SCRATA SPECIAL REPORT CRAZE-CRACKING OF LOW ALLOY STEEL CASTINGS by 1G Crouch and W J Jackson as STEEL CASTINGS RESEARCH AND TRADE ASSOCIATION 7 EAST BANK ROAD, SHEFFIELD S2 3PT TEL: (0742) 728647 FAX: (0742) 730852SCRATA SPECIAL REPORT Craze-cracking of Low Alloy Steel Castings by |G Crouch and W J Jackson* INTRODUCTION Craze-cracking of low-alloy steel cast- ings is a defect phenomenon that manifests itself in nickel-bearing steels, especially of the Ni-Cr-Mo family, as a variable network of fine, shallow cracks on the surface of the casting. It is recognised as a well-known foundry problem which is both random and unpredictable in nature and, as a conse- ‘quence perhaps, has been little researched. Whilst it is both difficult and dangerous to categorise all surface cracking phenomena under one heading, this particular form of cracking has been referred to in the lit- erature as alligator cracking, network crack- ing and chicken-wire cracking, as well as craze-cracking, but is not to be confused with thermal craze-cracking, which is essen- tially a non-foundry, thermal fatigue phe- ‘nomenon. Case histories are often couched in commercial confidentialities which make any broad investigation difficult. Its incidence not only varies in degree from foundry to foundry but from casting to casting, and often its severity changes across the surface ofa single casting. Despite this high degree of non-reproducibility, it was recognised that finding a solution to the problem was of paramount importance, both to the UK foundry industry and to the user, because craze-cracking is not acceptable in castings made to magnetic particle inspection stand- ards. When it does arise, expensive grind- ing and weld repair operations are required to salvage the castings. Furthermore, if such defective castings were to enter ser- vice then, whilst the cracks are themselves “Al the time of witing Dr Crouch was withthe Royal Armament esearch and Development Estabishmeot (RARDE) in Chertsey and Dr Jackson isa consutant with SCAATA. passive, they could well initiate fatigue or stress corrosion crack growth processes. CHARACTERISATION OF PHENOMENON Craze-cracks are crack-like indica- tions on the surface of a steel casting. They can be up to 10 mm or so deep, but are typi- cally 2-3 mm in depth. In cross-section they are usually wedge-shaped, oxide-filed inter- granular cracks and because they occur at the grain boundaries, they form a network of inter-linking, short, curved cracks as seen in Fig. 1. Because they are oxide-filed and therefore unable to absorb a penetrating liq- uid, the milder forms require a magnetic par- ticle (MPI) technique to highlight their location. As shown in Fig. 1, grinding the surface makes their presence very clear. Fig. 2 shows a typical view of a micro-sec- tion, whilst Fig. 3 illustrates the intergranular nature of the associated fracture. LITERATURE REVIEW The literature on craze-cracking is not extensive but a recent review’ has shown that: (i) the phenomenon occurs predi nantly with low alloy Ni-Cr-Mo steels; cracking occurs at grain boundaries due to ‘embritting (e.g. cracking), weakening (2.9. tearing) or penetration (e.g. intrusion) ef- fects; (li) mould/metal reactions are likely to be involved and, probably, surface stress- ing. The most significant and best reported work was that by Kortovich and Wallace’, who concluded that in the case of AIS! 4330 1% Ni-Cr-Mo steel cast into silica sand moulds, better surface quality was obtained with reducing or neutral mould paints irre- spective of whether grain boundary penetra- tion took place or not. Microprobe analysisrevealed that the primary constituent of all oxide layers was FeO and SiOz. Small amounts of the oxides of the mould paint constituents and reduced metal from the re- ducible oxides were present in the surface and grain boundary oxides, with manganese sulphide in the grain boundary areas. Grain boundary penetration was found to provide severe discontinuities that were responsible for a significant lowering of fatigue proper- ties. The review’ indicated that therg was general agreement between ‘American®, Eu- ropean® and Soviet? workers, who found that reducing atmospheres were beneficial in minimising susceptibility to craze-crack- ing. Kortovich and Wallace found that a hexochlorobenzene mould paint resulted in the optimum casting surface, but did not comment on the toxicity of this compound. Soviet workers*® observed that cracking was associated with freedom from burn-on (metal penetration between the sand grains), which supports the opinion that a liquid film of, say, fayalite can exist at the metal-mould interface at a critical time and attack grain boundaries after solidification is complete. UK industrial examples of craze- cracking have included Q1N and HY80 cast- ings®, cast ingots for gun barrels’ and Shaw Process castings®. In the case of QIN and HYB0 castings (both of the 1% Ni-Cr-Mo steel type), craze-cracking had been so ex- tensive that it was necessary to grind cast- ings over their entire surface - a modified practice involving an early knock-out from the mould and sub-critical holding prior to the final heat treatment was reported to ‘overcome the craze-cracking problem. It has also been reported that electro-slag refined ingots made from a 3% Ni-Cr-Mo steel for gun barrel manufacture have suf- fered from craze-cracking’. This is of par- ticular interest because ESR ingots are produced via copper-chilled dies and not in sand moulds. CCraze-Cracking of Low Aloy Stee! Castings CASE STUDIES Case 1: Shaw Process Castings In the late 1970's a large number of castings, produced by the Shaw Process, in an alloy based on the 4% Ni-Cr-Mo type (see Table |) and produced to BS 3146: Pt 1; 1974, CLASA, were intended for use within an experimental bridge structure. However, after oll-quenching and tempering to a UTS of approximately 1100 MPa, all castings were inspected by a fluorescent dye technique and found to be extensively craze-cracked. The castings weighed ap- proximately 11 kg and had overall dimen- sions of 475 x 100 x 80 mm. The section sizes varied from 8 to 80 mm and the crack- ing was most extensive on the heavier sec- tions. Initial examination suggested that the cracking was associated with a deep decar- burising layer - this prompted a second run with 10% graphite added to the moulding material to create