Direct Current Transmission - Kimbark

Other Books by the Author POWER SYSTEM STABILITY _Youuws 1 ELEMenrs oF STABILITY CALCULATIONS, 1948, John Wiley & Sons, Ine. Vouuwe m Powsr CIRCUIT BREAKERS AND PxOTECTIVE RELAYS, 1950, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Vouume i SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES, 1956, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., (cepublished by Dover Publications, Ine., 1967) ELECTRICAL TRANSMISSION OF POWER AND SIGNALS, 1949, John Wiley & Sons, Ine, (Also published for the Asiatic market by ‘Toppan Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan, 1964) DIRECT CURRENT TRANSMISSION VOLUME I EDWARD WILSON KIMBARK, Sc. D., Fellow I. Bometlle over ddination on TEE Portland, Oregon WILEY-INTERSCIENCE 8 Division of John. Wik : Wiley & Sons, Ine, New York - London + Sydney « TorontoCopyright © 1971 by John Wiley & Sons, Ine All ights reserved. Published simultaneously in Canada. Reproduction o translation of any pat of this work beyond that permite by Sections 107 o 108 of he 1976 United States Copy Fat Act without the permission ofthe copyright ose sun fal, Requests for permission ov further information sbould be dcesed tothe Perminsons Depart, Jon Wiley Sos. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 72-142717 ISDN. 0-471-47580-7 Printed inthe United States of America -w9s76s et | | PREFACE ‘The most exeting new technical development in electric power systems in the last two decades is direct-current transmission. From 1950 to 1970, eight directcurrent links have gone into commercial operation in various paris of the world. From the first ofthese links to the last, the voltage has increased from 100 to 800 kV; the rated power, from 20 to 1440 MW; and the distance from 96 to 1370 km (60 to 850 miles) Several other de inks are under con« struction or proposed. Preceding and accompanying this rapid growth of direct current transmission were developments in high-voltage, high-power valves, in control and protective systems, in de cables, and in insulation for overhead de line. Industral, governmental, and academic laboratories were involved in this development. De transmission became a favored subject for research by sraduate students of electrical engineering. The circumstances leading to the adoption of direct-current transmission are diverse: long water erossings requiring submarine cables, frequency changing, asynchronous operation of systems having the same nominal frequency, large hydroclectric resources remote from load centers, long in- terregional ties, and transmission through congested metropolitan areas. ‘The rapid growth of dc transmission, combined with the diversity of reasons forts use, assures fr ita brilliant future and also points to the need for a new and better book on the subject. The art of de transmission in the past two decades has been based on the use of improved mereury arc valves. Consequently, this book, in endeavoring to describe the present state of the art, is necessarily based largely on the technology employing such valves. There are indications that mercury are valves have reached almost the peak of their development. At least, solid- state controllable valves (thyristors), though not yet used in any. major do transmission project, are appeating 2s formidable contenders for future projects. Fortunately the technology of employing thyristors for de transmission differs more in dimensions than in principles from that of employing mercury are valves, Hence, itis not primarily the transition to thyristors that will invi PREFACE time render this book obsolete, but rather the coi of all phases of the art, My interest in direct current transmission was awakened in 1962 when the Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) asked me to teach two courses in this subject for their engincers. The lack of an adequate text book for those courses determined me to write one. Since 1962, I have taught three more courses on de transmission, and have been involved in studies of various aspects of this subject. I am indebted to the BPA for the opportunity to teach these courses, to work on problems in the field, and to confer with my col- Teagues, as well as for access to the BPA’s excellent library