io burn out (1.e., experience emotionel exhcrustion} tend to be overachievers who have unrealistic ex- peciations and are typically younger employees. These chcracteristics have been confirmed by links between ege and emotional exhaustion in the Hteratuze (Anderson & Iwemicki, 1984: Gold, 1985; Russell et al. 1987: Babel & Zabel, 1982). Thus, young, idealistic employees who have high expectations about their own accomplishments are subject to exhaustion in response to these high demands (Gold, 1985; Maslach, 1982; Maslach & Jackson, 1981; Malach & Jockson, 1984; Saxton, Phillips, & Blakeney, 1931). Individuals also may generate high demands in terms of expectations jor the organization in which they work. New employees often expect much from themselves, and they also expect a lot from the organization: frequentiy these organizctionel expectations are especiclly high when the employee enters the organization (Wancus, 1973), High expectations in terms of work challenge, rewards and recognition, career advance- ment, and mony other aspects of work can create intrinsic demand stress. New employees may also believe that they can change conditions in the organization, expectations that aze often unrealistic (Maslach, 1982), Sira- ilarly, employees with high levels of job involvement (Lodch! & Kejner, 1965} and who hold work as a central life interest (Dubin, 1956) are more likely cemdidertes for emotional exhaustion because they view their work and its consequences as being extremaly important. Finclly, as olready noted, researchers suggest several qualitative and quantitative dimensions pertinert to interpersonal interactions, each representing different types of demands, which are critical varicbles ai- fecting the levels of emotional exhaustion (Jackson et cl., 1986; Maslach, 1882). Frequent face-to-face interactions thet are intense or emotionally charged will likely be more demanding and can be expected to be asso- ciated with higher levels of emotional exhaustion (e.g.. this might occur with Ine managers) (Masloch. 1982). Individuals who have little direct contact with clients, who deal primarily with “paper people” (e.g.. Por- sonnel staif), or who deal with more “neutral” client issues should expe- rience less emotional exhoustion (Mcslach, 1978), Between these ex- tuemes, irdividua!s who handle a large volume of clients on « daily basis but address “neutral” problems may experience a moderate amount of emotional exhaustion. ‘Some individuals’ cent contact may even be quite ego enhancing, rewarding, and pleasant (Leiter & Maslach, 1988). The nature of the demands of client tontactts is lileely to. be e key Sesctor in the burnout of managers and professionals.1984 Cordes and Dougherty 4a Figure @ is a matrix designed to stimulate ideas cbout the general- izability of emotional exhaustion from client relationships to a wide vo- Hety of jobs. The four cells are based on two key aspects of cliont rele. tionships: (a) the frequency of interpersonal interactions with clients and {%) the intensity of interactions with clients. (Although four aspecis of interpersonal interaction. have been discussed—~directness, frequency, intensity, and durction—only two are used here for ease of illustration.) Jobs that we speculate are low or high in frequency ond intensity ore provided as exozmples in the four cells, Individucls employed in jobs thet tend to have high levels of both aspects (e.g., nurso, social worker) would be expected to experience the highest levels of emotional exhaustion from interpersonal relations. Not surprisingly, jobs with both high intensity and high frequency heve domincted the kumou: literature to date. Con- versely, individuals employed in jobs that tend to have low levels of hoth aspects (e.g., resecich physicist) would be expected to experience the lowest levels of emotional exhaustion. Individuals with mixed levels of both aspects, that is, jobs with hich iequency and low intensity le.¢., receptionist) and those sith low frequency aad high intensity (o.g., para. medic}, would be expected to experience a moderate level of emotional exhaustion. This conceptuslization suggests that many jobs outside the traditional helping professions are likely to lead to moderate and, in some cases, even high levels of emotional exhaustion (e.g., customer service representatives). Ot course, service provider-recipient relationships are not tho only ones characterized by demands associated with interpersonal strain. Su- pervisor-subordinate and coworker contacts include interpersonal inter- actions that also may contribute to emotional exhaustion (Leiter & FIGURE 2 Predicted Emotfonel Exhaustion in Jobs Based Upon Nature of Interpersonal Contact Retna Sia wanker igh | Salersepresenttive | Cuslonar service ee Sioitecier iecleepeeiane Feniee Medeciobumont) | ME interpersonal Hentnct Research physicist Paramedic Forest ranger Public detender Gtunaoery operator | Fee fighter tow | Laboratory technician | Police Selective [Low burnout} (Moderate burnoui) tev High Intensity of Interpersonal ContactBe : Academy of Management Review October Maslach. 