Cosmology MICHAEL ROW OBINSON Blackett Laboratory Impe 3, London ‘THIRD EDITION OxfordAcknowledgements 1 than the following for permission to use photographs and figures: NASAS cae rentpicce, Figs IC), 5.100% Califomia Insitle of Mestnoloai ee een ed), 27a), 29: W. B. Sanders Fig, 1g Ye Soak is Bechtold: Fig. 1-10(0; Mount Wilson Observatory: Fig 2G rey Oteeraony: Fig. 13, 24Ce)(oMe): P. C. var der Knits Bigs 2710), Nitonal Radio Astronomy Observatory: Fig. 2.80% G. Hasinges: Fig: 2.10; cain tncevatory Edinburgh: Fig 212; University of Chicago Press Figs 34: Bee) cD. Shane and Lund Observatory Fig. 35; G. P.Efsathiou: Fi. 3.(a) Fy Condon: Fix 360). T. Shanks: Figs 37, 7.11; A. Penzias: Fig, 5:1(@); D. Wikimon: Fig, $C: M. Tumer: Fig 6.1, 6.24 G. Bomer: Fig. 634: S. van Mines Fig, 65(0) A. Sandage: Fig. 74: J. S. Dunlop: Fig. 7-5: K- Kellen ‘and Macmillan Journals Lid: Fig. 79. tte all those colleagues who have commented on easier editions, cspcially Malcom MacCallia and Berard Carr and Stephen Wamen fr His ‘arful reading ofthe manuseript for this eitionContents ‘The visible universe 1 Ingeduction 2 The electromagnetic spectrum 3 Astronomy without light 4 Radiation mechanisms 15 Observing techniques a different frequencies 16 ‘The brightest sources 17 Souree counts 18 Integrated background 2 19 Problems Our Galaxy and other 1 Induction Star formation and the int ‘The evolution of a star 22 tellar medium 214 Final stages: white dwarfs, neuron stars, and black hoes 26 The life history of our Galaxy ‘The structure and evolution of galaxies Starburst galaxies 8 Radio p 9 Active galactic m (0. X-rays from galaxies and quasars ‘Chasers of galaxies Problems 5 (AGN): Seyferts and quas 3 The empirical basis for cosmological theories BM Tawroduction 32 The distance scale 3 The redshift 34 lsctropy 35 Uniformity 36 Others’ paradox 3.7 Evidence fora univene of fimte age 38 Evidence for “freball phase 39 Problems 18 18 1% 19410 s4 36 Te big-bang models The substratum én uodamental oDSEr¥eS ne cosmological principle Newtonian cosmology ‘The special and general theories of relativity General relativistic cosmology Horizon Problems Barly stages of the big bang Universe with ter and radiation The fell Helium production "The very exly univer Tkovupy of the microwave background The evolution of demsty fluctuations during the fireball Distortions of the microwave background spoctrum Problems From the fireball to the present ‘Before galaxies formed ‘Formation of galaxies and clusters Iergalacic gas in clusters The masses of gales and clusters ‘The average density of matter in the universe de fo galaxies Some other possible forms of mater Intergalactic (ad intercluster) £08 Problems Observational cosmology Introduction Newtonian theory Special relativity cosmology: the Milne model ‘General relativistic cosmology: the redshift Luminosity distance “The K-correction Diameter disance [Namber counts of sources7:10 1 8 81 > 83 84 85 56 Es 88. 39 Contents The huminosity-volume test Integrated background radiation Problems Other cosmological theories Inerodvedon General relativistic models withthe A-term ‘Observable consequences of the Aten The steady state cosmology Theories im which G changes with time [Anisotropic and inhomogeneous universes, chaotic eosmolozy ‘Grand unified theories and inflation idington's magic mumbers Problems Epilogue: twenty controversies in cosmology today 4 5 16 a 18 » General relativity (Quantum gravity and the initial singularity The origin of the motion of the Local Group with respect to the microwave background Tsotropy ofthe universe “The flaness problem andthe value of The horizon problem and ination The cosmological constant, A “The Hubble constant and the age ofthe univene Large-scale homogeneity and large-scale structure Antimater Primordial helium and deuteriam Formation of galaxies Is there an intergalactic medium? Dark mater Optical counts of galaxies ‘Bvolution of quasars, AGN and starburst galaxies Nature of Xoray and y-ray background y-ray bunts Solar neutrino problem Tite in the univers Answers to problems Further reading Glossary Physical constants and conversion of factors Name index Subject index 1s 1 130 1 BI 136 18 140 140 M1 2 us 5 Ww “7 us us 149 149 1st 150 1st is 151 sz 12 153 155 137 159 163 16s 167i hax persisted mary a tong yar, having once bese gots th veeons Fram whee everything ese follows LUCRETIUS stride into the inf Then expr the fit ir al cretion. ‘GOETHE “and Tsay any manor woman. Let our sos stand cool and conpased core ‘WHITMANThe visible universeAs recently a 1920it was sil reasonable to believe that sis piganic star sytem. 60 000 light years in diameter (1 light year = distance travelled by light in one year = 0.946 10!" m) comprised the whole visible universe. Today our horizon is at least 300 000 times larger. ‘As frst step ont from our own Galaxy let us, with the aid ofa large telescope travel towards faint and fuzzy patch of light inthe constellation of Andromeda, the nebula MBI (sce Figs 1.2 and 1.3), Two million lighis years away, ts almost sar own Galaxy, seen ited to cur Tne of sight. These two galaxies ar dominant members of a small group of 30 or so galaxies known asthe Local Group of galaxies (ee Teble 1.1), Now lt us travel 60 milion light years tows nstelation of V find ourselves in a cloud of thousands of galaxies, the Virgo clase, fi fecognized by William Herschel (ee Fig. 14). Our Galaxy may lie i the outer w fringes of this cluster. Suppose we travel out to the limit of vision of the 10 m Keck telescope on ‘Mauna Kea Hawai, The mast distant galaxies we can sec are at least 10! light years avay, Their light set out long before the Earth was formed. This whole Zaponse is filled with galaxies and clusters of galaxies. This ‘realm of the nebulae, as Hubble called it (see ref subject of this book 1.2 The dlectromagnetic spectrum Since even th tar, o Cen, 4 light years away, lies forthe moment far Dovond our reac, we can Tear about ditt parts ofthe universe only from the Tight and other kinds of information they send us = hamsan eye responds to only a Yery naTOW range of frequencies, the vi potion ofthe cecwomgncticspoctum (ig. 1-5)-In 1800 Henschel fist showed thedoo) PHOT ALL, TT IRL,Fe Ls Tempe econ of chante cic ravens) engine Bee the foam of aspect he Sun's by mess of sm vig. 16 Schomaosiusrsonet for asronomy. He held & passing the Sun's he San ‘of ration vary widely, from Shocogmphic plates. And because many types of radiation are absorbed by the TTmoephere, a great vary of observing platforms are used, fom high-limde observatories 10 aeroplanes balloons, and stllies But itis very important w be clear that these different fundamentally the same, namely electromagnetic radiation, ot more simply ight" ‘The wavelength 2 and Gequency v are related by the equation radiations are all wee anAstronomy without light 7 ere cis the velocity of light. Figure 1.7 ilusrates how the electromagnetic Specrum is abitanly divided inw bands, defined primarily by the different detection techniques used. Radio, sible, and X-ray photons differ only in their frequency (and therefore wavelength). Since a photon car his Planck's constant, X-ray photons carry fir more energy than, for example radio photons, Table 1.2 (p. 8) summarizes the electromagnetic spectrum f ‘an energy hw where 13 Astronomy without Tight lectoomagnetic radiation is not the oaly way that astronomical information reaches the Earth “These energetic particles, clectons and the nuclei of atoms, moving at velocities ‘very close fo the speed of light, bombard the solar system continuously from all Gdczctions. While you are reading this sentence one will probably pass through Jour head. The kinetic enerpes of some of these particles far exceed anything chieved in the largest human-made accelerator (Fig. 1.8). On entry to the stmoxphere, the high-energy nace soon collide with molecules of ai, creating 4 shower of secondary particle, which can be detected onthe ground, “The Sun isan important source of low-energy cosmic rays. The main source of the more energetic patices is unkown, but it is believed that pulsars (pulsating radio souteessnsocated with neutron stars), supemovae (explosions in high-mass ve galas Gin which violent and stars that have exhausted thei texplosive events of some kind are taking place) and quasars (quasi-siellar radio soarcs) all contbuteose OF ao sm DS ste KoonAstronomy without light " Newrinos “These massless, chargeless particles were ist postulated by Pauli and Fermi to explain an energy imbalance in A-raouctivity. Like photons, they move a the speed of light. They ae exceedingly hart to detect. since the probability oftheir taking part in any nuclear reaction under terrestrial conditions is very Tow (they have a very low ‘cross-section’ for collisions with matte) Tere are three types of neutrino, corresponding to the three known leptons ‘he elecron neutring, we, the muon neutrino, vy, and the tau neutrino, vy, There i pict to be a cosmological background ofall three neutrino types left over from the hot big bang era, bur itis unlikely to be detectable in the foreseeable future Electron neutrinos have becn detected from the Sun and SNI987A, muon eatrinos have been detected in teestial accelerators and reactors, but the ta ‘neutrino has not been detected to date ‘The word's first neutrino telescope was created by Ray Davis in So Dakota, USA. It consists of a vast tank of percorocthylene (CCl), athe bottom of the Homestake Gold Mine to avoid contamination by cosinic rays. Any feurnos passing though have a small chance of converting «chlorine atom ?"C1 oan argon atom 7A. These argon atoms are then extracted and counted. Other outing telescopes now operating are the Kamiokande experiment, pan, which toe a atk of very pure water a8 a Cerenkov detector, and the SAGE and GALLEX experiments, which use gallium as 2 detec The main source of Seutinos atthe Eat is expected to be nuclear reactions a the cenze ofthe Sun. Figure 1.8() shows an image ofthe sky in neutrinos made by the Kamickands experiment, demonstrating thatthe Sun is the soure, The ra at of at least 10 Hower ‘which all he eurent experiments detect nentrins i fat van is prediced by sndard theoretical models ofthe Sun's interior. A possible teplanation i tha he electon neutrino is unstable and has small non-7=70 mass Dark mater ‘The rotation curves of spiral palsies, andthe dynamics of binary glass, groups thatthe halos of galaxies are dorsinated by some form of dark snd chsten, tater. Although part of this could be in the form of brown dwarfs or low-mass ‘tas, the bulls believed tobe i the form of non-baryone dark matter, probably Wweaily interacting massive particles (WIMPs). Such mater is needed to expin how galaxies form from the very smoot (to one part in 10") baryonic mater diasbaton dedaced from the soap microwave background radiation at reshit 1D. tis aso nooded to account forthe high value forthe mean density of te tmivene, measured using dynamical methods from IRAS galaxy surveys Several expenments ae now under way to try 10 dete the non-baryonie materia the halo of our Galaxy. They rely on detection ofthe oecesionsl nuclear feeoil expested due to impact by dack matter particles, and are Woeted deep derground to eliminate the cosmie ray backround‘he visible universe Gravitaronal radia relativity, and other similar theories of id exist The final stages of gravitational ove binary star systems provid 10 the higher energy level F. These processes are very important in the surface layers oF stars and result in clea emission and absorption spikes in the enerey disnbution P(v) (see Fig. 110). If the ight from a star is ‘wed through a prism and a narrow slit, bright or dark lines appear across the Spectrum Such lines were first noticed by Fraunhofer in the Sua"s spectrum ‘They allow both the composition of, and the physical conditions in, the surface layers of stars to be studied, since the frequencies ofthe lines allow the emitting for absorbing atoms to be identified, and relative strengths of different lines give information on temperature and the number of stoms involved, For example, he ransitions from higher energy levels down to the m = 1,2,3,4 energy levels in the hydrogen atom esut in the emission of the characteristic wavelengths ofthe Lyman, Balmer, Paschen, and Brackett ser ‘One ofthe most important spectral lines for astronomy is the 21-cm radio Fine of neural atomic hydrogen, resulting from the transition from alignment to non Slignment. and vice vers, of the elecwon and proton magnetic axes, Th Gistibuton of ncutal hydrogen in the Milky Way and other galaxies has been ‘mapped using this line ‘An important development ofthe 1970s was the discovery of microws submilimere line radiation from interstellar molecules, arising. fom transitions between diferent states of rotational energy of the molecules. The most abundast tf these molecules (apart fom hydrogen, which hes no rotational transitions) i carbon monoxide, which has been used to map the molecular gas in our Galaxy ond othce galaxies ‘The catio emission from the Milky Way comes from cosmic-ray electrons spiralling in the Galaxy's magnetic field (Fig. 1.11), The process was fint bscrved in panicle accelerators known as synchvotrons, hence the mae. It is belicyed to be the mechanism operating inthe majority of cosmic radio Sources Ifthe eativstic (Le. moving close 1 the speed of ight) electrons bave6 Te vate universe awe ange of fagunse sow he fea spec of ta Miky Wa Ov cn power ow duration of energies (8 we kno: they in the wel OE aa rig. 1.8), then the spectal energy bution ofthe eytreuon Faaaton will also be a power law (Fig. 1.12) po) = ACKB a3) tal energy in relativistic where B is the magnetic feld intensity, K is the to Tecttons, aris the spectral index and A fs a constant Srechroten satiation i one of the moxt important examples of on. ermal radguon, Ty oor Galaxy and other spiral galaxies, the relatvse cleus st rarer ge accelerated in pulsars and sopemova remnants. fn active Elacs see preceses close to the event horizon of a mussve black ole may Be important for aeceleratng the relativistic electrons. Imerse Compion radiation his is the inverse process to Compton sattring of light by fies electrons Reliant electrons transfer some of their energy by collisions to photons in 2 rehation field the photons emerging ata higher Frequency (and enerey). For ‘Muple, radio photons might be boosted to become X-ray photons, THE maid Sratemen is hat he iia radiation field have «high intensity, so this process tr kely to be imporant in compact sources like quasars and alacic rnc 1 fact a relatviatic electron will Tose its energy by syuchrosmn radistion in = magni eld by inverse Compton radiation ina ration eld when both 2 vratent inthe proportion ofthe respective encrzy densts ofthe magnetic and Fadiation fieldsObserving techniques at differen frequen Bremssrahlung oF jree-free radi Another process which is important for radio and X-ray sou mieten ionized gas, Le. a.gasin which outer electrons have been stripped off mast stoms Jeaving them as positively charged ions. When an. clscuon is accelerated inthe clectrostae Held of an in daring a collision, i radiates energy as bremsstablung radistion. The total energy emitted per second by 2 volume V Gm m® of as at temperature 71> 10° K) is approximately : where ne the number of electrons per mi ofthe gas. 15 Observing techniques at different frequencies Fortunately for ife on Earth, not all the radiations entering the top of the mosphere reach the ground, Water vapour and other molecules radiation with wavelengths between Im (10-* m) and 2 mm, although there ae 8 few “windows” (narrow ranges of wavelengths through part ofthe light is transmitted by the atmosphere). Te atmo. iment no radiation with wavelengths less than 3000 A (033 jm) ‘layiclet and soft (i. low-frequency) X-radiation can travel only comparatively shor distances thrgh the interstellar material (gas and dust) in our Galaxy x tven from outside the atmosphere we can see very distant objects at th wavelengths only in certain directions. Low-frequency radio waves are totally A by the ionosphere (the same effect that makes intercontinental Yong wave radio commanieations posible) “The percentage of light from oulside our Galaxy reaching the surface of th ath i shown in Fig. 1.13 asa function of frequency. Even from a satelite we old not he able to receive some frequencies from outside our Galaxy. In| | | { 8 The visible universe widiton wo those mentioned sbove, Cut Gala stasis ian ag waves and the very highest enerEy 7-18)5 Sec, sures edating at wavelengths eat an 80 He $00 is 2 tn 0 yen can be detected from Mghalie obeervasnies Balonss 20 a satlcs have contibted to opening up these ae ter Windows in acreed and. sobmilimere region, Rockets and saiilee BERS StS a inner and Xray astronomy possible. Table 1.2 (p: 8) summanzs te aeeaving platforms and detector fr diferent ranges of Frequent 1.6 The brightest sources “The fx density of aation (energy pr secon! per unit bandwis peru area sees ie dicetion of propagation) that we measure from a sowee Of rercnosity P(v) at distance r i given by the mverse-square le 0) =P)? (Wm? He) as) provided coumsogical effects (the expansion of the wivec), absorption re pe neglected. Thus the brightest sources we observe may be siher ae ae emattars Ut ae very nearby, or distant objects that are very fuminous In wee ihe brightest sources in the different frequency bands are shown, 1.7 Source counts Suppo that at fequency » we catalogue all the surces in the sky asa function rppe ux density 8(), Let Ny(S) be the nuber of sources per steradian having flux density greater than § ot frequency v. We shall soe Inter that this funetion provides an important test of coxmological modes. At this point we merely note Ae faimtest Tux densities reached by present-day techniques in the differ Frequency bunds, the comesponding value of N,(5), and the main combating types of source (Table 1.2) 1.8. Integrated background radiation IF we point a telescope at a region of the sky fee of bright somes. we ca measure the total integrated background flax density from all the sourees inthe {iy at all distances. This will depend on the sizeof the welesope Dea. so we faturlly measure this background in terms of the intensity of the radiation, the flux density per unit solid angle, (0) Wm? Ha" st. The coment state of ‘observations of this quantity is shown in Fig. 1.14. Only at radio and X-ray freguencis have we suoceeded in detecting a background that probably does ‘come fom diseretesourees. The most sking featare of Fig. 1.14 isthe 2.7 K blackbody Background radiation at centimetre and miimete wavelength. This fs believed to be the reli ofthe “Breall phase of the hig-bang universe. The ‘optical and infrared region is unfortunately dominated by atmospheric emissionProblems is Wmsa radian field, is given by a= 4nlfe. ve background radiation. For shat value lensiy of an atomic nucleus? (You may estimate this usin 1-2? kg, = 2.998 > 10% m $4 adios Ce gr the radio. enssion from our Galaxy at hig Galle tudes is approximately 1) =2.5 « 10-™ (9/108 Wom Hie from y= 10 rate the total integrated intensity 1= /1() di, and give the rao of 1s taal ineity of the mictowave background radiation from cuestion7 Our Galaxy and other galaxies 2A Introduction In this chapter we look atthe structure and evolution of our Galaxy and flats, and inrodace the different kind of “active” guxy—starburt pala ‘adio galaxies, Seyfert galaxies, and quasars, "The main constituents of galaxies are stars and interstellar gas and dust, and the ing out of clouds of main evolution of an isolated galaxy consists of sars conden fs and dust, undergoing thermonu: losing mass in winds from their surface, and finally either cooling down or dsp in spectacular explosion By tacing out the distribution of populations of stars of different ages in ur Galucy, we can get a good idea of the way thatthe Galaxy has evolved with time ofits Formation were like. Other types of galaxy can be but with differing mich of thei material nplained as similar in structure to our own, and ofthe same ates of ste fermion Interactions and mergers between pais of 2 significant par in the evolution of some, perhaps mos, galaies ‘ay properties, galates show an enormous range axy ean be understood in danies aso play Tn their radi, infrared, and fof power and size. The different types of ‘active’ terms of massive busts of tar formation and/or massive ack holes im galactic some of the range of nucle. Our viewing angle also plays a par in explainin thenornena observed 22 Star formation and the Interstellar medium 2s cloud out of which condensed very recent sto give the visible clood “The Orion nebula Fig 2.1) provide stats are camently forming, The Trapezium ss and one of them is heating up and exciting part Mt ionized hydrogen or Ha region, as i