EqualAreaCriterion

1.0Developmentofequalareacriterion
Asinpreviousnotes,allpowersareinperunit.
I want to show you the equal area criterion a little
differentlythanthebookdoesit.
LetsstartfromEq.(2.43)inthebook.

2 H d 2
= Pm Pe = Pa
2

Re dt

(1)

Note in (1) that the book calls Re as R; however, we

needtouse377(fora60Hzsystem).
Wecanalsowrite(1)as

2 H d
= Pm Pe = Pa

Re dt

(2)

Nowmultiplythelefthandsidebyandtherighthand
sidebyd/dt(recall=d/dt)toget:

H d
d
2
= [Pm Pe ]
dt
Re dt
1

(3)

Note:

d (t ) 2
d (t )
= 2 (t )
dt
dt

(4)

Substitutionof(4)intothelefthandsideof(3)yields:

H d 2
d
= [Pm Pe ]

dt
Re dt

(5)

(6)

Multiplybydttoobtain:

Re

d 2 = [Pm Pe ]d

Now consider a change in the state such that the angle

goes from 1 to 2 while the speed goes from 1 to 2.
Integrate(6)toobtain:

22

2
d

Re

2
1

[P

Pe ]d

(7)

Note the variable of integration on the left is 2. This

resultsin
2

Re

2
2

] [P

12 =

Pe ]d

(8)

Thelefthandsideof(8)isproportionaltothechangein
kinetic energy between the two states, which can be
shown
more
explicitly
by
substituting
H=Wk/SB=(1/2)JR2/SBinto(8),forH:

2
1 JR2
22 12 = [Pm Pe ]d

2 S BRe
1

(8a)

1 2 1 2
J2 J1 = [Pm Pe ]d

S BRe 2
2

2
R

(8b)

Returning to (8), let 1 be the speed at the initial

momentofthefault(t=0+,=1),and2bethespeedat
themaximumangle(=r),asshowninFig.1below.
Notethatthefactthatweidentifyamaximumangle=r
indicatesanimplicitassumptionthattheperformanceis
stable. Therefore the following development assumes
stableperformance.
3

Pm1
Pe
Pm3
Pm

Pe1
Pm2
Pe3
Pe2
1 3c

90

r m

180

Fig.1
Since speed is zero at t=0, it remains zero at t=0+. Also,
since r is the maximum angle, the speed is zero at this
pointaswell.Therefore,theangleandspeedforthetwo
pointsofinteresttousare(notethedualmeaningof1:
itislowervariableofintegration;itisinitialangle):
1=1

=r

1=0

2=0


Therefore,(8)becomes:

Re

2
2

12 = 0 =

[P

Pe ]d

(9a)

Wehavedevelopedacriterionundertheassumptionof
stableperformance,andthatcriterionis:
r

[P

Pe ]d = 0

(9b)

Recalling that Pa=PmPe, we see that (9b) says that for

stable performance, the integration of the accelerating
powerfrominitialangletomaximumanglemustbezero.
Recalling again (8b), which indicated the lefthandside
was proportional to the change in the kinetic energy
between the two states, we can say that (9b) indicates
thattheacceleratingenergymustexactlycounterbalance
thedeceleratingenergy.
InspectionofFig.1indicatesthattheintegrationof(9b)
includesadiscontinuityatthemomentwhenthefaultis
5

cleared, at angle =c. Therefore we need to break up

theintegrationof(9b)asfollows:

[P

Pe 2 ]d + [Pm Pe3 ]d = 0
c

(10)

(11)

(12)

Takingthesecondtermtotherighthandside:
c

[P

Pe 2 ]d = [Pm Pe3 ]d
c

Carryingthenegativeinsidetherightintegral:
c

[P

Pe 2 ]d =

[P

e3

Pm ]d

Observingthatthesetwotermseachrepresentareason
the powerangle curve, we see that we have developed
the socalled equalarea criterion for stability. This
criterion says that stable performance requires that the
acceleratingareabeequaltothedeceleratingarea,i.e.,

A1 = A2
6

(13)

where
A1 =

[P

Pe 2 ]d

(13a)

Pm ]d

(13b)

