You are on page 1of 30

Yoga (/jo/; Sanskrit:

, Listen) is a physical, mental,

and spiritual practice or discipline, that aims to transform body and mind.
The term denotes a variety of schools, practices and
goals[1] inHinduism, Buddhism (including Vajrayana and Tibetan
Buddhism[2][3][4]) and Jainism,[5][6][7][6] the best-known being Hatha
yoga and Raja yoga.A GREAT WHITE-WINE region is frequently a great source of a
good summer red. This may sound oxymoronic, but consider some examples: The
Sonoma Coast and the Anderson Valley regions in California both produce minerally
Chardonnays and savory, summery Pinot Noirs; the Loire Valley of France is home to
long-lived whites like Vouvray and Muscadet and tangy reds like Chinon and Bourgueil.
But no place may offer better proof of this theory than the Alto Adige region of
northeastern Italy.

The origins of Yoga have been speculated to date back to prevedic Indian traditions, but most likely developed around the sixth and fifth
centuries BCE, in the same ascetic circles as the early sramana
movements.[8][note 1] The earliest accounts of yoga-practices are in the
Buddhist Nikayas.[9] Parallel developments were recorded around 400 CE in
the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali,[10] which combines prephilosophical
speculations and diverse ascetic practices of the first millennium BCE with
Samkhya-philosophy. Hatha yoga emerged from tantra by the turn of the
first millennium.[11][12]

Yoga gurus from India later introduced yoga to the west,[13] following the
success of SwamiVivekananda in the late 19th and early 20th century.[13] In
the 1980s, yoga became popular as asystem of physical exercise across
the Western world. This form of yoga is often called Hatha yoga.
Yoga physiology described humans as existing of three bodies (physical,
subtle and causal) and five sheets (food sheet, prana-breath, mind sheet,
intellect, and bliss)[14] which cover the atman, and energy flowing
through energy channels and concentrated in chakras.

Many studies have tried to determine the effectiveness of yoga as a


complementary intervention for cancer, schizophrenia, asthma, and heart
disease.[15][16][17][18]
Yoga enjoys widespread popularity throughout East Asia, South
Asia and Southeast Asiawhere the business is estimated to exceed
US$500 million in these r
There are very many compound words containing yog in
Sanskrit. Yoga can take on meanings such as "connection", "contact",
"method", "application", "addition", and "performance". In simpler words,
Yoga also means "combined". For example, gu-yoga means "contact
with a cord"; chakr-yoga has a medical sense of "applying a splint or
similar instrument by means of pulleys (in case of dislocation of the
thigh)"; chandr-yoga has the astronomical sense of "conjunction of the
moon with a constellation"; pu-yoga is a grammatical term expressing
"connection or relation with a man", etc. Thus, bhakti-yoga means "devoted
attachment" in the monotheistic Bhakti movement. The term kriy-yoga has
a grammatical sense, meaning "connection with a verb". But the same
compound is also given a technical meaning in the Yoga Sutras (2.1),
designating the "practical" aspects of the philosophy, i.e. the "union with the
Supreme" due to performance of duties in everyday life[21]

In Vedic Sanskrit, the more commonly used, literal meaning of


the Sanskrit word yoga which is "to add", "to join", "to unite", or "to attach"
from the root yuj, already had a much more figurative sense, where the
yoking or harnessing of oxen or horses takes on broader meanings such as
"employment, use, application, performance" (compare the figurative uses
of "to harness" as in "to put something to some use"). All further
developments of the sense of this word are post-Vedic. More prosaic
moods such as "exertion", "endeavour", "zeal", and "diligence" are also
found in Epic Sanskrit.[20]

According to Pini, a 6th-century BCE Sanskrit grammarian, the term


yoga can be derived from either of two roots, yujir yoga (to yoke) oryuj
samdhau (to concentrate).[22] In the context of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali,
the root yuj samdhau (to concentrate) is considered by traditional
commentators as the correct etymology.[23] In accordance
with Pini, Vyasa who wrote the first commentary on the Yoga
Sutras,[24] states that yoga means samdhi (concentration).[25] In other texts
and contexts, such as the Bhagavad Gt and the Hatha Yoga Pradipika,
the word yoga has been used in conformity with yujir yoge (to yoke).[26]

According to Dasgupta, the term yoga can be derived from either of two
roots, yujir yoga (to yoke) or yuj samdhau (to concentrate).[22]Someone
who practices yoga or follows the yoga philosophy with a high level of
commitment is called a yogi (may be applied to a male or a female)
or yogini (traditionally denoting a female).[27]

Goal of Yoga[edit]

The ultimate goal of Yoga is moksha (liberation) though the exact definition
of what form this takes depends on the philosophical or theological system
with which it is conjugated.
According to Jacobsen, "Yoga has five principal meanings:[28]
1. Yoga as a disciplined method for attaining a goal;
2. Yoga as techniques of controlling the body and the mind;
3. Yoga as a name of one of the schools or systems of philosophy
(darana);
4. Yoga in connection with other words, such as "hatha-, mantra-, and
laya-," referring to traditions specialising in particular techniques of
yoga;
5. Yoga as the goal of Yoga practice."[28]