1988). Boundary-spanning positions also can include significant interpersonal interactions (Parkington & Schneider, 1978). The boundary spanner, who functions as em information processor or a filter between the organization and the client, represents the organization and acts as its agent in influencing the decision making of the client. Boundary span- ners are caught in a difiicull position when they perceive that client do- mands cannot or will not be met by the organization. In sammory, emotional exhcustion is the first stage of burnout. It is primarily a response io demand stressors placed upon employees, espe- cially work overlocd, interpersonal interactions, role conflict, end high levele of both personal cmd orgonizertional expectations. Proposition 1a: High levels of work demands axe the pri- + maiy determinants of emotional exhaustion. These de- mands include work overload, role conilict, and direct, intense. frequent, or lergthy interpersonal contacts. Corollary 1a: Individuals in supervisory positions and in boundary-spauning positions will experience higher levels of emotional exhaustion compared to those in nonsupervisory or in non-boundary-spanning positions. Proposition Ib: High levels of personal demands are also critical determinants of emotional exhaustion. Younger employees and those with high expectations for job per- formance, hig expectations for the organization, high job involvement, aad work as a central life interest ore more likely to experience emotional exhaustion. Depersonalization (cynical, dehumanizing, and negative attitudes to- word one's clisuts) is « stress response that is unique to bumout, ond it has not booa examined in the jeb stress literature Jackson et al., 1986). It is most appropriately conceptualized cs « (defensive) coping response to emotional exaaustion—on expedient allemative for dealing wih emo- tional exhaustion when other coping resources are not available (Ash- forth & Lee, 1990; Lee & Ashforth, 1990; Leiter, 1990; Maslach, 1882). Employees’ professional socialization may be at least partly respon- sible for the use of depersonalization in response to high work demands and the resulting emotional exhaustion Leiter, 1990; Lemkau et al., 1987; Maslach, 1982). As a resall of both school cad on-thejob training, with- drowing from: the job demands hy depersonclizing may be viewed not only ce an cecepiable reaponse, but ¢ professionel one as well. Leiter (1990), for example, pointed out tha! Lunan service professionals gene: cily follow « cade of ethics that explicitly calls for. depersonalization of clients. Similarly, depersonalizction might be expected to result hom helping professionals following the “rules of the game” such as expecta- tions for maintciuing a highly professional demeanor (Moslach, 1882). If professional socialization is an important aspect of depersonalization,3993 Cordes cad Deughemy 4s then a question may be raised about the relevance of depersonalization in the burnout of employees other than helping professionals (Gerden, 1887), ‘That is, the depersonalization component of burnout may not secur to the same extent for employees in oceupctions that do not have strong norms for maintaining « professional, impersoncl, oreven stoic demeanor in the face of interpersonal stress. Additionally, gender may be a factor in tlie occurrence of déperéén- Glization, and men ere more likely to cope with emotional exhaustion by depersonclizing. Maslach and Jackson (1885) noted that, because of sex- tole socialization, women emphasize coring, nurturing, and showing con- cern for others, and they would be less likely them men to exhibit callous, impersonal behaviors. Several studies have found this to be true (Gold, 1985; Masloch & Jackson, 1981, 1985; Schwa & Iwanicki, 1882b), A related but distinct factor in depersonalization is on employee's ‘experience of working in a depersonalizing work environment, one that is characterized by rigid and controlling cdmiaistrative practices, lack of Participation (ackson et al., 1985; Savicki & Cooley. 