Professional Documents
Culture Documents
a
Vietnam Atomic Energy Agency, 59 Ly Thuong Kiet, Hanoi, Viet Nam
Institute for Nuclear Science and Technology, Cau giay, Hanoi 5T-160, Viet Nam
c
Upper Air Meteorology Station, Hanoi, Viet Nam
Abstract
Twenty-four hour samples of air particulate matter with aerodynamic diameters from 2 to 10 mm (PM10) and
o2.5 mm (PM2.5) were collected in Hanoi throughout 1 year since August 1998. The air sampler was located in a
meteorological garden where routine surface observations and upper air radiosoundings were conducted. Very high
PM2.5 and PM2.510 concentrations were observed in conjunction with the occurrence of nocturnal radiation inversions
from October to December and subsidence temperature inversions (STI) from January to March. In the rst case, the
PM2.510 fraction was much enhanced and particulate pollution was signicantly higher at night than in daytime.
During the occurence of STIs particulate mass was almost evenly distributed among the two fractions and no signicant
diurnal variations in concentrations were observed. In summer (MaySeptember) particulate pollution was much lower
than in winter.
The multiple regression of 24-h particulate concentrations against meteorological parameters for both the winter and
summer monsoon periods shows that the most important determinants of PM2.5 are wind speed and air temperature,
while rainfall and relative humidity largely control the daily variations of PM2.510, indicating the high abundance of
soil dust in this fraction. As to turbulence parameters, among the determinants of 24-h particulate concentrations are
the vertical gradients of potential temperature and wind speed recorded at 06.30 and 18.30, respectively. Meteorological
parameters could explain from 60% to 74% of the day-to-day variations of particulate concentrations. r 2002 Elsevier
Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Coarse and ne particulate matter; Temperature inversions; Meteorology; Diurnal variations; Regression analysis
1. Introduction
The rapid economic development since the introduction of a market orientation reform in the late 1980s has
dramatically changed the face of the 3.5 million
Vietnams capital, Hanoi. In the meantime, uncontrolled
growth of construction works, trafc and small manufacturing activities has resulted in an increasing number
of air pollution sources. Dusty atmosphere is visible,
especially during the dry winter season.
*Corresponding author. Fax: +84-4-9424133.
E-mail address: pdhien@netnam.vn (P.D. Hien).
1352-2310/02/$ - see front matter r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 1 3 5 2 - 2 3 1 0 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 2 9 5 - 9
3474
2. Meteorological conditions
Hanoi is located in the Red River delta in North
Vietnam (21.021N, 105.851E), about 100 km west of the
South China Sea (Figs. 1a and b). Being inuenced by
the Southeast Asia monsoon regime, the climate is
basically tropical and humid. There are two monsoon
seasons, i.e. the northeast monsoon in winter and the
southeast monsoon in summer.
During winter, atmospheric conditions are alternately
affected by air masses from the Highs over Siberia and
East China Sea (Fig. 1a) (Toan and Dac, 1993). Continental air from the Siberia High yields low temperature
and stable atmospheric conditions. As to air humidity, it
depends on the trajectory (continental or marine) of air
masses from the source origin to North Vietnam.
From October to December, northerly to northeasterly ow coming from the inland of China brings
dry and cold air. Nocturnal radiation inversions (NRI)
usually occur on clear and calm nights favouring the
accumulation of dust and air particles in the layer just
above the ground. Conversely, from January to March/
April, with the Siberia High system frequently shifted to
the East, air masses have to travel a long way over the
Pacic Ocean before reaching North Vietnam via the
Gulf of Tonkin. Northeasterly ow of moist-laden air
results in smog, low stratus cloudiness and drizzle. Poor
3. Sampling
Coarse (PM2.510) and ne (PM2.5) particulates were
collected on two separate 47 mm diameter Nuclepore
polycarbonate lters using a Gent stack lter unit (SFU)
following the instruction manual by Maenhaut et al.
(1992). The air sampler head was mounted at 1.6 m
above the ground. The ow rate was kept between 18
and 14 l min1. To mitigate lter clogging an onoff
regime was set for the SFU.
The air sampler is located in the Hanoi meteorological
garden. The expansion of the city over the last two
decades had completely transformed this originally
semi-rural area into a new urban residential setting.