services. However, 1 wish to make clear that this book is not an official publication of the BPA nor one sponsored by it. It has been a spare-time project. I alone am respon- sible for its contents, including any errors which may inadvertently appear in it, ‘The large amount of essential information now available on direct-current transmission and the time required to organize it led to the decision to divide the work into two volumes of which this isthe frst: The proposed contents of the second volume are indicated on page xi. Units of physical quantities used herein are those of the International System. (SD) recommended by the LE.E.E. and LE.C. ‘Lam indebted to various engineers at the BPA and elsewhere for supplying information, especially to Dr. John J. Vithayathil for many enlightening technical discussions. I am indebted to my wife, Ruth Merrick Kimbark, for typewriting much of the manuscript and pertinent correspondence and for her valued advice and encouragement, ing rapid development EDWARD WILSON KIMBARK Portland, Oregon March, 1971 CONTENTS |. GENERAL ASPECTS OF DC TRANSMISSION AND COMPARISON OF IT WITH AC TRANSMISSION 1 44 Historical Sketch 1 12 Constitution of EHV AC and DC Links 9 13. Kinds of DC Links 4" 1-4 HY DC Projects from 1954 to 1970 2 1-5 Limitations and Advantages of AC and DC Transmission 19 1-6 Summary of Advantages and Disadyantages of HV DC ‘Transmission 2 1-7 Principal Applications of DC Transmission 2 4-8 Economie Factors 33 19 ‘The Future of DC Transmission 38 Bibliography 36 . CONVERTER CIRCUTTS ” 2-1 Valve Characteristic | 0 2-2 Properties of Converter Cireuits ; 50 2-3 Assumptions 3 24 Single-Phase Converters ‘ 31 2S Three-Phase Converters 56 2-6 Pulse Number 6 2-7 Additional Six-Pulse Convertor Cireuits a 28 Choice of Best Circuit for HV DC Converters 6 29. ‘Tnelve-Pulse Cascade of Two Bridges a Problems 68 Bibliography 70viii coNTENTS 3, ANALYSIS OF THE BRIDGE CONVERTER 341 Analysis with Grid Control but no Overlap 32 Analysis with Grid Control and with Overlap less than 60° 33. Analysis with Overlap Greater than 60° 3-4 Complete Characteristics of Rectifier 35 Inversion 3-6 Serios and Parallel Arrangements of Valves, Anodes, or Bridges 3-7 Multibridge Converters Problems Bibliography 4. CONVERTER CHARTS 44 Chart 1 with Rectangular Co-ordinates of Direct Current and Voltage 42 Chart 2 with Rectangular Co-ordinates of Active and Re- active Power 43. Relations between the Two Charis Problems Bibliography 5. CONTROL 54 Grid Control 5:2 Basie Means of Control 5:3 Power Reversal 5-4 Limitations of Manual Control 55 Constant Current versus Constant Voltage * $6 Desired Features of Control 5-7 Actual Control Characteristics 58 Constant-Minimum-Ignition-Angle Control 5-9 Constant-Current Control 5-10 Constant-Extinction-Angle Control ‘S-A1 Stability of Control 512 Tap-Changer Control 5-13 Power Control and Current Limits 5-14 Frequency Control 5-15 Multiterminal Lines n 103 105, mu us 123 126 29 29 138 146 146 147 138 148, 152 154 156 157 158 164 165 167 174 179 180 182 183, 1 & CONTENTS 5:16 Measuring Devices Problems Bibliography MISOPERATION OF CONVERTERS 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 ‘Malfunctions of Mereury-Are Valves. Bypass Valves, Areback Short Circuit on a Reetifier ‘Commutation Failure Arethrough Misfire ‘Quenching Generalization of Inverter Faults and Certain Reetifier Faults 610 Consequential Faults in Rectfer Problems Bibliography PROTECTION TA 72 18 14 1s 16 1 18 General DC Reactors Voltage Oscillations and Valve Dampers Current Oscillations and Anode Dampers DC Line Oscillations and Line Dampers Clearing Line Faults and Reenergizing the Line Circuit Breakers Overvoltage Protection Problems Bibliography HARMONICS AND FILTERS BL BL 83 84 85 Summary Characteristic Harmonics Uncharacteristie Harmonies ‘Troubles Caused by Harmonies Definitions of Wave Distortion or Ripple 187 192 - 194 198 198 199 m2 27 29 231 g 295 318 323,CONTENTS 86 Means of Reducing Harmonies 87 Telephone Interference 88 Harmonie Filters Problems Bibliography GROUND RETURN 9-1 Advantages and Problems 9-2 The Current Field in the Earth Near an Electrode 9-3 The Current Field between the Electrodes 94 The Natural Current Field in the Earth 9-5 Compatability with Other Services 9-6 Design of Electrodes—General 9-7 Design of Land Blectrodes 98 _ Design of Sea and Shore Electrodes Problems Bibliography APPENDICES, A. Effective Value of Alternating Current of a. Six-pulse Converter 'B, Fundamental Current, Power, and Reactive Power of a Six-pulse Converter C. Inclusion of Direct Voltage Drops Due to Resistance and Ares in Converter Equations INDEX gees TENTATIVE CONTENTS OF VOLUME II 10, un 2 B 14, 5 16. 