Stability of Noble Gases

Group 18 elements (Noble Gases) exist as monoatom in nature.

They are inert in nature and do not react with any other elements (or themselves) to
form any chemical compounds.
In other words, they are chemically very stable (or chemically very non-reactive).
Duplet and Octet Electron Arrangement

The charge on the nucleus and the number of electrons in the valence shell

determine the chemical properties of an atom.

2

The stability of noble gas is due to their electrons arrangement.

The diagram above shows the first four elements of Noble Gas. We can see that

the outer most shell (valence shell) of Helium has 2 electrons. We call this duplet
electron arrangement.
4

The maximum number of electrons can be filled in the first shell is 2 electrons,

which means 2 electrons in the first shell is considered FULL.

5

The valence shell all other Group 18 elements (including Xenon and Radon which

is not shown in the diagram) has 8 electrons, and we call this octet electron

arrangement.
6

When the electron arrangement of an atom is duplet or octet, the energy of the

electrons is very low, and it is very difficult (even though it is not impossible) to add
or remove electrons from the atom.
7

This explains why noble gases are reluctant to react with all other elements.

The Octet Rule

1 Atoms of other main group elements which are not octet tend to react with other
atoms in various ways to achieve the octet.
2 The tendency of an atom to achieve an octet arrangement of electrons in
the outermost shell is called the octet rule.
3. If the outermost shell is the first shell, then the maximum number of electrons is
two, and the most stable electron arrangement will be duplet.
4. A configuration of two electrons in the first shell, with no other shells
occupied by electrons, is as stable as the octet electron arrangement and
therefore is also said to obey the octet rule.
How Atoms Achieve Duplet or Octet Electron Arrangement?
Atoms can achieve duplet or octet electron arrangement in 3 ways:
1

throw away the excess electron(s)

receiving electron(s) from other atom if they are lack of electron(s)

sharing electron

(A sodium atom throws away an electron to achieve octet electron

arrangement)

(A fluorine atom receives one electron to achieve octet electron

arrangement)

(Two fluorine atoms share one pair of electrons to achieve octet electron
arrangement)

Chemical bonds
2 types of chemical bonds are commonly formed between atoms,
namely
4 Ionic Bond
5 Covalent Bond
The Ionic Bond

(Ionic Bond)
By releasing or receiving electron(s), the atoms will become ions and consequently
form ionic bond between the ions.
Ionic bonds are always formed between metal and non-metal. For example, sodium
(metal) react with chlorine (non-metal) will form an ionic bond between sodium ion
and chloride ion.
The compounds formed are called the ionic compounds.

 Some time, an ionic bond is also called electrovalent bond.

The Covalent Bond

(Covalent Bond)
By sharing electron(s), the atoms will form covalent bond between the atom and the
molecule formed is called the covalent molecule.
Covalent bond is always formed between non-metal with another non-metal.

Formation of Ion
An ion is an atom or group of atoms carrying positive or negative charge. Example
Ca2+, O2-, SO42- etc.
If a particle has equal numbers of protons (+) and electrons (-), the particle charge is
zero, and the particle is said to be neutral.
In a chemical reaction, electron(s) can be transferred from atom to another atom.
If electron(s) is removed from an atom, the number of protons will be more than
number of electrons. In this case, the atom will has excess positive charge and hence
form a positive ion (cation).

(An atom losses electron to form positive ion)

If an atom gains electrons, there is an excess negative charge in the atom, so a
negative ion is formed.
In other words,
6

The atom losing electrons forms a positive ion (cation) and is usually a

metal.
7

The atom gaining electrons forms a negative ion (anion) and is usually a

non-metallic element.

(An atom gain electron to form negative ion)

Formation of Negative Ion
Negative ions are formed among atoms of non-metal elements except group-18 elements.
Non-metal elements usually located in group 15, 16 and 17 in the periodic table and have
5, 6 or 7 valence electrons.
To achieve octet arrangement of electrons, their atoms will receive 3, 2 or 1 electron.
As a result, the electrons will out number the protons and hence negative ions formed.

Formation of Negative Ions of -1 Charge

(A fluorine atom receives one electron to form a fluoride ion with

-1 charge)

Formation of Negative Ions of -2 Charge

(An oxygen atom receives two electrons to form a oxide ion

with -2 charge)
Difference Between an Atom and an Ion That Have Same Electrons Arrangement
Difference Between Fluoride Ion and Neon Atom
After forming an ion, the electron arrangement of the ion is similar to the noble gases.

For example, the electron arrangement of fluoride ion is 2.8 which is similar to a Neon
atom, 2.8.
Fluoride ion and the neon atom have similar electron arrangement.
Fluoride ion carries charge whereas neon atom is neutral.