reducing conditions at the mould-metal interface. However, the resul- tant castings were equally craze-cracked. The problem was avoided by changing the alloy - the finally accepted batch was pro- duced in a 13% Cr-4% Ni steel. Case 2: Sand Cast Plates - Alloy Selection ‘A selection of 50 mm thick, cast steel plates in four different alloys: 1% Mn-Mo, 3% Ni-Cr-Mo, 3% Ni-Cr-Mo-V and 13% Cr - 4% Ni types were procured from one foundry. The plates, 1 m square, had been cast vertically into tapered moulds made of a clay-bonded zircon sand, washed with a zircon paint. The as-cast tapered plates were subsequently machined on one face to produce parallel-sided plates, prior to heat treatment, which was a conventional quench and tempering operation. Metallographic and _fractographic studies of these castings revealed that plates from the two Ni-Cr-Mo steels con- tained craze-cracks up to S mm deep. They were only evident in the as-cast surface - rot in the machined surface - and all plates from these two Ni-Cr-Mo steels were found Page 2to be cracked. In sharp contrast, plates rep- resenting the other two steels, which had been produced under the same conditions in the same foundry, were devoid of any such cracking. This circumstantial evidence sug- gests that craze-cracking appears to be an alloy-related phenomenon. Case 3: Sand Cast Plates - Sand Technology Based on the assumption that cracks found in plates referenced in Case 2 had formed as a result of a mould-metal reac- tion, four further plates were procured from the same source, and produced from a single cast in four different moulding materi- als. The percentage composition of the cast was as follows:- 0.29 C, 0.59 Mn, 0.0141 S, 0.017 P, 0.4 Si, 3.20 Ni, 1.59 Cr, 0.48 Mo, 1.10 V, and the four moulding materials were: (a) Clay-bonded silica sand with a wash (2) Clay-bonded zircon sand with a zircon wash (c) Alkyd resin-bonded silica sand with a silica wash (4) Alkyd resin-bonded chromite sand with a chromite wash (On this occasion the plates were pro- duced in parallel-sided moulds thereby ne- gating any need for machining whilst doubling the usable as-cast surface area. These plates, however, showed no detect- able sign of craze-cracking, either in the as- cast and lightly fettied condition or in the full heat-treated condition. This case immedi- ately highlighted the unpredictable nature of the craze-cracking phenomenon. Case 4: Sand Cast Plates - Variable Alloy Content During the same period a further batch of cast plate was procured from the same founder. These plates again were produced (Craze-Cracking of Low Alloy Stee! Castings in a clay-bonded zircon sand mould but on this occasion cast as tapered plates, which were then subsequently machined on one side prior to heat treatment. Four of the plates from a series representing different compositions (see Table |) were given 100% Magnetic Particle Inspection (MPI) and found to contain a variable severity of craze- cracking. Two trends were noticed: (i) that the incidence of cracking was higher near the top of the plate, which was originally the thickest part of the tapered plate; and (i) that the frequency and severity of cracking appeared to increase with an increase in alloy content. One plate from cast D140 (see Table |) was virtually covered in craze- cracks up to 3 or 4 mm deep (equivalent to 6 to 8% of the section thickness). Case 5: Comparison of Foundry Products During the period of this investigation a number of similar steel products were pro- cured from five different UK foundries. The Ni-Cr-Mo steel castings produced by two foundries were invariably oraze-cracked whilst comparable products from three other foundries were craze-crack free. Detailed and extensive examinations of respective processing histories and foundry practices only yielded one common, yet fundamental, difference in foundry practice. The two foundries producing craze-cracked plate used zircon sand whilst the other three used silica sand for their moulding material. This case further illustrates that the craze-crack- ing phenomenon is a foundry-related and/or a processing- related phenomenon. RESEARCH STUDIES All of our research activities into craze-cracking have been directed at answering some of the following questions:- (i) Atwhat stage in the processing cycle ‘of the casting does the cracking occur? (i) If it occurs during or just after solicifi- cation, does the mould wash or type of Page 3moulding sand have any influence on the extent of cracking? (iil) Does solidification rate, or duration of contact between hot, solid metal and the mould wall have any influence? {iv) Is surface stress a contributory factor during cooling in the mould? (v) Does heat-treatment cause the crack- ing, or merely propagate cracks al- ready initiated in the previous processing stages? (vi) Is the phenomenon linked with, or af- fected by, decarburisation? (vil) Are the cracks formed by hot tearing, by preferential chemical attack, or through grain boundary embrittle- ment? (vill) Why is the cracking apparently only found in certain compositions of steel? (i2. nickel-bearing low-alloy steels). (x) What are the critical alloying elements and critical amounts that induce sus- ceptibility to cracking? The research programmes aimed at answering these questions separate into three principal areas:- (a) Metallurgical examinations of craze- cracked samples, (b) Studies of metal-mould paint reac- tions, and (c) _ Production of experimental castings. (a) Metatturgical Examinations For the sake of brevity the following study has been selected to represent a typi- cal metallurgical analysis of a craze- cracked product. In this case the product Craze-Cracking of Low Alloy Stee! Castings was a 125 mm thick cast plate 650 x 1000 mm in area which had been cast as part of 2 larger experimental plate measuring 1750 x 1000 mm and weighing approximately 1600 kg. Its composition (cast D1549) is included in Table |. The plate was received in the oil- quenched and tempered condition wit average Brinell hardness of 255. Together with conventional mechan- ical property determinations, macro-sections were taken and micro-examinations of the surface structures made. In this case, craze-cracks were found up to a depth of 6 mm at a mean frequency of 1.5 cracks per ‘om of linear section - their form and morpho- logy were very typical (see Fig. 4a). The ‘cracks, in