1, 18. OVERHEAD LINES DC CABLES FORCED COMMUTATION OPERATION OF A DC LINK AS PART OF AN AC SYSTEM HIGH-POWER VALVES CONVERTER TRANSFORMERS AND REACTORS. RADIO INTERFERENCE ASYNCHRONOUS ‘IES MODELS AND SIMULATION |ae ACSR. AEG. AG. Ah Amer, Power Conf. Proc. ASEA Assn, AWG BE. &ALRA. BLCC. BLL. BPA BIS. Bull. c CAB call, cAT cc, COLE, ABBREVIATIONS ampere alternating-current aluminum cable, steel reinforced Allgemeine Elektricititsgesellschaft Aktiengesellschaft ampere-hour American Power Conference Proceedings (Utinois. Institute of Technology, Chicago) Allmanna Svenska Elektriska Aktiebolaget, Sweden Association American Wire Gage British Electrical and Allied Industries Re- search Association (later known as E.R.A.) British Insulated Callenders Cables basic insulation level Bonneville Power Administration (U.S.. Dep't. of the Interior, Portland, Oregon) Bell Telephone System Bulletin coulomb, Celsius (temperature scale, formerly Centigrade) consequential arcback calorie per gram consequential arcthrough constant current Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique ternational Consultative Committee on Tele- phony). xiiixiv ADDREVIATIONS COLT. COLE. CEA. CEGB. CGE. CIGRE. om Cont. const. cot coth ce aB de deg. Dis. BEL Elec, elec. deg. Elec. Fg. Elec. World Comité Consultatif International Télégraphique Claternational Consultative Committee on Tele- graphy) ‘Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Téégraphigue (Intemational Consultative Committee on Telephony and Telegraphy), Geneva, Switzerland ‘constant extinction angle Central Electricity Generating Board, Great Britain Compagnie Générale d’Electrcité, France Conference Internationale des Grands Reseaux Electriques a Haute Tension (International Conference on Large High-Voltage Electrical Systems), Paris centimetre Conference constant cosine hyperbolic cosine cotangent hyperbolic cotangent Conference Paper (A.LB.E. or LE.E.E.) covecant decibel direct-current degree (of angle) discussion free electron. Edison Electric Institute, New York extra high voltage Electrical electrical degree Electrical Engineering, formerly published by the ALEE. Electrical World lek, Stantsit ae Engg. Eq. Fay. ERA. IZ EuM. ep F Fe Fo** Fe(OH): Gen. Elec. Rev. ibid. LEC LEE. IEEE. ABBREVIATIONS XV Elekiricheskie Stantsit (Blectsic. Powerplants), USSR, 4 electromotive force Engineering equation equations Electrical Research Association, Great Britain Elekirotechnische Zeitschrift. Elektrotechnik und Maschinenbau (Vienna) exponential function farad iron atom ferric ion ferric hydroxide feet General Electric Review igawatt henry hydrogen atom univalent positive hydrogen ion hydrogen molecule hour high-voltage hertz Latin for “in the same placo”” Island International Electrotechnical Commission Institution of Electrical Engineers (London) Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (New York, U.S.A), founded in January, 1964, by merger of the A.LE.E. and the LR.E. joule Journal Kelvin (temperature scale) Kiloampere Kilogramree ee eee eet peeeenrt ererEn eee e e eee eee xvi ABBREVIATIONS kHz, km RV VA kvar kW Kg ib Ibffin? Lc In log mA McM mH MHD MHz mi mm, ms mV MVA Mvar aF NILPLT. NW NZ. on Ont. kilometre Kilovolt Kilovolt-ampere Kilovar kilowatt thousands of dollars pound pounds force per square inch inductance-capacitance natural logarithm ‘common logarithm milliampere thousands of cireular mils nillihenry magnetohydrodynamic(s) megahertz mile millimetre magnetomotive force millisecond nillivolt megavolt-ampere megavar megawatt newton nanofarad Nauchno-I:sledovatel’skii Institut Postoyannovo Toka, Izvestiya (Proceedings of the Direct Current Research Institute), Leningrad. number northwest New Zealand negative hydroxyl ion Ontario PA eS. PLY. Proc. Publ. pvc rad rads Ref. rms SCR SEV. SLL. sin sinh sw tan THAR. TF