is called. Nearby we can see cool Sondensations, radiating mainly inthe infrared, which are probably even younee con covered by the photograph is jus small part of a giant sen (Hi). Between these J, mainly the relics of dmixtre of about 24 pex prowstrs. There complex of molec The as and dust between the Stars, oF ier istinct phases. Much of iis in the Form of difuse hydrogen (Fy) or dense clouds of molecular by. louds ia sparer and very much honer phase of sonia supemova explosions nal of these phases thee isan adThe evolion of sor : Lf cent helium by mass, and about 2 percent of heavier elements. mostly in the for ‘of small grains of earbon or silicate dust “The formation of a new star stans when some portion of a dense cl and dust fas slightly higher density than axerage forthe clo Self gravitation Of this repion tends to make it fall together and, as this happ ty now the protostar heats up. The ifalling. materia tends of {isc or torus around the protostar and a bipolar cutiow along the axe teoften seen from newly forming stars. Eventually the central temperature fondensation becomes high enough for nuclear reactions to stat. For fomposed mainly of hydrogen this happens when the temperature get bout 107 K: hydrogen then fuses to form belium. The ‘uilds up tunil the pressure gradient can balance gra surface temperates then adjus themselves 0 that the the surface i balanced bythe amount of energy atthe centre. A star is bor 23. The evolution of a star While a star is “buming” hydrogen it tes out thatthe luminosity temperature T ofthe star both depend only on tie mass Slishly on the amounts of elements other than hydrogen that are ofthe str “Ths stars of different mass lie on 2 Hine (ihe main sequence) in a luinosi temperature, or Hersprong-Rarell (HR), diagram. Since colour is 2 & fndikaor of temperature. thsi usally used a the horizontal axis by estronom Another good indicator of surface temperature isthe type of spectral lines found i the spectrum of the star, and stars can be classified according to thei spect te. The specu of a hot star is dominated by emission lines of hydrogen a helium, fn a star of medium temperature, like the Sun, me tion lin dominate. And in a cool star we sce absorption ular band Schematics HR diagram is shown in Fig. 22, with the main sequence and the orming star indicated c man the hot central core hasbeen fused int "The aurface ofthe star becomes cooler and F ning a red giant. T der, and the sat grows in size by’ lage factor, be ‘ore meanwhile contracts and becomes hte until helium stars 10 se into carbon—the lium flash. For the nd higher sto equent thermonoclear reactions progressive nitrogen into oxygen, and so on, though elements of hisher -quilibrum, The core of ie it absorbs energy instead © dof ron it ean o longer remain inae TS cenheids 1 ¥ ra strs change with tine The doled cave isthe pric ohn of the Sum. The camo sav iit ns one an segue (ins oe the sta are expelled in a Type 1 supernova explosion, omens with atomic number higher than iron are formed by a different procest—neuron capture. The raresanth elements are formed by the slow radiation of iron nuclei by neutrons, in red-giant stars, and the radioactive Clements are formed by repid neutron capture in supernova explosions | the star collapses to form a neutron star or black hole and the surface layers of 2.4 Final stages: white dwarfs, neutron stars, and black holes “The final stages of star's life depend on its mass, and are not yet completely Understood Ifthe mass is much eater than that ofthe Sun, the str willexplode |}. ‘olemly asa supernova, showering the interstellar gas with a mixture ofall the . ‘lements that have been prodaced in its nuclear neastions. The most spectacle fexample of a relic of such an explosion is the Crab nebula (Fis. 21(8), the remains ofa supemova explosion observed by Chinese astronomers in xb 1054 ‘Less spectacular variations and ejections ako ake place during the later sages of stellar evolution, e the Cepheid and RR Lyrae variable phases (shortpetiod pulsations that accur when 2 star crosses the ‘instbility stp’ im the HR Siagram see Fig. 2.2), Mira variables (red-giant stars undergoing egulsr long-period pulsations accompanied by mass loss), planetary nebulae (causedThe life history of our galaxy 2 when a star throws off a spherical shell of gs while its on the re-ant branch nd novie (outbursts less dramatic t deponited on a white-dwart sar by a binary companion) Tn the vecy last stage ofall, whaever islet of the star after explosions or mass Joss rust become ether (a) a white-dwacf star, in which the density is so high thatthe electrons are degenerate (ic. crushed together until they are touching), {neutron star, in which the density is even higher and the neutrons re n superovse resuking from mtrial degenerate, or (@)& black hole, where the matter ofthe star collapses to such a high deni that light can no longer escape from it see Section 44). Only sar with mass less than about twice the Sun's mass can become white dwarf o Teatro stars (in more massive stars the degeneracy pressure is not sufficient to fappor. the sar against gravity), so if more massive stars than this fil to eject non of their mass in their eruptive phases, they must become black hoes Before they have cooled off too much, white dwarfs are detectable at optical frequencies, ike other tars. Neutron stars, which will tend wo be sping rapid in be seen by pulsed radio, optical, X-ay, and y-ray emission from ther touring magnctospheres (pulsars). There is x prominent pulsar inthe cen of the Crab nebula almost cerainly the remains of te sar that exploded in the 10s4 supemova. Neutron stars can also be seen by X-ray emission from gas heated up by falling at high speed on wo the sas (solid! surface The only way to detect a black hoe is through some indirect effect, gifts in a binary system with a visible companion. From the peiod and radios ofthe titit ofthe wrible companion we can deduce the mass ofthe invisible object, and Sf ths is very large deduce chat it must be a. black hole, especially if X-ray The Xeray source mission from inalling 20 indicates that its very compact Gye X21 is the best eandidae fora binary system containing a black hole, and several other good candidates have been found (eg. V6I6 Mon, LMC X-3). 2.5 ‘The life history of our galaxy “The oldest stars in our Galaxy are 10-15 billion years old and are composed of shoot 76 per cent hydopen, 24 per cent helium, and almost no other detect ‘ements, The simplest assumption is that our Galaxy condensed out of lars ‘We shall ee later fs dou with this composition about 10-15 billion yeas ag this age and this composition ft in very well with the b univene (Sections 33 and 5.3). Structurally our Gslaxy can be divided into a dise, 2 nucleus (Fig. 23), The stan in the Galaxy can be divided jnto two main population and a hak 3) Population I, beigtt young stars found only inthe dss ion faint old alo stars, ith Gust, and regions of star formation: (6) P ‘ery low meal (ie. clements higher than helium in atomic “The different parts of the Galaxy are associated with different phases of iThe life history of our galaxy The halo: phase 1 Inthe halo we find lobular clusters containing the oldest stars inthe Galaxy, a high-velocity also ol)) stars. The age of these clusters can be determined by plot ther HR diagram and seeing how much of the main sequence isle. The feng of te a star spends on the main sequence is approximately proportional MAL and by eqn 21) this means that high-mass stars have much shorter I than low-mass stars. Ina young cluster we will ill ind quite massive stars on the tain sequence, Buti an old one only the low-mass ones will il be left the the more massive ones having already evolved 29 “The ape of objects in the halo shows that this was the firs place where sta formation occured, and the high velocities of the stars suggest tha the gas cloud tut of which the Galaxy formed was in a state of rapid motion, presumsb! ollapsing. The surface layers of halo stars are found © contain almost no other lements except hydrogen and helium (although some other clement will exist in the imeriors of the more evolved halo stars). The time scale forthe collapse of the ‘rotagalixy’ can be shown to be about 10* year. "The exbital velocity of es in the outer parts ofthe Galactic disc fal disance slower than expected on the bass ofthe visible mat ‘This has led to the suggestion that our Galaxy, and others bya aloof dark, non-luminows mater. This could bein the form of Jupiter hjecs, brown dwarfs (object in the mass range 10-80 Jupiter masses which fail to ignite hydrogen-burming), massive solar masses) black holes, or in some exotic, non-baryonic form, The thick diac and the mucieus: phase 2 The gas that was not used up in phase 1 ofthe evolution ofthe Galaxy continued to csllapse, and would ave formed 3 ore but for the effects of roa The protagalae cloud must have posestod some angular momentur, sin. focred a disc, with centrifugal force Dalancing gravity. This rotating disc w 2000 light years thick, wath ¢ progounced bulge toward tenertion of sas then formed, dhe mo nd spraying the pas with the products oftheir mucleoythess. Thus inthe surf lagen of these older srs of Population I we stat to see signicant snow heavy clement The thin disc: phase 3 mnused, with its adminzure of debris from dead stars, setiled down t 300 light years thick. Stars have continued to form i ths dis of up tothe present day, especially in the spiral arms, which probably reves apral wave of sta formation rotating throuph the disc of gas. From dis ofthe Galaxy we camoot sce the spiral arms, but they can1, neutral hydrogen (H,) We aghs of waside from photog cannot see though tothe cenre of our Galan a eptcal atelenes eer naan do so in the radio and infrared. In eon 1 2 i ea some, we can se 4 assive cloud Of moet ea cone careers » probably de to hot dust grains (10 K < T-< 1000). righ velowty (several hundred kilometres per second) the nucleus of our Galaxy resembles those of the J in Section 29, aktough on a rauch weaker sal fine of ionized neon suggest that theThe le history oThe structure and evolution of gal sass within dhe central 3 light years of our Galaxy is 8 = 10° times the mas Sun, and it has been speculted that this could 26 The structure and evolution of galaxies Hubble introduced a Some examples of external galsxi nin Fig, Fig. 25), which is sill Glssitcation of galaxies, the “wring fork’ diagram (Fig ‘broadly used, although it fs no longer thought to be an evolutionary sequence ‘he elliptical galaxies are classified as En, by their degree of fatening, whe n= 10(a—B)/a and a and b are the major and minor axes, respectively. The fire thought tobe spheroidal systems, and this means that penveen a genuinely spherical galaxy and afatened one seen face~on. Hs caxint distin the high proporton of apparently spherical systems shows that we cannot fssume that ll ellipticals are fattened stems seen at different criemtation The $0, oF lenticular, galaxies seem to be & wan ns, at the stars areal ellipticals and spirals. They contain 2 disc of sss, ike sp ‘las in lpia and there is Tite sign of gas o talaxies are divided into normal spirals ond bared spirals, the later differ Yin that their spiral rms sta fom the end ofa prominent bar instead of fom itself As we go along the sequence from Se to Se for normal spiral "ic for hare spirals the nucleus becomes less pronounced, Tightly wound, the proportion of gas in dual sts in nea become more open and ls ; ar becomes blur, Its also easier to see ind valoxics showing that there are more stars with high optical luminosity Tilipcals show lite sign of eas or recent star formation and are far redder than spats i colour. Iegular galsxis (Ire. which tend tobe ve propartion of gas, are placed to the right of te spiral sequence. This end is summarized in Fig. 2.6, the percentage of mas colour (Gs measured by the 21-cm “Ihe blue end ofthe main sequence conesponds to massive stars, which bum ire or 3) Hence a ble galaxy must contain their fuel very rapidly (10" ns ochcreas are galaxy with jong stars, and star formation rst stil be goin m0 an elliptical) shows no sign of recent star format any in the Local Grou and al is stars ould be old. There are examples ofall these types offal ‘shown in Table 1.1 (p. 4) ‘The Hubble sequence, however, is alm of different age. Old stars are found in all these galaxy Pe icgular. The differing gas content, and proportion of young Sequence is more likely an indication of difering rates of sar forma fears being of about the same age (about 10" years). litical forme cpidly im phase 1, so no gas was left to form a dis of Population 1 Irregular, the other extrme, have been forming starsat a rather 5h fll ave plenty of pas left Cleary the rotation of 8 galaxy must also pl a part in detemining, fFig 26, Peceotge of glsy form offs, venus ee example, the degree of flatening of zn elliptical, and inthe generation of fms and the bars of barred spirals. But the main properies of the Hubbi Sequence are understood most simply in terms of a one-parameter (Le. sar formation rate) family of galaxies of the same age An important propery for cosmology of elliptical lax Jminosiles and colours are now changing enly very slowly, so they can Be as ‘Mandard candles’ (see tarburst galaxies ‘A mmjor discovery of the TRAS Infrared Astronomical Sotlite, launched in 5s bursts of star formato 1983, was that many galaxies are undergoing enor: with their main energy output occurring at infrared srs of gale avelengths. Infrared Fuminosiies over one hundred times the enie , len sociated with iterations and mergers between Fig, 2-7), The main power of the starburst would be inthe form of utrvi fast and reradiated at far fight rom massive tars, but most ofthis i absorbed by seen in th infrared wavelengths. A ess extreme example of starburst can 30 Doradus (‘Tarantola’ ncbula) region of the Large Magellanic cloud Its possible that most ofthe star formation that has ocurred inspiral and ciliptical galanies took place during starburst episodes, driven by with neighbouring galas Normal spiral galaxies radiate at inffared wavelengths statight is sbvorhed by intetellar dust grains and reradiated in th Typically about 30 per cent ofthe total power of the galaxy emerges i the far maoher galaxies 28 Radio properties of galaxies Galaxies ae copious emitters of radio wav fon mechanisms (Seeton 1.5). Only in a fe : ower amount to more than 1 percent ofthe total power outst of rated i the dise of the glaxy, with 2 power in the 0° W. Along the spiral arms we sees chain of Fx rion, clos of hot (10* K) gas ionized by newly formes massive star. These Hs ‘esos emit thera bremsstrahlung alison in the radio band, recognizable by is Characterise ft spectrum (ce v2"), We see ako synchrotron radiation from ‘ativnie electrons accelerated in pols aod supemowa remnants, and sili through the galacy's magnetic fl This emision is concentrated along the spiral rms (Fig. 28). In adiion there are weaker sources i the noeRadio properties of galavi: ht yeas and a power of up t on excellem conelation between the radio and far-infrared luminosities of spiral galaxies of the PULAGHa) = 0.01 160 um) en ich arses because the radiation in both wavchands is an indirect consequen Elliptical rations of 10°10" 7 rom 10% to 10” W and the minimum energies required in the magnetic field and1 problems. Models ifse and inegulae structure. Itremains nly in elliptical galanes. these double rao sources are se s of many elipical, wi also found sp the mu OW ies show a wide range of powe with the optical the radio power incre ofthe galaxy). Approximately Pras Ph 23)AGN: Seyferts and quasars 39 Figare 29 shows the galaxy NGCS128, the most powerful radio emitern immediate neighbourhood. The main radio lobes lie far off the region of the fal shown, Along the dust lane of this peculiar ellpical many young blue Stars are found, indicating a hurt of star formation shout 28 milion years go. I is now believed thatthe dust lane may be the debris of a spiral galaxy which colds and merged ith the elliptical w Rapid stellar motions sn the nucleus of the powerful radio-emiting elipieat galaxy MS7, in the Virgo cluster, point ence ofa dark compact mass of feverl thousand milion solar masses, possibly a black hole. Thus both galaxy frergers and massive black holes appear to be involved in the generation of these powerful radio galaxies 29 Active galactic nuclei (AGN): Seyferts and quasars “Two types of object show evidence of violent, ansient activity: Seyfert galaxies fnd.quisars. Tks hard to draw a sharp line becween the different clases, since tach type merges into the other. In each case we are seving violent activity inthe cle of galaxies are galaxies (usually spirals) with an intense wile, ster.ike Spectra of these nuclei show very strong, broad emission Tot gas rather than from stars, Colours ae Der than aver : ce of very hot gas (30) 000 K) oF 2 non-ennal component the optical contiium, In some case th Jence for the violent es Mf material, at velocities of several thousand kilometres per second Seyfert nuclei have been found to be unusually sirong infrared sour probly dac to emission by dust. The dust may be heated ether by a recent burst f sar formation or by the compact optical continuum source. Seyfert ae only ishtly more ative than normal spirals at radio wavelengths ‘An ioportant subclssifieation of Seyfers is ito Type I, which have broad ‘wings to their emission lines, comesponding to relative, motions thousands of Kilometres per second, and Type 2 which do not. The ies that distinction is due to dost obscuration of the dense, hot gas responsible for the broad wings is saining acceptance. The dust may be in the form of a tos surrounding the compact optical source, so that ultimately the distnetion i mainly « mater ofthe direction of viewing me wadio galaxies show compact opical sources and strong emission Tie paca without broad wings. Originally called N-galaxies, they ate now riled naerow-lne radio galaxies (NLRG), They appear tobe the analogy of Type shave been found ai 2 Seyfert in elipieal galaxies. Weak compact optical soun nthe nucle of classical radio galaxies ike Cyzmus A. surgesting that m Zalanies may show such an optical core at some levelOur Galaxy and other gases es aio ones asosate wi ust stele opel aes SE ao gu ne cal Paden ald G80) Teo chs a rad on es HO ais, The et 110) Foe ay (ee mo lat) ato th neha NE sigan ee rs age om ae mes SE A oa! ging, sing i ai Ln 33) Tc coos ely YS eno es wath ype! seve gales Int he EE oe ane weno he compas ie oe i amply Sef in whch he ost th sau a Sey pour becae of he Seah te aaa vegans o eesti qs of met yrnse fe Bx ik acu qu all 8 eat sae tr bose of elite aio gaan, compact ON Geseae of on ey Hs femal a a tas solr Stem puting ot up 9. toms is gost not muh ate My Wy. can vary he power soi A asl cot I moor souess wh ne woke ares va eet alo wencegts ve Deo given the name Dla ce a joa BL Lc hus een sexe ea i a Ta rsa tc ume oma eso al agacd Whi a dele aa souce Ths iain oport ae cuss we oles oe apy fine han it nao 8 a as feminine out tom he eal eon Te Ee i tech seca aes in tens of genon of mail se i toh ped of het ele we Iino se ree lle power det mir hatin 9p 2 ec cy be ion betwee fll 2 nna spl 22) Pls segs that OSs ie aaa ees Syn bs precy of te ome opal ous an SOE car ae kien sn or tes objets taints Hac oes cero datas en ane he snp opel once a enon Be a ey ae cipine! yom ofa en i aad 240 Xerays frm galaxies and quasars The brightest X-ray sources om the sky are Galactic binary sta systems in which fone ofthe stars va aeite dart neutron sar, or black hoe. X-mays ae also seencof ot, luminous gellanie cloods. The 1d from the cor MBL and the M x10 W Jen in the nuclei of active gk sample, both have nuclear X-ray ies have X-ray furinosities in the 10-108 W. Some of these activ he Xray band. The emission mm pulsars and supernova re stars. Similar types of sources are seem X-ray luminosity of MBI is about Fear more powerful X-ray sources axies M87 and NGCS128, for es of about 10% W. Seyfert (O10 W, and quasars inthe ra the synchrotton or inverse Compton process. is have been found by the ROSAT survey(Chasers of gases So far only afew extragalactic sources, like the quasar 3C273 (Fg. 2.11), the radio galaxy NGCSI28, and the Seyfer galaxy NGC41S1, have been clear 211 Clusters of galaxies pet cent occur in rich and spectacular cluster like the Vitzo Containing hundreds to thousands of gal al masses rani 101 solar masses. Cross-corlaton the general & Aistibotion, and large-sale maps of he sbow that the extent heve luster is very large (up to a hondred milion fight years), and they join Smoothly onto neighbouring clusters. Thus concep like “superslste a= not til defined. The galany distribution i ond to be clustered on all scales up t0 at Teast one hundred million Tight years There i also