us) United States 2) Patent Application Publication co) Pub. No.: US 2008/0072951 Al Gabor (54) INTERCONNEC’ (73) Inventor: 'US 20080071 D SOLAR CELLS Andrew Mitchell Gabor, Provideace, RIL ) Comespondenee Address: BROMBERG & SUNSTEIN LLP. 125 SUMMER STREET Bos (73) Assignee: Evergreen Solar, Ine, 21) Appl. No. (22) Filed 101 MA FON, MA 02110-1618 (US) 11848,791 Aug. 31, 2007 Marlborough, 9S1AL (43) Pub. Date: Mar. 27, 2008 Related U.S. Application Data (60) Provisional application No. 60/841,735, fled on Sep. 1, 2006, Publication Classification (1) Inc HOI 31742 (200601) HOWL 3118 (200601) (2) USC, 1367248 on ABSTRACT Interconnected solar cells include @ first solar cell and a second solar cell connected by a wire with a coeflcient of ‘thermal expansion matched to The frst solar cell's coeliient of thermal expansionPatent Application Publication Mar. 27,2008 Sheet 1 of 8 US 2008/0072951 AI 101 \ 105 111 109 103 107 FIG. 1A 101 | | 103 105 FIG. 1BPatent Application Publication Mar. 27,2008 Sheet 2 of 8 US 2008/0072951 AI 201 \ 203 205 207 Gs 213 215 _>—~_____ 219. ; te Nea 217 oe eg — FIG. 2BPatent Application Publication Mar. 27,2008 Sheet 3 of 8 US 2008/0072951 AI Pmax degradation vs # of cracked cells 0 0 2» ‘© 185 Thermal 00% Oycles = yy 05% B 2 05% m= 750 hours BB 10% damp heat &5 £3 \ Pi Invar # of cracked cells after load/chamber test FIG. 3Patent Application Publication Mar. 27,2008 Sheet 4 of 8 US 2008/0072951 AI FIG. 4Patent Application Publication Mar. 27,2008 Sheet 5 of 8 US 2008/0072951 AI 705 18 e 797 \ FIG. 6 801 %~F FIG. 7 Tl T2Patent Application Publication Mar. 27,2008 Sheet 6 of 8 US 2008/0072951 AI 901 \ 909 911 907 905 907 913 915 917 919 FIG. 8Patent Application Publication Mar. 27,2008 Sheet 7 of 8 US 2008/0072951 AI Brick Load Test (Exp#MRO2May06) @ # cracks after load cut Cu2 = Cu3_—invart_—Invar2_—Invar3 FIG. 9Patent Application Publication Mar. 27,2008 Sheet 8 of 8 US 2008/0072951 AI 1103 ~_| provide a first solar cell 1 1105 _| 1107~_] | i dispose the first solar cell adjacent a second solar cell a connect the first and the second solar cells with a wire FIG. 10US 2008/0072951 AI INTERCONNECTED SOLAR CELLS CROSS-REFERENCB TO RELATED APPLICATION [0001] This application claims the benefit of and priority ‘o US. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60841735 filed Sep. 1, 2006, which is owned by the assignee of the ‘instant application and the diselosure of which is incorpo- rated herein by reference in its entirety. FIELD OF THE INVENTION [0002] The invention relates generally to interconnected solar ells. In particular, the invention relates to methods for ‘connecting solar eels BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION [0003] Maauticturing cost and yield are critical to pro- ‘ducing economical sola cell modiles. Solar cells are gen- ‘erally connected with a ft wire (c.g, a tab) soldered onto the solar cell Solder coated copper is generally uilized by the solar cell industry in connecting silicon solar cells However, connecting sola cells can have undesirable side cellects. As a result of its higher coclicient of theanal ‘expansion, copper wire contracts much more than the sola ‘ell upon cooling from soldering. [0004] In the case of ribbon sotar cells, differential con- troction can increase manufacturing cost and reduce yield by ‘racking solar cells during the connection. OF grester con- ‘cern, diferential contraction can form microscopic cracks in the solar cell, which can enlange when the solar eels are stressed. and can ultimately form macroscopic eracks (ez 4 cracked cell), Cracking can cause long tem problems ‘including reduced relibilty, mechanical failure, and poser decay. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION [0008] The invention, in various embodiments, features ‘methods and apparatus for connecting solar cells, A wire ‘coellicient of thermal expansion (CTE) can be matched 0 & solar col"s CTE, which can mitigate cracking of the solae cell after connection tothe wie. Advantages ofthe invention Include: increased yield, reduced cost, reduced degradation, reduced cracking, reduced power loss, and higher relibility for interconnected solar eels. [0006] In various aspects, the invention features intercon- nected solar cells including a frst solar eel and a second solar cell connected by a wise. The wire inludes () fst material with a coefficient of thermal expansion about equal to the first solar cells coeficient of themmal expansion and ) @ conductive material for feeilitaing elecitical current flow between the first solar cell and the second sola cell [0007] Inoneaspect, the invention features interconnected Solar cells including a first soar cell and a second solar cll ‘connected by a wire, The solar eels each inelude a silicon ‘wafer that has a thickness of less than about 300 mierons. “The wire includes () a fist material with a coeficieat of thermal expansion about equal to the first solar ell’ eoet= ficient of thenmal expansion and Gi) a conductive material {or facilitating electrical current flow between the ist sola cell snd the second solar cel Mar. 27, 2008 [0008] Ia another aspect, the inveation features a method {or forming interconsected solar cells. Tae method includes providing a frst solar cell, disposing a second solar cell fadjaceat the first solar cell, and connecting the two solar cells with a wire, The solar cells cach include a silicon wafer that is less than about 300 microns thick. The wire includes (a frst material having a coeficient of thermal expansion bout equal to the first solar cells coefficient of thermal expansion and (i) a conductive material for facilitating clectrical current flow between the frst solar cell and the second solar call, [0009] In yet another aspect, the invention features inter ‘connected solar eels. The interconnected solar eels include 8 fitst semiconductor wafer and a second semiconductor ‘wafer, eal less than about 300 mierons thick. The fist and second. semiconductor wafers are connected by a Wire Which includes a fist material having a coeliient of ther ‘mal expansion about equal to the first semicondactr water's coefficient of thermal expansion. The wire also includes a condective material for faiitating electrical communica- tion hetween the first semiconductor water and the second semiconductor wafer [0010] In still another aspeet, the invention features a ‘method for forming interconnected solar cells. The method includes providing a first semiconductor wafer, disposing a second semiconductor wafer adjaceat the first semieondte- tor waler, and connecting the two semiconductor walers with a wire. The frst semiconductor waler and the second semieonductor wafer are les than about 300 microns thick. ‘The wie includes i a frst material having a coefcient of thermal expansion about equal to the first semiconductor wafer’ coefficient of thermal expansion and (i) a conde tive material for facilitating electrical communication ‘between the frst semiconductor Wafer and the second semi- conductor wales [0011] In still yet another example, the invention features fnrconnected Solar cells, The interconnected solar cells include a frst solar cell and a socond solar cell and a wire ceonneeting, the first solar cell and the secon solar cell The ‘wire inches fist material having « evellicient of thermal expansion about equal to the first solar eel’s coeflcient of ‘thermal expansion and a conductive material for Facilitating clectrical current flow herwoen the frst solar coll and the sevond solar cell, [0012] In other examples, any ofthe aspects above, or any Apparatus or method described herein, can inelude one or smiore ofthe following features [0013] In various embodiments, the silicon wafer or sem conductor wafer is characterized by a thickness of between bout 50 microns andl about 200 microns, The first sola cell ‘an include ribbon silicon. In some embodiments, the eon- ‘ductive material is copper or aluaiaum. In some embodi- ‘ments, the wire inludes nickel iron alloy. The wire ean be 1 copperinvar composite. The wire can include about 30% to about 90% copper by volume. The eopper-invar compos: ite can havea rato of about 50% copper to about S0% invar by volume, [0014] In various embodiments, the method includes so! ‘ering