this case, were long thin wedges, oxide-filed and surrounded by a halo of ‘small subcutaneous particles, which were also arranged in a wedge shaped array around the main crack (see Figs. 4b and 40). Metallography also revealed a fairly deep decarburised layer which followed the sub-surface pattem of cracks, inferring that the cracks were present prior to completion of heat treatment. A surface section, removed and nick- fractured, revealed the intergranular nature of the cracks with facets covered in a black oxide, which was analysed and found to be principally iron and silicon rich, indicating the presence of fayalite (FeO.SiOz). It was also noted, as is shown in Fig. 5, that the mouths of these defects were often closed by a fold of metal which had been formed during sur- face dressing. This effect illustrates how fet- tling operations (e.g. grivsand/shot blasting) ‘can hide the presence of significant surface defects. (b) Studies of Metal-Mould Paint Reactions All of the castings referenced in Cases 2 to 5 above were produced using sand moulds with oxide painted surfaces. The work reported in Case 3 which was particu- larly aimed at this aspect did not reproduce craze-cracking, whereas the previous work Page 4of Kortovich and Wallace” has shown that mould paints, by their varying chemical na- ture, exerted significant differences on the extent and degree of surface cracking in 1% Ni-Cr-Mo steels, The following experiments were, therefore, devised in an attempt to study, by heat treatment alone, the possible interactions between various mould paints and the surface of steel. Sections, removed from a casting known to be susceptible to craze-cracking, were ground to remove the surface layers, and a hole drilled in the free surface. The surfaces were then coated and the hole led with the mould paint under investiga- tion. The mould paints, details of which are given in Table Ii, included three commercial ex-foundry paints (similar to those used in the production of cast plate) and two made by SCRATA. The coated sample was siow- ly dried under an infra-red lamp to prevent the coating from cracking or spalling. Sam- ples of different mould-paint/metal combina- tions were then heat treated to <1400°C, w a Byvayty apyov arpooxnepe. Tne neat treated surface layer was then dye-pene- trant tested and sectioned for metallographic study. Figs. 6 to 8 illustrate the types of fea- tures observed. The results and conclusions from this series of tests can be summarised thus:- a) Heat treatment of the steels at 1050°C in contact with the different mould paints did not produce craze-cracking, although in some instances a fully (see Figs. 6 and 8) or partially (see Fig. 7), well- defined, decarburised zone appeared. (b) At 1400°C this decarburisation was more complete, proving that a reaction takes place with oxygen supplied through or from the mould paint. At this temperature sub-surface globules of oxides appeared (see Fig. 8) which were presumed to be a zone of inter- ‘nal oxidation, much like the envelope Craze-Cracking of Low Alloy Ste! Castings of particles around the original craze- cracks (see Fig. 40). {c) Low melting point metal-oxide phases were also formed during high tem- perature exposure as evidenced by in- cipient melting of the edges and comers of the steel samples. How- ever, no grain boundary intrusions were noted. (d)_ The well-defined decarburised layer, when nick-ractured, often failed in an inter-granular manner. (e) No significant differences were noted between any of the five paints in these studies. (c) Production of Experimental Castings With the lack of success seen in the metal-mould paint studies in reproducing the craze-cracking phenomenon, a series of ex- perimental castings was planned for produc- tion under controlled laboratory conditions, even though the chance of reproducing cracking was considered to be very low. However, conditions were deliberately se- lected to both simulate those that prevailed in a typical foundry producing cracked plate, and, as far as possible, to include certain aspects which were thought likely to in- crease the chance of reproducing craze- cracking. The design of the test casting and the metallurgical procedures given due con- sideration are covered below:- () Design of Casting The following features were con- sidered when deciding the shape and size of the casting + adesign to exhibit various solidification and in-mould cooling rates; + a design to induce restraint in certain surfaces during cooling and contrac- tion; Page 5+ a shape to enable clearly defined re- gions to be painted with different mould paints; + a shape to facilitate non-destructive and destructive examination. The final design and dimensions are given in Fig. 9. Thus, the four faces of the mould could be painted with different paints, the tapered section and the inside cored area would give different cooling rates, and thermocouples could be implanted to measure these. The flanges would be thin- ner and, by freezing first, restrain the tapered section as it solidified and cooled through the upper part of the austenite phase region. (ii) Foundry Practice In order to keep manufacturing details as close as possible to those for other cast- ings which exhibited craze-cracking, 1000 kg of an industrial sand mix was obtained from a selected foundry. Details of the zir- con sand mix are given in Table Ill. Whilst soundness was not considered to be too im- portant, risers of adequate size and posi- tioned on the flanges, provided for sufficient feeding to give complete soundness. Aview of the casting after removal of runners and risers is show Fig. 10. The mould paints were selected from those used in the initial metal/mould paint reaction experiments: and the constitution of each paint is given in Table Il. (ii) Steet The steels were melted in an induc- tion furnace, deoxidised with aluminium and poured at 160°C. The target analysis range is given in Table IV. Alloying ele- ‘ments were kept on the high side as it was thought that this would create the severest conditions for the promotion of cracking. (Iv) Heat Treatment The same heat treatment was em- Craze-Cracking of Low Alloy Stee! Castings ployed as that used by the appropriate foun- dries except that oll-quenching was preferred to air-hardening and a tempering temperature of 500°C was used (see Table V). Again it was thought that