Trans. Trans. and Dist. us. USA. USSR. v vs w want, yd ye oF ABBREVIATIONS xvii Power Apparatus and Systems peak inverse voltage Proceedings publication polyvinyl chloride radian radian per second reference Review resistance-induetance-capacitance root-mean-square silicon controlled rectifier second (time), secant Schweizerischer Elektrotechnischer Verein, also known as Association Suisse des Electricions (Zurich) surge-impedance loading hyperbolic sine Southwest tangent telephone harmonic form factor telephone influence factor Transactions Transmission and Distribution United States United States of America Union of Soviet Socialist Republics volt, versus watt with respect to yard year microfaradWwW am ABBREVIATIONS microsecond microvolt ohm cohm-metre (unit of resistivity) f DIRECT CURRENT TRANSMISSIONGeneral Aspects of DC Transmission and Comparison of it with AC Transmission 1-1 HISTORICAL SKETCH?!" Early Discoveries and Applications Both electrical science and the practical applications of electricity began with direct current. Alternating current came later. ‘The basic discoveries of Galvani, Volta, Oersted, Ohm, and Ampére per- tained to direct current. The frst widespread practical application was de telegraphy powered by electrochemical batteries and using ground-return circuits Blectric lighting and power also began with direct current powered by ddynamos. First came carbon arc lamps operated in series at constant current and fed from scries-wound generators, Later came carbon-filament incan- escent lamps operated in parallel at constant voltage and supplied with current from shunt-wound generator. ‘The first electric central station in the world, on Peal Street, in New York, was built by Thomas A. Féison and began operation in 1882. It supplied irect current at 110 V through underground tubular mains to an area roughly 1 mi(.6 kr) in radius. It hed Edison bipolar de generators driven by steam engines. Within 2 few years similar stations were in operation in the central districts of most large cities throughout the world. In view of the initial supremacy of direct current itis interesting to see why it was almost completely superseded by alternating curzent and why direct current is again being used for some high-voltage transmission lines | * Superior numerals end, in some chapters, including this one, superior leters alone or | followed by numerals refer to items or to groups of items in the bibliography atthe end ‘of the chapter. 12 GENERAL ASPECTS OF DC TRANSMISSION Later Ascendancy of Alternating Current ‘The advent of the transformer, polyphase circuits, and the induction motor in the 18805 and 1890s led to ac eleciric power systems. The transformer, simple, rugged, and efficient, made possible the use of different voltage levels for generation, transmission, distribution, and use. In particular, it made long-distance, high-voltage power transmission possible, ‘The exploitation of water power, usually available at sites distant from major load centers, gave impetus to such transmission, The induction motor, especially the polyphase induction motor, is also simple, rugged, and cheap and serves the majority of industri and resi- 4 Maz @ and is called the surge impedance loading (SIL) or natural load. It is independent of distance and depends mainly on the voltage, Typicel values for three-phase overhead lines are as follows: P, 1-5 LIMITATIONS AND ADVANTAGES OF AC AND DC TRANSMISSION 21 230 700 voltage (kV) | 132 ye impedance loading (MW) | 43 | 130 & line carrying its natural load, the magnitude of voltage is the seme everywhere, as shown in curve 2 in Figure 3, and the reactive power is zero sas | 500 830, | 1600 300 ofa pleas ta 2. Natal oad P, ¥ a 2 oss} S Heary load (1529 ° 19 20 7 Distance fom sending end (elec deg) Fig. 3. Voltage profiles of one-twelfth-wavelength low-loss line with equal terminal voltages E. Length at 60 Hi is 258 mi (416 km). everywhere (curve 2 in Figure 4). 