evidence for huge sheets of galaxies (one which stretches between the Coma and Hercules clusters is known os the “Great Galaxies?) and voids, on scales of 100-300 million Hight years. On questons which cose ware these a generic pect of! ee — Se scn om on ial a ncry between: regions of high and low a sponge-like topology 6 About 10 per eet of the mass ofa spc of bot imergaloctic gas at tempera cle K), Tie emis song at X-ray frequencies C10) 1 TeSecon La), A special ine of ionized On ey i esac a fare cer X-ray sours rom Whit ites dai at fr re conn iecergalactic ga sat st fic Of Es ea eit follows that rauch of the intergalactic 28 rich cluster of galaxies i inthe form the Sun Since iron is mai in sta in clusters of galaxies must have ‘The intergalace gas in rich ch radio galaxies, in which radio-emiting p qekwerds by the motion of the galaxy through the Eas also makes is presence fle through “sil ma appears to have been swept 2:12. Problems 121 Given thot the luminosity of stars i elated to their mass by Z ox M'* and Cae total lifetime ofthe Sun is 10" yeas, estimate the lifetimes of ts bf ase 0.01, 0.1, 10, sod 100 solar masses 22 Tom te dieussion given in Chapter 2, give a brief gecount of the {i 10° years, Gi) 10" years, i) 10" yeas after appearance of our Gal itwas formed, st wt3 The empirical basis for cosmological theories BA. Introduction {We can make progress towards answering the questions ‘what is the structure of the universe?” and “how hus the universe change with time” thatthe universe has a simple overall structure. Ta cu immediate locality the universe hasan exceedingly complex sacar. vee had to construct a mathematical model of the human brain and had a litle Ghservational information about it as we have about the univers, we wouk! Tandy know where to start, However, human brain is highly atypical region of the universe. For one thing is density is shout 10% times the present average Gensity of matter in the universe But suppone we sta looking at things onthe large scale—on the scale of the distances we have been mentioning in Chapters 1 and 2. Tpen the Earth, and al its structure and detail that s so important us, becomes a minute speck of dust. ‘On this sete the universe may star 0 look simple. Before we cam stato discuss whet sor of properties blsh a cosmological distance “The distance scale ological distance can be measured in a variety of ways, all involving the ‘bervation of ight signals. Unfortunately. the most reliable methods only ove a short range of distances. AS We look further out, wea progressively lss reliable methods. “These can he uscd to measure the distances of only our nearest neighbours inthe Parallax The apparent change in direction of a source asthe Earth goes round che Su fiver distances forthe nearest few thousand stars. The distance is measured in paracen 9 distanen is 1 parse (pe) (= 3:09 x 10" m= 326 light yeas) if the ds 1” of are. Distances measured inthis tmeaa radius of the Earth's orbit| | t 5 whe empirical basis for conmological theories way give us te luminosities of ner ss of iets Tie aia saan of sar can then be used asa stance indie: Fis Brienne i wlescopen pall cane rly estos oe ba Pe etag which distance ther vsaand sats, Phe Hipparcos satelite, launched ic seared pralexcs for ens of thousands Ot si oxi lsat hundred parses Moving cluster method rte sar in a cher of stars are moving paralel 10 each othe, thei parent ea ae ie pe aky (or proper meitions) appear converge 1 8 point onthe se eee this direction and that ofthe cluster, then Teg is the tang= w/o where vis tne velocity ofthe stars tangential to the line of sight and is thet wae des. canbe measured om the Doppler shift and ie reated othe pur veloety of the sts" motion on the sk. 0% by aad where dis the distance. Hence, d = u,tan g/. Distance up to about 200 pecan bbe measured inthis way Luminosity distance The luminosity distance dh is defined as che distance an object would appeat to hue if the inverse-squate law held exactly (et egn (1.5): don = (P15)! 6) where P is luminosity and § is the fox density of radiation. The Miminosity sunce provides a ladder of distance using objects ranging from soderately fuminous variable sar 19 whole clusters of galaxies. All hat is needed s class bf source (a standard candle) with not too great a spread in luminosity P. At ‘sible frequencies astronomers have got into the rather odd habit of measuring Tox density and luminosities in terms of apparent magnitude m and absolute magnitude Mf, where the magnitude scale in such that there ae five magnitude Theps per range of brightness of 100, with the additonal peculiarity thatthe treater the magnitude the fainter the source. Thus maA-251g5 2 “This scale was adopted inthe nineteenth cenury to agree approximately with the brightness classification given by the Greek astronomer Hipparcos for bright stars in the second century ne. The constant A depends an the range of the spetnumThe distance scale a Table 31. The distance scale Disance inticaor —Laminosiy vance Diamexs dst Rin Vaiabie wars RR Lymse $50 be Cotes 20 be Bog sare aghtest srs 0 Me Eropive srs Nowe ne vende objects Planetary Pranstary 20 Mx in glass rbulae sebulee Hy regions He regions 25 MMpe Ghbalar Gibala 50 Me Galaxies Luminosity Diancter 100 Me Brightest galanes Largest galas 4100 Mpe Chaser of Luminosity fanction Cluster core 2000 Mp inude M is defined as the magnitude the sour ased. The absolute my Would have ats distance of 10 pe, s0 The absolute magnitudes ofthe Locel Group of galaxies were shown in Table 1-1 ° 4) The distance madulus is then defined ss m— M. and it can easily be sen from eqns G.1)}-C.3) that itis related to luminosity distance m—M = Slethen 87.45. 34) The three primary distance indicators, which can be calibrated within our Galsny and which ace visible in nearby external galnxcs, ae: () RR Lyrae variable sar, with penods ranging from afew hous toa day: (i)novae, esupive San with a characteristic pattem of rapidly brightening and slowly dimming ight ii) Cepheid variable stars, with periods from 2 t0 200 days and a well determined relationship between period and luminosity. The range of these and ther cosmological distance indicators is given in Table 3.1, In an important8 rhe empirical asis for cosmological theories dtevelopmen forthe distance scale, the Hubble Sass ea vec of the Cepheid method as far asthe Virgo lass ioe ifferent types of object give a Ider of iste ror dimensions. However, s¢ 36 ladder that Becomes ee aly for galaxies in the Local Group (ee pe measured by many independent methods ef mont promising dicance indicator supemcrs WhiGh ea crite ian alanis (op 10 400 Mpc) By eating ie tie es Se cetuce andthe velo of expansion of the Higbtemiing sui se Dipole spreading of spectral ines), dinect estimate of isaac i Ce a ethed has been applied 10 both Type 4 superonse (Wate sre Uieay spats which blow up when a arge mass ens is diiped oa thee companion) and Type Il supernovae (exploding masive Sars) 70) can provide an ingenious estimate of Luminosity dst shakier the further out it Table 1.1, p. 4) can distam ‘Gravtaionally lensed systems (se P nue ne lensed object varies its ight output and the change seem in (#0 aRET mages: Provided the lensing geometry wel understood, the time delay Career events inthe two images provides a purely Reomerical esimale of aisance The diameter distance daun is defined by assuring thatthe subzended by an object of intrinsic size [varies inversely with distance: parent angle @ = 16. 6» tran be obtained for only a few nearby stars, but canbe used for more extended Soject, mging from planetary nebulac and globular clusters to clasts of fun. What is needed here isa class of object with a small dispersion inthe avenue se Table 31 shows the contribution of diameter distance medods to the cosmological distance sale. An interesting. application of the dinmeter distnce uses the Sunyaev Zeldovich effect. in which the hot gas in clusters Compton scatters photons from the microwave boekground radiation, causing a dark patch inthe microwave background at frequencies blow the peak and aright patch at frequencies above By mapping the region at microwave and X-ray wavelengths, the propesies of the pis cloud can be determined and the diameter distance of the cluster cstmated ‘Some expirical methods which have been very videly used to mesnine distances to galaxies, and have allowed the Tocal veloety field to be mapped, are the Tully-Fisher method in spiral galaxies, based on a.conelation betwsen 2slaXs Jumninonty and maximam rotation speed, and the D,—o method in eliptcal talaxes, based on a corelation between galaxy diameter and velocity Seperion ‘Some of the uncertaintics which anse from these distance methods are well itwtrted fom eur normal visual experience. The human eye uses parallax distance out to about 5 m, andl diameter distances beyond that. However, onthe toatl at night the only way of deciding the distance (and hence the speed) of « i ae os st got vieThe redshift ” distant motor bike is by luminosity distance, but there is the possibility of Confusion with a{fmuch neare) bicycle. Fora car at night, diameter distance can fe extimaed feom the angle subtended by the head oF til lights, but there is Considerable enor involved due to the prea range in width between amin and a juggernaut ror objects travelling much slower than the speed of light ina Euclidean space ait these definitions of distance give the same answer. In a curved space Siscrepancies between the different methods moy help to determine the curvature 33 The redshift If we look for some particular spectral lines in the Sun's spectrum, e.g the sodium doublet at 5900 A, we will ind that the wavelengths of these and al the Gther spectral lincs are in general shifted by a small amount. This is due w (a) The rotation ofthe Earth about is axis results in a small Doppler shift of spectral Hines depending on the time of day. In the morning the observer has 2 ited 0 omponent of mation towards dhe Sun, so the frequencies pear to be higher frequencies, tovards the blac end of the spectrum. Similarly in the lemon there is 2 shift towards the red. The amount is minute, at most 1.4 pats a milion, tb) The Sun's own rotation, and circulatory motions in the Sun's surfc layers cause a shift of the same onder of magnitude, the direction depending on which part ofthe Sun you ae looking at fo) According 10 Einstein's general theory of relativity there will be sgravtutional redeift by an amount GM/RC?, where M and R are the mass and fadius of the Sun, and G isthe gravitational constant. Essentially the fave wo do workin climbing out ofthe Sun's gravitational fed, lose energy, and sor end up at lower frequency than when they set off The fractional shit Aviv , mere and vy are the emitted and observed frequencies, again tas out be 1) Now magine that we ook at another statin our own Galany. In adition to ne shifts a) (6) above, thew may be a far more significant shift due to the motion of the star round the Galaxy. The Sun, lke the majority of stars i the plane ofthe Milky Way, is moving in a roughly circular obit round the Galaxy End has circular yeloity of 250 km s-!, Some stars are weaving in and out of the galactic plane with speeds ofthe same order. The net results that frequency nay be expectedso 1 empirical bass for cosmological theories Took atthe integrated spectrum of another ee te ight rom a. galaxy i made Up of let Am) REY Bass pout nest be spre out By abou the amount given By rene alanis have some relative tion wih respect 10 seer each other peavitatinally, for example), we would ‘ha towards us, some moving away, 16. some yppens when ‘we will expect th "an G6), Second ach other (nearby txpect (0 find. some. m0 blusshitied, some redshifts. Haare ocd inl this forthe nearest galaxies, ef the members ofthe Local ‘Soto 1-1. Typical (0-ealled peculia’) ee ee few hundred kilometres per cond, But when we start o look st seer a gala, es determined by the methods of Section 3.2, aremadiable sae rages tiscovered by Hubble and Landmark in the 1920s and stonsly van amen by modern work). Almost all the frequency sifs are resafts and the Tincarly with distance, The slope of this line determines 2 cei ih the dimensions of distance, which we shal call the Hubble distance ae ea re, where 1s the Hable tie (etme for ight wo travel a Hubble GFatance). It we vite forthe redshift Group of galaxies mentioned in redsuft incre = Av)ve= (= ty an where dis the distance ofthe galaxy, Up i 5 peculiar velocity in the fine of Sight, and d/en isthe cosmological redshif TEacepe for nearby galaxies, the peculiar velocity can be nesleted, so strong is the effet ofthe cosmological resi, IF the edshit i interpreted as a Doppler Shift then the galaxies are receding from us in every direction, with a velocity {hut ncrensce with distance fom is (Figs 3.1 and 3.2) In fat in this case vvsexd/r, provided uc aa) = Hod, where ly = %;! is called the Hubble constant «Itt ix given im years, Ho i in (yeas)! However, you will often find it given in umits of km so! Mpe~! (Corrent estimates fie inthe range Hf = 50-100 km s-" Mpe-!, corresponding 10 r= 1-2 x 10! years and eto = 1-2 x 10% m = 3000-6000 Mpe. Cleary the time for & galaxy at distance d travelling at velocity v to travel a further distance di, by eqn C8), d/u = to, independent of d. Thus the Hubble time is measure ofthe expansion time ofthe univers, the time fr the univers to double its size expanding at the present rateFe ce sea incence nh dtc bene ei 34 Isotro Galaxies ‘We saw in Chapter 1 thatthe distibution ofthe nearest galaxies onthe sky i far from isotopic, dee to our membership of the Local Group of galaxies and proximity wo the Vigo cluster, But onthe large seal the eisibution of galaxies Troms to be fily isotopic, once allawance has been made forthe obscuration {uc to dustin our Galaxy. The exact nature ofthese tiny (01m dizmetet dost fesim reaponsible for absorbing and scattering Hight within the Galaxy is ncerain, but they are probably composed of silicates, graphite, or silicon Micpending where they originate from. In denser gas clowds, mantles of ce and, possibly, complex hydrocarbon molecules form on the grainsisotropy Fe.33 Patof ite Gao dic nate Ranh The inc of igh aster ly hs tones “The grins appear tobe distributed throughout the gas pervading the thin dise of ‘our Galactic plane. The result is that» Tie of sight close to the plane passes the plane. Fora through 2 much longer eolumn of dust than a direction normal to a of dust throughout a sla of thickness 2h the pathlength thet sniform distribu Teh from outside the slab has to traverse is coseeb, where bis the Galactic Inttude ofthe source (Fig. 3.3) in fact the dust concentration varies wih distanc ' oo the Galactic plane in a roughly inverse exponent way. However, inthe approximation that the concentration depends only on distance from the plan er the Tine of sight, the cosce law stil applies: The flux from a distant source is then reduced from So to where £ denotes the extinction per wait length (Ve. dS/ar = AS). In terms m= me + 1.0864 coseeb 10) Thus if we have a telescope capable of sceing galaxies down to a particular vale fn the cocresponding ming value of ma Will depend on b. For smaller valoes fb we cannot see such distant objects as we can towards the Galactic pole (6 = 90°) This in tums means that we will not see 90 many galaxies per sau The actual distbution of galaxies, in Galactic coordinates (analogous to tasiude and longitude, with the Galactic plane as eyuator, is shown in Fig. 34 This ic derived from Hubble's counts of the numbers of galaxies per square degree in different drceions. Within the “zone of avoidance’ close 10 the Galoctc plane, no galaxies are seen (see abo Fig. 3.5). ‘Naturally it ic hard to aay mach about the isotropy ofthe universe fom these bacuration the disibution is cenainly data, but once a correction i applied fo ‘compatible with isotopy, par from the erin casters. Assuming the distribution is highly isotropic (oot a vey ZOOM wed to-map the Galactic dst obscuration, ‘tendency already mentioned fr galaxiesrang om PD 9 EN" 24> EH APL TEE ieee sean men sory | pa SET eHUniformity Because allo surveys reach 10 Very great distances, the Hotopy of ra. somes i the arongest evidence we have of the souopy of ie paey © ‘aribuson on lrg sas The microwave background radiction ‘50 for we have looked atthe distribution on the sky of mater and although mo (ear anisotropy has emerged, the degree of isotropy we can claim is no better than afew percent Far more significant evidence fr the isotropy ofthe ui fone large scale comes from the microwave hackground ration (Se Bt centimene wavelengths, the COBE satelite has shown that this radiation Feotropic onthe large scale to 0,001 percent (I part in 10"), apart from the effect cf the Earth's motion (see Section 5.5) This is a superd confirmation of Einstein's 1917 postulate of an iso mverse and provides us witha strong basis forthe isotopic models on w most cosmology today is based. This isctropy dates from long times in the and places severe limits on any anisotropic models ofthe universe The X-ray background in th v tions away from Gatacic plane has boon shown to be isotropic to 1 per eent. The origin of Xray background is stil a matter of some controversy (see Section 7.10) Newon realized that iF the tas ¥ 23 with uniform number density out the univers, 2s had been proposed by Digges and Bruno then tis could courting the number of sas as a fimcton oftheir observed flux ime luminosity P ae distributed uniform! ruber per steradian ou! 10 distance per steradian brighter than Newtons atempts 10 apply this test of uniformity failed because be hd 90 dequate way ofeximating the faxes of str. Later, William Herschel used this testo show tht the stars of our Galaxy are in fact istabuted in diesasis for cosmological theories cae cecasian wa Recon of npc magne shonin, filer ced he, good apeenent wit he ene For distam galaxics we do not expect eqn 3-12) to hold exactly, since the redshit, whatever its interpretation, will affect the observed fluxes. But for Triahter galaxies, eqn @-12) does indeed holé approximately (ig. 37). Forradio Sourees, on the other hand, & significantly steeper slope is found (Fis. 38), “gsesting thatthe number density or luminosity ofthese sourees was greatec the pont, However, redshift effects cannot be neglected in interpreting radio 36. Others’ paradox Haley, and tater Cheseaux and Olbers, realized that important cosmological jnformation is contained in the fact that the sky is dark at night ‘Suppote a population of sourees of luminosity P has a number density 7 Considet a spherical shell of radius r thickness dr, centred on the Fath, The number of sours in one stradion ofthe shells nd thie ux isOtber's paradox The intensity ofthe integrated light fom these sources is a and if we add the comtbution from shells with 0 < r= Ry the toa intensity is pipe 313) early if we let R—> co, then I> 90. (Actually the stars would eventually set fo block out move dita light, so the intensity would tend to the average wrface Prighuness of the stan something comparable t0 the surface brightness of the solar disc) Sine the intensity ofthe inteprate light from zaaxies as wo be rouch Tes than the intensity ofthe Milky Way, we can deduce that we receive Heht only ess than some maxim distance Roy. The from galaves with a distance B I An nbn olS ‘Simplest reason fortis would be dt the universe is of ite as txpunding universe would be another way of resolving this paradox Tis ‘paradox’ can alko be stated in a thermodynamic form: why’ is the > Again, in & universe offnte age, we sce that there may universe 60 cold have been time for the stars to hea the est ofthe mater Up.« ‘Te empirical basis for cosmological eoFes 7 Evidence for a universe of Finite 286 several pieces of evidence suggest that We Hay HVS Mt a nN ea a rete onions of ferent oropes of diontive Slit sei ats Cee ieee nt diferent matenals, For example the ISet-10cks on esas Le ae ncteortes have ages of aout (45 0:1) % 10) Jem EDd N00 cage ofthe Son estimated rom caloulations ofits siete snd secant wh oy ears, Applied 10 the mers in our Galas as & ws 10® year, atm ageing wel ine een of the oldest stars, from stellar evolution theory 12-16 x 10! *, The ages of other neathy sclasies ace of the same order, independent of ealaxy Pe Ly Pe molosical redshift is dae to expansion of the universe then the 336 ofiie eaten ul be of order the Hubble time, 1~2 x 100 years, The similarity one sae af galaxies in our aeghbourhord andthe expansion ime-seale of the aan sae songlycuggents 2 universe of nite age in which galaxies formed early aaiicren itis bd to eliminate the possibility thatthe part of the universe we race tea wo faris merely some local utuation, or that the universe has had cyclical history. 