these tem- peratures might help to promote cracking, if it was a phenomenon associated with, or exaggerated by, heat treatment. (v) Test Casting No. 1 (0671) The melt analysis of casting No. 1 is given in Table IV. Thermocouples were in- serted in the mould before pouring, at the positions shown in Fig. 9. After pouring, the casting was allowed to cool in the mould to ambient temperature (see Fig. 11 for cooling rates) before being knocked out. All details, including mould painting scheme, have been recorded elsewhere’. After knock-out, the runners and risers were removed, the cast- ing was lightly shot-blasted, inspected vis- ually and then Magnetic Particle Inspected (MPI). The casting was heat treated (see Table V) and examined by MPI between stages. After each MPI examination, photo- graphs of all faces, and flange areas, were taken for record purposes”. In the as-cast condition (Ie. no heat treatment) small craze-crack fissures were detected on all faces, including the flanges (which had not been mould painted), (see Fig. 12). As heat treatment progressed, the ‘cracks appeared to become wider and deeper (see Figs. 13a and 13b), the zircon paints giving the worst cracking condition, but the best general surface. Grain-bound- ary grooving was especially evident after the 050°C homogenisation treatment (see Fig. 13¢). Boat samples” were machined from selected areas of the casting prior to heat treatment so as to include a number of sur- face cracks and metallographic specimens prepared from them. Sections through the cracks showed wedge- or V-shaped cracks, approximately 200um deep and narrowing down to a fine tip, with multi-component in- filling and surrounded by an envelope of fine Page 6globular inclusions (see Fig. 14). There was No evidence of decarburisation at or near to the crack tips. Sectioning of such cracks showed them to be centred on inter-granu- lar, inter-dendritic boundaries. Some of the resultant cracks after heat treatment were between 4 and 7 mm deep, and, in general, they were of the same morphology as those originally observed in earlier craze-cracked plates. Electron Metallography of Defects The reproduction of craze-cracking had been achieved and for the first time samples were available in the as-cast condi- tion showing significant surface fissures. Boat samples cut from an unpainted flange were —metallographically examined in the polished condition in an SEMEDAX system. The following sub-sec- tions report the analysis of the respective features. (a) Main Crack - Oxygen peaks were detected within all areas of the main crack and therefore the non-metallic infilling material was assumed to be an oxide. The uppermost areas were principally rich in iron and very dilute in all other elements and therefore this was assumed to be essentially iron oxide (e.g. FeaO4). At depths greater than approximately 40 um, the composition of the main oxide changed to an iron and silicon-rich phase (2.9. fayalite: FeO.SiO2). (b) Surrounding Particles - These were also found to be rich in oxygen and therefore assumed to be internal oxide particles. The smaller particles ad- jacent to the root of the crack were rich in those elements less noble than iron (Mn, Cr and Si), which is in keep- ing with the theory of intemal oxida- tion. The dual-phased larger particles adjacent to the mouth of the cracks were categorised into light and dark areas, as observed by secondary Craze-Cracking of Low Alloy Stee! Castings (co) (a) électron imaging. The dark areas were found to be very Sixich and as- sumed, therefore, to be predominantly ‘SiO2, whilst the light areas of the dual- phase oxides were of mixed composi- tion; this phase was tentatively identified as a complex (Cr, Mn, Fe)2.SiOs silicate. Crack Tip/Boundary Profiles - Sev- eral elemental line scans were carried out to determine compositional profiles, across typical features such as the grain boundaries. Two such line scans revealed that: particles lying within the crack, towards the crack tip, were rich in sulphur; of the total elements scanned (Fe, Ni, Cr, Mn and Si), only nickel and chro- mium were found to change in compo- sition; the observed increase in chromium coincided in position with the sulphur profile, whereas the nickel peak was clearly to one side of the boundary. ‘Sulphide Analyses - The determina- tion of high-sulphur levels within the grain boundaries led to a separate series of spot analyses of particles present. These analyses concen- trated on sulphur-rich particles within the crack itself as well as those along the primary boundary and those within the adjacent matrix. Table VI shows the elemental results (in wt. %) of such a series of analyses. The results indicate that within the crack itself the sulphide particles were predominantly iron-rich. However, particles lying just below the tip of the crack contained some manganese; the level of man- ganese increased and that of iron de- creased with distance away from the crack tip unti, in the bulk steel, man- ganese sulphides occurred with the ormat Mn:S ratio of 2:1 (by wt. %). Page 7The results of the EDAX studies are summarised schematically in Fig. 15. (vi) Test Casting No. 2 (A782) The creation of craze-cracks in a test casting was a major breakthrough, because having been produced, factors affecting their occurrence could be studied, the mechan- ism of formation understood more fully, and procedures for avoiding them developed. To ensure that the cracks had not arisen by a fortunate set of circumstances, it was de- cided to make at least one more test casting in a similar manner, using simitar materials. ‘One departure was made, however; this was the omission of the core, which was no fonger necessary since cracks were abun- dant on the outside surfaces of casting No. 4. Thermocouples were again incorporated at surface positions to provide data on cool- ing rates. Details concerning the manufac- ture of casting No. 2 and subsequent inspection reports are given elsewhere”, and the analysis of the steel! (Heat A782) is given in Table IV. Boat samples were taken for metallography and MPI examination made at each stage of heat treatment, as described previously. ‘On examination, the unpainted flange showed a high degree of surface cracking, but the worst surfaces were adjacent to the silica mould paint; this paint gave the best surfaces on casting No. 1. In general, all