405; Distance fom sending end (ac dg) Fig. 4, Flow of reactive power Q on the line in Figure 3, Most lines cannot be operated always at their natural loads, for the loads vary with time. The most economical load on an overhead line is usually ‘greater than the natural load. If the load is greater than the natural load, net reactive power is consumed by the line and must be supplied from one or both ends. If equal voltages are maintained at both ends of the line, cqual amounts of reactive power are supplied from both ends (curve 3 in Figure 4), |22 GENERAL ASPECTS OF DC TRANSMISSION and the voltage elsewhere sags, being least at the center ofthe line (eurve 3 in Figure 3). If the load on the line is less than the natural load, net reactive power is produced by the line and is delivered to one or both ends. With equal voltages at both ends, equal amounts of reactive power are delivered to both ends (curve 1 in Figure 4), and the voltage overywhere olse is higher than at the ends, being grcatest at the middle (curve 1 in Figure 3). In all eases, the flow of reactive power through series inductive reactance is “downhill,” that is, in the direction of decreasing vottage. Thus, to maintain constant equal voltages at both ends, reactive power must be absorbed at light load and supplied at heavy load. The reactive ower required for a given variation of load increases with distance (see Figure 5, curves 3 and 4). L L 380i) isd 0 Lenath of ine (lee cep) Fig. 5. Characteristics of lossless tie with equal terminal voltages E (except curve 2) versus length up to one-half wavelength. Curve 1. Maximum power(natutal power, PalP, Curve 2. Voltage at open end/sendingend voltage. Curve 3. Reactive power from both onds/naturat power for P=1.5Pq, Curve 4. Reactive power from both eadsjnatural Power for no load (P=0). Curve 5. Voltage at middejterminal voltage for P= 1.sPs, If we stipulate, instead of constant voltages at both ends, fixed voltage at the sending end and fixed power factor, say, unity, at the receiving end, the receiving-end voltage varies with load. For a unity-power-factor load, the voltage is high at light load and tow at heavy load. The amount of variation ineteases with the length of line (up to a quarter wavelength). On a long line the variation of voltage becomes intolerably great, and it becomes necessary 1-5 LIMITATIONS AND ADVANTAGES OF AC AND DC TRANSMISSION 23 to supply or consume the reactive power required for maintaining approxi ‘mately constant voltages. On lines up to 250 mi long, reactive power is ordinarily supplied at the terminals. In the past, synchronous condensers ‘were commonly used for this purpose. They can control the voltage by either supplying or consuming reactive power, as required. Nowadays shunt static capacitors and reactors are found to be more economical, They are switched in blocks. Figure 5 shows some other disadvantageous characteristics of long, un- ‘compensated transmission lines up to one-half wavelength (180°). One is their power limit. For any given length / the maximum power that can be transmitted on such a line is shown by curve 1, Ibis Py = PysecO © where On tie = oe I © is the electrical length of the line, / being the actual length and 2 the waves fength, For a greater load than the natural load, there isa maximum distance; for example, for P= 1.5P, this distance corresponds to a line angle of sec~! (Py[P,) = soc-1 1.5 = 41.8° and is (41.8/360)2, or 360 mi at 60 Hz. As the length of line approaches this value, the reactive power that must be supplied to the line increases rapidly, as shown by curve 3, and the voltage at the middle of the line drops rapidly, as shown by curve 5, Another limitation of Jong lines is the high voltage at an open end (the Ferranti effect), shown in curve 2, This is important when a line is being put into service by first connecting one end of it to the main ac system, for itis not feasible to close both ends at exactly the same moment. Long-distance ac power transmission is feasible only with the use of series and shunt compensation, applied at intervals along the line, as illustrated in Figure 6. Series compensation of degree s reduces the effective seties inductance from L by sL to (I —s)Z and thus decreases the electrical length 1 (6}—from fl to BIVI—s and at the same time decreases the surge impedance—Eq, (3)~and increases the natural load by the same factor. The reactive power produced by shunt capacitance of the line at light load may still be excessive, requiring shunt compensation of part h of it. The effective shunt capacitance is then