A2 =

[P

e3

Figure2illustrates.
Pm1
Pe
Pm3
A2
Pm
Pm2

Pe1

A1

Pe3
Pe2
1 3c

90
Fig.2
7

r m

180

Figure2indicatesawaytoidentifythemaximumswing
angle, r. Given a particular clearing angle c, which in
turnfixesA1,themachineanglewillcontinuetoincrease
untilitreachesananglersuchthatA2=A1.
2.0Moreseverestabilityperformance
Stability performance become more severe, or moves
closertoinstability,whenA1increases,orifavailableA2
decreases.WeconsiderA2asbeingboundedfromabove
by m, because, as we have seen in previous notes,
cannot exceed m because >m results in more
acceleratingenergy,notmoredeceleratingenergy.Thus
we speak of the available A2 as being the area within
Pe3Pmboundedontheleftbycandontherightbym.
Contributing factors to increasing A1, and/or decreasing
availableA2,aresummarizedinthefollowingfourbullets
andcorrespondingillustrations.

1. Pmincreases:A1increases,availableA2decreases
Pm1
Pe
Pm3
A2
Pm
Pm2

Pe1

A1

Pe3
Pe2
1 3c

90
Fig.3

r m

180

2. Pe2decreases:A1increases.
Pm1
Pe
Pm3
A2
Pm
Pm2

Pe1

A1

Pe3
Pe2
1 3c

90
Fig.4

10

r m

180

3. tcincreases:A1increases,availableA2decreases
Pm1
Pe
Pm3
A2
Pm
Pm2

Pe1

A1

Pe3
Pe2
1 3c

90
Fig.5

11

r m

180

4. Pe3decreases:availableA2decreases.
Pm1
Pe
Pm3
A2
Pm
Pm2

Pe1

A1

Pe3
Pe2
1 3c

90

r m

180

Fig.6
3.0Instabilityandcriticalclearingangle/time
Instability occurs when available A2<A1. This situation is
illustratedinFig.7.

12

Pm1
Pe
Pm3
A2
Pm
Pm2

Pe1

A1

Pe3
Pe2
1 3

180

Fig.7
ConsiderationofFig.7raisesthefollowingquestion:Can
we express the maximum clearing angle for marginal
stability, cr, as a function of Pm and attributes of the
threepoweranglecurves,Pe1,Pe2,andPe3?
The answer is yes, by applying the equal area criterion
andlettingc=crandr=m.Thesituationisillustratedin
Fig.8.
13

Pm1
Pe
Pm3
A2
Pm
Pm2

Pe1

A1

Pe3
Pe2
1 3 cr

180

Fig.8
ApplyingA1=A2,wehavethat
cr

[P

Pe 2 ]d =

[P

e3

cr

14

Pm ]d

(14)

Theapproachtosolvethisisasfollows(thisis#7inyour
homework#3):
1. SubstitutePe2=PM2sin,Pe3=PM3sin
2. Dosomealgebra.
3. Define r1=PM2/PM1, r2=PM3/PM1, which is the same as
r1=X1/X2,r2=X1/X3.
4. Thenyouobtain:

Pm
( m 1 ) + r2 cos m r1 cos1
P
cos cr = M 1

r2 r1

(15)

Andthisisequation(2.51)inyourtext.
Yourtext,section2.8.2,illustratesapplicationof(15)for
the examples 2.4 and 2.5 (we also worked these
examples in the notes called ClassicalModel). We will
do a slightly different example here but using the same
system.

15

Example: Consider the system of examples 2.32.5 in

yourtext,butassumethatthefaultis
Atthemachineterminalsr1=PM2/PM1=0.
Temporary(nolineoutage)r2=PM3/PM1=1.
The prefault swing equation, given by equation (19) of
thenotescalledClassicalModel,is

2 H &&
(t ) = 0.8 2.223 sin

Re

(16)

with H=5. Since the fault is temporary, the postfault

equationisalsogivenby(16)above.
Since the fault is at the machine terminals, then the
faultonswingequationhasPe2=0,resultingin:

2 H &&
(t ) = 0.8

Re

(17)

With r1=0 and r2=1, the equation for critical clearing

angle(15)becomes:

cos cr =

Pm
( m 1 ) + cos m
PM 1
16

(18)

Recallm=1;substitutinginto(18)resultsin

Pm
( 21 ) + cos( 1 )
cos cr =
PM 1

(17)

Recall the trig identity that cos(x)=cos(x). Then (17)

becomes:

Pm
( 21 ) cos1
cos cr =
PM 1

(18)

Inthespecificexampleofinteresthere,wecansolvefor
1fromtheprefaultswingequation,with0acceleration,
accordingto

0 = 0.8 2.223 sin 1

1 = 0.3681rad = 21.0925

(19)

In this case, because the prefault and postfault power

angle curves are the same, m is determined from 1
accordingto

m = 180 1 = 180 21.0925 = 158.9075

ThisisillustratedinFig.9.
17

(20)

PM1
Pe

Pm

Pe1

cr

180

Fig.9
From (16), we see that Pm=0.8 and PM1=2.223, and (18)
canbeevaluatedas

cos cr =

Pm
( 21 ) cos1
PM 1

0.8
( 2(0.3681)) cos(0.3681)
2.223

= 0.8656 0.9330 = 0.0674

18

Thereforecr=1.6382rad=93.86.
Itisinterestingtonotethatinthisparticularcase,wecan
also express the clearing time corresponding to any
clearing angle c by performing two integrations of the
swingequation.

2 H d 2
= Pm Pe
2

Re dt

(21)

(22)

Forafaultatthemachineterminals,Pe=0,so

2 H d 2
d 2 Re
= Pm 2 =
Pm
2
dt
2H
Re dt

Thus we see that for the condition of fault at the

machineterminals,theaccelerationisaconstant.Thisis
whatallowsustosuccessfullyobtaintinclosedform,as
follows.

19

Integrate(22)fromt=0tot=t:

Re
d 2
0 dt 2 dt = 0 2 H Pm dt
t

dt

t =t

=
t =0

Re
2H

Pmt

(23)

The lefthandside of (23) is speed. Speed at t=0 is 0.

Therefore

d Re
=
Pm t
dt 2 H

(24)

(25)

Nowperformanotherintegrationof(24):

Re
d
dt
=
0 dt
0 2 H Pm t
t

The lefthandside of (25) is actually an integration with

respect to , but we need to change the integration
limitsaccordingly,where(t=0)=1,toget
(t )

d =

Re
2H
20

Pm tdt

(26)

Performingtheintegrationresultsin

Re

t2
Pm
(t ) 1 =
2H
2

(27)

(28)

Solvingfortyields:

4H
( (t ) 1 )
t=
Re Pm

So we obtain the time t corresponding to any clearing

angle c, when fault is temporary (no loss of a
component)andfaultisatmachineterminals,using(28),
bysetting(t)=c.
Returningtoourexample,wherewehadPm=0.8,H=5sec,
1=0.3681rad, and cr=1.6382rad=93.86, we can
computecriticalclearingtimetcraccordingto

4(5)
(1.6382 0.3681) = 0.2902
tcr =
(377 )(0.8)
Theunitsshouldbeseconds,andwecancheckthisfrom
(28)accordingtothefollowing:

21

sec
(rad ) = sec
( rad / sec)( pu )
IhaveusedmyMatlabnumericalintegrationtooltotest
theabovecalculation.Ihaverunthreecases:
tc=0.28seconds
tc=0.2902seconds
tc=0.2903seconds
Results for angles are shown in Fig. 10, and results for
speedsareshowninFig.11.

22


Fig.11
25
tclear=0.2903 seconds
20
15

Speed (rad/sec)

tclear=0.2902 seconds
10
5
0
-5
-10
tclear=0.28 seconds
-15
0

0.5

1.5

2
2.5
3
Time (seconds)

Fig.12
23

3.5

4.5

Some interesting observations can be made for the two

plotsinFigs.11and12.
Intheplotsofangle:
Theplotofasteriskshasclearingtime0.2903seconds
which exceeds the critical clearing time of 0.2902
secondsbyjustalittle.Butitisenough;exceedingitby
anyamountatallwillcauseinstability,wheretherotor
angleincreaseswithoutbound.
The plot with clearing time 0.28 second looks almost
sinusoidal, with relatively sharp peaks. In contrast,
notice how the plot with clearing time 0.2902 second
(thecriticalclearingtime)hasveryroundedpeaks.This
istypical:asacaseisdrivenmoreclosetothemarginal
stabilitypoint,thepeaksbecomemorerounded.
Intheplotsofspeed:
Thespeedincreaseslinearlyduringthefirst~0.280.29
seconds of each plot. This is because the accelerating
power is constant during this time period, i.e., Pa=Pm,
since the fault is at the machine terminals (and
thereforePe=0).
24