38. Frvidence for a “fireball” phase the existence of an early phase of the universe's history in which ridition played a dominant role (the “chal! phase) is the simplest explanation of the 217 K blackbody backpround radiation, A sccond piewe of evidence for such a phase is thatthe stars in our Galaxy appear to have been formed with an inital composition of 76 per cent hydrogen 2 per cont helium, by mass. Almost all the remaining elements ean be formed vvthin the terior of sar, so its nagural to suppose thatthe universe started pure bydrogen and that the helium was formed in some pre-stellar phase, the chall, While fis possible to construct a theory of the early stages of our Galaxy's history in which very massive stars formed, evolved rapidly, and Caploded, dispersing helium, the most natural explanation i thatthe helinm was formed though nuclear reactions in the early fireball phase of the universe 49 Problems 11 Use eqn 10) wo work outhow many magnitudes an objet inthe destion fa) of the Galote pole, () Galactic laude B = 30°, (i) b = 10% is dimmed, given that there are about 20 magnitudes of extinction towards he Galactic ccnre (8 ke distant) and that h = 150 pe 32 A spearograph operats in te range SO0-9000 A, Determination ofthe ‘edt of emsonline galaxies or quasars depends onthe detection of beThe big-bang models 441 The substratum and fundamental observers discribe the properties of a gas we do not need to study the Behaviour of Fee one ead molcculs. Tnsicad we define various macroscopic ate densty, pressure, empersture—and study the relations between these apne way we make no ate 10 incorporate individual galaxies, oF lusers of into our desesption of the universe as a whole. We imagine dae cr the universe smeared out into an idealized smooth uid, which we call the sistranan: Weal an cbscrver who is at rest with respect fo this substratum a fndamental rartum sin motion, then we say that fundamental observers re observer thes ate interested in obtaining the picture that fundamental ‘moving with it. W sQeener: have of the universe as funtion oftime, We ell such a set of pictures 8 mological model Trpratce we mil often identify fundamental observers with galaxies, and will da on observer at the cente of our Galaxy as one, although in fat individual falas yl have some ‘peculiar yloety with respect the substratum. (The Var velocity of our Galaxy has been measured through observations ofthe Ricrowave background radiation) But for the moment we shall assume that schon we have corected for the rotation of the Earth, its ocbit round the Sum, and the motion ofthe whole solar system round the Galsxy, then we are receiving fundamental observer's view ofthe universe 42. The cosmological principle Its evident that in the post Copemican ers of human histoy, no well-informed ‘nd rational person can imagine thatthe Barth occupies a unique postin inthe Chivers, We shall call this profound philosophical discovery the Copernican principle, bough the fist clear statement of it due to Giordano Bruno. The ‘iscovery of millions of stars ike the Sun, of other possible planetary systems fd of galaxies similar to our own Galaxy all help to convince us of the th of the Copernican principle. Bruno himself knew of no such evidence, so his AMfirmaton was more of poetic, psychological, and even political truth ‘We now explore the consequences of a much more powerful ssurption, the cosmological principle’ the universe as seen by fundamental observers is hhomogencos and isotopic. ro iNewtonian cosmology 6 By homogencity, we mean that every fundamental observer sees the same general picture ofthe universe asa Function of time. Every fundamental observer Fe equivalem wo every ofher and, in panicular, the universe as seen by any fondemental observer looks the same as the univer a8 seen from Earth. The hypothesis of homogeneity can never he strictly tested for even if advanced lization in distant galaxies transmitted their cosmolog ‘would always be ou of date by the time 0 then an observer can, by choosing the right speed, be Preeat at both evens. In this frame of reference dry =dry = dn =0, fi = dr. ds just measures the interval of me ona clock a rest in this frame (the proper sim) If dx =O then the events can be connected by s photon emited at foe event and rcccived a the othe, and for photons time stands sil. If ds? < 0 then no observer can be present at both events, but c(-as*)) measures th proper distance (dhe distance as measured by radar methods) between the eel bean invariant for abservers with arbitrary (accelerated) motion, provided sve assume the acceleration principle mentioned above. “The principle of equivalence, which forms the basis of the general theory of mlatvty, is expressed by saying that in the local freely falling frame special felativity holds and the expression for de can be watt in the form (418 But this elimination of the effect of gravity by choosing a freely falling frame only works lal. For bodies far enough away from us we notice that they a falling to the cenze ofthe Earth ina shighty different direction to ourscves. In ener we will have to deal with curved space-time and the expression forthe Wo? = guided + ended + ended + guide +2ende : pene age Ca eae or, more compactly0 The big bang models «of postion and time which determine the eurvakore of oer jonal el. Eg (4.15) deseribes the metric of se ied ine components OF the meric tensor (a 1 Spoce-time and ence the sen ul 1 $a) Oe eae Pane dimensional Eueidean space, the mete i Sly ad tad+dd and 0 pu aus =e = 180d = 0,2 # Tha ee ec a Talled the Minkowski metic) i, By egn C.14), ae Lad +4d + de) + 4, where 24 = 68 1 manas=—gi pu Am tin a general ame of reference Ine fie wil ary with positon and ine, and Tull be that of a curved space-time, This isthe mathematical way of he effect of gravity Theory and special relativity, the omit ofa fee parle ora photon Tine In the general theory the rle of straight lines is taken by Tenses, the shorest routes between pis of pins in curved sacs i ten oor thet ht pasing near the Sun is deflected through a small angle of ones ToM/Roct (a radians) where Me nu Ro are the mass and radius ofthe Sun Swnpove now the Sun wee compressed By avery lage factor uni this quant pocame greater than unity. Light near the Sun woukd then be so stomgly deflected ren (et ame could cape. The Sun would disappear from view, becoming ‘Back hole (oe p25). For massive star it scems that this is indeed their probable tie (Section 2), Ober effects of gener relativity include the savitaionst ‘eas, mentioned in Section 33, the time delay for radar signals reflex off the anes and passing near the Sun, znd the advance ofthe peels ofthe plants Frost pronounced for Mercury. These effects have all been measured and the predicted. difences between general relativity and Newtonian theory are Foafirned within the solr system to an accuracy of beter than 1 per ont ‘One of the most interesting applications of the bending of light i the gravitational ens. Light from a. distant source is bent slihily rand an fhnervening saz, galaxy, or cluster of galaxies, which then act as 2 lens, distorting tind amplifying the imape of the distant souree (Fig. 4.5). Ifthe Jens and the thckprund source ae perfectly aligned, then the image forms ating of sins (the Binsin rads) the geome describing rp = (GMD! —9' fe, (419) were Mf, dare the mass and distance of the lensing objeet, D is the distance of the beckground source, and x= d/D. Ifthe alignment is not perfect then the rng will break wp into two or more images.General relatvistic cosmology ¢ halo of our Galaxy has been sing) Many examples Gravitational lensing by low-mass stars in Aketcted by the amplification effect ofthe lensing (miro fof lensing of distant (c > 2) galaxies and quasars by intervening galaxies have 2) been found. Images of many nich clusters of galaxies show a pater of circular arcs duc to lensing of background galaxies bythe cluster The binary pulsar, discovered in 1975, has provided one of the most icpressive confirmations of general relativity. The system consists of 10 peutron stars in such close orbit around each cther that signficam emission of ‘ean be infered fom the gradual Tengthening gravitational radiation occurs. Th fof the arbital period of te system, 45. General relativistic cosmology te cosmological principle Iican be shown that the most general metre satisfy isthe Robertson-Walker met sma Po eet tee ae whee (76,4) are spherical polar coorinates, andi chosen fr simplicity o be moving ral coordinwe, ix. we ace picking. a coordinate system in which fandaemal observers (se Sechon 4.1—-we normally identify these wath zalaxis) have the same radsl courinae all the time, even ifthe univers expands of condant and if k Ot convenient to redefine the 1. RU) in again the sale factor and we sill have tunis ofthe variable ro that k =Classification of cosmological move 3 the result ha, a changes al spatial dimensions are simply sealed up by the factor Rid. Thus ctactly the same modons, topic expansion or comtaction, ae permited in genera felavty 2s in Newtonian cosmology (Secéon 43 TF we comuer all events withthe tame value ofr, so that dr =0, the metic G4.17) em be shown to comespond to a three-dimensional spsce of constant Curvature I = +1, we have a spece of postive curvature (elliptic space —see Fig, 4.6 if k=O we have normal flat space; and if k = —1, we have a space of negative curvature (hyperbolic space), To solve for RG) we must subsitue this metic into the field equation Aliferntal equations relating the metic functions gto the density and presse fof matter the general relativistic analogue ofthe Newtonian equations of motion fora laid. When we do this we again obtain not only eqn (10), which is nt too Surprising since it expresses the comervation of mass, bat also oqns (4.12) and 4.13), ory of cltvity yields At first sight st scems amazing that the general raxtly the same cosmological models as Newtonian theory (the two theories d fot yield the same results for the motion of the planets). Bu it is less strange ‘ohen we remember (a) that the general theory of relativity i designed to reduce to Newton's law of gravitation when the gravitational fed is very weak, eg. in tur cosmological neighbourhood, and (b) the cosmological principle requires th tach neighbourhood be identical to every other Before we study the properties of eqn (2.13). we should note that in the fonginal form of the field equations proposed by Einscin, an additional tem pewed, the so-called “cosmological tern’. Later, Einstein at SRoaid be dropped, and this is the view of most relativists today. la Chapter 8 tun imoresting consequonces of the cosmological term ae discussed, but fo the moment i is set equal 10 zero. 46 Classification of cosmological models The Milne model, p=0,k=—1 This is universe of particles of negligible mass, so cam also he called theses where we have chosen t = 010 correspond to R =O. The universe expands (or ontracts) uniformly and monctonically (ig. 47 The Einstein-de Siner movel,k = 0 tion of eqn (4.13) is Ro) = +R 4.19)The big-bang models eA Th Einsein-de Siar med! Te onset sno and the universe again expands monotonically, but at an ever-deereasing rate (= Fig. 48). Ok=-1 ie 0 for ll R, so R keeps changing monotonically (Fig. 49). As tects Yeo) Sie large, > +e, 50 the universe looks more and more ke a Milne made). As the a flats get very far apart theit mutual gravitational atoetion plays #9 ever ‘weaker role in determining their motion 1 8 =0 for a particular vale of R ixGpoR 2 -BOHClassification of cosmological models and since # <0 forall R, the atraction betes and armed into ‘ovdlaing” universe (4ee Fig Note that () whatever the val (4.13) must dominate for small values of K 9 th rst term on the right-hand side of eo miverse always looks like an all these models are big «(for expanding mods, in that RO a a ii time in the p larity” Gininite density) 3 that ti (12) which tell us thatthe Rl?) curve ‘R= Oanis ata ite time and the universe emerged from a ‘si This follows very simply from eqn eave downwards and so must intersect the ang is not an explosion into pre-existing voi. rocity, the whole universe in involved i the im the pat. Note that this big Became ofthe assumption of hom expansion and there is mo “outside” to expand itrie bi: bamg models } 47 Cosmological parameters } : We have already encountered (Section 33) the Hubble parame 10) = RO/RO. (420) We now define the deceleration al) = -RORO/EO (42) und the density parameter 20) = BxGn@Q/3HPO: a2) tiga (4.12) plies sat £2) = 2a at al values of and (413) implies that 2 = 2-D) ay ‘thus whether the curvature constant 8 +1, 0, or ~I i determined by whether than, 1. The only models in which © (and ie greater than, equals, or 38 Les 0 are the Milne (G1 = q = 0) and Einstein * nce 4) does not change With de Sivce (2 ) models aa tremiy accepeed values oF these parameters atthe present epoch f=, H = 50 100kms-*Mpe* to =! = 15-405 x 10" years 1 fes we ae in an oscillatory universe and ify < pax we are in & monotonic expanding one. 48 The age of the universe We can write felt and using eqns (4:13) and (4:20)-(4.23}: & auf + 1 = 2a)The age ofthe universe where we have writen x for R/Ro. I qo = Osta = to if gn = 1/2, = 20/3 For 0 < gy < 1/2, and qo > 1/2, the substitutions x= Sat? 6, and x == sia respectively, allow eqn (4.25) to be evaluated. The age ofthe univers i es than i illstated i or equal to the Hubble time in all models: the esnon for this 11. Thus if Ho = 100 kms! Mpc“, the age ofthe universe is es than oF caus! 19.98 % 1d? year, This is somewhat less than the best current eximates of the age of our Galaxy (Section 37). For this reason the value Ho = 50 km 5 Mpc is adopts im the remainder of this bookMe The big bang models 49° Horizn Paris sve obcerved from those that We cannot yet OW anil ase metones sim int view At fist Uy ate een wih Ye ose Ehe expansion of the universe i slowing down (q=0) the Teashift of any particular glany decreases with Gime. Soa ae ine orion at ine tis of order sot encompassed auch smaller von of mater at early tines Tes thos something ofa paradox that when we look ae Geromave background in two opposite directions, conditions are identical seein 10 despite he two regions neve having yet ber n easel conic Ths qr often eld the horizon problem (sce Section 5.4. 4.10 Problems 41 Show by means of the substations 4:26) in (4.25) thatthe age of the universe stistes tke 4 k= nf 201-2) Find the age of the universe if Ho = 66 kin st Mpc and $% = 0.1. If pa 3 10! yeurs, and 0.1 << Gy < I, what is the permissible range of He Stow that q is constant in the Milne and Finstein-de Sitter models. 443. Show thatthe Friedmaan ego (egn (4.13) has the soltion Qyr(2¥ — sin2W) ead 2(8% = 1"? and exo Q(eosh2¥ where ranges overall real values5 Early stages of the big bang SA. Universe with matter and radiation SS far we have construcied models of universes filled only with matter. Altwoogh Taciaton contributes less than {per cent of the average enerzy per unit volume in fhe universe atthe present epoch it plays a crucial and dominant roe in the exe We can study the evolution of a universe containing matter and radiation by applying the frst lw of thermodynamics o an element ofthe substratum, Ths tines the same answer as applying the full fld equations of general relay The fist Law of thermodynamics states that the change in energy of an expanding system equals the work done by the pressur ae = —pev oo were Ep. V are the energy, pressure, and volume of the element ‘We now use Einstein's equation E=M where Mf includes both the contribution ofthe matter andthe mass eau the radiant enemy, Le E=(n+P é demity of the matter, pi he mass density ofthe radiation vad i he total mass density of mate lume of an element ofthe sobsratim is proportional to Aygo ere) 6” This is the fundamental equation relating the density and pressure in a universe and radiation. ifthe pressure ofthe matter can be neglected, eqn (8-4) reduces 10 4 (oni) =0 and 0 fy c& R~ as before (eqn (4.10)stages ofthe big bang pie] WO ie a 4 aR) +a oan oo p= exo ROO/Ro) 62) When this is suhstitoted in eqm (4.12), assuming k=O, we find RE xR Feox R™, which imosrates to Ret 68) This characterizes the motion of a radistion-dominated universe in its arly stages, since the term in egn (4.13) in kc* becomes negligible if Rs sulficiedly Universe containing matter and radiation It we negleet the contribution of matter tothe pressure, so tha p= p then eg 5.4) becomes dj eared (el (aR) =0. » Seek) + gg OR) 69 I we assume strict conservation of mater, Le we neglet any conversion of aiter to radiation, then each of the two tems in eqn (59) will be separately 280: dees 4 a R= i Soni) =0, GR)=0 ) and s0 = pu shR/Ro) * 6.10) em = Pl R/ Re)The freboll i However small the current value ofthe ratio ofthe density of radition to matter prof teurent value ~ 10"), there Was an epoch in the past, given by Rs ean och that p, > fa fOC R < Rep nd > fe fOr R & Rey. Radiation would have been the dominant form of ene have been vali Wecall epochs such that, > fe the radiation dominated era and epochs such at early epochs, and eqn (58) woul that pu > py the marrer-dominated er $2. The fireball [At the present epoch radiation traverses the universe freely, with only a sna probability of being scattered by ga or dust. In adtion to occurring in galas Eich mateal may be spread more or less uniformly throughout space, bu s Hable distances see p50 enuovsly that a photon i likely to travel seve fefore being scatred oF absorbed, We say that the universe is transparent or pticeliy thin atthe preset epoch, Its easy fo see that this was not always so. “The pica size of a galay is 10 kpe, while the averaze spacing between galaxies I of onder 1 Mpe. It we run the universe backwanls through a change Zin the Seale factor of 100, without galaxies altering, Le Z = Rla)/R(t) = 106 chen the planes would all have been touching. Tis makes i key tha the bn tp int galaxies occured during epochs such that 100 > Z ~ 1. Of course, palais ould not remain analteed during this “rewind of the universe, We would se th dunt falling back i the srs fem which it has blown out. andthe stars dissolving fino the gas clos from which they formed. The loms from which our complex en down into hydrogen with an admixtre of misty derives would have brok miverse was onthe helium. We donot ave any direct evidence on how smooth the i of gale mages at epochs such that Z > 100, batt is natural to consider Picuse ofa fay uniformly distibutes gas of hydrogen and helium, sponed with he Jesiyimepslaries which are to condense into the galanies. We shall discos the pecblem of how galaxies may have formed in the nest chapter All the while that we ae runing the universe backwacts, the and hence the temperature, of the radiation is building up, by eqn (5.10). Sooner or lter the pas wl start to be significantly heated by the radiation, The enscil reaches about 3000 K, for ‘enerey density moment comes when the temperature of the m w suri 19 become ionized. This brings into ply the enormous the wansparency of the then the hyde Scattering power office lectons and puts an end t We call his moment the epoch of decoupling eer in thermal equilibria. This snd mater. Prior to this, they are locked tos arty stages of the big ong cans thatthe radiation has the Panek blackbody specinam (Seti 14) s0 ie see ewes coy ey 0) 4s Oe exp(hv/AT)—1 «Tt (5.12) ner 7 is the radiation tempersture, and then eqn (5.10) implies that 7, 1/RO). G13) As R-» 0,77, > 00, which explains the use of the tenn fireball to deseribe this. cell thick phase ofa big-bang universe. Since there i thermal eqilibium Port the epoch of decoupling, the temperature ofthe mater isthe same as that (ofthe radiation Ta=Te uy) |What happens afer the epoch of decoupling? Certainly eqn (5.14) will no longer hold andthe matter will con! off rapidly. However, it turns out thatthe effec of the tepamion of the universe on the radiation is to preserve its blackbody spectrum, srt the radiation temperature continuing to fall according to eqn (5.13) (see Ex x 5.1. This provides the most natural explanation ofthe 2.7 K blackbody microwave i background ration described in Seetion 1.8. A more detailed summary of the ‘servations is shown in Fig, 5. The discovery ofthis radiation provided the mest. ' Specacular confirmation to date ofthe hot big-bang picture of the univers. The OBE salt, launches in 1989, provided a super) confianation ofthe blackbody ‘ature ofthe microwave background spectrum (Fig 51h). \ Now, ftom eqn (5.13) we can identify the epoch of decoupling as \ Z = Rl) /RC) = 3000/27 ~ 1000. The density of matter at this time would have been x ~ (10")'Pa0~ 10 kg m-> (assuming fa,9 ~ 10-2” kz m-), about 1000 times the average density of mater inside our Galaxy Coincidentally, the ertcal epoch separating the raation-dominated from the |) matter dominated eras (Section 5.1) is also about Z~ 1000 for rao~ | 10-7) kg