According to David Gordon White, from the 5th century CE onward, the
meanings of the term "yoga" became more or less fixed, but having various
meanings:[29]
1. Yoga as an analysis of perception and cognition;[29]
2. Yoga as the rising and expansion of consciousness;[30]
3. Yoga as a path to omniscience;[31]
4. Yoga as a technique for entering into other bodies, generating
multiple bodies, and the attainment of other supernatural
accomplishments;[32]
Schools of Yoga[edit]

The term "yoga" has been applied to a variety of practices and methods.
The well-known Hindu schools of Yoga being Jnana Yoga,Bhakti
Yoga, Karma Yoga, Laya Yoga and Hatha Yoga, but also including Jain
and Buddhist practices. Yoga Sutras of Pantajali, constitute classical
Ashtanga Yoga (the eight limbs), also called Raja Yoga.[33]

uddhism[edit]
Main articles: Buddhist meditation, Dhyna in
Buddhism, Yogacara and Vajrayana
Buddhist meditation encompasses a variety of meditation techniques that
aim to develop mindfulness, concentration, supramundane
powers, tranquility, and insight.
Core techniques have been preserved in ancient Buddhist texts and have
proliferated and diversified through teacher-student
transmissions. Buddhists pursue meditation as part of the path
toward Enlightenment and Nirvana.[note 2] The closest words for meditation in
the classical languages of Buddhism are bhvan[note 3] and jhna/dhyna.[note
4]

Buddhist meditation techniques have become increasingly popular in the

wider world, with many non-Buddhists taking them up for a variety of


reasons.

Hinduism[edit]
Raja Yoga[edit]
Main articles: Rja yoga and Yoga Sutras of Patanjali
The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali are often labelled as Rja yoga.[34] It defines
yoga as citta-vtti-nirodha (the cessation of the perturbations of the
mind).[28] The aim is to still the mind in order to reach Kaivalya, the
"isolation" of purusha (the motionless consciousness "essence") from
prakriti (the primordial matter from which everything is made, including
mind and emotions).[35][36] In Hinduism, Raja yoga is considered as one of
the six stika schools (those which accept the authority of the
Vedas)[37] of Hindu philosophy.[38] Meditation is one of the keys for Raja
Yoga
Tantra[edit]
Tantra is the name given by scholars to a style of meditation and ritual
which arose in India no later than the 5th century CE.[39] The earliest
documented use of the word "Tantra" is in the Rigveda (X.71.9).[40] Tantra
has influenced the Hindu, Bon, Buddhist, and Jaintraditions and Silk Road
transmission of Buddhism that spread Buddhism to East and Southeast
Asia.[41]
Hatha yoga[edit]
Hatha yoga, also called hatha vidy (

), is a kind of yoga focusing

on physical and mental strength building exercises and postures described


primarily in three texts of Hinduism:[42][43][44]
1. Hatha Yoga Pradipika, Svtmrma (15th century)
2. Shiva Samhita, author unknown (1500 C.E [45] or late 17th century)
3. Gheranda Samhita by Gheranda (late 17th century)
Many scholars also include the preceding Goraksha Samhita authored
by Gorakshanath of the 1

Gorakshanath is widely considered to have been responsible for


popularizing hatha yoga as we know it today.[46][47][48]
Vajrayana Buddhism, founded by the Indian Mahasiddhas,[49] has a series
of asanas and pranayamas, such as tummo (Sanskritcal)[4] and trul
khor which parallel hatha yoga.

Shaivism[edit]
Main articles: Shaivism, Shaiva Siddhanta and Nath
In Shaivism, yoga is used to unite kundalini with Shiva.[50] Mahabharata
defines the purpose of yoga as the experience of uniting the
individual tman with the universal Brahman that pervades all things.[51]

Jainism[edit]
Main article: Jain meditation

Mahavira, 24thTirthankara

Jain meditation has been the central practice of spirituality in Jainism along
with the Three Jewels.[52]Meditation in Jainism aims at realizing the self,
attain salvation, take the soul to complete freedom.[53] It aims to reach and
to remain in the pure state of soul which is believed to be pure conscious,
beyond any attachment or aversion. The practitioner strives to be just a
knower-seer (Gyata-Drashta). Jain meditation can be broadly categorized
to the auspicious Dharmya Dhyana and Shukla Dhyana and
inauspicious Arttaand Raudra Dhyana.

Modern wellness[edit]
Apart from the spiritual goals, the physical postures of yoga are used to
alleviate health problems, reduce stress and make the spine supple in
contemporary times. Yoga is also used as a complete exercise program
and physical therapy routine.[54]
While the practice of yoga continues to rise in contemporary American
culture, sufficient and adequate knowledge of the practices origins does
not. According to Andrea R. Jain, Yoga is undoubtedly a Hindu movement
for spiritual meditation, yet is now being marketed as a supplement to a
cardio routine. This scope dilutes its Hindu identity. Contemporaries of the
Hindu faith argue that the more popular yoga gets, the less concerned
people become about its origins in history. These same contemporaries do
state that while anyone can practice yoga, only those who give Hinduism
due credit for the practice will achieve the full benefit of the custom.[55]

History[edit]

The origins of yoga are a matter of debate.[56] Suggested origins are the
Indus Valley Civilisation (2600-1900 BCE)[57] and pre-Vedic north-eastern
India,[58] the Vedic civilisation (1500-500 BCE), and the sramana-movement

(starting ca. 500 BCE).[59] According to Gavin Flood, continuities may exist
between those various traditions:[60]
[T]his dichotomization is too simplistic, for continuities can undoubtedly be
found between renunciation and vedic Brahmanism, while elements from
non-Brahmanical, Sramana traditions also played an important part in the
formation of the renunciate ideal.[60][note 5]

Pre-philosophical speculations of yoga begin to emerge in the texts of c.