the wire tothe fist solar cell und soldering the wire to the second sola cll to electrically connect the ist salar cell and the second solar cell to form the interconnectedUS 2008/0072951 AI solar cells ne embodiments, the method includes talching the fist coclicient of thermal expansion and & ‘ceflcient of thermal expansion of the wire 10 mitigate ‘racking the fst solar cll upon soldering aad cooling ofthe ‘wire and the fist solar cll [0015] Other aspects and advantages of the invention will, become apparent Irom the following drawings and deserip- tion, all of which illustrate principles of the invention, By way oF example only BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS [0016] The advantages of the invention described above, logether with further advantages, may’ be better understood by refering to the following deseription taken in eonjune- tion with the accompanying drawings. The drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead generally being placed upon illustrating the principles ofthe invention. [0017] FIGS. 14 and 1B show alternative views of exem= play interconnected solar cells. [0018] FIG. 2A shows an exemplary cracked solar cel [0019] FIG. 2B shows an exemplary model for eracking, [0020] FIG Tunetion of 4 shows exemplary power degradation as mber of cracked soar cells [0021] FIG. 4 shows a eoss section of an exemplary wire [0022] FIG. 8 shows « cross section of another exemplary [0023] FIG. 6 shows a oss setion of yet another exem= plary wie. [0024] FIG, 7 shows a thermal expansion profile of aa ‘exemplary wire. [0025] FIG. 8 shows a composite wire [0026] FIG. 9 shows exemplary eracking of solar ells. [0027] FIG. 10 shows an exemplary tee fnterconnected solr cells te for forming DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION. [0028] FIG. 1A shows an exemplary side view of inter- ‘connected solar cells 101 including a first solar eell 103, 2 second solar cell 105, and a wire 107. The wire conncets & first surface 109 of the first solar cell 103 and a second surface ITT of the socond solar cell 105, FIG. 1B shows aa ‘exemplary top view of the intervonnected solar cells 101 “The oellicient of thermal expansion (CTE) of the wire 107 ‘ean be matched tothe CTE of one oF both ofthe solar cols 103, 105. This can mitigate cracking of a solar cell 103, 105 ‘after connoetion to the wire 107, [0029] A solar cell can include a semiconductor wafer, 2 Tat metallization layer, andor a back metallization layer The semiconductor water can be a silicon wafer. The semi ‘conductor wafer can havea thickness of less than about 300, microns. In some embodiments, the semiconductor wafer is berwoen about 50 microns and about 200 microns thick. Ia certain embodiments, the semiconductor wafer is between ‘about $0 and ahout’ 100 microns thick. In certain other ‘embodiments, the semiconductor wafer is between about 100 and about 200 mesons thick. In one embodiment, the Mar. 27, 2008 semigonductor wafer is about 150 microns thick. In one embodiment, the semiconductor wafer is about 80 microns thick, [0030] In cenain embodiments, the solar cell includes silicon. The silicon can be doped by materials including boron, A dopant andor amouat of dopant can be chosen to achieve desired resistivity, In some embodiments he solar cell can include a Group IV element, such as germanium, [0031] In some embodiments, a solar cell can inelude ribbon silicon, which can be formed by @ STRING RIB- BON™ technique, Inthe STRING RIBBON™ technique, ‘wo high temperature strings are pulled vertically through 3 shallaw silicon melt, and the molten silon spans and reezes between the stings. The process i continuous: ong strings are unwound from spools; the melt is replenished; ‘and the silicon ribboa i ent to length for further processing. ‘without interrupting. growth. This advantage in material Cllieney means # STRING RIBBON™ technique yields ‘over fice as many solar cells per pound of silicon as conventional methods. Additonaly, the resulting distinctive shape ofthe solar cell allows for a high packing dens [0032] In various embodiments, Iwo oF more interoon- rected solar cells can