m-?. Hence for Z > 1000 we can use R(@) cc (eqn (5.8) and foe 1000 > 2 > I we ean use R(t) o¢ 7 (eqn (4.19). In Figs 5.2and 5.3, which show the variation of the energy densities and temperatures of mattr and radiation with epoch, we use the Inter right up to Z = 1, for illntration.wavelength (em) tackground ean (Wikia® 198) The sales ‘Hoven emphasae oy wavelet Ral Jes pat fe spire The COL snes: re fg. 51) sa sd eave neh ek Oe ec ae ef en ato encod level he nema rea cyanogen a ees Tei rita! ty ems for the galaxy, winch is arger tan the exrgslactic ar at wavelengths Jones than 30 man ster 400 53. Helium production ‘When the temperature vss between 10" K and 10° K, some proportion of the hydeogen was converted by thermonuclear fasion into helium, the exact amount depending on the density of the matter during this phase. For Pag ~ 10-*7 kg m9, pal = 10K) ~ 10°" ke and i s found chat the faction of matter converted to helium would be almost exactly the 24 percent by mass that we need £0 explain the composition of our Galaxy (Fg, $4 and Table 5.1). This provides a second major success for bis bang cosmology. ‘We have pushed the fireball scenario back o within | second of the big bans. Extapolating what is known shout elementary particles, we ean get even closef the big bang as) tut we should bear in mind that even the most optimistic imerpretation of the (0.002 percent isotopy ofthe blackbody radiation guarantees our simple isocopic ‘models only back to Z~ 10%, so we are treading on thin ice et us now Look at the evolution ofthe universe during the fireball phase in ‘more deal. For any particular elementary particle of mass, there isan epoch at hich the temperature 1s sueh that KI'~ me? Prior to this epoch a collision between to photons can result in the creation of a particle par, the particle and its anipartete. The thermal eqibrium between matter and radiation ensures that when AT me? there are roughly as many particles ofthis type as photons. When the temperature drops below mc2/k, particle pairs can no longer be created and the panicles and antipanicls rapidly annihilate, provided they are abundant ough to collide frequen The elementary partiles ean be subdivided into the lighter panicles which da not take part in strong muclear interactions, or leptons (neutrinos, electrons ‘muons, and tauons and their antparticles), and the hadrans, which do. Hadrons can be further subdivided into baryons (protons, neutrons, and the wostale tbyperons) and mesons. Te eiical temperatures fr the hadrons ae > 10" K and this phase ofthe universe is known ax the hadron era. What the hadron era was like depends on what is the comet theory for strong interactions. There woul have boen a great varity of particles in thermal equilibrium. with each other, inclding photons, leptons and, possibly, mesons and nucleons (Le, neurons and protons) and their antiparticles. Acconding to the quark theory of song iersetions the hadrons would then have been broken down into free quarks. “The subsequent history of the fireball can be divided into four regimes: (@) T~ 10 K (~ 10s) muons anibilae: muon neutrinos and antes tsinos decouple from everything else (©) T-< 10! K(7> 001 5) the neutron-proton mass difference (1.3 MeV. comesponding to T'=15x 10! K) begins to shift the stall nucleonicHelium production ‘Table £1. Relative cosmic abundances ofthe most common elements Thiel valve Sun slat closer and oer ol tars Ponty eb “0 Blue compat gates 2“ ost pmol vale a Hydrosen 1 Catton Magncsam Sion Sulphur contamination towards more protons and fewer neutons, through equilibrium of the weak ineracon processes pte, ntetsopt1 [aburanoe by mass) Babee by ras io tean density of waivers) Fig. 55. The mas facto of clemers ‘He, e, 7H eign, nd Fanci calls sseconef he pie sy ef be waver, copa ih over noni values xe) A deetay stared 102 kgm seem coheed The connor aks er te The neuton-poton equilibrium rato is determined by the temperature Ny/Np = expt x 10°°/7) 615) AtT~ 10 K(@~ 1) electron neutrinos and antineutrinos start to decouple from everything ese (6) T ~5 x 10? K (¢~ 4s): elecwons and positrons annihilate with each other and this, opether with the cooling of the neutinos by the expansion of the ‘mivere, leads tothe virual“ieering-owt of the nentron-proton ratio. The only remaining process is neutron decay (> p-+ €- + Ve, decay) and the resulting fraction of neurons to all nucleons is x (Ne +N) * 0.16 exr(-1/10" 5). 616) the photon temperature 10 ‘The annihilation ofthe electrons snd positrons 14 times that of the neutrinos (see Fig. 53) (@) T~ 10? K (2~ 10° see); nucleosynthesis begin, yielding *He and a trace (of 7H (deuterium), "He, "Li, and other clements (see Fig. 5.5). Namber densities ‘ar 100 low to allow moclei to be bit up direc in many-body collisions likeThe very early universe » 2n-+2p—~He. Instead complex nucle most be built up in sequences of tw body reactions like n+p H AH He +n eta +p HR He +n The crucial step 38 the formation of deuterium which, because ofits low binding cnerey (2.2 MeV), is destroyed a8 soon 2 it is made until the temperate op wo~ 10K ‘The absence of stable mclides with stomic numbcr A = and & means tha very litle production of elements heavier thin hela takes place. Almost all nevtrons end up in “He mack, which have by fr the all nucle: with A <5. Nucleosynthesis tums off the decay of mt the value just before the onset ist binding encrgy of neutrons and fixes the nestron-proton ra ucleosynthesis, Aer nucleosynthesis is over, we have essontally nothing left ut fee protons and helium nucle, so the mas-fraeton i dhe frm of helium is Simply tice the fraction of neutrons to all nucleons just before the onset of . This depends weakly on the density of mater in the rcleosynthesis, Universe and hence the time tht the neutros decay according to eyn (5.1) Devierum, om the other hand, is very scnstve 10 iy because its final abundanc is controlled by the processes which destoy i, and the cross-section for these reactions is proportional to, The observed primondil abundances of heim deuterium, and lithium imply (ace Fig. 5.5) tha te denstyof the universe toda in the form of baryons is given by Finally, when the tempersture drops to 3000K (1~3 x 10° year), the temperatre of the matter becomes 100 low to keep hydrogen ionized. Protons and electrons combine to form neutral stom of hydrogen, The matter therefore suvdenly becomes transparent to radiation, and mre and radiation decowpe Te proces of recombination’ is so rapid hat there are no significant distortions the Blackbody specrum during this phase and, as discussed in Section 52, the Subsequent expansion of the universe preserves the blackbody form of the Spectrum. while changing the temperature according to eqn (5.13) SA The very early universe m ofthe universe from a ime In the previous section we discussed the evout 10 seconds after the big bang onwards, at which time the temperature i 01 K. The physics of matter under these conditions is well understood from fret accelerator experiments Pit to this epoch we start extrapolating into the realm of less well-established physic.9 arly sages of the big bang According wo the current view of the nature of Kaden they’ ars made Up of gta of quarks, of which there are six different Kinds or Mavoure': up and Tr crange an! charmed, top and ton. The proton is composed of two up coe und one down quatk, while the neutron is €omposed of one UP and two. etn quarks, "The atoctive fore, which holds the quarks tether, is provided te nutites known as “gloons’, and the detsled theory ofthis fores is known as uantum ebromodynamics (QCD), The name arses because another propery of ‘tfarks has been given the name “colour” (@ quark eam exist in one of three possible colour states) Att 10's (7 ~ 10" K), quarks and their antiparieles annihilate eaeh cut, fd tei eid corbin to fr prot and netons im gil ombers Pec urhe pooh thee would have been a sup of quarks leptons, and their rating feck father to +~ 10" (F~ 101°) it is believed dat the ccetumapnets fore and the weak nuclear force (he one responsible for ‘iay) weuld have been combined int a single fore, the electroweak force four to this epoch. At this cpoch a phase wansiion occurs in which the etc ore sp inthe to furs hat we know today. The theory of he ‘Scare uncon, developed by Weinberg and Salam, has been confimed Sn acleatorexperimats at CERN by the detection ofthe W and Z particles ype wo be responsible forte ore ‘nach skier round we can extrapolate back a further 23 powes fen in si 110° s prior fo which time its proposed thatthe stone mocea force (esponsle for holding protons and nctons together in the acl of os) andthe elesoweak force woul! have ben snifed int the grand wie fore, Grand Unied Theorie (GUTS) pric thatthe proton wll decay on a timescale of abot 10°" years and sensitive experiments sre under Way 1 it this prediction Tn 1981 Alam Guth suggested tha the phase transition associated with the break-up ofthe grand unified force could leave the universe (or our potion of it sf least) in state of “false vacuum. in which the vacuum bas a colossal enersy= ‘ensity essocited with it. This vacuum eneray-density acts ike a cosmical repulsion (see Section 8.2) and the universe embarks on an exponential expansion ‘whic inflates the universe by the incredible factor 10, or pethaps even noc, in a very bret instant of time. The inflationary period ends when the vacin energy density transforms into matter and radiation and the expansion of the Universe continues as described above. Inflation permits « solution of honzon’ problem (Section 4.9) because regions of the universe seen in opposite iretions on the sky through the microwave background, although not in ‘communication with each ater today, would have Beem in communication before the inflation began. The inflation also solves what is known as the “fatness problem. Today we know that the density parameter lies in the range 0.03 < 25 <2, which scome quite a broad range of possibilities. However at 11 s after the big bang the quantity [1 ~%l, which measures how much the‘The very carly univers a bniverse deviates from flatness, would have been smaller than 10°! and at = 10-5 s it would have had to be smaller than se to eing fat at early time ‘The inflationary phase Jeaves the universe in th fequted very fat state and infact predicts that he average density ofthe niverse tody would be within one par in 10° ofthe critical value (og 4.24 Several diffrent versions of how inflation oecured ave now heen propose ne period of exponential expansion i the very (0-2, The universe therefore ave evolved tothe kind The esental common feature iarly sages ofthe big bang coy unvese,wtch ots the hom and ates oles Hower ee Se ey nih se ere occa te a ; Eatrapolating back still further in time, at ?~ 10 s we reach what is known ae ve we a quan theory of ry red etapa cee time Athough mich fo gone at pedi 3 a a trv and ey ily he es iin hee a gta het of hs ype yet Te mest eel of he ems eee nayening theory of Gren std Sehware: Races nly ht won eat wil eer bo tna ‘Gor curent picture ofthe evolution of the universe is ilustated in Fig. 56, Isotrupy of the microwave background The high degree of isotropy of the microwave background radiation both on the la lar seales has profound consequences for out picture ofthe univers. Let us consider the various kinds of anisotropy we might have expected land summarize the present observational situation for e 361", 24-hour, oF “dipole anisotropy ‘The combined effects of the Earth's motion round the Sun, the Sun's mation round the Golaxy, the Galaxy's motion within the Local Group, the Local Group's motion with respect tothe Virgo cluster, and the Virgo cluster’ random ‘motion with respect to the substratum shonld result in the Earth having a net ‘motion with respect to the fundamental cosmolosical frame of reference or substrotum, Even i the microwave background radiation were perfectly isotropic ‘with respect to the cosmological frame, it should show a characteristic dipole snisotropy dic to the effect of the Doppler shift on the intensity observed a the Earth For radiation with a blackbody spectrum characterized by a temperature 7, the observed intensity would still have blackbody spectrum but with temperate (8) depending on direction according to T(0) = Ty + v coss/a/tt — 2/2) 6.18) where @ isthe angle between the direction of observation and that of the Earths motion with respect to the substratum and i the Fan's speed. The radiation ‘appears ho'ter in the direction the Earth is travelling towards and colder in the ‘opposite direction. Observations made with a telescope fixed on the Earth's sutfce will show a pesidicity every 24 hours of sdereal time correspondine £9 an angular scale of 360 ‘This ype of anisotropy was deected in 1977 by a group ftom the University of CCalfomia, Berkeley, using a U2 aircraft, and confirmed by groups from Princeton and Florence using high alitude balloons. When comected for the Hien w0 Deel o 01% 9 eeIsonropy of the microwave background 9 Eath’s motion rund the Galaxy amd our Galey's motion trough the Loa Group. the elociy, of the Local Gop wih respect 10 the microwave Foran eli by COE 2-222 bene ina decree tp Gate coordinates 1 : Tis seemed a fist 19 be a diverting lag Mouah qe Howeve otfcs Based on rte surveys of TAS enlaces hae speed for our random mation Shown that this motion ean be understood a x resul of the combined atrastion of Targe clusters of galaxies within 100 Mpc of us, provided thatthe total value o {9p is close to 1. Comparison with ega (5.17) implies that over 95 percent ofthe mater in the universe would then ave to be noo-baryonic 180r, 12-hour, or “quadrapole" anisotrop IP the universe were rotating or shearing (ie. expanding anisctopically) then we tight expect a large seale anisotropy in which the background looks hotter er Golder than average in two opposite directions on the sky. No such effect is ‘Served and, apart from the dipole anisotropy mentioned above, the microwave tuckground i itopic on the large scale to an accuracy of 0.001 per cent, Small-scale anisotropte Since the universe i clearly inhomogeneous on mass scales coresponding galasics and clusters of galates, say 10°-10" Mo, we expect that, a the epoch Of recombination, density perturbations were present which could then grow tnder te inflacnce oftheir own gravitation, For galaxies to have formed ty th preset epoch in a universe composed of norm, baryonic mater. we need the Emplitude of these protogzlactic density perturbations tobe A/o > 0.1 perc the cosmological density parameter p= 1, and 3) per cent if 2)=0.1. The comesponding temperature Muctuations in the observed back ground radiation would he AT/T ~ 10-* on angular scales from 0.5’ wo 20. By 1960 observational limits gave A7/T <5 x 10°S on angular scales from 3! 10 1, inconsistent with the condition for galaxy formation in a purely baryonic universe meres therefore focused on modcs in which most ofthe matte in the ‘universe isin some dark, non-baryonic frm, which would have decoupled from the radiation at a much carer epoch than the baryonic matter. Noo-baryonie mater can be broadly divided into two types: cold dark matter in which the Pumtcls are slowly moving atthe cpoch when they decouple from the ratation nd hot dark matter in which the particles are moving at speds close to the ypecd the fediation, A example of hot dark matter \wonld be a neuirino wth non-zero rest mass. No examples of cok ark matter are ‘known, bur particle physicists have posited he exisience of particles which would be candidates, lke the axion and dhe neutralino Tn 1992, the Cosmic Background Explores (COBE) team announces that they ha detected small-scale anisottopies in the microwave background radiation onaEarly stages of the big bam i of 10°. The amplitude of these fluctuations i about 1% 10-* andthe seale T ihe fctuations crcesponded to stustures 1000 Mp in sie lay far Tanger fa any structure We have been able to study 10 date at the present epock abscguem, ground-hased and balloon-bome expetiments baye confiried the COBE result and extended it 10 smaller scales. The next generation of space: ne experiments should be able to detect these fluctuations on the: sale of alaies ad clusters ‘The detection of these fluctuations is a milestone for cosmology. Because we fan now test differen scenarios for the mature of the dark matter and for the formation of galaxies. The fctuations may well have their origin at the infiaionary epoch, only 10° sec after the big hang. The Sunyaer-Zeldovich effec The hot gas in rch clusters of galaxies interacts with the photons ofthe cosmic microwave background by Compton scattering, with the result that towards a ‘ster the background looks cooler than average at long wavelengths and hotter than average at short wavelengths. The magnitude ofthis effect is about 0.001 K. 3 has been messured towards a number of clusters 56 ‘The evolution of density fluctuations during the fireball We can discuss a density fluctuation as a coherent entity only fom the moment When it ies entirely within che horizon (Section 4.9) Prior to that the diferent pps ofthe fluctuation could not bein communication with each other. 1 Ms(0) i the mass within the horizon at time 1, then MyO cx plea xt during the radaton-dominated era since p oc Rt, and R oc? (Section 5.1). At the transitional epoch from the sadiaion- 19 matterdominated cra8, tay Mi) ~ 108( 29?) ?Mo, 100, 50 fluctuations on the mass scales of galaxies and clusters come within the horizon during dhe cadiation- ‘dominated era. Baryon fluctuations then remain frozen at approximately their inal amplitude uni recombination because the radiation and matter are locked together by Thomson drag. Non-baryenie matter fluctuations, on the other hand row seal throughout this phase, with (\p/) 7 forall seals. ‘There are four types of density factuation: (2) adiabatic, which behave like sound saves, and in which the photon snd matter Aucuations vary wether: (6) loothermal, im whieb the matter density is perurbed but the temperature is not (ie. we have mater Muctuations in a woiform photon bath): () isentropic, it which matter and radiation vary with opposite phases so tat dhe total enesey ensty remains constant; (8) turbulent, which are large-scale tes in the coupled matter and rationDistortions of the microwave backeround specirum 1 was found by Silk that adiabatic foctations with M <2 10°C (292) 4M, 20) where = (@p/100), are damped out during the ralison-dominated era by Photon diffusion out of overdense regions into underdease ones. Turbulent Fietustions are also damped out on lower mics scales. In this case the energy ssoiated withthe damped out perturbstions my have the elec of distorting the radiation ffom Planckian form (see next sctin). Zeldovich and Harrison independeody postulated that the amplizde of density pemurbations at the moment they come within the horizon is p/p ~ 10 fadepcndent of massscale (he scale-free hypothesis). It can be shown thatthe fesiling matter density fucustions at the epoch of recombination, on a Scales, is then of the for p/p = 10-*U4/MiCea) (2 The Harsison-Zeldovich density flactution spectrum has been very successful in sccounting for the observed hierarchy of galaxy clustering. The detailed tvolution of the spectrum of density Hictustions depends on the cosmological araneters and on the nature of the non-baryenie mater in the universe. One of is of an inflationary phase att © 10-* sin the very flettations of the Base he successes ofthe hypothe sly universe is that such models can generat Zeldovich form 57. Distortions of the microwave background spectrum Ir energy is injected into the radiation field at erty epochs, fr example by the fisipation of adiabatic or turbulent density fluctuations, the spectram of th adiation may be expected 10 undergo distortion from a blackbody form. Th rater wil be higher than that of the radiation and nea temperate of th Compton scatering will then boost the p frequencies). Bremsstshlong radiation from th rising low-energy photons, and ifthe heat injection occurs at carly enough sum atthe new, higher hot gas will partly ln the fpochs may even succeed in restoring a blackbody 5p temperature of the malt ‘Compton distoron athe background spoctam may also oecurafer the ep of recombination if for example. a5 the result of the formation of galaxies or (quasar, the intergalactic gas (assuming some exists) i einized “The observed spectrum ofthe microwave background measured by the COBE sotlite Fig, 5-1) 8 Planckian to an curacy of 1 percent over the wavelength any distortion must be extremely soll This also rules Ou rificant population of pre-galactic objec radiating Sabmillimete manclengths. Any possibility tht the microwave background is duc to radiation from relatively local dust grains i also| } ; ‘ss arly stages ofthe big bane 58 Problems 5.1 Show that the substation »’ = »/Z nto the expression forthe intensity of Phekbody radiation Iv) given by ega (1-2) results inablackbody spectrum rerespondiny o a temperature 1” = 7/2. Give an interpretation of this result 52 Lett be the epoch of electron-pesitron anntiltion when T= 5 x 10° K, fd let my be the epoch when T= 10" K and fusion of helium begins. CCalclate tad fp forthe two cases fa) the universe i radiation-dominated for 1< 3 x 10° yrs then mater< donated uni the present epoch (i = 10" yrs): (op the universe is radiation-dominated for r < fy, then matter-dominated til the present epochs IFX, —¥, 05 at — ti, calcula the neutron abundance at f assuming neutron deca’ according to eqn (5-16) fora time (fs ~t), for the two cases (ay, (). Heace deduce the heliam abundance in each case, assuming all Surviving neutrons are used to make heliur-t muclei (2 neutrons + 2 rotons). ‘Comment on the significance of these reals for the observed universe6 From the fireball to the present 6.1 Before galaxies formed recombination 2 000 musks the moment when baryonic The epoch « : matter eat last ble to evolve independently of the radiation. A region where th hate hes a slighily higher density than average will have is expemsion slowed Gown and twill stan to separate out fom the surrounding matter. If the inital Gensity excess Ap/p is large enough, the expansion of the fragment will ventaaly be halted by its sel-gravity and it wil collapse together to form 2 nent. The time for fala or chsterof galaxies depending onthe mass of the fe this expansion and collapse is 1 gg/1000)-27(A.p/0) 37 yours 6 so the srongest perturbations form frst Iasi curently believed to he the ease, non-baryonic matter perturbations are present and have already evolved significany by the epoch of recombination, then at ecombination the baryons will tar to fall nt the potential wels defined by the nombaryonie peruhations. The baryonic density fluctuations quickly atch up the norrharyonic fluctuations in amplitude and the two types of mate perturbation then evolve tozetier (Fi, 6.1) The detled evolution of the density uctation spectrum depends on the re ofthe dark mater. Figure 62 cosmological density parameters and on th scales at Inte shows the form of the density Auctuation spectrum on diferent ch of which sas niall from a spectur ies for thre different scenarios « Harison-Zeldovieh form. On large sale, the spectrum has th ‘of hot dark matter particles has ap/p Mf” in each ese. Free steaming sompletely suppressed structure on small scales in this eae he epoch of recombination can form into aby Jeans. The for sound Density flacations present at galaxies provided they satisly an iosporant riterion discover {ime seal for gravitational contraction must be less than the time-scale f Giherwise pressure forces will prevent the waves 10 cross the irregularity lapse. This means thatthe size of the fuctuation must be greater than the Gintance wavelled by a sound wave in one free-fall time (~ (Go) ') na, and pi the density of wnte Ly, i the Hans length, isthe velocity ofm the fireball tothe presentFormation of galaxies and clusters is ip. 63) My ~ (gh) 63 than this, iF amy are present, wil collapse directly on a mass scale slightly mplte their collapse in a few milion yeas. They mi black boles or might fragment into stars. One proposal is that this might Be lobular custers. Another is shat this might zive bi elements. Tis is of massive stars which prodice radiation and beay dest stars in out Galaxy, which te way of explaining the metals present in the never seem 10 be found with a heavy element abundance < 10~* relative 1 Hydrogen If there was a pregalacic generation of radiating obpects, whether sas eccoting blak holes, then they might have the effect of reionizing the ‘maining gus. The falar to detect any distoions 1 tbe Planckian spectra of only Knit the a he micrawave background by COBE does, howeve ation that ean have been emited by pregaactic objects. 62. Formation of galaxies and clusters background, We saw in There a severl pictures of galaxy and wrth the high degree of isotropy of the microm Seaton 55 that this isotopy eliminates the possibility that ealLong ea Tig 64 The obsered dey fcnaton spur on diferent eles deve fam TEAS gay ri ituners a fom the COME mictsave cpanel Puce. The cna odes re TENSE Stow pot rd cl dak mater fined de mater slid eure and fora serge colt were formed by gravitational means in a porely baryonic universe. The main current theories are: (a) adiabatic fluctuations in a cold dark mater universe: the col dark matt condenses in lumps on small scales which aggregate together to form galaxy halos, in the cores of which the baryonic matter setles to auke the visible parts of falavies Galaxies then cluster together under the influence of gravity to form Clusters and superclustes "botoci-up" scenario) (©) adiabatic fluctuations in a ot dark matter universe: the largest mass structres (Guperclustrs) form frst as “pancakes” and then fragment 10 give galaxies (top-down? scenario). Adiabatic Tuctations in a baryonic universe follow similar evolution, but would require too large fluctuations in the ‘microwave background to be consistent with observations. (c) isothermal fuctuations, in which matter uctuatons ae superimposed on a uniform ridition field are now considered unphysical, but isentropic Jiuctuations, in which the total energy density remins uniform, have been ‘advocated by Peebles as a possible baryonic universe model. These result in 4 bottom-up scenario. Other adhoc models inchide the cosmic explosion scenari@, in which the observed voids ae duc to astrophyscally generated explosions, ¢ ‘in quasars, and galaxies form in the resulting shock fonts; and cosmic strings, iInergatactic gas tn lasers 01 wich galaxy formation is aided by Tinea tpological defects leftover fom phase transitions in the very carly universe The density Muctuation spectrum observed on large scales allows us to istinguish between these different scenarios. It scems that ro simple seenario an ft both the COBE microwave background floctations and the tatstis of Targe-scale galoxy esting (sce below). Scenarios that are being pursued atthe moment inchude & model with bots hot sn cold dark matter (mized dark mater tee Fig. 64), a lou-S cold dark mater model with non-zero cosmological Gonstant (sce Chapter 8), and cold dark matter models in which the initial perturbation spectrum is er than the Harrison-Zeldovieh form, ‘The chustering of galaxies can he described by the defined a the excess probability of finding galaxy ata distance 7 From a random galaxy dp = nfl + cerV 6 wvheren is the average number-density of galaxies and dV a small clement o Volume. Peebles and coworkers found from studies of « variety of galaxy slags thal where r is in Mp. ‘Nusirical simulations of galaxy clustering show that eqn (65) is indeed roughly shat would be expected if the Muctuation spectrum. at recombination the form (5.1). Once protozalactic fragments star to Separate out from the surrounding’ Bs proceeds daring the thei alimate fate depends on how efficiently star format stars before th ollapse phase. Wall the gas im te fragment has formed int ragment collapses together, then a elliptical galaxy is formed. Otherwise adi f gas supported by cenifugal force and surrounded by an extended ellipsoidal Component is formed. Le. «spiral galaxy. Models have becn constructed whi cccount in deal for he luninosity and colour distbutions, the rotation curves, ind metal abundance gradients seen in te diferent galaxy (ype itis now belived tat imeractions and mergers hetween galaxies play a maj role inthe evolution of galaxies, Many litical and lenticular glans (perhaps a) may have been the fest of mergers of gavrich systems 623 Intergalactic gas in clusters “The discovery that rich clusters of galaxies are powerful X-ray emitters dae to hot (10° K) imergalacic gas as important implications for galaxy evoluGon. The ized gon in these CIMSer SOUceS ‘bat faction of Xray line emission due t0 demonstrates not oly the presence of the hot, Bremsstrahlung-emiting also shows thet mach of tis gas bas been processed in stellar intrirs. Theelie 0 From the fveball to the present { inecanivme have been proposel for geting this poses gs St he ' cise hare tea eeerona ven wis Boh a8 Ot Of ‘ aareey he second is based on tidal iteration between wo galaxies during a } Fa nd vee the tipping of gs om he glen : i } cls eco An iat ges er the scion of he ener We ee nachos eae er sigan amt of Wb? ye i the csr initially, or one of the other mechanisms fo have ¢ been operating first. ‘Srpping of gas fom spiral glenies in clusters is promising explanation of i o the orn of lenticular (S0) eslaxies, but there is stil bate about whether all rocufars are gas demuded spirals in origin (probably nod Clusters of galaxies at Tange redchift do seem to show a higher proportion of blue, presumably spiral fluxes than siular clusters at the present epoch. Most nich clusters at the |) preseat epoch are composed predominantly of ellipticals and lenticular. 6A. ‘The masses of galaxies and clusters ‘We saw in Chapter 4 that whether the universe keeps on expanding indefinitely, ‘ Lo“ ‘oc uliately falls bock together into a second fireball, depends on whether the Sherage density of mater is less than or greater than the enfical value pes ~ 5 10/50} ke m 66 (cquivalent to y = Ly the Einssin-de Sitter value—Scetion 47), We now try to determine the average density of malter in galaxies and in other possible fons. “To find the average density of matter in galaxies We frst need to determine the average mass ofa galaxy and then muliply by the average number of galaxies per unit yolume, detemnined by galaxy counts (Scetion 7.8). ‘A variety of methods have to be usd to determine galaxy masses, depending on the galaxy type. Spirals Most ofthe matesal in the dise of spirals is moving in sm approximately eieular orbit in a balance between centrifuge force and gravity. Hence for matenal far fut from the centre of the galaxy Vir~ GMiP oe Mx VG oo) “The rotation curve V(r can be determined by observing the Doppler-sift! 21 ~ cmline of neural hydrogen (Fig. 6.5). However, we see that for MS the roation Sey curve does not drop dovn inthe outer pats of the galaxy as predicted by eqn (6:7), pointing tothe existence of a substantial halo af nod-tuminoes material sumounding the visible galaxy, containing 90 per cent cf the total mass of the zalaxy. A simile argument applies to our own Galaxy. Theoretical arguments Show that dise galaxy would be unstable to the formation of « ber unless &The masses of galaxies and clusters Fe. 65 (a) The tac veloc nities = ie t a massive halo sarounds the dis, It is not known what form the mass inthis halo takes, but it could be dwarf stars of very low luminosity (brown dwar), black or exotic particles like axions on ipricats theorem, which tells us dat jonal energy. oF Here we have to use what is known as the virial for a system in equilbrium 2 x kinctic energy — ravi MV" ~ GM /r whic is equvaler to eqn (6.1). We estimate the average Kinetic veray per unit mass from the Doppler spreading of the emission lines in theaa “ From the fireball fo the present spectrum of the ucteus of the galaxy. Again we find that elipcals ae eed Dy a halo of dark rater, containing 90 per cent oF the fal mass of Mass-tolight rat By obsening the ratio of mass to light for galaxies of diffeent pes, © in Se oa uote, we ea eatimate the masses of individual galaxies from their total Tots, Ite ratio x determined over the optically visible extent of galaxy, tiupea sala of M/L ~ 310, in solar units. 4 found fr spas and 10-80 for ‘iifmeals However tbe virial theorem applied to binary galaxies, and to groups Sf eaanica, pics M/L~ 100, supporting the concept that spiral galaxies are resided By massive halos of low-luminosity material, in the form of vac Ninrs black holes oc any other material that does not contribute significantly to the light of the galaxy ‘Methods (b) and (@) can be used to estimate the masses of clusters of galaxies The virial theorem becomes M=HWic, 63) wshere the averages indicated by bars are over all he galanes inthe cluster, and r ‘ow refers to the distance between the gnlaxies. Typical masses ae in the range TO!-10!" Mo, and typical mean densities inside clusters are 10% kg m [Discrepancies between methods (b) and (c), with vinal theorem masses up 10 ten times preater than visible masses (M/L ~ 100 —500), again sosgest ‘missing matter’ Both extended X-ray emission from rich clusters and the appearance of radio “tis within clusters that there i intergalactic gas in clusters (Section 2.11). Recent maps of this pas with the ROSAT satellite have suggested thatthe mass of this gas is significantly ereater than the mass in the cluster galaxies and: may ceonstitute as much as 30 percent of the dynamical estates ofthe total mass of the cluster. If users are representative ofthe average distrbution of matter in the universe, this would imply that S% must be <1, singe we know the contnbution of haryons tothe density ofthe univers is oaly 0.05(50/tip). For 12) — 1, we requite either thatthe dynamical estimates of total cluster mass are tuiderestimated, or tht the X-ray gas masses are overestimates, o¢ that baryons are somehow funneled tothe cores of rich elusters 63. The average density of matter in the universe due to galaxies ‘The luminosity function of galasies, ie. the duinber of galaxies per unit volume having luminosities in the range (L.L+ dL), can be well represented by HU) AL = (L/L) expl-L/L,) a 9) where 6, sw constant, L, =3.2 10" Lg, and @ = 1.25, Estates ofthe totalThe average density of mater pS: luminosity density of galaxies in the bloc band lic in the range M/L = 100, we fi S215 107 Mpe-> (assuming Ho = 50 peo ~ 5 10-2Fy/S0)? em (610) or Qjq~ 0.1, with an uncertainty of at least a factor of 2 cither way. Thi atimate is a factor of 10 below the critical value (eqn 66). It is however comparable ‘with the density of baryonic matter derived from primonia Tie, 66 shows the rcative contribution tothe average density ofthe universe of galaxies of diferent masses. Most of the mass comes inthe form of high-mass fulaxis, 10!-10! Mc. The curve has been extrapolated right down t isolated lobular duster, although it snot certain tht the eure docs not peak up ain at this level An important development of the past dei large-aca jhay redshift surveys, which allow large-scale dymamcal estimates of Redshift surveye based on the IRAS 6) jm survey have been espocially lay samples covering the whole sas been the growth ‘hy and unaffected by extinction by dust. These surveys have been used 10 map the galay density distebution and hence estimate both by caleulating the met tttaction ofthe galaxies and clusters within 150 h- Mpe and comparing this by comparing the peculiar relies of the peculiar velocity of our Galaxy, amd Susie inthe field with that predicted from the galaxy density dsribution, From oth qypes of study. values of { close 0 the cftical value of 1 awe been generally found.0 From the fireball 10 the present 66 Some other possible forms of matter rie best candidate for matter with a signifieant fiction of the! ential density vo) is imengalactc gas, since we do not expect enlany formasion 16 ew 1) pos cent effcient process. This will be discussed in the next seston, Some jssed below ther possible forms a Although Fig, 646 suugests that the contribution from dwarf galaxies to the sven density of matter in the universe is small, very few of these objects are ren in fact all ae in the Local Group) so their number density is very svcrauin. The estimate of Fig. 6 would have to be out ba factor of mace than 100 to aive at the ntcal density, Whether intergalactic globular clusters ond exist is sill unknown. A direct measurement of the optical isolated background radiation might help to decide this. Compact objects and quasars The simplest view about quasars and other compact objects (eg. N-galaxies) is that thoy represent outbuss in the nuclei of galaxies. As such, their contibution to the average density of matter would already have been inchuded in eqn (6.10) Even if they are a distinct class of object from galaxies, quasars make a negligible contribution to the average density of matter, unless a significant proportion of them are “local” objects with intrinsic redshifts Dead galaxies and black holes “The normal types of galaxy surveyed in Section 2.6 ean be expected to retain their present sppeurance for ime much longer than the Hubble time. However, thore isthe possiblity ofan earlier generation of galaxies now no longer visible due to exhaustion of stellar nuclear energy sources (they would have 0 have formed only missive stars). These dead galaxies would now be in the form of cluster of ncutron stars ar black holes. ‘related possibility is tha song density ductutions present in the very eaely universe led tothe formation of primordial black holes. Hawking has introduced the concept of very Tow-mass black holes, of mass down to 10-* kg, and shown that these wold rapid evaporate and explode thugh x quantum gravitational effect close tothe black hole's event horizon (the boundary between events that ‘we an in principle observe and those that we ean never observe). A blackhole of mass M evaporates trough the radiation of photons, elementary partles, and ravitons, on time-scale 1040 ~ 10" (Af/10"? 4g)" yeas ipSome other possible forms of matter 7 “The effect of Hawking radiation i therefore negligible for black holes of solar and salactic mass. A black hae of 10" ke should be exploding now ins burs of fumna rays and oer particles. Our flue to detect such events an Tit from the observed gamma-ray background pot strong bounds on the contabution such objects to the density of mater in the universe at th {@<10-*), However, black holes in the mass range 10! kg-10" Mg could comsihute a small fraction (~ 1 percent) ofthe entical dons Planets, rocks, and dust Only weak limits can be placed on the amount of tniverse. Ifthe ity of the grains 10° kg my and their Contibution to fndct to be able 10 see a Hubble distance without drastic absorption, the grain 1 average density of the universe is given by eqn (6), then in teed to be larger than 1 mm: vere ms ae the radius and numiber density ofthe grains. Thus there is no real ‘Observational Timi on the amount of rane inthe universe in the frm of larg Aust, rocks, oF planets, We mentioned biely in Section 53 that cosmic neutrinos and an-newtinos pected to become decoupled from mater and radiation a an early stage inthe reball. The expected eneczy density is shout 20 percent ofthat of photons i negligible compared to matter ai the present epoch, This neatrino fx is mpltely undetectable with present techniques Section 1.3). Neutrinos coukt Theories wich sek to unify the forces of physics during the vey early universe have no dial in generating new particles, which may be capable of supplying fics which are moving slowly a the Hie they decouple from the radiation old dark matter, for example sxions or neutralinos. Searebes ae under way’in nergy atthe present posh’ curren gravitational wave detector are too insensi5 From the fireball 0 the present 1 the microwave background implies that test this, However, the {soropy ‘oat madation wok have to have wavelengths smaller than § Mp it oniibuted the ential density svdensity of cosmic TayS pais about the same as 10 kg nr? 6 x 10°" kg «a ven this value may hold only within our Galaxy. In fact eosmicsray nucle with Cocrgies 10" eV are confined to our Galaxy by its magnetic field, so are “Gimostcenaialy of Galactic onigin. And the average enerby density of cosmic-ray ‘ectom must he less than a thousandth of the local value, otherwise inverse Compton interaction With the microwave beckground and integrated stright photons would ive too large an X-ray background (Section 1.4), However, the hiaherenergy cosmic-ray nuclei leak out of our Galaxy in only about 3 x 10° yearn (his can be deduced from the abundance of the coxmic-ay-ereated ‘ements Li, Be, B), so the density (eqn (6.13)) may well be universal. Ii is, then we eannot have itergelactic gas a the enicl densiy (egn (6.6), since () would heat it up so much that too many X-rays would be produced, and (i the production of X-rays from cosmie ray secondary 2° meson fecay would exceed the observed background in the range 50-100 MeV. 6.7 Intergalactic (and intercluster) was {there iss uniform intergalactic (and itercluster) gas with a density comparable to the ential density (eqn (6.6), then rather stringent limits ean be set on is physical Amie hydrogen (Hh) This would be observable by the following (a) 2l-om absorption : flue to se this in the ratio galaxy Cy A and in other radio galaxies shows thatthe density oF intergalactic neatal hydrozen is fm, < 10° ke a () 2L-om emission: again, this has not been observed. (o) Soft Xray absorption: an Xray