500200 BCE. Between 200 BCE500 CE philosophical schools of
Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism were taking form and a coherent
philosophical system of yoga began to emerge.[62] The Middle Ages saw the
development of many satellite traditions of yoga. Yoga came to the
attention of an educated western public in the mid 19th century along with
other topics of Indian philosophy.

Origins (before 500 BCE)[edit]


Pre-Vedic India[edit]
Yoga may have pre-Vedic elements.[57][58]

Indus Valley Civilisation (before 1900 BCE)[edit]


Some argue that yoga originates in the Indus Valley Civilization.[63] Marshall
argued in the 1920s that Several seals discovered at Indus Valley
Civilization sites depict figures in positions resembling a common yoga or
meditation pose.[64] This interpretation is rejected by more recent
interpretations.[65]

Vedic civilisation (1700-500 BCE)[edit]


According to Crangle, Indian researchers have generally favoured a linear
theory, which attempts "to interpret the origin and early development of
Indian contemplative practices as a sequential growth from an Aryan
genesis",[66][note 6] just like traditional Hinduism regards the Vedas to be the
source of all spiritual knowledge.[67][note 7]
Ascetic practices, concentration and bodily postures used by Vedas priests
to conduct Vedic ritual of fire sacrifice may have been precursors to
yoga.[70][71]

North-eastern India (before 500 BCE)[edit]


According to Zimmer, Yoga is part of the pre-Vedic heritage, which also
includes Jainism, Samkhya and Buddhism:[58]
[Jainism] does not derive from Brahman-Aryan sources, but reflects the
cosmology and anthropology of a much older pre-Aryan upper class of
northeastern India - being rooted in the same subsoil of archaic
metaphysical speculation as Yoga, Sankhya, and Buddhism, the other nonVedic Indian systems."[72][note 8]

Sramana movement (from 500 BCE)[edit]


According to Geoffrey Samuel
Our best evidence to date suggests that [yogic practice] developed in the
same ascetic circles as the early sramana movements (Buddhists, Jainas
and Ajivikas), probably in around the sixth and fifth centuries BCE.[8]

Vedic period (1700-500 BCE)[edit]


Textual references[edit]
According to White, the first use of the word "yoga" is in the Rig Veda,
where it denotes a yoke, but also a war chariot.[75] Yoga is discussed quite
frequently in the Upanishads, many of which predate Patanjali's
Sutras.[76] The actual term "yoga" first occurs in theKatha Upanishad[77] and
later in the Shvetasvatara Upanishad.[78] White states:
The earliest extant systematic account of yoga and a bridge from the earlier
Vedic uses of the term is found in the Hindu Kathaka Upanisad(Ku), a
scripture dating from about the third century BCE[...] [I]t describes the
hierarchy of mind-body constituentsthe senses, mind, intellect, etc.that
comprise the foundational categories of Smkhya philosophy, whose
metaphysical system grounds the yoga of the YS, Bhg, and other texts and
schools (Ku3.1011; 6.78).[79]

According to David Frawley[unreliable source?], verses such as Rig Veda 5.81.1


which reads,
Seers of the vast illumined seer yogically [yunjante] control their minds and
their intelligence[80]
show that "at least the seed of the entire Yoga teaching is contained in this
most ancient Aryan text".[81]
An early reference to meditation is made in Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, the
earliest Upanishad (c. 900 BCE).[note 9] In the Mahabharatayoga comes to
mean "a divine chariot, that carried him upward in a burst of light to and
through the sun, and on to the heaven of gods and heroes."[79]

Vedic ascetic practices[edit]


Ascetic practices (tapas), concentration and bodily postures used by Vedic
priests to conduct yajna (Vedic ritual of fire sacrifice), might have been
precursors to yoga.[note 10] Vratya, a group of ascetics mentioned in
the Atharvaveda, emphasized on bodily postures which probably evolved
into yogic asanas.[70] Early Vedic Samhitas also contain references to other
group ascetics such as, Munis, the Kein, and Vratyas.[84] Techniques for
controlling breath and vital energies are mentioned in
the Brahmanas (ritualistic texts of the Vedic corpus, c. 1000800 BCE) and
the Atharvaveda.[70][85] Nasadiya Sukta of the Rig Veda suggests the
presence of an early contemplative tradition.[note 11]

The Vedic Samhitas contain references to ascetics, and ascetic practices


known as (tapas) are referenced in the Brhmaas (900 BCE and 500
BCE), early commentaries on the Vedas.[88] The Rigveda, the earliest of
the Hindu texts mentions the practice.[89] Robert Schneider and Jeremy
Fields write,
Yoga asanas were first prescribed by the ancient Vedic texts thousands of
years ago and are said to directly enliven the body's inner
intelligence.[90][unreliable source?]
According to Feuerstein, breath control and curbing the mind was practiced
since the Vedic times.,[91] and yoga was fundamental to Vedic ritual,
especially to chanting the sacred hymns[92]

Preclassical era (500-200 BCE)[edit]


Diffused pre-philosophical speculations of yoga begin to emerge in the
texts of c. 500200 BCE such as the Buddhist Nikayas, the middle
Upanishads, the Bhagavad Gita and Mokshadharma of the Mahabharata.