be laminated to form a solar cel module. In some embodiments, interconnected solar cells can he laminated hetween a glass layer and a plastic layer Incertain embodiments, the laminated, iaterconnected solar cells ca be framed The frame can be aluminum or extruded sluminusn [0033] FIG. 2A shows an interconnected solar cell 201 including a solar cell 203, a first copper wire 205, and 2 second copper wite 207. The interconnected sola cell 201 includes first crack 209 formed proximally tothe point of soldering ofthe fist copper wire 208. Soldering to connect the firs and second copper wires 208, 207 to the sola ell 208 raises the temperature of each component, Because the Tint and second copper wites 208, 207 have a higher CTE ‘han the sole ell 203, the fist and second copper wites 208, 207 contract more than the solar cel 203 upon cooling. The {iferent rates of contraction upon cooting ean form cracks, ‘andlor miero cracks in the solar cell, and reduce mantle. toring yield, [0034] | FIG. 22 also shows an exemplary model for erack- ing of a solar cell within solar cell module 213, A glass layer 215 and a backskia layer 217 encapsulate the solar cell 21919 form the solar cell module 213. Applying foree to the fencapoulated solar cell module 213 can simulate siess to ‘whieh the sola cell module 213 is exposed during use (ez, ‘wind, rain, sows, and ice). Stross ean form cracks, macro” soapie eracks, andlor eracked eels, resulting in problems including solar cell failures and/or power degradation, [0035] In solar cells including a semiconductor wafer of thickness greater than about 300 mirons, the diference in CTE between the solar cell (eg, silicon) and the wire (ez copper) does necessarily not cause problematic or maero- soopie eracking. However, in solar cells including a semi conctor wafer characterized by a thickness ess than abo 300 microns, stress caused by thermal contraction of the ‘ire upon soldering and eooling ean induce cracking andor rnieroscopie eracks, which can cause problematic or mae- roscopie eracking [0036] FIG. 3 shows exemplary maximum power (Pass) degradation as a fone ber of eracked soar eelsUS 2008/0072951 AI Table 1 (below) tabulates the data ploted in FIG. 3. The tested modules include wire of enpper or copper clad lava ‘composite. The copper wire was 75 mierons thick, excluding solder, The Invar composite wire was 100 microns thick, ‘exchiing solder, and included about 502% Invar2 by vole lume, Afler interconnecting the solar cells with the wo siffeent wires, modules were constricted by encapsblating the intercannected solar cells in glass and plastic hackshot layers. Each module was stressed by loading bricks on the top surface, The power of each module was measured and recorded. Each module was then placed ina thermal eyeling ‘chamber and a damp heat environmental chamber o simu Tate long term environmental exposure, after which the power of each module was again measured and recorded. ach type of wite was teste twice. Modules including Invat ‘composite wires suffered fewer cracked solar eels and less than the modules inchuding eopper wires TABLE 1 ‘Soc mots one deon uaa msn ss ‘heral yoe heal se Thermal le [0037] FIG. 4 shows a cross section of an exemplary ‘composite wire 803 with around cross section inching a lnvar core 508 and a copper cladding 507 [0038] FIG. § shows a cross section of an exemplary ‘composite wire 603 with un oval eros section including a Tnvar core 608 and 2 copper cladding 607 [0039] FIG. 6 shows a cross section of an exemplary ‘composite wire 703 with a rectangular cross section inch Jing am lavar core 708 and a copper elilding 707, [0040] Including copper in a composite wire facilitates ‘electrical current ow berwoen solar cells, However, cop= per's CTE is preter than siicon's CTE, which ean cause ‘racking of the solar cell after soldering, Invay's CTE bout equal to, lower thaa,slicon’s CTE. Incleding lnvar ‘with copper in a composite wire ean help mateh the CTE of the composite wire to the CTE of silicon, mitigating erack- ing ofthe solar col after soldering, [0041] _1n various embodiments, copper ean be substituted by another