photom wonizes hydrogen (or helium) som, which then recambines, but emits less energetic photon. The opacity of hydrogen for < 912 A is proportional 10 (/912)°, and failure to se= absorption down to SOA shows that pny < 107 kg miAergalactc (amd intercluster) £23 109 (@) Lyman absorption: a trough should appear on the short wavelength sid ‘of te Lyman line at 216A. For quasars this is conveniently red shied it the visible range, and the absence of such 2 trough shou that for uniformly distributed stomic hydrogen py <10- ken However a forest of absorption lines is often detected in the spect fedshift quasars shortward of Lyman a and these arc believed to he duc Penssive distibution of low-density neural bydroren clouds, but with an Cverage density well below the critical value (2 ~ 0.003) Ionized hydrogen (Bu ‘Wear likely have T > 10° K since a colt jnizad gas recorines very guicly and iovizing mechanisms, eg. ulravilet photons or cosmic rays produced by filaies and quasi end to eat the gas to. The reheating of th Excured too soon afer decoupling (Section $2), since observable distortions in th 27K Hackhoy spectrum would have heen proce’ Ta bot ionized gas free electrons moving under the influence of each other lecostatc Fields rade free-free (or thermal Bremsstrahlung) radiation. The rounds give strong limits on the temperature observed radio and X-ray bo Radio (20 ex): the gas can only have been heated to 10°10" K at redshifts 100 Hard X-rays (E> 1 ¥eV): T<3x 10" K if p= pes, The 1-100 keV background fas been attributed to 4 x 10 K gas with p~ 0 Sms (sce Section Soft X-rays (E = 0.25 keV): there isa detection of as with hut this is dac to a helo of hot gas round our own Galaxy. This hot interglasti ms atemuaes the ight from distant sources (but not the integrated background) by Thomson (‘e.fre-electon) seatering, by a factor exp(—".), Where Other neak effet ac the absorption of low-frequency ruio waves, (Faraday) rotation of the plane of polarization of distant soures af there is also an intergalactic magnetic field, and a fequency-dependent ime I in the arava of Tht from variable source (dispersion). Inergalacic molecular hydrogen would be expected to absorb ravinlt radiation in the Lyman and Werner bands. The abeence of an absorption troushFrom the fireball tothe present the short-va Je of Lyman w shows that molecular hydrogen cannot wake up u very significant faction of the mater inthe universe altiough Has ae pec recopnized tat it aes wp a major part OF the ga in our Gaby. 68. Problems of the Local Group (Table 115 p 4) agree with | a you think of for less than perfect agreement? il theorem (ga (63) 1 the Local Group of galaxies assure otal velocity of the galaxies ie v/3 times the radial velocity). How well docs the virial theorem mass agree with the foal observed mass, and why?7 Observational cosmology 74 Introduction The isotropic 2.7 K blackbody radiation, th: similarity between the ages of galaxies and the age sundsnce, and th fnivene all support the big-bang models derived from general relaivi gical principle, Can we tes these models in more de eration param assuming the cosmo In particular, can we determine the curent valve ofthe {Sertion 47) and thereby deduce what the future ofthe universe willbe? In his thupter we look ata variety of cosmological tests, all using discrete s radiation that have been applied t try to answer this question. The answer tum fut to be inextricably bound up with the evolution of the diferent classes of diseret soure in the universe. “The min tests involve comparing luminosity and diameter distance (Section 3.2) with redshift. source counts (Sections 17 and 3.5). and integrated tackeround radction (Section 1.8). It was rado-source counts that fst showed that strong evolution mst affect some populations of source 72. Newtonian theory Suppose that we ate in an expanding Newtonian univene, in a uclidean ometry. The Kght from a source distance d receding with veloity v = H {Gohere Ho is the Hubble constant—Section 3.3), will sutfer a Doppler shi pre Ae, ve ado, Ay are the wavelengths ad frequencies of emission and The flux fom the source is rete to its luminosity by the inverse-square aw sad the apparent angulis size 0 (ra) of an object of linear sie is given bya 2 Observational cosmology rhe number of sources per teradian ith distances e Because of the effets of Special relativity. z 73. Special relativity cosmology: the Milne model | pi We now take into account the effects of special relativity, but neglet the effets Sy arovitation, I we consider particles moving with the substratum, obsecving hem from an inertial frame, then there are no forees acting on them so they all move with uniform velocity with respect to cach other. A fundamental observer ‘Ting on onc of these prticles continues to use Euclidean space coordinates, and Tneasures te velocity Of a particle at position vector ra time £t0 be (The tnly motion consisient with the cosmological principle tums out to be vir.) =r/t oo) rom eqn (4.8) this comesponds to taking R() ccf, a8 we expect from Section. jensen! 4.6). All pales would have been atthe ongin at ¢=0 and then expand out isotopically with uniform velocity The Doppler shift ean be shown to be ae 7 on (which agrees withthe Newtonian expression (7.2) provided u/c 1), and the flay from & distant source is novr given by erry 8) where ris the distance ofthe source at the moment of emission, the factor 2 {aking acount ofthe various special relativistic effects ofthe source its apparent brightness. Ifthe Signal i received at time it was emitted at ime |) fy —r/e, and eae (7.8) implies that P= ult —r/e), 0€ r= uty/(L+V/0). Eqn (7.8) becomesGeneral relativistic cosmology: the redshift Fig 74 Thora ml gts feeds eee aera ing eqn (77). The number of sources per strata, with redshift factors less than or equal 10 Z is found to be 1 NZ) = noler)*@2/8 — 182 — nz), where mp i the local number density of sources atthe present epoch, ‘Attbough the Milne model could be a reasonable approximation st the prsest epoch (we savin Section 4.6 tha all general relativity models with A = —1 tend forthe Milne model fr large) it cannot he vali back to = 0, since the densi of matter becomes infinite as 1» 0 so that gravitational effects cannot be neglected 74. General relativistic cosmology: the redshift Our stn ae ae O( "spats rsintoag), together withthe fact that for two events (7.8.04). (7-+Ar,8-+0.6-+89, fr di) connected by a light signal, the interval ds=0 ection 44) Consider a photon emited by a source a Qa me so thatthe event of emission ts (cfu, 6,2) and support thatthe photon is received by an observer at th Gis at tne so thatthe event of cbnervation is (0, 8 to) (22 Fi. 7. ‘Eicarly the Hight signal cavels in e radial straight line, by symmetry, s0 a = dg = and RNa at =0=6F for any clement ofthe light ray joining Q 10 O, or oat aus >pservational coamology oc an incoming signal. Integrating this rom 1 16°0 elt KO chose to bea co-moving coordinate (Section 4.5), 0 that at the source is still defined by r= (it change in distance ie “ee scale factor RC). The left-hand side oF (7-13) therefore ie with ime fora particular souree-cbserver pair, Now considera val signal emited by Qvat Sine f+ le, and SuppOSE this Tater signal is feoeived by O at fo + dig, Then eqn (7.13) becomes Now roca tha (a aay a RO) this later signal. Subtracting eqn (7.14) ffom (7-13), Ned ak ie _ dy * (1.13) RU) Rw) oy (assuming de/ter @a/to <1). Now suppose the to events of emission correspond to consecutive wave cress (Fig, 72). Then iz 0.18) ye Re) re io _ Rl) _ I the universe has expanded so that (a) > R(t), then there isa redshift (<> 0). IE we could observe ight which was emitted from a source at te =0, $0 a ii.) =0, it would be redshifed to infinite wavelength, However, asthe universe is opaque for R()/2R(p) < 10-> (Section 5.2), we know that we ean observe no sources ith redshift greater than 1000. Wg. 72 The editing of sgh ave fom tan sou7S Luminosity distance “Tocaleuat the Hux fom a distance source Q. consider aspherical surface r = tuom | centred om Q, passing through the observer O. Then the element of area at O Se) detncd by the Four pains (0, ¢), (0+ 2, 2), (0.4 + dd) (9-42, 6+ dp), will fq subtend a solid angle m= sino a9 a0 10 (se Fig. 73). To calculate the arc ofthis clement we note that the ‘proper fisance (eas determined by radsr methods) between 1wo events is given by (at) so the aca ofthe element is RUts)rod9 Raa Sin 46 = Rey 2. ay For a unit area, an =(RRy The energy emited per second into 42 is PAA, so the lux received by O per unit eee 7.18) me where one fate, 2~!, is needed because the photons arive with less energy than6 Observational cosmology », because the photons ‘ they set out with (since E = /nv) and the second factor i a bel tan ey of by eam (9) 1 Sen ano mince (qs A, ean 8) tps Dn = Rat a ; | G19) is related to the reshit by eqns (7-13) and (716) Baga (7.13) ean Be sin, ite r irk=0, 720) eee ps aye RR if A =0 Ger Section 8.2), Ir ean then be shown th Dian = ral2A%oe + (Qo ~ Hey T + ME — VM. (720) To the fst onder in 2 1 simply have the Hubble law Dn but the fll expression (7.21) depends on the cosmological density parameter 2 which we can therefore hope to determine by observing Dis). Tn terms of magnitudes (Sestion 32), Dun) © ope ye + (@ — 20TH 1 = M4 51g (co/10 pe) +5 lg ee M722) a 1.6 ‘The K-correetion In the discussion above P and S represen the total energy pe second emitted by the source and the total eneeey per second per unit area received by an observer. Jn practice we are usually observing in some relatively narrow band of wavelengths. Let P(e be the energy emitted per second in the frequency range (1, ¢ +d) and suppose the corresponding energy recived atthe top of the Earth's atmosphere is S(sy)dbs, where t_ = Zp. Then by ean (7.18) ‘where Din is defined by eqn 7.19), $0 (0p) = Pow9Z)Z/Di 23) Now suppose thatthe Earth's atmosphere, the tlescope and the detecting system result in fraction ¢() ofthe energy incident on the atmosphere at fequency Y) being recordedir Observational cowmolony Roost Fig 75 fore K ognine venus est for na gals 00d approximation to assume a power-law spectrum P(v) « ¥* and then eqn (7.23) becomes eae "Dim an Stun) = Poo and eqn (726) becomes x 25(e 1) tg+2). 028) since Z= 142 [Exact m—z curves for different valves of go = 95/2 are shown in Fig. 74 compared with the observed magnitude redshift elation fore brightest galaxies in 103 clusters. The best value of go is qe — 16404 729) oowever, the trie uncertainty is far larger since galaxies are probably changin their luminosity with ime. If galzxies were more luminous inthe past (@ue 10 tore rapid formation rate of bright tars, for example) then a smaller value of go ‘s appropmate, and vice versa. One important effect is galaxy cannibalism, where the most massive galaxies in a cluster grow by merging with other galaxiesDiameter distance fs “The scaner of the point in Fig. 74 about the mean line arses because these sulaics donot have enacly the same luminosity. If we plot ll galaxies in such a ‘Engram the seaneris enormous, since the absolute magnitude of galxies ranges ver at least 12:magnitudes (a factor of 100 000 inthe optical luminosity P). The ne is tue for quasars, assuming their redshifts ae cosmological. Clearly we Cannot use the magnitule-redshift diagram forall galaxies, or for quasars, to etermine 2 However, another class of objects that has eon used to apply this testi the radio galaxies. By taking deep photographic plates atthe posiions of radio puree, some very faint galaxies have been found, some of which have redshifts fpprecably larger than the most distant cluster in Fig 7.4, Figure 7.8 shows th infrared Kemapnituds versus redshift for radio guxie. 74 Diameter distance Consider an object of size ! at distance r= rp, subtending an angle 56 at the Gizin Fig 7.6) From the metric (eqn (7.1), the proper distance between the ends ofthe object Res 030) by definition, 50 wuz oan From eqn (3.5), the diameter distance is then Dein =Beiz? “Tis has been applic to bright galaxies in clusters (Fig. 77) the quoted vale of 0 wots 0.3, This teat can also be applied to rch clases of galaxies, which seem we hive a core of welldefined linear size (Fig. 78), with the formal result o> 2030.8 However, tis can be alflected by dynamical evolution of eaters Novice tht all the thsorctical curves, exept that for qo =O, g0 through = rninimurn in 56, afer which 89 stars v0 increase with redshift. It would be an Tnportant test of these models actualy tose this happening, Since the minimum aera fairly lage redshift, urless ge is wozeasonaby large, the best hope for testing this ies inthe quasars. Figure 79 showa a plot ofthc average radio size of Compost radio sources in quasars and radio-galaxis against redshift, There is Fie Th Antje f sie {whiny an ag 3 oe Sere.bald open ig 74 Ange dame seit hag for clam of eeeicn ‘remarkably good agreement with the theoretical eurve (eqn7.25) for 2) = 1. and thore does seem to be evidence forthe expected minimum inthe 9 ~z relation However, the posibilty of evolution in the radio-souree population makes this an uncertain way of determining 2amber counts of sources 1 emo 78 Number counts of sources Consider a population of sources uniformly and randomly diseibuted throngh the matter in the universe, like the currants in 8 pudding. The number density of provided the probability of apiece of mater being a source is independent of “The proper volume of the element at Qis (Fig. 710). av = Fara. Rrsin dg a39 ey and for | seof a spberical shel The mumber of sources in 1 sof this shell i den OR Pdr __mREPAr_ =e)? eyby egns (4.11) and (7.32 ), where mo = ml). ee ae eee cee Mo) = ml |) ioe a3) “This can then be combined with egn (7.18) to give (S), the mumber of sources per steradion that are brighter than S, assuming all sources have the same Iuoniosity. Tris found that forall 5, go. Figure 7.11 shows optical counts of galzxies. The observational uncertainties and an ignorance of galtxy evolution make the determination of qa impossible Counts of radio sources (Fig. 712) are appreciably steeper than any of the ‘theoretical eurves, implying that strong evolutionary effects must be preset. The sources (mostly quasars and radio galanies) must ether have been more luminous inthe past, or the probability of a source being alight must have been grenter. Optical and near infrared counts of normal galaxies Deep B-band counts of galaxies are too steep at faint magnitudes for passively evolving models, which allow only forthe evolution of the stars in the galaxies ‘The redshift distibution for deep galaxy samples fits the non-evol¥ing model and there is no alto high redshift as would he expected for minosity evolution, so wwe need either density evolution due to mergers or « new population of rapidly evolving dwarf galaxies. This faint galaxy excess is not seen inthe infrared K band, so the galsxies combating to the excess must be bluer than average. The infrared F-band counts also show an excess andthe absence of ail a high redshift to the <-disuibution suppons the rapidly evolving cart pice if the cosmological constant (sce Chapter 8) A = 0. Altsmatively a model withMumber counts of sources % = so j Fig. 741 Guiry conte By had Radio, optical, and X-ray counts of active of radio galaxies and radio-loud uminosty’ evolution, in which the Radio source counts imply stoag evolu quasars. The evolution ss close 10 a pare dn2) = 017) 35) with vex Optical surveys of (predominantly radiouict) quasars also show strong a ohith i also close toa pure luminosity evolution of the same formiesqwm ey Fg. 712 Couns fo sources, erp wih eet cari fr diferent pl cane) ca forthe teiy st moe bon cave se Seton.) showing eng ewer fossa ee Deep X-ray eouts made with the ROSAT satellite are dominated by quasars and also show strong evolution. Far infrared and ratio counts of stars galaxies Redshift surveys of IRAS 60 jim galaxies show clear evidence for stron evolution at @ similar rate to that seen in quasars and radio galaxies. Source ‘counts at 60 jum also show strong evidence for evolution, cause ofthe strung eorelation between fa infrared and radio luminosity for spiral galaxies, sub-mly radio source counts at [4 GH and redshift surveys of faint samples of radio sources can provide powerful constrains on the evolution ‘ofthe tabost galaxy population. Below 1 mly the dominant population of radio- sources is strbust galaxies and they seem to be undergoing strong evolution at rate similar to egn (7.35).Tre tuminosity-volume test ns Table 7.1 Some of the great catalogues of moder astronomy Ops 1 The reference catalog of bright glass Compe by Gand Ade Vaucolcus, this compris exenllthe gales rom he [Now Gre sod Ines Catsloprs (NGC snd IC") of nebulae, mtn ted oe (Gencal Calogue of Willa and John Hert! contin information on 2509 palais, fendi comple to aboat Ith maznitce 2 The Zutcky catalogue of ga ‘Cone by F. 2wicky and coworker it corsis 31 O00 galaxies in he nother eniapere higher than mp = 157 its 9700 chistes of sala. 3 The Abel ealog of rch cles of palsies ists 2700 este shin eases {@) 2ety Bis of compart planes: () Ary catlogee of peculiar lass) Infra TRAS Poot Source Catalog of souces detected a 12,25, 60, and 100 pm The mos likely mechanism fr driving the evolution in these different types of scive galaxy is interactions between galaxies or mergers, which can conceniate fas towards the nuclei of galaies, feeding a black hole there, and causing burt 79 The laminosity-volume test These evolutionary effects can ako be scen vividly by means of te luminosin= ty-disiance and source-count test nto lume test, which combines the laminos al test, provided a comple sample of sources down 10 nthe sample wit Hux S for some chosen single, more po sone ling ux level Sin 8 availabe. For a source nd redshift swe can calculate the aminostyP fom eqn (7.18) Senmologicel model. Sources of this luminosity should then be uniformly126 Observational cosmalony 0 os 4 ig 7A3 Thc hissy lene tet The dition o manoctuomatic rao mins (et 178 ‘Ma spuint V/V for a quar (ast 4) i i gles all da) in he eed hd ‘Cie cade frat sce (oe Table 7.1 wah sl mgd ight 195, {ssn an forthe more Torino ao zai non uf, sheng hat ese popalsons aye ‘Ranged ex popers drama wih ie The olcltoas hae ber pegged nthe Mle ‘mol y= 0) istributed with respect tothe co-moving volume, V(2) (ie when the effect ofthe expansion ofthe universe is allowed for) Of course, there will be a redshift zaux lt which «source of this luminosity P would disappear out of the sample (ts flux would drop below Sac f0rz > tax SO in fact we ean test this uniformity only for 0 < VG) < Vena ‘say. In practice itis best to calculate V/V. fr each ‘source in the sample and then look at the distibution of luminosity with respect to V/V. Figure 7.13 shouts such distributions for radio galaxies and for quasars in the third Cambridge eatlogue of radio sources (see Table 7.1; p. 125). The isuibucions for quasars and forthe sore luminous radio galaxies are strkinaly nonuniform (more sources sre found at large values of V/V), showing that cvolitionary effects are present, Similar reslts are obtained for other values of 4Integrated backs 7.410 Integrated background radiation “The intensity of the integrated background radiation from a population of sources rf, SANS) Worst 036) Using eg (7.12): forall modelsre omersationa cosmolony : sve the inert ofthe background in the eaueney range || ale! 3! Tov) then 10) = net Poth an oy Bee ye pies taka, wing Mie ota ta ‘observed backround, Radio background “The main contribution i fom the Milky Was, butt can be shown thatthe scep- spectrum (mean spectral index a ~ 0.8—Section 14; p. 16) extragalactic sources Contribute an intensity of about 10-28 W mr? Ht se! at 178 MH, about 10. nore than that predicted assuming n0 evolution, This confirms that | je evolution has to be present, as was Suggested by dhe source count Microwave and infrared background “The dominant observed background in the microwave region is the 27 K blackbody radiation, Duc tothe foreground radiation from the Earth's atmosphere and the emission from interstellar and interplanetary dust, we have anly upper Timits a the moment on the infrared background. The predicted contribution from. at ‘ella dust in galaxies and from starburst galaxies is shown in Fig. 7.14 Optical background ‘The predicted integrated background from the starlight im galaxies falls well below the observational limits. The problem is that the brightness ofthe Tight from the Earth's atmosphere (for ground-based observations), from zodiacal light, and from the starlight of the Milky Way together swamp out the cosmic background. Possible changes with time in the uminosiies af galaxies duc to stella evolution lead to uncertainties in the theoretical curves Utiravioet and sot X-ray background ‘Observations from satellite: and rockets show the existence of background radiation emission concentrated towards the Galactic plane, probably duc to starlight catered by dustin the ultraviolet and t emission from hot (10°10 K) Jmecstellar gas at soft Xray wavelengths. At high Galactic latitudes an Isotropic component can be scen which might be due to a hot intergalactic ‘medium (~ 10* K) with the closure density (St = 1). However, the ultravioletInuegrated backround radiation 2 pockround at high Galactic latitudes may well be scattered starlight and the soft Xray background i probably due to a halo of hot gas suounding our Gal The extragalactic background in the wavelength range 100-912 A is observable due 10 interstellar absorption, Hard X-ray and gamma-ray backe The Einssin satellite es found that the largest contribution to the 1-3 keV background is from quasars. Other clases of discrete source which are known to make & signifcam contribution to the 2-10 keV background are clusters of falanies (~10 percent) and emission line gclaies (~30 per cent). These results fhave been confirmed by the ROSAT mission ‘Over the range 2-130 keV the background can be fed by thermal ‘Bremsuralung from abot (4.4 x 10° K) intergalactic gas (C2 = 0.46), bat there js considerable difficulty in accouating forthe enerey to hea his $25 An addtional contribution to the backsround will be inverse Compton radation (Seaton 1.4: p16) fom nornalgalanies, from radio galexies, and from Puasa, due t the interaction ofthe relativistic electrons responsible fr thei on with the photons of the blackbody. radiation i fields in these objects are surprisingly Tow, the radio synchrotron radia However, unless the ms ontibution to the background is likely to smal. The y-ray background shows a considerable enkancement towards the Gali plan, and this is believed to be duc othe decay of 1°mesons erated by high cperey cosmic rays ploughing through the interstellar eas of our Galaxy. The Table 7.2. Properties of selected cosmological models amy ile as eS Suadyatn30 Observational cosmology ‘tropic component of the background is probably from mice, More exotic possibilities ane Hawking radiation decay due to mattet-antimatter annihilation smain conteibation oth quasars and Seyfert from primordial black holes) and Gpilogue, p. 149) 7A1 Problems 71 Work out the detailed predictions of te tests describe in this chapter for the cases go =041/ 72. Fore universe with k= 0, RU) = Ro(t/bf where n-= 1, use eqns (7.16) and (7.20) to deduce that ry = (eo /(1 — Ro) = (1+ 99. For n= 2/3, deduce thatthe proper distance to a quasar at redshift z= Sis crol6 — 61/3. 