The terms samkhya and yoga in these texts refer to spiritual methodologies
rather than the philosophical systems which developed centuries later.[93]

Early Buddhist texts[edit]


Werner notes that "only with Buddhism itself as expounded in the Pali
Canon" do we have the oldest preserved comprehensive yoga practice:

"But it is only with Buddhism itself as expounded in the Pali Canon that we
can speak about a systematic and comprehensive or even integral school
of Yoga practice, which is thus the first and oldest to have been preserved
for us in its entirety."[9]
Another yoga system that predated the Buddhist school is Jain yoga. But
since Jain sources postdate Buddhist ones, it is difficult to distinguish
between the nature of the early Jain school and elements derived from
other schools.[9]

Most of the other contemporary yoga systems alluded in the Upanishads


and some Pali canons are lost to time.[94][95][note 12]
The early Buddhist texts describe meditative practices and states, some of
which the Buddha borrowed from the ramana tradition.[97][98]One key
innovative teaching of the Buddha was that meditative absorption must be
combined with liberating cognition.[99] Meditative states alone are not an end,
for according to the Buddha, even the highest meditative state is not
liberating. Instead of attaining a complete cessation of thought, some sort
of mental activity must take place: a liberating cognition, based on the
practice of mindful awareness.[100] The Buddha also departed from earlier
yogic thought in discarding the early Brahminic notion of liberation at

death.[101]While the Upanishads thought liberation to be a realization at


death of a nondual meditative state where the ontological duality between
subject and object was abolished, Buddha's theory of liberation depended
upon this duality because liberation to him was an insight into the subject's
experience.[101]

The Pali canon contains three passages in which the Buddha describes
pressing the tongue against the palate for the purposes of controlling
hunger or the mind, depending on the passage.[102] However there is no
mention of the tongue being inserted into thenasopharynx as in
true khecar mudr. The Buddha used a posture where pressure is put on
the perineum with the heel, similar to even modern postures used to
stimulate Kundalini.[103]

Upanishads[edit]
Alexander Wynne, author of The Origin of Buddhist Meditation, observes
that formless meditation and elemental meditation might have originated in
the Upanishadic tradition.[104] The earliest reference to meditation is in
the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, one of the oldest
Upanishads.[84] Chandogya Upanishad describes the five kinds of vital
energies (prana). Concepts used later in many yoga traditions such as
internal sound and veins (nadis) are also described in the
Upanishad.[70] Taittiriya Upanishad defines yoga as the mastery of body and
senses.[105]

The term "yoga" first appears in the Hindu scripture Katha Upanishad (a
primary Upanishad c. 400 BCE) where it is defined as the steady control of
the senses, which along with cessation of mental activity, leads to the
supreme state.[84][note 13] Katha Upanishad integrates the monism of early
Upanishads with concepts of samkhya and yoga. It defines various levels

of existence according to their proximity to the innermost being tman.


Yoga is therefore seen as a process of interiorization or ascent of
consciousness.[107][108] It is the earliest literary work that highlights the
fundamentals of yoga. Shvetashvatara Upanishad (c. 400-200 BCE)
elaborates on the relationship between thought and breath, control of mind,
and the benefits of yoga.[108] Like the Katha Upanishad the transcendent
Self is seen as the goal of yoga. This text also recommends meditation
on Om as a path to liberation.[109] Maitrayaniya Upanishad (c. 300 BCE)
formalizes the sixfold form of yoga.[108] Physiological theories of later yoga
make an appearance in this te
While breath channels (nis) of yogic practices had already been
discussed in the classical Upanishads, it was not until the eighth-century
Buddhist Hevajra Tantra and Carygiti, that hierarchies of chakras were
introduced.[112][113] Further systematization of yoga is continued in the Yoga
Upanishads of the Atharvaveda (viz., ilya, Pupata,
Mahvkya)[clarification needed].[1
Bhagavad Gita[edit]

Krishna narrating the Gita toArjuna.

Main article: Bhagavad Gita


The Bhagavad Gita ('Song of the Lord'), uses the term "yoga" extensively in
a variety of ways. In addition to an entire chapter (ch. 6) dedicated to
traditional yoga practice, including meditation,[115] it introduces three
prominent types of yoga:[note 14]

Karma yoga: The yoga of action.[note 15]

Bhakti yoga: The yoga of devotion.[note 16]

Jnana yoga: The yoga of knowledge.[note 17]

In Chapter 2 of the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna explains to Arjuna about the


essence of yoga as practiced in daily lives:

A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada translates it as "Be steadfast in


yoga (yoga-stha), O Arjuna. Perform your duty (kuru karmani) and
abandon all attachment (sangam) to success or failure (siddhy-asiddhyo).
Such evenness of mind (samatvam) is called yoga."[120]