reduced from C'to (I — AC, and the electrical length is reduced by the adeltional fstor VI — fh o by the total factor Va=90 = 7). The surge impedance is altered by the factor V(I—s))(I —A) and may be essentially unchanged iff =24 GENERAL ASPECTS OF DC TRANSMISSION 4 é Hig. 6. Series and shuat reactive compensation for 750-mi (1200 km) SOO-LV 60-2 single-citeut line delivering 1000 MW and having two 1780-MCM A.C..R. conductors pet phase. Sending-end voltage, $25 KV /Q; receiving-end voltage, $00 KV /—29.5% The series capacitors have an aggregate loading of 1507 Mvar.; shunt reactors, 1275 Mvar.; reactive power entering line from sending end, 193 Mvar.; from receiving end, 355 Mvar. [Dezree of series compensation, 73%; of shunt compensation, 587. (Ref. Dé, Appendix B, Figuee 7) In Figure 6 and in similar schemes shown in the Ref, D4 for other voltages ‘and distances, the compensation was chosen to limit the angle between termi nal voltages to 30° and to limit the voltages at the ends and at compensating points to not more than 1.05 times nominal voltage, except that the voltage ‘at an open end is limited to not more than 1.1 times normal voltage. ‘On representative Jong overhead stv compensated lines operating af full load, the total reactive power furnished from both ends of the line and from intermediate series capacitors plus the reactive power consumed by shunt 5 TT Ss 1000, 4 | 45 1, SOO MW. « 700K ee ato of reactive power supplied to power vansrted 200 700 0 Length of ie rad 00 —T000) Fig. 7. Reactive povier requizoments of long ev overhead ac and de lines at full load a5 4 function of the length of line, (That of te lines is from data in Ref. Di.) reactors varies almost linearly with distance, as shown in Figure 7. It is approximately 4.4 Mvar/MW + kmi = 2.8 Mvar/MW - Mm. ‘A de line itself requires no reactive power, and the voltage drop on the line itself is merely the resistive drop RJ. The converters at both ends of the line, -S LIMITATIONS AND ADVANTAGES OF AC AND DC TRANSMISSION 25 however, draw reactive power from the ac systems, It varies with the transmitted power and is approximately half of the latter at each end. It is independent of the length of line. Usually shunt capacitors or synchronous ‘condensers are installed for supplying this reactive power. Both acand de lines have the disadvantage of requiring adjustable supplies (or sinks) of reactive power. For distances of more than 400 km (250 mi), however, Figure 7 shows that the de line requites less than the ae line, ‘Onsubmarine or underground cables, the situation is diffrent from that on overhead lines. Cables are always operated at a load much below the surge impedance load in order to avoid overheating. Consequently the reactive power produced by charging the shunt capacitance greatly exceeds that consumed by the series inductance.?? In a 50- or 60-Hz.cable, 25 to 50 mi (40 to 80 km) long, the charging current alone equals the rated current, leaving no margin for Ioad current. Shunt compensation theoretically could correct this situation.?® Shunt reactors, however, would be required at, pethaps, 10-mi (U6-km) intervals, Since it is difficult to lay and repair submarine cable to which shunt reactors are connected, the practical length of ac submarine cables is only about 20 mi (30 km). De cables have no such limitation, Stability By the stability of an ac system is meant its ability to operate with all synchronous machines in synchronism. Ifa long ac line is loaded to a certain value, known as its steady-state stability limit, the synchronous machines at the sending end accelerate and go out of synchronism with those at the receiving end. This condition is analogous to a slipping belt or clutch in a mechanical transmission system. The slipping electrodynamic system not only fails to transmit the power that it should but also gives rise to objectionable fluctuations in voltage. Even if a line is operated below its steady-state limit, the machines at the seading and receiving ends may lose synchronism after some large disturbance, notably a short circuit, unless the line is operated below its transient stability limit, which is always lower than the steady-state limit. Practically speaking, the steady-state stability limit is the transient