surfaces showed extensive cracking (see Fig. 13c) and the severity of cracking as in Test Casting No. 1 tended to increase with each stage of heat treatment. These obser- vations confirmed that craze-cracking could be reproduced under laboratory conditions. (vil) Test Casting No. 3 (A794) In a review of incidences of craze- cracking it was reported® that early knock- out from the mould (i.e. above 300°C) with immediate transfer to a furnace already at a temperature of 650°C, overcame the prob- lom of craze-cracking. It was considered prudent to test the veracity of this statement and casting No. 3 was made for that pur- Craze-Cracking of Low Aloy Stee! Castings pose. Details of manufacture and sub; sequent examination are given elsewhere” and the analysis of the steel is given in Table IV. The same mouid paint scheme was used as for casting No. 2. Thermocouples were not inserted in the mould so that early knock-out and transfer to a hot furnace could be facilitated. The temperature of the casting was measured, however, with con- tact thermocouples; the wedge section of the casting was recorded to be at 550°C when transferred to the fumace which was being held at 200°C. Immediately the cast- ing was charged into the furnace, the tem- perature was raised to 650°C and the casting held at this temperature for 4 hours, then fumace cooled. Fig. 11 includes the schematic cooling curve. The usual heat ‘treatment cycle was then applied, with inter- stage MPI examination. In the as-cast condition, craze-crack- ing was revealed by MPI, as with Test Cast- ings 1 and 2. In this instance the face adjacent to the zircon flour paint showed least cracking, and the faces adjacent to the P1J and silica paints had very poor quality surfaces, such that MPI would not normally have been applied without lightly grinding the surface. Both flanges (no mould paint) exhibited very fine craze-cracking after shot blasting, as did the face adjacent to the (zir- con plus FegOs) paint. As heat treatment progressed, however, the ability of MPI to reveal craze-cracking diminished. It could be said by inference that this casting, as a result of early knock-out and immediate heat treatment, exhibited no craze-cracking in the finished condition. However, the conc nm of the general surface was poor which makes strict comparison a lite dificult. (vill) Test Casting No. 4 (A885) Since the SEWEDAX studies of Test Casting No. 1 had indicated that within the crack, the infilling contained iron-rich sul- phide particles, it was considered that sul- phur content or Mn/S ratio in the steel, as in Page 8the case of hot shortness in wrought steels, might play a part in the formation of the craze-cracks. Other independent investiga- tions at SCRATA on the refining of stee! in the ladle have led to the development of a process which produces very low sulphur le- vels'°. This process has been designated LMR® - ladle metal refining. It was con- sidered that a heat of steel with low sulphur content and higher manganese contents should be made by this process to an other- wise similar analysis to the previous heats, to ascertain whether craze-cracks still oc- curred and if they did, determine, by EDAX analysis, whether the constituents of the craze-crack infiling differed in composition. A heat was accordingly made bj duction melting, refined in a special ladle using the LMR® process, and a test casting poured, adopting the same conditions as previously described except that on this oc- casion only two mould paints were used (viz. silica and zircon flour). On inspection the unpainted surfaces were no worse, how- ever, than the two painted surfaces and, in general, surface quality was poor, and indi- cations of craze-cracking were only just de- tectable in the as-cast condition. Sections through the craze-cracks after heat treat- ment showed heavy formation of internal ox- ides near the surface but apart from this observation no significant changes were noted. Further Electron Metallographic Studies Further to the detailed analytical study carried out on defects from the first test casting, similar studies have been made on samples extracted from the second and third test castings. All six different faces of both castings (i.e. four painted surfaces plus two non-painted flanges) were samples and the results of these studies are given in Table vil. Apart from recording the actual num- ber of cracks found per linear centimetre, Craze-Cracking of Low Alloy Steel Castings two critical depth parameters were recorded. First, the mean crack depth: this is the aver- age depth of crack, as observed in the SEM, caloulated over a 3-4 om section of sample. The second parameter, the "maximum sul- phide change depth" corresponds to the lo- cation of the first sulphide found below the tip of the crack which contains a significant and detectable quantity of manganese. In summary, all these samples showed similar grain boundary composi- tions, i.e. they all exhibited iron-rich, man- ganese- free sulphides in the cracks and manganese-richer sulphides deeper into the bulk at varying depths of approximately 200 um. Further to this broad study, selected crack nuclei have been opened up by nick- fracturing to reveal interesting fractographic features. Fig. 16 shows the general fracto- graphic features of a crack taken from the second test casting: the thick, main oxide at the top, the band of intemal oxidation re- vealed just above the crack tip, the crack tip itself and the large, flat dimpled region of overload. Figs. 17 to 21 show the detailed structure of these different regions. Of par- ticular note is the shape, distribution and composition of the sulphide particles. They are plate-like and faceted and in keeping with the analytical data obtained from micro- sections, the predominance of iron-rich sul- phides remains to a depth below the tip of the crack. The features of the iron-suiphide shown in Fig. 21 (flat, smooth and rounded ‘edges, faceted surface) are all indicative of a liquid-phase, thin film that has solidified into isolated particles, A similar sample was re-examined after the annealing and normalising stages of heat treatment. In this case the crack had grown to approximately 1700 ym - grain- boundary grooving was very evident and the ‘crack morphology was very typical of a craze-crack. Furthermore, EDAX analyses ‘of grain-boundary particles could only find Man-rich particles below the crack tip - the Page 9crack had presumably extended, during heat treatment, along that part of the grain boundary containing the Fe-rich sulphides - an important observation. DISCUSSION Figure 15 schematically illustrates the findings of the electron metallographic studies. Based on this evidence and that from supporting optical metallography, the following observations are made: + crack nuclei form during or just after solidification because they are present in as-cast material to a depth, in this case, of approximately 200 ym; with primary, inter-dendritic, high-angle grain boundaries; + such boundaries contain iron-rich suk phide particles near the cast surface and these particles become less iron- rich and more Mn-rich with increasing istance from the cast surface. + These observations allow the following hypothesis to be put forward for the formation of craze-cracking in low alloy steel castings. 