Madhusdana Sarasvat (b. circa 1490) divided the Gita into three sections,
with the first six chapters dealing with Karma yoga, the middle six with
Bhakti yoga, and the last six with Jnana (knowledge).[121] Other
commentators ascribe a different 'yoga' to each chapter, delineating
eighteen different yogas.[122] Aurobindo, a freedom fighter and philosopher,
describes the yoga of the Gita as "a large, flexible and many-sided system
with various elements, which are all successfully harmonized by a sort of
natural and living assimilation".[1

Mahabharata[edit]
Description of an early form of yoga called nirodhayoga (yoga of cessation)
is contained in the Mokshadharma section of the 12th chapter (Shanti
Parva) of the Mahabharata epic. The verses of the section are dated to c.
300200 BCE. Nirodhayoga emphasizes progressive withdrawal from the
contents of empirical consciousness such as thoughts, sensations etc.
until purusha (Self) is realized. Terms like vichara (subtle
reflection), viveka (discrimination) and others which are similar to
Patanjali's terminology are mentioned, but not described.[124] There is no
uniform goal of yoga mentioned in the Mahabharata. Separation of self
from matter, perceiving Brahmaneverywhere, entering into Brahman etc.
are all described as goals of yoga. Samkhya and yoga are conflated

together and some verses describe them as being


identical.[51] Mokshadharma also describes an early practice of elemental
meditation.[125]

Classical era (200 BCE 500 CE)[edit]


Raja yoga[edit]
Main article: Rja yoga
During the period between the Mauryan and the Gupta era (c. 200 BCE
500 CE) philosophical schools of Hinduism, Buddhism andJainism were
taking form and a coherent philosophical system of yoga began to
emerge.[62]

Samkhya[edit]
Further information: Samkhya
Samkhya emerged in the first century CE.[126] When Patanjali systematized
the conceptions of yoga, he set them forth on the background of the
metaphysics of samkhya, which he assumed with slight variations. In the
early works, the yoga principles appear together with the samkhya ideas.
Vyasa's commentary on the Yoga Sutras, also called
the Samkhyapravacanabhasya (Commentary on the Exposition of the
Sankhya Philosophy), brings out the intimate relation between the two
systems.[127] Yoga agrees with the essential metaphysics of samkhya, but
differs from it in that while samkhya holds that knowledge is the means of
liberation, yoga is a system of active striving, mental discipline, and dutiful
action. Yoga also introduces the conception of god. Sometimes Patanjali's
system is referred to as Seshvara Samkhya in contradistinction to
Kapila's Nirivara Samkhya.[128]

Yoga Sutras of Patanjali[edit]


Main articles: Raja Yoga and Yoga Sutras of Patanjali

Traditional Hindu depiction of Patanjali as an avatar of the divine serpent Shesha.


Yoga Sutras of Patanjali[129]
Pada (Chapter) English meaning

Sutras

Samadhi Pada On being absorbed in spirit

51

Sadhana Pada On being immersed in spirit

55

Vibhuti Pada

56

On supernatural abilities and gifts

Kaivalya Pada On absolute freedom

34

In Hindu philosophy, yoga is the name of one of the six orthodox (which
accept the testimony of Vedas) philosophical schools.[130][131] The yoga
school was founded by Patanjali. Karel Werner, author of Yoga And Indian
Philosophy, believes that the process of systematization of yoga which

began in the middle and Yoga Upanishads culminated with the Yoga
Sutras of Patanjali.[note 18] Scholars also note the

influence of Buddhist and Samkhyan ideas on the Yoga


Sutras.[132][133] Patanjali's Yoga Sutras reminds us of Buddhist formulations
from the Pli Canon, Sarvstivda Abhidharma and Sautrntika.[134] The
yoga school accepts the samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is
more theistic than the samkhya, as evidenced by the addition of a divine
entity to the samkhya's twenty-five elements of reality.[135][136]The parallels
between yoga and samkhya were so close that Max Mller says that "the
two philosophies were in popular parlance distinguished from each other as
Samkhya with and Samkhya without a Lord...."[137] The intimate relationship
between samkhya and yoga is explained by Heinrich Zimmer:
These two are regarded in India as twins, the two aspects of a single
discipline. Skhya provides a basic theoretical exposition of human nature,
enumerating and defining its elements, analyzing their manner of cooperation in a state of bondage ("bandha"), and describing their state of
disentanglement or separation in release ("moka"), while yoga treats
specifically of the dynamics of the process for the disentanglement, and
outlines practical techniques for the gaining of release, or "isolationintegration" ("kaivalya").
Patanjali is widely regarded as the compiler of the formal yoga
philosophy.[139] The verses of Yoga Sutras are terse and are therefore read
together with the Vyasa Bhashya (c. 350450 CE), a commentary on
the Yoga Sutras.[140] Patanjali's yoga is known as Raja yoga, which is a
system for control of the mind.[141] Patanjali defines the word "yoga" in his
second sutra, which is the definitional sutra for his entire work:
This terse definition hinges on the meaning of three Sanskrit terms. I. K.
Taimni translates it as "Yoga is the inhibition (nirodha) of the modifications
(vtti) of the mind (citta)".[142] The use of the word nirodha in the opening
definition of yoga is an example of the important role that Buddhist
technical terminology and concepts play in the Yoga Sutras; this role
suggests that Patanjali was aware of Buddhist ideas and wove them into
his system.[143] Swami Vivekananda translates the sutra as "Yoga is
restraining the mind-stuff (Citta) from taking various forms (Vrittis)."[144]

Patanjali's writing also became the basis for a system referred to as


"Ashtanga Yoga" ("Eight-Limbed Yoga"). This eight-limbed concept derived
from the 29th Sutra of the 2nd book, and is a core characteristic of
practically every Raja yoga variation taught today. The Eight Limbs are:

1. Yama (The five "abstentions"): Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya (Truth,


non-lying), Asteya (non-stealing), Brahmacharya (non-sensuality,
celibacy), and Aparigraha (non-possessiveness).
2. Niyama (The five "observances"): Shaucha (purity), Santosha
(contentment), Tapas (austerity), Svadhyaya (study of the Vedic
scriptures to know about God and the soul), and Ishvara-Pranidhana
(surrender to God).