1989), or receint of honcontingent punishment Jackson et al., 1986). Lack of participation gives employees a feeling of lock cf “control” over critical aspecis or demands of their work, Control ie important for the perception of siress McGrath, 1876). Jackson ond her colleagues (1986), for example, hypoth- sized and found that lock of participation tn decision malting was linked to depersonclization. Further, when an individual perceives environmen- tal conditions as being random or uncontrollable, as after receipt of nen- contingent punishment, a feeling of helplessness or uncertainty ensues {Chemiss, 1980b). In order to cope with the situation, individacls will mechanize. or depersonalize, thoir relationships with co-workers, clients, or the organizction. Thus, impersonal, dehumanizing organizational cul tures com lead io employees’ use of impersonal, dehumanizing styles with thelr clients, Proposition 2a: A high level of emotional exhaustion from enes worl is the primexy detenminant of deperson- alization. This is especially true for men and for individ- uals who hove heen sociclized to act in a highly profes- sional aad impe:sonal fashion, That is, when a person experiences emotional exhaustion, depersonaliziag clients is an expedient coping mechanism. Proposition 2b: When experiencing emotional exherus- tion, employees are more likely to depersonclize clients when they operate in an impersonal, bureaucratic, or rigid and controlling work enviroament, which includes fectors such as (a) a jack of participation in decision making and (b) the receipt of noacontingent punish ment.a6 Academy of Management Review October Diminished personal accomplishment results in part from high levels of depersonalizction. When individuals develop negative, cynical ati- tudes and withdraw physically or psychologically from the situation; they find that they are no longer willing, or perceive that they are no longer able, to porform their jobs effectively. Foolings of diminished personal sccomplishment also result from {factors that suggest that ong is unap- preciated, that one’s efforts are ineffective Qackson et al., 1981), or that one’s competence or performance is low (Burke et al, 1984b). The percep- tion of seli-efficacy, defined as “people's judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances" (Bandura, 1886: S81), is at the core of the personal sccomplishment component (Lee & Ashforth, 1990). Self-referent misgiv- ings ara central to the stress experience (Bandura, 1985), Thezelore, vari- ables that cavse cue to doubt one's competence, abilities, and so forth, shuld lead to feelings of diminished personal accomplishment. ‘The causes and consequences of diminished personal accomplish- ment have not been as well undersiood as those associated with emo- tional exkcustion (Maslach & Jackson, 1984). However, beccruse individ- ucil assessments of task attributes (Gist & Mitchell, 1992) and atiributions of performance successes and foilures (Bondura, 1986) influence self- efficacy. we would expect variables that tend to meke one fecl lacking in control, helpless, inadequate, or incompetent will contribute to feelings of diminished persoaal accomplishmeat. For example, qualitative work overload—the perception that one lacks the skills or abilities to ade- quately perfonn the job (Kahn, 1978)—should be an important determi nant of feslings of personal accomplishment. When success{ul service is defined as curing am illness or helping a person in distress (Maslach, 1982), and clients retum only if the problems continue or recur, secing the same clieats retum egain and again cam leave the employse fooling that he or she doss not possess the capabilitics to perform effectively. This attribution of personal failure has been found to lead to lowered self- efficacy (Gist & Mitchell, 1992; Maslach, 1978, 1982). . Fole ambiguity also affects self-efficacy and one's feelings of per- sonal accomplishment. It is difficult to develop strong feelings of efficacy When one feels unsure of what is expected of one’s performance (Cher- niss, 19805) or when there is ambiguity conceming perfarmance fpedback (Bandura, 1988). An individuel’s sense of personol accomplishment may be undermined by ambiguity.induced suboptimal performance (whether teal or imagined). This ambiguity makes it diffioult for employees to per- form (er perceive they are performing) at an optimal level. Several stadies cinong teachers Qacksou el al., 1986; Schwab & Iwanicki, 1982a) and hu- angn service professionals (Brookings et cl., 1985) support the relationship between role ambiguity and feelings of diminished personal accomplish- ment, , Another factor that can lower self-efficacy is the lack of performance- contingent rewards (Jackson et al:, 1986; Maslach, 1882) because feedback information influences self-efficacy; employees infer meaning from infor-199 Condes and Doagherty 897 mation cues in the work environment (Gist & Mitchell, 1992). Because receipt of rewards is often the only way in which employees can gauge their performance und what others think: of their work (Schwab, Jackson, & Schuler, 1986), and employees expect organizations to tecognize