1. Rapid solidification of the chilled layer adjacent to the mould wall prevents the formation of thermodynamically- stable and stoichiometric manganese sulphide particles. Instead the sul- phur, arriving at the inter-dendritic boundaries, forms iron or iron/chro- mium sulphides. The present of nickel in the steel may well affect the activity of these elements thus suppressing the formation of MnS. 2, In the presence of these active, low- meting iron-based sulphides, the boundary's cohesive strength is much reduced such that small intergranular Craze-Cracking of Low Alloy Steel Castings 5. fissures open up under the action of a tensile stress. The depth of this crack- ing will depend not only on the actual chemistry and contents of the bound- ary but also on the magnitude and di- rection of that tensile stress field. Any low meiting point oxide (e.g fayalite), existing at the mould-metal interface is then free to enter the crack. The removal or lowering of oxygen, or the creation of reducing conditions at the mouidimetal inter- face, will, therefore, reduce the sus- ceptibilty to craze-cracking. The V-shaped crack, partially filled with fayalite, creates an oxygen gra- dient within the defect and allows oxygen to diffuse in from the boundary at different rates into the adjacent ma- trix. The observation that the particles are larger in size and fewer in number towards the mouth of the crack is con- sistent with the fact that the rate of ‘oxygen diffusion into the metal will be proportional to the extemal partial pressure of oxygen in the crack’ ‘Subsequent heat treatment can then cause these crack nuclei to propagate. The extent of propagation will depend on the level of residual stress in the surface and the chemistry and con- tents of the grain boundaries. Pref- erential oxidation of the grain boundary region, causing grain boundary grooving, may also have a stress concentrating effect and so in- crease the risk of propagation. This hypothesis is based upon the ‘authors’ own observations and on the fac- tual evidence coming from the electron-opti- cal and X-ray analyses. In essence, the shape, form and morphology of the intemal oxide halo surrounding the defect is the strongest evidence we have for suggesting that the cracks are rapidly grown fissures rather than slowly propagating cracks. Their Page 10distribution strongly suggests that the crack nuclei have instantaneously appeared and that differential oxygen diffusion has sub- sequently taken place from oxygen supplied from within the fissure. These observations are similar to those reported 4 By workers in the field of internal oxidation The intergranular nature of this craze- cracking means by definition that its forma- tion must be connected, directly or indirectly, with the nucleation and growth conditions prevailing at the time in the surface layers of the casting. The fact that itis a grain bound- ary event governs its form. That is, the cell size of the craze-cracking on the surface of the casting must reflect the underlying pri- mary dendritic structure. In tum, the den- dritic structure reflects the prevailing solidification conditions. Within any particu- lar casting, crystal growth conditions will vary depending upon the temperature gra- dient and the solidification rate which, in tum, depends upon section thickness and the location of ingates and risers. So, it does not seem too unreasonable to imagine that the severity of craze-cracking could vary from area to area for a particular cast- ing. Reference should be made back to Case Study 1, where cracking was reported to be most frequent on the heavier sections. Case studies 3 and 4 are also relevant: in the casting of a tapered plate it was invari- ably the top, and thickest part, of the plate that suffered most extensive cracking. Such an area will have experienced a longer total solidification time and a thicker columnar growth region. By contrast, the non-tapered plate in Case 3 did not show any cracking. It is worth briefly considering the physical consequences of a grain-boundary containing a range of different compositional sulphides. Such sulphides form variable substitutional chemistries from pure FeS and CrS through (Fe, Cr)S and (Fe, Cr, Mn)S to stable MnS. Such sulphides will, therefore, have a range of melting points (e.g. FeS:988°C, CrS:1350°C, MnS:1580°C) and will influence the properties of a bound- CCraze-Cracking of Low Alloy Steel Castings ary in a selective manner. For instance, at a particular temperature, the cohesive strength of the boundary may well increase depth, i.e. for a particular level of ap- plied stress, the boundary will ear open to a certain depth. Boundaries most susceptible to cracking will be normal to any tensile stress field that might be present. During the Case Studies (e.9. Case 5) various references have been made to the type of moulding material used. The signi- ficance is believed to be their influence upon initial solidification conditions. Zircon sands have a significantly higher chilling factor than silica sands. This will naturally in- crease the initial rate of solidification near the surface and extend the columnar growth region, which will cause the FeS embrittle- ment to reach a greater depth, resulting in deeper craze-cracking. This idea is further supported by the fact that copper-chilled i gots have suffered from craze-cracking’. The level or distribution of residual stress in @ casting is thought