1. Asana: Literally means "seat", and in Patanjali's Sutras refers to the


seated position used for meditation.
2. Pranayama ("Suspending Breath"): Prna, breath, "yma", to
restrain or stop. Also interpreted as control of the life force.

1. Pratyahara ("Abstraction"): Withdrawal of the sense organs from


external objects.
2. Dharana ("Concentration"): Fixing the attention on a single object.

In the view of this school, the highest attainment does not reveal the
experienced diversity of the world to be illusion. The everyday world is real.
Furthermore, the highest attainment is the event of one of many
individual selves discovering itself; there is no single universal self shared
by all persons.[145]

Yoga Yajnavalkya[edit]
Main article: Yoga Yajnavalkya
sayogo yoga ityukto jvtma-paramtmano
Union of the self (jivtma) with the Divine (paramtma) is said to be yoga.
Yoga Yajnavalkya[146]

The Yoga Yajnavalkya is a classical treatise on yoga attributed to the Vedic


sageYajnavalkya. It takes the form of a dialogue between Yajnavalkya and
his wife Gargi, a renowned female philosopher

traced to the period between the second century BCE and fourth century
CE.[148] Many yoga texts like the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the Yoga
Kundalini and the Yoga Tattva Upanishads have borrowed verses from or
make frequent references to the Yoga Yajnavalkya.[149] In the Yoga
Yajnavalkya, yoga is defined as jivatmaparamatmasamyogah, or the union
between the individual self (jivatma) and the Divine (paramatma).[146]
Jainism[edit]
Main article: Jainism

Tirthankara Parsva in Yogic meditation in theKayotsarga posture.

According to Tattvarthasutra, 2nd century CE Jain text, yoga is the sum of


all the activities of mind, speech and body.[7] Umasvati calls yoga the cause
of "asrava" or karmic influx[150] as well as one of the essentialssamyak
caritrain the path to liberation.[150] In his Niyamasara, Acarya Kundakunda,
describes yoga bhaktidevotion to the path to liberationas the highes

Hemacandra mention the five major vows of ascetics and 12 minor vows of
laity under yoga. This has led certain Indologists like Prof. Robert J.
Zydenbos to call Jainism, essentially, a system of yogic thinking that grew
into a full-fledged religion.[152] The five yamas or the constraints of the Yoga
Sutras of Patanjali bear a resemblance to the five major vows of Jainism,
indicating a history of strong cross-fertilization between these
traditions.[153][note 19]
Mainstream Hinduism's influence on Jain yoga is noticed
as Haribhadra founded his eightfold yoga and aligned it with Patanjali's
eightfold yoga.[155]

Yogacara school[edit]
Main article: Yogacara
In the late phase of Indian antiquity, on the eve of the development
of Classical Hinduism, the Yogacaramovement arises during the Gupta
period (4th to 5th centuries). Yogacara received the name as it provided a
"yoga," a framework for engaging in the practices that lead to the path of
the bodhisattva.[156] The yogacara sect teaches "yoga" as a way to reach
enlightenment.[157]

Middle Ages (5001500 CE)[edit]


Middle Ages saw the development of many satellite traditions of yoga.
Hatha yoga emerged as a dominant practice of yoga in this period.[158]

This largely German-speaking, mountainous corner of the country is one of the best
cool-climate wine regions in Italy, if not the world. And a cool climate is key not only to
characterful whites but to refreshing reds.
Yet while the white wines of Alto Adige are well-known and much praised, overlooked
are some equally delicious and lively reds, particularly wines made from the region's two

most planted red grapes, Lagrein and Schiava. The latter, also known as Vernatsch and
Trollinger, is actually the region's single most planted grapeclosely followed by Pinot
Grigio and Chardonnay.
Lagrein and Schiava (la-GRINE and ski-AHva) are native to Alto Adige, which was
known as South Tyrol (Sdtirol) when it was part of the Austro-Hungarian empire. Many
of the area's winemakers still identify themselves by their Austrian heritage. As Martin
Foradori Hofsttter, proprietor of J. Hofsttter estate, put it in an email, "Our passport
and our territory is part of Italy, but our origin is Austrian and our culture as well." In fact,
when I visited the region a few years ago and asked producers where their wines were
exported, they often listed Italy. In other words, Italy was a foreign land.