cooduetive material (eg, aluminum, gold, sil- ver). In some embodiments, Invar can be substituted hy another low CTE material (eg., Kovar, Rodar, Havar, oF Nilo). The eopper and Invar can form a composite, but are rot necessarily commingled. The wire can inelude about 530% to about P% condvetive material by volume. In one ‘embosdiment, the wire includes about 0% copper snd about 50% Invar.Invar and copper clad Invar ae readily available fom a number of distributors, ineluding Torpedo Specialty Wire, Inc. (Rocky Mount, N.C.) and Ulbrich Precision Flat Wire, LLC (Westminster, $C). [0042] In some embodiments, the wire is Mat, has width of about 1 mm to about 4 mm, andiora thickness of about 75 Mar. 27, 2008 the advantage of reducing resistive power loss, but the disadvantage of increasing CTE. Increasing a wire's lavar content has the advantage of decreasing CTE, However, increasing a wire’s diameter (e., the amount of copper AandiorInvar) has the disadvantage of ineveasing interoon- nected solar cell cost [0043] FIG. 7 shows thermal expansion profile 801 of an ‘exemplary wire, Composite wires according o the invention can have a CTE such that they do not have a large percent ‘expansion (% F) when heating/cooling between about room temperature (T1) and about the temperature of soldering (12). The CTE of the composite wire can be matched 10 about the CTE of the solar eel by modulating the amount of () the low CTE material (e.,Invar and (i the conductive material (eg, coppe). [0044] FIG. 8 shows a section of an interconnected solar cell 901 including, composite wire 903 with an lnvar (eg, NiFealloy) core 905 and copper cladding 907. Copper has higher CTE (16.5 ppm! C:) than silicon 2.6 ppv C.) and Invaras a lower CTE (2 ppm” C. for lnvar36) than silicon. The resulting composite wire ss a CTE matched to about the CTE ofthe sola cell (eg, silicon). Attaching a solar cell including a semiconductor water with a thickness of less than about 300 mierons (e.- about SO about 200 microns) ‘with a composite wire according the invention ean reduce cracking compared to traditional (eg, copper or tin clad copper) wires. [0045] ‘The interconnected solar cell 901 also inchades a first 909 epoxy layer, a top OTF solder layer, a bottom 913 solder layer, a second 918 epoxy layer, a front 917 Ag layer, and a silicon water 919, [0046] _FIG. 9 shows exemplary cracking of encapsulated, ‘luminun framed solar cell modiles before and afer stress. Piling bricks across the Tace of each modle caused the center, unsupported region of each module to sag. Cracks ‘were counted by applying an electrical bias to the modules such that the cells emitted light in an electroluminescent ‘mode. A video camera with fer imaged the ented light. Cracked regions appeared as dark Fines or dark regions Before stressing the solar cell modules, there were essen- tially no macroscopic eracks in either test set. Aer stressing the solar cell modules, the copper wite test set (Cu 1-3} develops about an order of magnitude more macroscopic tracks than the composite wire test set (Invar 1-3). [0047] FIG. 10 shows a technigne for forming an inter ‘connected soar cel, The technique inclodes providing a first solar cell (step 1103), disposing a second solar cell adjacent the frst soar cell (step 1105), and connecting the first and the second solar cells with wire (step 1107). The first solar cel and the sesond sae eel an include a silicon water that js ess than about 300 microns thik. The wire includes first material aving a coelliceat of themnel expansion about ‘equal othe first solar cell's coefficient of thermal expansion. ‘The wire also inchides conductive material for Facilitating cletrical current flow hetween the first solar cell and the sevond solar cell, [0048] _In various embodiments, the wire is soldered w the fist solar cell and the second solar cell to electrically feanneet the solar eells and form the interconnected solar cell. In some embodiments, the first coeliient of thermal ‘expansion and a eoedicieat of theamal expansion ofthe WireUS 2008/0072951 AI ‘re matched 10 mitigate cracking the first solar cell upo toldering and cooling of the wire and the frst solar cell [0049] While the invention has been particularly shows, and deseribed with reference to specific embodiments, it should be understood by those skilled ia the at that various ‘changes in form and detail may be made without departing from the sprit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. 