 Inthesolidplot(clearingtime0.28seconds),thespeed
passes straight through the zero speed axis with a
constant deceleration; in this case, the turnaround
pointonthepoweranglecurve(wherespeedgoesto
zero) is a point having angle less than m. But in the
dashedplot(clearingtime0.2902seconds),thespeed
passes through the zero speed axis with decreasing
deceleration; in this case, the turnaround point on
thepoweranglecurve(wherespeedgoestozero)isa
pointhavingangleequaltom.Thispoint,whereangle
equals m, is the unstable equilibrium point. You can
perhapsbestunderstandwhatishappeninghereifyou
think about a pendulum. If it is at rest (at its stable
equilibriumpoint),andyougiveitapush,itwillswing
upwards. The harder you push it, the closer it gets to
its unstable equilibrium point, and the more slowly it
decelerates as it turns around. If you push it just
right, then it will swing right up to the unstable
equilibriumpoint,hoverthereforabit,andthenturn
aroundandcomeback.

25

 In the speed plot of asterisks, corresponding to

clearing time of 0.2902 seconds, the speed increases,
and then decreases to zero, where it hovers for a bit,
and then goes back positive, i.e., it does not turn
aroundatall.Thisisequivalenttothesituationwhere
you have pushed the pendulum just a little harder so
that it reaches the unstable equilibrium point, hovers
forabit,andthenfallstheotherway.
It is interesting that the speed plot of asterisks
(corresponding to clearing time of 0.2902 seconds)
increasestoabout24rad/secatabout1.4secondand
thenseemstoturnaround.Whatisgoingonhere?To
get a better look at this, I have plotted this to 5
seconds,asshowninFig.13.

26


Fig.13
In Fig. 13, we observe that the oscillatory behavior
continuesforever,butthatoscillatorybehavioroccurs
about a linearly increasing speed. This oscillatory
behavior may be understood in terms of the power
anglecurve,asshowninFig.14.

27

Power

Deceleratingenergy
Pe

Pm

Acceleratingenergy
Fig.14
WeseethatFig.14indicatesthatthemachinedoesin
fact cycle between a small amount of decelerating
energy and a much larger amount of accelerating
energy, and this causes the oscillatory behavior. The
fact that, each cycle, the accelerating energy is much
larger than the decelerating energy is the reason why
thespeedisincreasingwithtime.

28

You can think about this in terms of the pendulum: if

you give it a push so that it goes over the top, if
therearenolosses,thenitwillcontinuetogoround
andround.Inthiscase,however,theaveragevelocity
would not increase but would be constant. This is
because our analogy of a onepush differs from the
generatorcase,wherethegeneratorisbeingpushed
continuously by the mechanical power into the
machine.
You should realize that Fig. 14 fairly reflects what is
happening in our plot of Fig. 13, i.e., it appropriately
represents our model. However, it differs from what
would actually happen in a synchronous machine. In
reality,oncetheanglereaches180degrees,therotor
magnetic field would be reconfigured with respect to
the stator magnetic field. This is called slipping a
pole. Most generators have outofstep protection
thatisabletodeterminewhenthishappensandwould
thentripthemachine.

29

4.0Afewadditionalcomments
4.1Criticalclearingtime
Critical clearing time, or critical clearing angle, was very
importantmanyyearsagowhenprotectiverelayingwas
veryslow,andtherewasgreatmotivationforincreasing
relaying speed. Part of that motivation came from the
desiretolowerthecriticalclearingtime.Today,however,
weuseprotectionwiththefastestclearingtimesandso
thereistypicallynooptiontoincreaserelayingtimes.
Perhaps of most importance, however, is to recognize
that critical clearing time has never been a good
operationalperformanceindicatorbecauseclearingtime
isnotadjustableonceaprotectivesystemisinplace.
4.2 Smallsystems
What we have done applies to a onemachineinfinite
bus system. It also applies to a 2generator system (see
problem 2.14 in the book). It does not apply to
multimachinesystems,exceptinaconceptualsense.

30

4.2 Multimachinesystems
Wewillseethatnumericalintegrationistheonlywayto
analyzemultimachinesystems.Wewilltakeabrieflook
atthisinthenextlecture.

31