(The electrons arrangement of a fluoride ion is the same as a neon atom. However, they
are so much different chemically)

Ionic Bonding
Ionic bonds are formed by one atom transferring electrons to another atom to form ions.
Ions are atoms, or groups of atoms, which have lost or gained electrons.
The atom losing electrons forms a positive ion (a cation) and is usually a metal.
The atom gaining electrons forms a negative ion (an anion) and is usually a non-metallic
element.
Ions of opposite charge will attract one another by strong electrostatic force, thus creating
an ionic bond.
Ionic bond is also known as electrovalence bond.
Example: Ionic Bonding between Group 1 Metals and Group 17 Elements

Figure above shows

the illustration of
the formation of
ionic bond between
a sodium atom
(group 1 metal) and
a chlorine atom
(group 17 element).
The electron

arrangement of sodium atom is 2.8.1, which is not octet and hence not stable.
To achieve octet electrons arrangement, the sodium atom donate/release one electron and
form sodium ion.
The electron arrangement of chlorine atom is 2.8.7, which is also not octet and hence not
stable, too.
To achieve octet electrons arrangement, the chlorine atom receives one electron from
sodium atom and form a chloride ion.
The sodium ion and the chloride ion carry opposite charge, hence they attract each other
and form an ionic bond between each other.

Example: Ionic Bonding between Group 2 Metals and Group 17 Elements

Figure above shows

the illustration of
the formation of
ionic bond between
two potassium
atoms (group 1
metal) and an
oxygen atom
(group 16 element).
The electron arrangement of potassium atom is 2.8.8.1, which is not octet and hence not
stable.
To achieve octet electrons arrangement, the potassium atom donate/release one electron
and form potassium ion.
The electron arrangement of oxygen atom is 2.6, which is also not octet and hence not
stable, too.
To achieve octet electrons arrangement, the oxygen atom receives two electrons from
potassium atoms and form an oxide ion.
The potassium ions and the oxide ion carry opposite charge, hence they attract each other

and form two ionic bond between the ions.

Example: Ionic Bonding between Group 2 Metals and Group 16 Elements

Figure above shows

the illustration of the
formation of ionic
bond between a
calcium atom (group
2 metal) and an
oxygen atom (group
16 element).
The electron
arrangement of
calcium atom is 2.8.8.2, which is not octet and hence not stable.
To achieve octet electrons arrangement, the potassium atom donate/release two electrons
and form calcium ion.
The electron arrangement of oxygen atom is 2.6, which is also not octet and hence not
stable, too.
To achieve octet electrons arrangement, the oxygen atom receives two electrons from the
calcium atom and form an oxide ion.
The calcium ion and the oxide ion carry opposite charge, hence they attract each other
and form an ionic bond between each other.

Predicting the Formula of Ionic Compound

We can predict the charge of the ions formed from an element base on the group of the
element.
From the charge, we can then write the formula of the ionic compound formed.
In short, we can predict the formula of an ionic compound if we know the group (in
periodic table) of the elements in the compound.
Table below shows the formula of the ionic compounds formed by the elements from
different group in a periodic table.
Elements
Atoms of Metal, M

Formula of Ionic

Atoms of Non-Metal,

Examples

Compound

N
Group 1

Group 15

M3N

Na3N

Group 1

Group 16

M2N

K2O

Group 1

Group 17

MN

LiCl

Group 2

Group 15

M3N2

Ca3N2

Group 2

Group 16

MN

MgO

Group 2

Group 17

MN2

BaBr2

Group 13

Group 15

MN

AlN

Group 13

Group 16

M2N3

Al2O3

Group 13

Group 17

MN3

AlI3

Covalent Bonding
Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonds are formed by atoms sharing electrons to form molecules. This type of
bond usually formed between two non-metallic elements.
In the formation of covalent bonds, atoms of non-metals will combine with each other to
donate one, two or three electrons for sharing.

The compound formed through the formation of covalent bonds is called the covalent
compounds.
Examples of Covalent Compound
Covalent

Formula

Compound

Covalent

Formula

Compound

Chlorine

Cl2

Phosphorus

Hydrogen

H2

Sulfur dioxide

SO2

Oxygen

O2

Carbon dioxide

CO2

N2

Tetrachloro-

CCl4

Nitrogen

methane

Examples of Formation of Covalent Compounds

Formation of Fluorine
Molecule

The electrons
arrangement of a
fluorine atom is 2.7
To achieve octet
electrons
arrangement, 2
fluorine atoms share 1
pair of electrons
between each other.
As a result, a covalent bond formed between the 2 atoms.

Formation of Oxygen Molecule

P4

The electrons
arrangement of an
oxygen atom is 2.6
To achieve octet
electrons
arrangement, 2
fluorine atoms share
2 pair of electrons
between each other.
As a result, 2
covalent bonds
formed between the 2 atoms.

Formation of Carbon Dioxide Molecule

The electrons
arrangement of an
oxygen atom is 2.6
and the electrons
arrangement of a
hydrogen atom is 1.
To achieve octet
electrons arrangement, the oxygen atom share 2 pair of electrons with 2 hydrogen atoms.
The hydrogen atoms achieve duplet electrons arrangement after sharing electron with the

oxygen atom.
As a result, covalent bonds formed between the oxygen atom and the hydrogen atoms.