to play some part. Reference should be made to the test castings made by SCRATA and the suppor- ting electron metallographic evidence from Castings 2 and 3 (see Table Vil). As re- ported area, the composition and depths of sulphides in the boundaries of respective samples were found to be very simi However, test casting No. 3 did not exhibit any significant cracking after heat treatment whereas test casting No. 2 did. Perhaps the early knock-out has altered the level or dis- tribution of residual stress in the surtace of the casting. This is a tentative suggestion but is considered to be the only plausible ex- planation why early knock-out should be benefici based upon the hypothesis stated here. Russian workers® have reported that for craze-cracking to occur three basic re- quirements must be met:- ()_anaggressive gaseous environment; Page 11(li) surface stressing action; (ii) grain boundary inclusions which pre- cipitate during the initial stages of cooling. ‘These workers highlighted intergranu- lar aluminium nitride as the most likely cause of grain boundary embrittlement. Whilst they report that hot tensile tests simu- lated the cracking conditions, the results only seem to propose a conventional sur- face “rock-candy" embrittlement effect whi has been well researched elsewhere’? and is usually associated with a bulk effect. Bo- strom’, on the other hand, reports a very typical set of observations: crack depths up to § mm, grain boundaries surrounded by finely dispersed inclusions (j.¢. halo of inter- nal oxides) and also the occurrence of FeS (and no Mn-rich particles) within the cracks. By simulated heat treatment trials he con- firmed that the “intemal oxides cannot form during normal heat treatment of the casting but must have formed at higher tempera- tures after pouring’. This is in keeping with ‘our own evidence: during the paint trials, the internal oxide sub-scale was most no- ticeable after soaking at 1400°C. Grain-boundary grooving, which usually accompanies serious cases of craze-cracking, can only act as a surface stress-raiser. We believe, as others have reported’, that the grooving results from preferential grain boundary oxidation during conventional heat treatment cycles. Its for- mation may be a contributory factor in the propagation of crack nuclei during heat treatment. Grain-boundary grooving is con- sidered to be only a secondary event and not the prime cause of craze-cracking. Without any precise quantitative data for all of these selected cases itis difficult to specify actual conditions which deter craze- cracking. However, there would appear to be some commonality in the cases exam- ined, insofar as a relationship could exist be- tween initial freezing rate (temperature Craze-Cracking of Low Alloy Stee! Castings gradient) and overall cooling rate (mass ef- fect). Further dedicated research is needed to determine whether such a relationship exists. CONCLUSIONS 1. Craze-cracking, normally an unpre- dictable foundry-related phenomenon, ‘can be reproduced within a foundry la- oratory. ‘Small intergranular fissures are be- lieved to form during the early stages of solidification due to the presence of ‘embrittling iron or iron-chromium sul- phides which drastically reduce the hot strength of the rapidly cooled sur- face layers. The fissures are then subject to penetration by low melting point oxides. 3. The phenomenon is not related to any specific metalmould wash interface (ie. it occurred on both painted and unpainted sands), but it appeared to be more prevalent with zircon sand thatwith silica sand moulds. 4. Extended time in the mould appears to influence the extent and degree of cracking (ie. an early knock-out is beneficial). 5. Heat treatment does not cause craze- cracking - it merely accentuates the depth of cracks which already exist. 6. Stee! composition obviously plays its part but exactly how is still a matter of conjecture. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thanks are especially due to M C Rayner, RARDE, for his analytical work with the SEMEDAX techniques. Thanks are also due to the Director of SCRATA for his permission to publish this paper. Page 12REFERENCES 1. 10. 1 P H Morley and E J Ridal. Surface Crazing in Low Alloy Steel Castings- 12. a Literature Review. SCRATA Journal of Research, 1984 (67) Dec 8-16. CS Kortovich and J F Wallace. 13. Influence of Mould Coatings on Stee! Casting Surface Quality and Properties. Stee! Foundry Facts 1970, Dec 16-30. Y Bostrom. External Cracks in Steel Castings. Stoperitende 1971 37 61 (SCRATA Translation No. T.685/CMH). P V Chemogoroy, V | Shuestov, AF Startsev, and others. Causes of Crazing on Steel Castings. Russian Castings Production 1971 (8) 323-324, A Yu. Katargin and others. Causes of Crazing on Castings. Russian Castings Production 1972 283. J Bird. Unpublished MOD (PE) Report, 1977. R Hawkins. RARDE, Sevenoaks, private communication, Dec 1982. Felton. Private communication, July 1978. ‘SCRATA Final Report against MOD Contract No. FVE/13A/1232. The Craze-Cracking of Cast Steels, Nov 1984. (Commercial in confidence). MC Ashton, S G Sharman and B J | Sims. New Technology - Conception | to Application. SCRATA Journal of Research 1983 (61) June 7-22. P Kofstad. High Temperature | Craze Cracking of Low Alloy Steel Castings Oxidation of Metals. Wiley, New York, 1966. S ABradford. Formation and Composition of intemal Oxides in Dilute Iron Alloys. Trans AIME 1964 230 Oct 1400-1405. NH Croft. Intergranular Fracture in Cast Steels. SCRATA Journal of Research, 1982 (56) Mar 8-28. Page 13‘TABLE I - Chemical compositions of various steel castings (wt. %). Text c | s [mm |e | s jc jm | Nw | a fou} v ret Shaw casing | Case1 | 035 | 050 | 060 |oors |oo2 | 120 | 043 | 395) wa | ma | na K103 | a7 | ose | 058 |oos joo | 141 | 048 | 3.27 | 0025 | 014 | 0.09 Ki72 | case | a27 | 040 | 1.02 ]oors |oors | r4r | 045 | 327 | 0019 | 0.17 | 008 pro o27 | ost | ost | aor foo | 193 | 048 | 3st | cost | os | oo7 | 1849 | Figs 5-6 a i 099 joo foots | 139 | o47 | 318 ] ma | ma | na ‘a= nat analysed TABLE Il - Mould paints used for experimental work. Mould paint Type Constituents w% No. 1 Wards Mould Dress Zaoon flour resin 2 Pid Water 35.58 Sodium Aginate oe Kordek (dextine) ‘bond No. 5 (ealldlay) 1.68 icon tour e098 3 Silica Silica tour ‘ Zircon Zion tour 7 2.5% solution of sodium carboxy-methy-celdose Sodium hexa-meta-phosphate | 1 Water 7 5 Zircon + ton Oxide Zircon tour 7 25% solon of sodium carboxy methy/-celuase ‘Sodium hexameta-phosprate | 1 Waler + 10% FeO 7 (Paints 1, 2and 3 were commercial paints; 4 and S were made at SCRATA)Table III - Details of sand mix used for, production of castings at SCRATA. Zircon sand Zircon tour Dextrine ‘Wyoming bentonite Water Mould dred Green compression strength Dry compression strength Permeability 73.53% 24.51% 0.49% 147% 4h 5% 200-250°C. 7-stoin® 200Ib/n? <2 TABLE IV - Target Analysis and results of spectrographic analyses of steels for castings made at SCRATA. casting | Heat coeniat Composition, wt % wo, [wo fe ss om oe 8 cr mm om al ce YW ar eo 0° 7 + [oars fo.2s 0.76 0.65 0,020 0.021 1.65 0.46 3.78 0,049 0.041 0.10 - + on oor 2 [avez lors 0.36 0.61 0.021 0.013 1.84 0.43 3.74 0.025 0,05 0.10 0.067 0,001 0.012 0.0084 0.0184 5 [ave forzy 0.25 0.88 0.016 0.016 1.71 0.39 3.68 0.050 0.046 0.085 0.007 0.023 0.008 9.0087 0.0177 1 |raes folze 0°34 1.16 0.018 0.007 1.68 0.48 3.79 0.034 0.069 0.105 0.059 0,020 0.009 0.005 0.005 Target 0.26- 0.30- 0,50- 0,015: 0,010- 1.5+ 0.40 3.70- 0,02 0.18 0.07- 0.01 0.005 0.30 0.60 0.70 0.005 0.015 1.8 0.50 4.0 0,04 nex 0.10TABLE VI - Sulphide analyses (by weight). Location 4s wer ‘zat Fe NI tin crack fa) 13600) 44 075 7s 26 Just below tip 166 93 287 460 jou Primary boundary 24 16 387 383 10 atin matic 282 47 sr 97 on {a) average of three suits; (b) range 6.8 10 21.1%S ‘TABLE V - Heat treatment and MPI examination stages for castings made at SCRATA. Ascast MPI ‘Anneal 6 hours 1050°C, FC MPL Normatise 6 hours 940°C, AC MPI Harden 4 hours 870°C, 00 MPL Temper 6 hours 500°C, WO NPITABLE VII - Crack-depth and sulphide compositional data for Test Castings Nos. 2 and 3 Test Casting No. 2 (A782) | Test Casting No.3 (A794) No.oferacks | Meancrack | Max.sulphide | No.oferacks | Meancrack | Max. sulphide | pertinear depth change depth | per linear ‘depth change depth ‘Surface examined em (um) (um) om (um) (um) Paint 2(P 1d} 22 167 20 oe 300 Paint 3 (Sica) feaasee 182 170 34 150 160 Paint 4 (Zircon) 2 | 206 235 19 105 155 Paint 5 (Zircon & Fes0s) 7 207 280 23 188 305 Wide-end tlange a 220 255 5 152 207 Narrow-end ange 2 155 ms | 6 108 180Fig. 1 Atypical example of a craze-cracked steel casting atter light grinding (Mag x 1.8),Fig. 2 Typical general microstructure of craze-crack. Note its wedge-shaped fom and the halo of particles surrounding it. (Mag. x 0). Fig. 3 A fractured cast stee! sample showing the blackened, intergranular facets near the surface (bottom) of the costing. Scale = om),Fig. 4a Macto-eiched, full-thickness section from a 125 mm cast steel plate from Cast 01549 (see Table 1). Note that ‘the deep craze-cracking (up to 5 mm) is only on the as-cast face: the opposite face had been machined prior to heat treatment. (Scale = 1 cm). Fig. 4b Optical micrograph of a short craze-crack from Fig. 4a showing the wedge-shaped nature of the defect. (Mag. x 100).Fig. 4c Detail of Fig. ab showing the microstructure of the halo of subcutaneous particles which surround the croze-crack, (Mag. x 400). Fig. 5 ‘Afurther detail of Fig. 4a showing how the dressing operation (sand-blasting, in this case) has burred-over the mouth of the crack. (Mag: x 100).Fig. 6 Reaction zone from a silica painted surface which had been heated to 1050°C- note the well-defined decarburised layer. (Mag. x 1000). Fig.7 Reaction zone trom a Zircon painted surface heated to 1050°C - note the diffuse decorburised layer. (Mag. x 100). Fig. 8 Reaction zone from a surface painted with zircon (plus FeOa) ond heated to 1400°C - note the presence of subcutaneous particles within the well-defined decarburised layer. (Mag. x 200).st 12" 3 ‘Thermocouple Nos. 1 to 4 positioned approximately %"' behind Mould Cavity Wall ‘Thermocouple Nos. 5 to 8 positioned in core en Fig. 9 Design of Test Casting showing location of thermocouples.Fig. 10 The Test Casting in the lightly fettled condition with runners and risers removed.pores 6 TON Bins y=, (v "ev wryrsod apcrooou=) Zon Bupa AEAL JO aye Se 0059 9e ancy y ums © rN BIER 3591, se pun Z aEN Bury ISL, AN sOF soruTO AsrTooy, uta cot (20) axaFig. 12 Test Casting No. 1 in the as-cast condition after MPI, revealing presence of craze-cracks. Fig. 130 Casting No. 1 after a 1050°C homogenising treatment. Compare extent of cracking to that shown in Fig. 12Fig. 136 Test Casting No.1 after a 1050°C homogenising and a 850°C austenttising treatment. Compare the extent of cracking to Figs. 12 and 130. Fig. 13¢ Test Casting No. 2 in the as-cast condition showing craze-cracking on the wide-flange, non-painted, end-face. ‘Actual size).As-cast surface oF Fig. 14 Scanning Electron Micrograph of a typical craze-crack found in Test Casting No. |‘soanqeay poyeyoosse pue yoeso-oze19 Yeoydky & Jo uoTyeqUOSoadas oTyeUOYDS st "Sta é sopryd rs Axepunoq cgi paxtur ut fod Tres Axeurad Ha"IVOs Sopfxo Jo (tssodstp outy L$ sopryd tis Wry aprxo soptyd tn: WH-TS yoTd-o4 sopyxo (ouroaur _——_paseydl=tenp 9si%09 aprxo __ upti-og oovjang 3svo-sy Bushoou JANG. is ‘D Aavpunog uTergFig. 18 General view of defect, opened up by nick-tracturing, from Test Casting No. 2 (Paint §) showing four distinct . regions, From the top, these are @ the smooth surface of the main oxide at the mouth of the crack. GW the roughened, mixed fracture from the intemal oxide zone Gifine. fibrils of oxide growth down to the tio of the original defect, and Gvithe coarse. flat, ductile, dimpled intergranular fracture, at the bottor ‘which was ‘opened up" duting nick-fracturing, fractured intemal oxide zone tip of original defect “Fiat. dimples with eS) -porticles. Fig. 17 Detail from Fig. 16 showing features adjacent to the tip of the original crack.Fig. 18 * Detail of tne fractured intemat-oxide zone; showing ductile dimple failure on both sides of the main crack (A ond B) as wel as oxide whisker growth on the surface of the oxide in the original crack (C) Fig. 19 Detail of the tip of the original defect showing the flat shape of the iron-rich sulphides.Fig. 20 + Asin Fig, 19, but additionally showing presence of both fragmented sulphides ond sulphides which actuoly ‘bridge the original defect with the overloaded part of the fracture. Fig. 21 Detail of an iron-sulphide. Note its flat shope. its smooth, rounded edges and its faceted surface - all of which are indicative of the solidification of a liquid. thin fm.