Although it is often linked to the province of Trentino, as Trentino-Alto Adige, Alto Adige
is a distinct wine appellation. It is sometimes confused with Friuli, another white-winedominant territory in northern Italy. Both regions happen to produce many of the same
grapes, including Pinot Blanc, Pinot Grigio and Chardonnay, although Friuli wines are
more widely distributed and better known. Jeff Kellogg, wine director of Maialino
restaurant in New York, has seen this mix-up many times. "People will say they love the
wines of Alto Adige, but then they talk about Friuli," he said. In both cases, he added,
they know the white wines of both regions better than they do the reds.
Bobby Stuckey, owner and wine director of Frasca Food and Wine in Boulder, Colo.,
attributes the confusion to sommeliers who only know the two places from reading wine
books. "A lot of wine books lump Alto Adige, Trentino and Friuli together as northeastern
Italy," he bemoaned in an email. This is, to Mr. Stuckey, a real mistake. "That would be
likeputting Burgundy, the Loire and the Rhne together," he said.

Mr. Stuckey specializes in Italian wines at his restaurant and makes his own Friulian
wine, but he's a fan of Alto Adige too, particularly Schiava, which he regards as a good
summer match for cured meats and pastas.
The cool climate of mountainous Alto Adige, in northeastern Italy, is key to producing lively reds.

Jason Jacobeit, wine director of Btard restaurant in New York, knows about Alto Adige
thanks in part to an Italian romance. Mr. Jacobeit went through what he called a Schiava
kick a few years ago, when he was dating a woman from northern Italy. He loved
Schiava in part for its resemblance to other easy-drinking northern Italian reds that he
knew and admired, such as Ghemme and Gattinara, from the Piedmont region. Schiava
had the same "bright acidity and scrubby red fruit" he said, but it was also less tannic
and more accessible than either Piedmont wines.

One of the greatest attributes of Schiava is its food friendliness, as Mr. Jacobeit noted.
That's thanks to the wine's terrific aciditya young Schiava (and it is best consumed
young, within a year or two of the vintage) is a truly mouthwatering drink. The wine is
brisk, light bodied and juicy. It's also fairly low-alcohol (around 12 %), and thus easy to
consume.
Lagrein is a bit richer and denser than Schiava, with more texture and weight, more dark
fruit and spice (plum versus Schiava's strawberry or cherry.) But the lighter Lagreins are
also good summer wines; they are lithe and flexible with a firm mineral thread. And
perhaps best of all, both Lagrein and Schiava are reasonably priced (another important
attribute of a good summer wine). Most Schiavas and many Lagreins cost less than $20
a bottle.

In fact, the most expensive wine in the group of Alto Adige reds I purchased for my
tasting didn't cost more than $25, and many were much less. I bought 14 bottles total of
Lagrein and Schiavaalthough it wasn't an easy task. Some had to be specially ordered,
as distribution of Alto Adige's whites is definitely much wider than that of its reds. Unlike
in other parts of Italy, or for that matter other parts of the world, where a cooperativemade bottling isn't traditionally considered a quality wine, some of the best wines in Alto
Adige are made by cooperatives.
Despite the admittedly small sampling of wines, the results were impressive. My group of
tasters and I found only one bottle a dud (a dull Lagrein lacking in fruit) and one too high
in alcohol (a Lagrein that was over 14%). By the way, all of these wines showed best
with a slight chill; I put them in the refrigerator for less than an hour.
The 2012 Gumphof Vernatsch ($20) was a crowd favoritefruity and lively and
uncomplicatedly delicious (the mostly organic winery has also won awards for its
Sauvignon Blanc), while the 2012 Cantina Andriano Bocado Vernatsch ($16) was darker
and a bit earthier. It covered all linguistic bases as welllabeled Schiava on the back
and Vernatsch on the front, as if they weren't sure which would sell. The name was the
most complex aspect of the 2012 Erste & Neue Leuchtenburg Auslese Schiava ($12),
which was pleasant and lively and identified as a ros-style red on its back label. (Erste
& Neue, which translates to First & New, is a first-rate cooperative.)
The 2012 Lagrein from Muri-Gries, a winemaking Benedictine monastery, was another
favoritericher and more concentrated than the Schiavas but with what a friend called
the "necessary leanness" of a summer red. Christian Werth, the much-heralded
winemaker at Muri-Gries, makes three highly regarded Lagreins; this was their lighter

"normale" wine. The 2011 J. Hofsttter Lagrein was even riper and denser but still
vivacious, with bright acidity and a touch of minerality. The Muri-Gries, at $16, and the
Hofsttter, at $20, were very good buys.
There are many more cool-climate white-wine regions that are home to great summer
reds. There's the Rheingau region of Germany, home of top Riesling but also
Sptburgunder, aka Pinot Noir. There's Alsace, France, where Riesling and
Gewrztraminer still reign supreme but where more winemakers are planting reds. And
finally, very close to Chablisthe place that's virtually a white-wine synonymthere's a
commune called Irancy, where lively and appealing Pinot Noirs are produced.
All of these wines share the same three attributes as do Schiava and Lagrein: a famous
white counterpart, a reasonable price and an obscure name. There's a fourth, perhaps
even more critical component: They're all fun to drink, especially right now.

2011 Tenuta J. Hofsttter Lagrein, $20


A leading family winery in the region, the Hofsttter estate produces three Lagreins,
including their single-vineyard (from one distinctive source) Steinraffler Lagrein and this
"basic" bottling. Marked by dark fruit and soft tannins, it's velvety with a strong mineral
thread.