Surface observation parameters were recorded at every
3-hour interval. Balloon radiosondes using a RS80-15G
DigiCORA system were launched twice per day at 06.30
(23:30 GMT) and 18.30 (11:30 GMT), providing
information on vertical proles of air temperature,
relative humidity (RH), dew point, wind speed (WS)
and wind direction. Balloon ascent rate was approximately 5 m s1 with data retrieved every 2 s, yielding a
vertical resolution of about 10 m.
From September 1998 to August 1999, 24-h samples
were taken continuously for the study of the pollution
meteorology relationships. Daytime and nighttime
samples were taken on more than 100 days in winter
199899, providing information on diurnal variations of
particulate pollution. Since September 1999, 24-h
samples were taken twice a week. These samples are
not included in this study.
3475
Fig. 1. High-pressure systems in East Asia in winter (a) and summer (b).
pressure, RH, WS, wind direction and sunshine duration. Rainfall was recorded as a 24-h total value. The
seasonal averages of meteorological parameters are
given in Table 1. For simplicity, the 1 October and 1
May are assigned to the beginning of the winter and
summer, respectively. For the summer, only a period
from May to July 1999 was analysed. The two summer
months of 1998 (August and September) were not
included in the regression analysis. WS and RH show
little seasonal variations, while temperature and rainfall
were much higher in summer than in winter.
4.2. Radiosoundings
Surface observation meteorological parameters recorded at every 3-h interval include temperature,
3476
Table 1
Summary statistics of 24-h average particulate mass concentrations and meteorological parameters
Notation
Surface observations
Coarse mass (mg m3)
Fine mass (mg m3)
Wind speed (m s1)
Air temperature (1C)
Air pressure (mb)
Relative humidity (%)
Sunshiness (h)
Rainfall (mm)
CO
FI
WS
T
P
RH
SUN
RAIN
Dy=Dzm
Du=Dzm
Dy=Dze
Du=Dze
October 98March 99
May 99July 99
Mean
S.D.
Mean
S.D.
69.8
51.5
1.6
21.5
1014.6
74.5
3.4
0.9
52.3
28.5
0.7
3.5
5.5
10.3
3.5
3.8
27.6
18.9
1.8
28.5
1004.2
78.9
4.9
8.0
15.0
8.0
0.6
2.3
3.9
5.7
3.2
20.3
0.61
1.06
0.30
0.86
0.39
0.64
0.20
0.54
0.55
0.92
0.32
1.10
0.26
0.52
0.32
0.58
The values in (K m1) for Dy=Dz and (s1) for Du=Dz are multiplied by 100.
3477
600
height, m
500
400
300
200
100
(a)
0
290 292 294 296 298
theta, K
(b)
w ind speed, m s -1
height, m
11/13/98 6:30
11/12/98 18:30
600
600
400
400
200
200
0
287 290 293 296
(c)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
theta, K
(d)
w ind speed, m s -1
01/22 18:30
01/22 06:30
Fig. 2. Vertical proles of potential temperature (left) and wind speed (right). NRI (a,b), STI (c,d).
Ri g=TDy=DzDu=Dz ;
5. Experimental results
5.1. 24-h particulate concentrations
Figs. 3ac display the time series of 24-h PM2.5 and
PM10 concentrations. The annual mean concentrations
(7standard errors) from August 1998 to July 1999 were
(87.173.1) mg m3 for PM10 and (36.171.3) mg m3 for
PM2.5. The PM10 US NAAQS (150 mg m3) was
exceeded on 52 days. Also, PM2.5 concentrations exceed
50 mg m3 on 77 days. Most of these pollution episodes
were observed from October 1998 to February 1999. The
time series of 24-h PM2.510 and PM2.5 concentrations
and some relevant meteorological parameters for that
period are displayed in Figs. 4a and h.
5.2. Winter pollution episodes
From October to early January, most pollution
episodes were associated with the occurrence of NRIs,
which are marked by full height columns in Figs. 4ah.
Concentration (g/m3)
Concentration (g/m3)
3478
150
PM2.5
100
50
0
7/23/98
4/19/99
400
6/3/99
7/18/99
PM10
300
200
100
0
7/23/98
4/19/99
6/3/99
7/18/99
Fig. 3. Time series of PM2.5 and PM10. The bold horizontal line in the PM10 chart represents the US NAAQS standard (150 mg m3).