ond xeward good performance, c lack ef contingent rewards cum one em. ~ployees to feel that their performance does not: warrant rewards or thet their efforts simply cre not noticed ot appreciated. Unmet organizction and achievement expectations are also likely to level of expectations serves as ea internal demand us diseuesed Previ- ously, unmet expectations, regardless ol the initicl level of expectorions fuagests a failure to perfonn, When that failure is atizibuted to personel inadequacies, feelings of personal accomplishment will be divteichoa, Petent, or unappreciated. Especially relevent factors include quetlitetive Zork overload, role ombiguity, lack of performance-contingest rewards, snd unmet orgamization and achievement expactations, Proposition 3a: Ifigh levels of depersouclizction will cause individuals to alter their attitudes and interac. tions with clients, co-workers, ar the orgenization in Such a Way as to intarfero with or inbibit the perception of elfective performance, resulting in feelings of dimin. ished personal accomplishment. Proposition 3b: High levels of factors that suggest one’s efforts are inadequote, inelfective, or unappreciated are the primary determinants of feelings of diminished per-ee Academy of Manogement Review October. sonal accomplishment. These fcctors include qualita- tive work overload, role ambiguity, lack of pesfor- mance-contingent rewards, and unmet organization and achievement expectations. Finally, availability of coping resources moderates the burnout pro- cess ct thrse different points, First, it moderates the relationship between tho demand stressors und emotional exhaustion. Second, it moderates the relationship between emotional exhaustion and depersonalization, Fi nally, it modermes the relationship between depersonclization and feel- ings of personel cccomplishment, Two common types of coping resources ere orgcnizational socicl support and personal social support. Social support, in general. leads the individual to perceive that oth- ets con and wili provide the zesourcse nacessary for them to deal suc- cessfully with the interaction. In the organization, for example, credible sonic: employees or peers may convince one with reassuring words that ono is copable of successful performance Eden & Kinnar, 1991). Also, social support may cause the individual to redefine the potentia] for harm posed by the situation, or it may bolster the individual's perceived ability to cope with the demands imposed by the situation. Several researchers have reported the effects of informal support (Leiter, 1998), professional Support (Leiter, 1988), co-worker support Gacksen ot al. 1988; Leiter, 1981), ‘gnd supervisor support Jekson et al., 1986). A related conuceptualization of social support is skill utilization (Leiter, 1990) or job challenge (Friesen et al.. 1988), Leiter (1990, 1991) argued thet skill utilization is @ form of organization support because It provides opportunities for the implemen- tation ond development of skills and presents empirical evidence that ‘skill utilizetion is positively related to personal accomplishment Personal resources also represent a source of support that enhances ‘one’s ability to cope with the demands of end redctions to the werk envi- Tonment. Individuals who are married, for exaraple, report lower levels of Dumont than their single counterparts (Gold, 1885; Maslach & Jackson, 1886; Russell et al., 1887). A possible explanation for this is that @ spouse 3s perceived as a source of support, providing «buffer between the stress. ful work environment cid adverse reactions to it (Leiter, 1990). Aliema- tively, « spouse may enfurce a more balanced lif perspective by requir ing the employee to spend time away from the work environment, Likewise, individuals who have childrea report lower levels of ell frees Components of burnout than do their childless poors (Maalach & Jackson, 1886). It is also possible that people with families are simply older and thus more micture ond stable. Whether older or nol, people with families tay be mere expationced in dealing with personal probléms and emo. Honal conflicts. It mey be that the family,’in addition to beitig ¢ source of tole conflict, js also a source of emotional support and comfort (Cohen & Wills, 1985). The family helps the individual cope with work by providing a much-needed balance of perspective. The family also mey fll the indi-1983 Corles and Dougherty se vidual's needs for affection and ‘approval. which are not being fulfilied professionclly. Proposition 4a: The availability of coping resources is an especially relevant buffer in the burnout process be- cause it moderates (a) the relationship between the demand stressors ond emotional exhaustion, (b) the re- lationship between ometional