Number of Bond
There are 3 types of
covalent bond:
8 Single
covalent
bond
sharing of
one pair
of
electrons
9 Doubl
e
covalent
bond
sharing of
two pairs of electrons
10 Triple covalent bond sharing of three pairs of electrons
Example
Number of electron
1 pair

Example and type of covalent bond

type of
covalent bond:
Single Bond

2 pair

type of
covalent bond:
Double Bond

3 pair

type of
covalent bond:
Triple Bond

Formation of Single Bond (Hydrogen Molecule)

Formation of
Double Bond
(Oxygen Molecule)

Formation of Triple
Bond (Nitrogen
Molecule)

Predicting the
Molecular Formula
of Covalent
Compounds
1 Like the formula of
ionic compounds,
the formula of most
covalent compounds
can be predicted by
referring to the
group in periodic
table of the elements
in the compound.
2 We can predict the
formula of a
covalent compound
by referring to the valency of the elements in the compound, if we know which group in
periodic table the element is located.
3 The valency of an atom is the number of electrons receive of release to achieve octet
electrons arrangement.
4 For example, the electron arrangement of an oxygen atom is 2.6. To achieve octet
electrons arrangement, the oxygen atom need to receive 2 electrons. Therefore, the
valency of oxygen is 2.
5 Table below shows the group of the elements, the valency of the elements and the
predicted formula of covalent compounds formed among the elements.
Element that combine
Element X from

Formula of the covalent compound

Valency Element Y from

Valency

Group 15

Group 15

XY

Group 15

Group 16

X2Y3

Group 15

Group 17

XY3

Group 16

Group 16

XY

Group 16

Group 17

XY2

Group 17

Group 17

XY

Structure Ionic Compound

In an ionic compound, the

alternate positive and
negative ions in an ionic solid
are arranged in an orderly
way as shown in the image to
the right.
The ions can form a giant ionic lattice structure with ionic bond between the ions.
The ionic bond is the strong electrical attraction (electrostatic force) between the positive
and negative ions next to each other in the lattice.

(Giant Lattice Structure)

(Strong Electrostatic Force formed between the positive and

negative ions)
Properties of Ionic Compounds
The strong bonding force makes ionic compounds has high melting and boiling points.
All ionic compounds are crystalline solids at room temperature.
They are hard but brittle, when stressed the bonds are broken along planes of ions which
shear away.
Many, ionic compounds (but not all) are soluble in water.
The solid crystals DO NOT conduct electricity because the ions are not free to move to
carry an electric current.
However, if the ionic compound is melted or dissolved in water, the liquid will now
conduct electricity, as the ion particles are now free.

Physical Properties of Covalent Compounds - Simple Molecule

Covalent compounds can be divided into 2 types:
Simple molecular compound
Macromolecular compound
Simple Molecules

Most covalent
compounds are
made up of
independent
molecular units, as
shown in figure
above.
The attraction force
between molecules
is the weak Van der
Waals force.
Properties of Simple Covalent Molecular Substances - Small Molecules!
The intermolecular force between the simple covalent molecules is very weak. Therefore,
covalent compounds have low melting and boiling point.
They are also poor conductors of electricity because there are no free electrons or ions in
any state to carry electric charge.
Most small molecules will dissolve in a solvent to form a solution.
Physical Properties of Covalent Compounds - Macromolecular compounds
Macromolecular Compounds
The macromolecular compounds have giant, covalent molecules with extremely large
molecular lattices.
They have very high melting and boiling points.
They don't conduct electricity not even when molten (except for graphite).
They're usually insoluble in water.
Examples of such macromolecules are diamond, silica and graphite.
Diamond and Silica(Sand)

(3 dimensional structure macromolecular compound Diamond)

A diamond crystal or a grain of sand is just one giant molecule. Such molecules, because
they are so rigid and strong, have very high melting points.
Each carbon atom forms four covalent bonds in a very rigid giant covalent structure,
which makes diamond the hardest natural substance. This makes diamonds ideal as
cutting tools.
All those strong covalent bonds give diamond a very high melting point.
It doesn't conduct electricity because it has no free electrons.
Diamond is an allotrope of carbon. Allotropes are different forms of the same element in
the same physical state

Graphite

(3 dimensional layer structure: graphite)

Carbon also occurs in the form of graphite. The carbon atoms form joined hexagonal
rings forming layers 1 atom thick.
Graphite is black and opaque.
Each carbon atom only forms three covalent bonds, creating sheets of carbon atoms

which are free to slide over each other. This makes graphite slippery, so it's useful as a
lubricant.
The layers are held together so loosely that they can be rubbed off onto paper to leave a
black mark that's how pencils work.
Graphite has a high melting point the covalent bonds need lots of energy before they
break.
Only three out of each carbon's four outer electrons are used in bonds, so there are lots of
spare electrons. This means graphite conducts electricity it's used for electrodes.