7.3. Show that for a population of sources with the sme linear size, in the Finstein-de Sitter model there is a minimom observed angular diameter at 5/4,8 Other cosmological theories 81 Introduction So far we have described the standard zencral relativistic, iotopic, hemogensous, tot bigehung models and their conzoquences, In this chapter we lok at some cratve ideas both within and outside the framework of general relativity int we look athe consequences of mchidin a non-2er9 ‘cosmological’ tem, pera relativity, For histor in the field equations of reasons We give an fccount ofthe steady state theory. We look at some thoon the praviational ‘constant’ G varies with time, and at anhowopic and ‘within general relativity. We mention the cosmological mpi tO unify the some f ervity in which neous mod tions of “grand unified” theories, which at magnctic, and weak forces of physics, and we discuss models which Trang slogethe. Finally we look ito Eddington's “mg umbers and the ‘anthopie” principle 2. General relativistic models with the A-term When Einstin orginally put forward his general theory of relativity, he included he socalled cosmological term. This distances into an allrachon of repulsion is obmerved an additional term in the field equations, tmotfies the law of gravitation at lar ‘dacctly proportional to distance, = Ar, A constant. No such he solar system, or in the stuctare of our Galaxy, so A rast be very smal This cera term would have an effect only om the scale of clusters of galaxies o ith all he basic principles that ed Einstein w his fk Tostant of iteration), but i is usually Set equal ble. However it The A-tenn is consistent w equations (iti effecvely a zero by rlativits in onder to Keep the theory as simple 8 po Tends {0 come new cosmological possbites, which we will now snvst “The equations forthe seake factor R(?), (2.12) and (4.13) (p. 67), which ae 1 principle, become derived trom the field equations assuming the cosmological B= —anGooR/3P + AR @) BP = bxGpeRi/3k— ke + A = GE. @ =0, s0 behaviour Fins we see that the A-term does not have any effect near A <0 and A>0 near the ‘big bang’ is unaliered. We consider the cases> Other cosmological theories Fig AL 9 <0 modes aco ‘bas tobe finite for ito remain a ral number, and there exists an Re such that Gla) 0, ie. RO when R—Re. Eqn @.1) then shows that R-o 1k <0, > 0 forall R, to We have a monotonic expanding univers, the only difference from those with A= 0 being that at large ,? ~ AR*/3, 50 Rocexpl(A/3)""4) 3) If k=0, ps =0, A> 0 we have the de Sitter model, for which eqn (8:3) holds for all IW = there i a critical value of &, Ac, such that R =O and i =O ean both fy be satisted simultaneously. From eqn (81), = 0 implics R= ReldxGpa/ NV? = Rey BY, co) and then oqo (8.2) implies that 0 = GxGax)* es) ep pk) Tis means that there isthe possibifty of static medel of the universe, with =R., A= No, forall time f, provided AxGp. = he) 69) and since p> 0, k must be postive for this to happen. This isthe Einstein staticGeneral relativistic models withthe Stem 13 model, the fist solution of general relativity to be fou ‘cosmological principle By staying the funetion G(R) (eqn (82)) a6 function of R, we ca see what other possible A> 0, k= +1, models there are (Fig. 8.2), Clearly G(R) -> 20 both foe R-—> Oand for R > 00, and reaches minimum a R, with GAR) > oF <0 according as A> oF < AL RSA; G(R) > Oa R, so we have a monotonic expanding universe again A=A, Apart fom the Einstein static model, there are two models that approach this ‘Gompatcally.comesponding to the two branches of G(R) — see Fig. 82. One Tpands out gradually fom the Einstein sate at ¢= —o and then tums into an nthe usual big bang exponential expansion (eqn (8.3)-The other expands out f nd then tends asymptotically tothe Bintein model as r > v0. These ar called the Eiddingion-Lematre models (Fig. 83), ELI and EL2 WA —A,( +e), e 1, we have the Lemaire motes. Fora long period of time Ris close to Re and the cosmological ep a traction ae stin balance. Finally the epusion wens and the expansion coninses azn The solution with R = Ry isan here are no solutions for Ri < R < Rs (Fig. 8 bounces’ under the ‘ucillating” model. In the one with R> Re, the univGeneral relativistic models with the Nterm 83. Otwervable consequences ofthe Aterm “The Eioscin static model canbe eliminated irsmecistly since it does at predic ‘redshi. There remain two models which do not originate in a big bang, the FL2 (Fig. £3) and “bounce’ models. In each case there would be a maximum redshift defined by 1+ tune = Ro/Resa and in the bounce models more distant objects would show a blueshift If quasar redshifts are cosmological then zeus = S “The Lemaire models permit ages of the univ time ty (the EL2, bounce, and de Siter mov models have postive curvature (sce Fig. 46, p the intriguing possiblity of seving al the ay round the universe, and even of fecing a ghost Milky Way (oormally light does not have time to make this ‘Grcumavigation, and therefore there isa horizon—Section +9), So far we have to evidence that this is happening. Actually since in general relativity the large Seale topology ofthe univer is not specified, ghost mages could in principle arse in any model, Another effect ofthe long ‘coasting’ period Fig 8.5) is that there would be a concentration of objects with redshifts given by far greater than the Hubble have infinite ages). Since these 72) and are spatially finite, there 1+2~Ry/R. For models with non-zero A, and neglecting radiation, the age ofthe univers can bbe writen +(Qo/2—aoah1 observations show that the Hubble time, 1, is less than the age of the universe, thon we would be forced to conclude that A > 0. We could still 1 retain a lat model of the universe (K =O), as required by inflation, provided dot = 1 where Ag = 4/348, For example, for k = 0, Q% =1-%=005 01 02 03 O5 1 fof =149 128 1.08 0.96 083 067 The best evidence for nonzero A would be if the parameters 2/2 and ¢ were unequal atthe present epoch, since eqns (81) and (420)-(4:22) imply that A/S = H3[(So/2— 40) ep r ‘We have soon tht the observed matter in galaxies corresponds to $9 ~ 0.1 (eon (68), whereas the maynitude-cedshift text for bright calaxes gave qo ~ 1, but Doth these estimates are far too uncerain to be interpreted as implying A #0. "Toe optical depth for gravitational lensing of distant quasars by intervening alanis isa sensitive function ofthe geometry ofthe universe and so can provide ‘seful constraints on the value of A. The present evidence from the redshift listibution of lensed quasars favours ho = A/34 < 0.95, “The condition A = A., which defines the Eddington-Lemaltre modes, can be shown to be equivalent Ga/2—¢— 1) =219/2F(2/2-4) as) “The zones of the diferent models in the -g diagram are shown in Fig, 8.6 B.A. The steady state cosmology ‘This was put forward in 1948 by Bondi, Gold, and Hoyle. The cosmological principle was strengthened to the ‘perfec? cosmolasical principle: the universeThe steady state cosmology 7 presets the same appearance to all fundamental observers a al times ‘An immediate consequence ofthis i that the Hubble ime must be a constant, = R/R, constant for all Thos Recespi/e, or R= Ryexplt—)/s. 9) A second consequence is thatthe density of matter is constant, to maintain this we must have cootinaous creation of matter ata steady rate per unt volume aR) =e 8.10) It can aho be shown thatthe thee-spaces 1 = constant havea tee dimensional corvature, knov as the Gaussian curvature, of /R(), which would depend on time unless k= 0. ‘We have therfore shown thatthe steady sate metic is expe POND (ae +a? +42, a1) and this isthe sume ax that for the de Sitter model (Section 8.1). If fcld equations similar to those of general relativity are used, but with a era term representing the creation of matter its found tha SxGpr'/3=1. « which with r~2x 10" years gives ~'5> 10-2 kg or, about 10 times Fighcr than the density of matter in galaxies (gn (6.10)) The remainder could be 10° K (Section made up of ionized intergalactic hydrogen at a temperature Gs). The comesponding creation rae (of, presumably, cold. neutral, uniform hydrogen) is the undetectable 10- kg mr? s!. The magnitde-redshft ration forthe steady state theory is the same a for the de Siter mode m= A+ Sig +2) en (here Ais constan), equivalent to qo = —1. whic is ater improbable from the date on bright cluster galaxies (Fig. 74, p. 117), bearing in mind that 0 The numberof sources per seradian out to redshift 238 yfaroree am nding N(S) curve is fatter than —1.5, wheress the radio-source p. 124)Other cosmological theories Tie final blow for the stealy state theory was the isotopic 27 K Blacbody scat oe ahich no convincing explanation was predced, whereas foe Bie Mescoser,iechould be remembered that i 1948, dhe accepted estima oF he ticnois tins war only 2 10" years oly 10 percent of the age of our Gul, Seni sme cosmology’ provided an eleeant Way oUt of that difficulty, now ‘Houle aad colaeators have, by analogy with some ofthe coment inflationary wed. 4 modification of the seady sate theory whereby the were ona steal state on the large sale but some regions, inching the one Sve find ouselves in, undergo an evolutionary phase 85 ‘Theories in which G changes with time Theories of this type were fist proposed by Milne, Dirac, and Jontan. More recently Brans and Dieke, Hoyle and Naika, and Dirac have put forward more labora theories ofthis type. "A vasiation of G with time has a considerable effect on the evolition of the arth and Sun and on the orbits of the moon and planets. I gravity has changed appreciably over the lifetime ofthe Fath, the radius ofthe Bath might have been “fected. I has been suggested tha the continents al fitted togetteat one time en {smuch smaller Earth As the gravitational constant reduced, the Earth expanded to its present size and the continents were forced spat Also a star in its hhydrogen-burming phase, like the Sun, has huminosity Lad’, (ss) nd so would have been appreciably brighter in the past i Gdocreases witht The cffeet ofthis on life on Earth would be enhanced by the fat thatthe Earh must bbe moving away from the Sun if G is declining. If G oc, then the temperature of the Earth is 7x P™, assuming thatthe Ean always absorbs the same fraction ‘of the incident energy from the Sun. Paleoclimatologists argue tat the ux of Solar energy at the Earth’s surface can have varied bite over the Earth's history [A slightly lower solar flux results in the Earth becoming completely covered with ice, which can then only be removed by a very substantial rise in the Solar fs. ‘This argument seems to be inconsistent even withthe standard (G ~ constant ‘mod, since the Sun is expocte to have inereased its luminosity noticeably over the Farth’s lifetime, The existence of life on Earth three thousand million years ‘ago limits the Earths surface temperature to well below th boiling point of Water at that time. And too fasta decline in G would lead to the Sun's having already become a red giant 'A varying G leads to a variation in the Moon's distance and period, and measurements of these led to the most reliable limits on the variation of G obtained to date. The ofits of the planet are also modified, and this could show ‘up in radar time-delay experimentsTheories in which G chonges with time “The upper limit onthe variation of G fom these solar system arguments is now IG/G| = 3x 10" y and this is sufficient to conflict with the simplest varying G models, in which Gort assuming the Hubble constant Hy = 5 x 10°" yr, However, there fre many problems of interpretation associated with these experiments and more Sensitive measurements are highly desirable, Ut should alo be emphasized that Some theories in which G varies also predict other changes (to preserve enerzy ‘conservation, for example) which can mask the above effects [Even stage limits on G follow if*He and 7H are believed to be synthesized in the fireball phase ofa hot big bang. 16/6, < 10° ‘The Bran-Dicke cosmology represents the simplest extension of general Fetvity, Ih addition to the teosor gravitational field represented by the meuic tenvor (Section 44), there i a scalar id (the granitationel ‘constant ) which is function of time caly Beans and Dicks ke A — 0 and seek to satisfy Mach’s principle, that loca onal elt ofthe et ofthe inerial properties shouldbe determined by the pravia matter inthe universe, by ting a ~ Ym 16) “The moves forthe case k= 0 are particularly simple, since Rat, Gor @=2 +0430), 1=2) and wis “coupling constant” between the scalar field and the peometry. © — 9° tives the Einstin-de Sitler model, Nowe thit for general , Got? = constant Disa’s 1937 theory is obtained by seting © = ~2/3. ‘The Brans-Dicke theory makes slightly diferent predictions fom elatvity forthe deecion of ight by the Sum and fr the perihelion advance of & the ‘Nordvod" effet (« ener planet. However, analysis ofthe nar ranging dat f Trcakdown in the equivalence principle) gives a limit for that the modes fle neghgibly fom chose of general relativity G/G < 10" yr, And if beliam is syathesized in the big bang. there i 29 even stronger limit, o> 100 Tn the Hoyle and Narkar and Din (197 serbia advance tests would give the same results Saviadon of G aries Fecause there are two tmescals, ‘o> 29, which means (and 73) toores the Tight deflection nd encral relativity. The omic sexe and Coamologial time, which wo Songer coincide.40 Other cosmological theories 186 Anisotropic and inhomogeneous universes, chaotic eosmolORy. te fet that isotropy together with the Copernican principle hat We ae HOt i sect pce) impics fomozeneity, and dhe high degree of is0UORY of the eave background radiation, made it natal 1 investiga isotopic and nomogencoun meals. However, the universe is clearly homogeneous on mass Fes up tat last those of galaxies ad clusters and we have seen in Chapter 6 Tat cigmihcant density imeyularites must have been present at Very early times Wweoen of coune, tke the rather supine view thatthe universe was erated with Y nmoth and isotropic structure on the large scale, but with just sufficient “lesctue on the sil eae to evalye t the universe of galaxies and clusters that vio see nou. A inore interesting hypothesis is > suppose tat the universe began o sate of regulanty apart from small and inevitable ‘statistical’ fluctuations {We might then hope that these could, in ime, grow to form galaxies and chistes, This point of view has been called “quiescent” cosmology. A more dramatic speculation was pat forward by Misner and has acquired the rae of ‘chaotic’ cosmology’ the present universe would have arisen whatever he inital conditions The idea is tit no matte how anisotropic and inhomogenz0us the universe was initially, gravitation and other physical processes would have ‘auned it to evolve tothe present stat, after long enough time: The mechanism originally suggested by Misner to smooth out th initial non ‘uniformity in the matter distibation was neutrino Viscosity, but it has now been shown that this cannot remove arbitrary anisotropy nor any inhomogeneity over scale of | Mo, A more promising mechanism for damping out the anisotropy has bhoen advocated by Zeldovich and other Soviet cosmologists, The rapidly changing gravitational fied during the very earliest moments after the big bang (10s <1 10-5) leads to. spontaneous. creation of panicle pairs and radiation a the expense of gravitational energy (analogous to Hawking radiation from black holes see Section 6.6). Anisotropy and inhomogeneity might be smoothed out because of the ational creation occurring in regions where the nergy is higher. Unfortunately there appears t0 be no experimental means of testing such ideas ‘An objection that bas been raise to chaotic cosmology is thatthe erasure of aubitrary amount of primordial chaos mast be paid for By an appropriate quantity Of radiation entropy. This 18 measured by the number of pliotons pes baryon, ~ 10° atthe present epoch, which seers a very Jow value in ths context, 8.7 Grand unified theories and inflation “The suovess of the Weinberg: Salama unification ofthe weak and electromsnetic imterocions based ypom the “SU2) x UC)’ group and the development of the ‘quark theory of strong interactions based on the group SU(3) hes led Pati and Salam, Georgi and Glashow, and others, to propose “grand” unified theories t0 unify the strong, weak, and electromagnetic interactions. Even more amiiiousEaddingion’s magic numbers sncories of everything’ which unify al these interactions with erovity ae als being investigated The grand unified theories fa J%.| of the SUG) sroup, have some interesting consequences for cosmology. Thes ich the simplest is described by the stuctare falc]! Greones atterapt to place quarks on the samc footing 3s clectrcaly charged moh) paricles like the electon, and fr this to be possible quarks mast beable te cn tef) Ghunge into electrons and positrons, Because of this possibility the proton can se decay by transformation of is three interior quarks into a positron and a pion. “Tis takes about 10" years on average but by studying alae mass of materia i is hoped to test this im a few years time. This non-conservation of baryon ‘gauge particles or “Higgs mr) requires the existence of sipeshcavy particles (either fons?) of mass ~ 10"°GeV/e In the very exrly ivenc (T> 10° K, Pe 1075.) when the energy of a photon is comparable with the rest mas can be penny of there superhey pariccs, the baryon non-conserving proces ey important and can convert at intial universe with an arbitrary tevel into one with just the excess of baryons that we see today ns and anharyons ann of baryons | {per 10° photons. At the epoch when ba T= 10" K), we are left with & universe composed predominant observed Tn Section $4, 1 gave a bret universe goes through a phase of proto ‘ery early universe. Because this solv Secnuio is very popular with cosmologists and particle phy hand count ofthe inflarionary scenario, in whi! 4 exponential expansion during the horizon and flazness problems, this 88 Eddington’s magic mumbers ington remarked that if you work out the = radius of univers ‘assed clacton radius ~ A/c you have two huge dimensionless numbers of th then a this tut ir would be surprising if this were 2 coincidence. I Gee + mumber can be deduced: Pape whichis roughly the squ snivere, if