exhaustion and deper- sonalivation, and (c) the relationship hetween deperson- alization ard feelings of personal accomplishment. Proposition 4b: More specifically, the availability of or ganizational social support and personel social support, in particular spouse and family, moderate the experi. ences of emotional exhaustion and depersonclization end enhance feelings of personal accomplishment. RESEARCH STRATEGIES \ Despite the extensive literature on bumout to date, strategies other than the existing ones may offer significant benefit fo this Held. Thus far, studies have used only a few types of methodologies. Of the studies teferenced here, only the eailiest investigations by Maslach and Pines used a case study design (Maslach & Pinos, 1977; Pines & Maslach, 1980), seven others used como type of sinicturol equation modeling (Dignam et al., 1988; Lee & Ashforth, 1990, 1853; Leiter, 1988, 1999, 1991; Saxton el al., 1991), and only five used a longitudinal design (Chemis, 1882; Fimion & Blanton, 1867; Firth & Britton, 1985; Jackson et al., 1986; Leiter. 1990). The Temaining studies used cross-sectional comelationcl designs. The more preveilent cross-sectional correlational studies of burnout would benefit from increased attention to research rigor, especially using statistical control to rule out third-vaciable explanations of correlation o: regression Hindings. For excinple, the uature of interpersonal interactions is a key factor in the experience of bumout, but (unmet) job expectations sxe also important. Multivariate analyses could clarify these reletion- ships, compared to siudies examining individual zero-order correlations. Sumilarly, some of the mixed findings cbout gender effects and “specialty crea” may be cicsified if variables such as eccupation ead nature of interpersonal intermctions.cre controlled for in statistical cnelyses. Mul- tivoriate desions araalse necessary to adequately assess the tole of the components in the bumout process. For example, emotionl exhaustion gad deperscnalization, in particular, are very highly cenelated [Koeske & Koeske, 1988; Lee'& Ashiorth, 1990; Wolpin et al., 1991), so it is difficult to determine the unique contribution o! noncentingent punishment without controlling for the effect of emotional exhaustion. © Another improvement woitld be the measurement of precursors and850 Academy of Managemen! Heview October consequences of burout at two or more points in time(e.g.,Jackson et al., 1986), Such action can at least diminish method variance problems (Pod- sakolf & Organ, 1985), if not provide convincing support for causal rele- tionships. Similarly, caural modeling (e.g., Lee & Ashforth, 1993; Leiter, 1990, 1991) could provide a more informative exemination of these pro- cesses, compared to the cross-sectional correlational designs that have dominated the bumout literature thus far. For exomple, Leiter (1891) used ccusall modeling to establish the coisal link between types of coping cnd support and each of the bumout components, Conversely, qualitative research also could be valuable in the study of burnout. especially in capturing richer descriptions of contextual fac~ tors ond personal meanings surrounding bumout processes, In-depth in- terviews may be optimal for discovery of personal mecning, whereas observation might ke more effective for understeading everydey actions, organizing structures, and contexts (Handy, 1938). In addition, experimental or quasi-experimental research, which is virtually nonexistent in the burnout literature to date, would enhance the intemal volidity of conclusions about bumout processes. A potentially fruitful stratecy would be the experimental investigation of intervention strategies, such as truining programs. for ameliorating bumout. It ap- pecas that organizations have, in foct, provided burnout training pro- grems to help employees to identify the sy:ptoms of bumout, the factors most likely te coutsibute to it, and specific ways to cope with it, Evalua- tions of the effects of these training programs have no! been published. Naturally occurring experiments would also provide insights into the causes and consequences associated with burnout. For example, if on organization is downsizing and the remaining employees now have larger workloads, bumout levels could be monitored to identify changes. More attention should he given to the process of burnout, including the sequencing of the three phases of burnout. The phase model (Golem- biewski & Munzenrider, 1984) ond Leiter's (1988) evolving process modal cre steps in this direction, although more testing and refinement ae needed (see, e.g,, Lee & Ashforth, 1993), We have suggested that emo- tional exhaustion leads to depersonalizetion, which, in turn, contributes to diminished feelings