1. Interconnected solar cells comprising: first solar cell including first silicon wafer character- ined by a thickness of Jess than about 300 microns; 1 second solar cell including second silicon wafer characterized by « thickness of Tess than about 300 sierons; and wire connecting the frst solar cell ad the second sotae ‘el, the wire comprising: 4 fist material having a eoelicient of thermal expan- sion abou equal tothe frst solar cell's coefficient of thermal expansion: and 4 conductive material for facilitating electrical current flow between the fist solar cell and the second sla cell. 2. The interconnected solar cells of claim 1 wherein the fit silicon waler is charsterized by a thickness of between ‘about $0 mons and about 200 microns 3. The interconnected solar cells of claim 1 wherein the {it solar cell comprises ribbon silicon, 4. The interconnected solar cells of claim 1 wherein the ‘conductive material comprises copper. '. The interconnected solar cells of claim 1 wherein the ‘conductive material comprises aluminum, 6. The interconnected solar cells of claim 1 wherein the wire comprises a nickel iron alloy 7. The interconnected solar cells of claim 1 wherein the Wire comprises « copperinvar compesite ', The interconnected solar cells of claim 1 wherein the Wire comprises about 30%6 to about 90% copper by volume. 9, The interconnected solar cells of claim 1 wherein the Wire comprises a ratio af about 50% copper to about S0% invar by volume. 10. A method for forming interconnected solar cells ‘comprising: providing « frst solar cell including fit silicon water characterized by a thickness of Tess than about 300 ‘microns and a first eoeticent of thermal expansion: disposing adjacent the frst solr cella second solar cell, incliding a second silicon wafer characterized by a thickness of fess than about 300 miroas and Mar. 27, 2008 ‘connecting the first solar cell and the second solar eel with a Wire, the wire comprising: 4 first material having a eoeicient of thermal expan- son about equal to the first solar cell's eoellicieat of thermal expansion; and ‘2 conductive material for facilitating electrical current flow between the first solar cell and the second solar cal 11. The method of claim 9 further comprising: soldering the wire to the frst solar cell; and soldering the wire to the second sola ell to electrically ‘connect the fist solar cell and the sscond solar cel form the interconnected sola cells 12, The method of claim 9 further comprising matching the first sola cell's eneficieat of thermal expansion and a coeflcieat of thermal ex ‘racking the first solar cel wire andthe frst solar cel 13, Interconnected solar cells comprising: pon soldering and cooling ofthe 4 first solar cell andl a second solar cell: and 8 wire connecting the frst sola coll and the second solar ‘ell, the wire comprising: 4 first material having a eoelicient of dhermal expan sion about equal to the fist solar eel’sevelicent of thermal expansions and ‘ conductive material for facilitating electrical current How between the first solar ell and the second solar cal 14, The interconnected solar cells of elaim 13 whe first solar cell comprises ribbon silicon, 15, The interconnected solar cells of claim 13 wherei concdctive material comprises copper. 16, The interconnected solar cells of elaim 13 whe conductive material comprises aluminum, 17. The interconnected solar cells of claim 13 wherei wire comprises a nickel iron alloy 18, The interconnected solar cells of claim 13 wherei Wire comprises « copper-invar composite 19, The interconnected solar cells of elaim 13 wherein the ‘wire comprises about 30% to about 90% copper by volume. 20. The interconnected sola cells of claim 13 whercin the wire comprises rato of about $0% copper to about $0% invar by volume.