2012 Muri-Gries Lagrein, $16


There are several winemaking abbeys in Alto Adige, and the Muri-Gries is one of the
most prominent. Winemaker Christian Werth turns out a wide range of stylish whites and
reds, including this lean but elegant Lagrein, colored with beguiling aromas of black
cherry and spice.

2012 Gumphof Vernatsch, $20


This small family-run winery is especially notable for its Vernatsch (Schiava), though
they also make some very good whites. Their Vernatsch is a wonderfully juicy,

strawberry-inflected, light-bodied red that is especially delicious when it is served slightly


chilled.

2012 Cantina Andriano Bocado Vernatsch, $16


Winemaker Rudi Kofler has described his Vernatsch as a wine with "the elegance and
smoothness of a Pinot Noir plus a fun factor in terms of quaffability," and that seems to
sum up this bright, juicy red from quality-minded cooperative Cantina Andriano.
2012 Abbazia di Novacella Lagrein, $18
The white wines of this iconic Augustinian monastery (they've been making wine for over
850 years) are widely praised, and reds such as this 2012 Lagrein add further luster to
their winemaking roster. It's a lively, medium-bodied wine with polished tannins and a
mineral edge.
See wine videos and more from Off Duty at youtube.com/wsj.com.

Explore More

4 Winning Tips for Playing Baccarat


The rules of the game and the scoring are very simple. It's all about getting a score as
close to a "natural nine" or a "natural eight" as possible. If the score is not a natural,
then another card is drawn to get the score closer to the natural. If the cards total a
score more than 10, then the left digit of the double digit score is dropped and the right
digit is considered as the score. If you are playing in the casino and betting money, then
you need to be careful and keep some things in mind before putting your hard earned
money on the table. The most important thing to remember is not to be taken in by
anybody who can give you a magic winning formula. If such tricks existed, then the
casinos would all be broke.

Tip 1
Gambling is a risky business, based purely on luck. A game like baccarat is a game of
fortune, nothing much to do with skill. So, be careful with your money. If the tables are
playing on very high stakes, then back off. There are other better and safer ways of
earning money. Also remember not to push your luck too hard, if you are on a winning
streak. If you can make a decent amount, then take it and leave. Do not wait until your
lady luck deserts you, taking all your money with it. When you step into decide the
maximum amount that you can afford to lose and stick to that decision. Do not get
tempted to play for more than this money. The trick in winning while gambling is to
know where to call it quits.

Tip 2
In baccarat, you can either bet on the banker, the payer or on a tie. The chance of a tie
is rare. The odds against one of the players winning are always better than a tie in most
cases. So, don't waste your money on an unlikely tie. Choose a definite party to bet on.
Also, while betting, begin with small amounts. Don't begin playing with high bets. Start
low and if luck seems favorable, then increase the amounts gradually. Luck is an
important thing in baccarat. So, test your waters before plunging in completely.

Tip 3
Look for casinos where the house charges are less. Although the standard commission's
charges by the casino are 5%, there are casinos where the house charges are lesser
than this. If you look around, you will find places with commissions as low as 2.75% to
4%. Playing is such casinos will automatically increase your take home money, as there
will be less cutting on the tax.

Tip 4
Although it is still a risky gamble with not much logic, betting on the Bunco will always
prove beneficial to you. Study the winning patterns of the game. If you can find a
pattern, follow it. If you don't, then bet on whoever won before last game. Also, if you
find the same party repeatedly for more than 3 times, and then bet on the other party
for the fifth time. It is very unlikely that the same party will win 5 times in a row.

STOCK TECHNICAL ANALYSIS

DIAMOND IS EASIER TO DETECT ON WEEKLY BASIS

EX:
When stock drops, it will pull back to its former apex

Thin, highly speculative issues and heavy


investment stocks offer exceptions, the former usually steeper and the latter
flatter.

Thus, once a Trend Channel appears to have become well established,


any failure of a rally to reach the Return Line (top parallel of the channel in
an Intermediate Advance) is taken as a sign of deterioration in the trend.
Further, the margin by which a rally fails to reach the Return Line (before
turning down) frequently equals the margin by which the Basic Trendline
is penetrated by the ensuing decline before a halt or Throwback in the latter
occurs.
By the same token, given an established Trend Channel, when a reaction
from the Return Line fails to carry prices all the way back to the Basic
Trendline but bottoms out somewhere above it, the advance from that Bottom

will usually push up out of the channel on the top side (through the
Return Line) by a margin approximately equal to the margin by which the
reaction failed to reach the bottom of the channel (Basic Trendline).

However, and this is of considerable practical importance, the very last


Intermediate Downswing in a Major Bear Market, i.e., the last Primary Move
which leads to the final, long-term Bottom, is usually cleaner, more regular,
less precipitous

When, after a Major Bear Trend has proceeded for some time and distance,
and has experienced at least one Panic Sell-Off, it then goes off in
another but less active and more orderly decline, and this decline develops
and follows a good trendline. Watch it closely. If this Intermediate holds to
its steady and not-too-steep downward course if its trendline is contacted
several times by Minor Rallies if it produces a fairly consistent channel,
and prices do not fall out of bed down through its parallel Return Line,
then the eventual upside penetration of this trendline may well signal a
Major
Turn, the inception of a new Bull Market.

You might also like