of personal accomplishment. Low correlations he- tween these first two components and feelings of personal accomplish- ment, however, suggest the latter may be either independent of emotional exhaustion and depersonalization or related in sqme very complex way. Further, the temporal aspects of the antecedents «md consequences of burnout, as well os the threo components themselves, have received no gitention in the litercture. Investigators should examine when the indi- vidual components of bumout emerge, how quickly burnout progresses, cad what factors edfect the onset of burnout and the speed of progression. Pairs of mecsurements have been taken-at a voriety of intervals, such os months (Leiter, 1990), 12 months Jackson et al., 1986), 18 months (Fimian & Blanton, 1987). 2 years Firth & Britton, 1983), amd 12 yoars (Chomniss,ssa Cones cad Dougherty 65 1992). Althouga these measurements represent @ start, more than two measurement peints will be necessary to establish patterns and pro. cesses over time, A related measurement issue pertains to the individucl’s career stage. Individuals’ susceptibility to bumout or coping success will be ¢ reflection of their career stages:. therefore, careet stage is expected to aifect relationships between the antecedent variables and the bumout Components. This issue has imporicut implications for the timing of the measurement of antecedent and burnout variables. Also, the stemderd set of background variables has not been fully or auiiciently investigated, especialy as it moderates the relationships between the other indepen. dent and dependent variables Finally, clihough the convergent and discriminant validity of the MBI hes been investigated (Iwanicki & Schwab, 1981; Maslach & Jackson, 1881, 1986; Wolpin et al., 1981), the process has been limited to factor gualyses and the investigation of patterns of corelations mong vari- ables. There has been no thorough, convincing analysis of the discrimi. noni and convergent validity using the Multitrait ‘Multimethod framework (Campbell & Fiske, 1652). Beccuse the MBI hes emerged as the primary means of measuring this phenomenon, it is only appropriate that its vo- lidity be rigo:ously and comprehensively investigated. CONCLUSIONS Based on the literature to dato, we believe the burnout phenomenon deserves more attention by reseurchers studying S855 plocessen in cr. ganizations. Bumout appects te be a unique type of stress syndrome. which includes perceptions of emotional exhaustion, a dehumanization of clients in one’s work, ond perceptions of diminished personal accom plishment, ond it hes been clearly distingnished, both conceptually and empirically, from other forms of stress, Bumout can be measured in a reliable and valid fashion. A developing literature on burnout has begun to clarity the position of burmout in network of vaziables inchided in the study of organizational behavior. This article has attempted to provide some necessary structural and conceptual clarity toaid in future research efforts, REFERENCES Anderson. MB. G.. Iwaaickl, E, 1964, Teacher motivation and ite relationship to burn- Ut. Fascotiona! Administration Quarterly, 20, 163-152. Ashlorth, B.E., &'Lee, R. 7. 1690, Defensive behavior in organizations: & preliminary model Hamou Relations, €3: 621348, Fendura, A. 1888, Social foundations of thought amd action: A social coguttire theery. 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Acieciewa fournal of Communtty Prychology. U1:615~627. ‘VonYperen, N. W., Buunk, B. P., & Schaufeli, W.B. 1992. Communal orientation end the burnout syndreme among numes. Journal of Applied Social Peychology. 22: 173-LE9. ‘Wonous, J. P. 1873. Etiscts of cteclisticjob preview on job ccceplance, job attitudes, and job survival. Journal of Applied Peychology, SE 3°7-$32, Wenous. J.P. 1978. O:gantertianal entry: From neive expectations to.soalieiie beliefs, Jour nal of Applied Prychoiogy. Bi: 22-28. ‘Wolpin, J., Barks, R, J.. & Greenglass, E.R. 1901, Is job salisfaction an antecedent or a contecuence of psychelogical Lumout? fmnan Relations, 44: 193-208, Zabel, R. H., & Zabel, M. K. 1962, Factors in burnout among tecchers of exceptional children, Exceplionel Children, 49: 261-253. Cynthia L. Cordes reseived her Ph.D. in management from the University of Mis soul, She is crrisiting assistont professor of management ei Binghareton Univercity (GUIM. Her murent research interests include job stress and bumaut, menioring, qadiniormaiion asymmetry. Thomas W. Dougherty received his Ph.D. in industrial-organizational psychology trom the University of Houston. He isc profeasar of management at the University o! Nissouri. His cunenf research interests include job stress, delermiuants af career success, and recruitinglinterviewing processes.