3479
Fig. 4. Time series of particulate concentrations during a winter period from October 1998 to February 1999 (a: coarse, c: ne),
nighttime-to-daytime concentration ratios (b: coarse, d: ne), coarse-to-ne concentration ratio (e), surface wind speed (f), sunshine
duration (g) and RH (h). The occurrence of NRIs and STIs is marked by full- and half-height columns, respectively.
3480
Table 2
Particulate pollution in NRI, STI and non-inversion categories in the two winter periods
RH (%)
WS (m s1)
Coarse (mg m3)
Fine (mg m3)
Coarse mode enhancement
Diurnal change, coarse
Diurnal change, ne
65.570.7
1.170.1
13978
6974
2.170.1
3.270.3
1.570.1
75.771.7
2.070.1
3973
3472
1.1870.08
0.9070.06
0.8870.03
77.571.3
1.270.1
7975
8074
1.0370.06
1.0170.06
1.0470.06
78.671.2
2.070.1
4572
4472
1.0570.05
0.7270.02
0.8970.04
(a)
Height, m
500
400
w . sp., m s -1
Coarse, ug m-3
Fine, ug m-3
6:30
11/14
18:30
14/11
18:30
11/15
6:30
11/15
6:30
11/16
300
200
100
0
291 293
Coarse/fine
18:30
11/13
6:30
11/13
295
298
293
295
295
298
301
(b)
2
1
0
11/13 6:00
11/13 18:00
11/14 6:00
11/14 18:00
11/15 6:00
11/15 18:00
11/16 6:00
11/14 6:00
11/14 18:00
11/15 6:00
11/15 18:00
11/16 6:00
11/13 18:00
11/14 6:00
11/14 18:00
11/15 6:00
11/15 18:00
11/16 6:00
6
5
(e)
4
3
2
1
0
11/13 6:00
11/13 18:00
11/14 6:00
11/14 18:00
11/15 6:00
11/15 18:00
11/16 6:00
800
(c)
600
400
200
0
11/13 6:00
11/13 18:00
300
200
(d)
100
0
11/13 6:00
Fig. 5. A scenario of a NRI high pollution episode on 13 and 14 November followed by a non-inversion case on 15 November. (a)
Vertical proles of potential temperature, (b) surface wind speed, (c) coarse concentration, (d) ne concentration, (e) coarse-to-ne
concentration ratio.
3481
3482
Table 3
Results of regression analysis (p 0:01)
PM
Period
R2
October 98March 99
0.64
ln k (7std. err.)
Determinant (loge)
Std. err. of a
RAIN
Du=Dze
Dy=Dzm
RHp
WS
WSp
RAINp
0.22
0.20
0.25
0.95
0.30
0.22
0.09
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.25
0.08
0.07
0.03
0.33
0.26
0.24
0.20
0.20
0.15
0.14
RH
RAIN
SUN
RHp
WS
Du=Dze
5.08
0.07
0.07
1.56
0.24
0.11
0.60
0.01
0.02
0.54
0.09
0.04
0.83
0.32
0.23
0.29
0.18
0.16
Tp
WS
RAINp
WSp
Du=Dzep
Dy=Dzm
Du=Dze
1.25
0.33
0.16
0.17
0.08
0.12
0.08
0.15
0.06
0.02
0.06
0.03
0.04
0.03
0.45
0.33
0.33
0.16
0.15
0.15
0.14
WS
RH
T
Du=Dzep
Du=Dze
0.44
1.67
0.97
0.10
0.07
0.07
0.33
0.31
0.04
0.04
0.49
0.42
0.26
0.21
0.17
PM2.510
May 99July 99
0.74
8.071.1
18.671.7
PM2.5
October 98March 99
May 99July 99
0.60
0.60
7.770.5
13.972.0
3483
Fig. 6. The gradients of potential temperature and wind speed at 06.30 (a,b) and 18.30 (c,d) during the rst winter period October
December 1998 (see footnote a in Table 1 for the units of the gradients). The graphs show the association of Dy=Dzm and Du=Dze
with the occurrence of NRIs, which is marked by full-height columns.
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by the Ministry for Science,
Technology and Environment and was supported by
UNDP/IAEA/RCA Co-ordinated Project for Asia and
the Pacic on Air Pollution and its Trends. The authors
are grateful to the Hanoi Meteorological Station for the
kind assistance in providing routine surface observation
data. We also gratefully acknowledge contributions of
N.H. Quang and N.Q. Long (Institute of Nuclear
3484
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