stability limit for very small disturbances. The problem of stability or synchronous operation constitutes the most serious limitation of a long ac transmission system. ‘The power transmitted from one machine to the other in a two-machine loses ac power system is given by Fike pa AE sind oO26 GENERAL ASPECTS OF DC TRANSMISSION where E, and £, are the internal voltages of the two machines, 5 is the phase ifference of these voltages, and X is the reactance of the architrave of the equivalent z circuit of the system joining the internal points, Each machine is represented by an internal voltage “behind” an internal reactance, The reactance X is very nearly the sum of the inductive reactances inside the two machines, of the transmission line, and of the step-up and step-down trais- formers, An actual power system involving a long interconnecting line with, ‘many generating stations at each end of the line may be represented reasonably well by a two-machine equivalent system in which all the machines at the receiving end of the line are replaced by one equivalent machine and all those at the sending end by another. A graph of power P as a function of phase difference 6 between internal voltages is a sine wave, Maximum power occurs at 6 = 90° and is Fibs P, x 8) Pp is the steady-state stability limit, It is approximately equal to the square of the operating voltage divided by the series reactance, In a long-distance transmission system most of the reactance is in the line itself, and a much smaller part is in the two terminal systems, consisting of machines, transformers, and local lines. The inductive reactance of a single-circnit 60-Hz overhead Tine with single conductors is about 0.8 Qjmi (0.5 Ofkm); with double conductors, about 3 as great. The reactance of the line itself is pro~ portional to the length of the line, and thus the power per circuit of a given voltage, as limited by steady-state stability, is inversely proportional to the length. The transient stability limit is lower than the steady-state limit, and, as a Tough guide, we may take the former as half of the latter, corresponding to a phase difference of sin“! 0.5 = 30° in the initial steady state. (This value was assumed in Figures 6 and 7.) In an uncompensated line operating at its natural load the phase of the voltage varies directly with the distance, going through one cycle (360°) per wavelength. A 30° difference, then, corresponds to 7! wavelength. On a 60-LHz. line this is 3100/12 = 258 mi (416 km). On a 50-Hz line it is 310 mi (500 km), A lighter load can be transmitted farther: a heavier load not so far, The distance to which the natural load can be transmitted stably can be extended considerably by placing synchronous condensers or, better yet, synchronous generators at various intermediate points of the transmission system. If both generators and loads are scattered along the transmission system, this method of long-distance transmission is called transmission by displacement. As shown in Figure 8, the over-all transmission can be regarded al 1-5 LIMITATIONS AND ADVANTAGES OF AC AND DC TRANSMISSION 27 soomw T° soomw [soos [sco aw 500 at is oe = ccbudsbe Ly soo mW SCOMW Sco MW 1000 NW wo soo NW 500M SOD NW 1000 MW. Fig. 8. Long-distance transmission by displacement regarded (a) a8 several short trans mission systems in tandem and (#) as a long-distance straightaway trensmission systom supported by several intermediate generators each having its local load, Loss are newlected, cither as several short transmission systems in tandem or as a long transmission line supported by several intermediate generating stations, each having its own local load. Pethaps the most economical method of increasing the distance of straightaway ac transmission is by use of series capacitors. whose reactanice compen sates a part of the series inductive reactance of the line itself. The meximutn part that can be compensated feasibly or economically has not yet been determined, Probably itis about 75%, By use of this assumed maximum series compensation, the distance for stable 60-Hz transmission of the natural load of an overhead line could be extended to 258/(1 — 0.75) = 1030 mi (1660 km), Such amounts of series compensation have not yet been used: 35 to 50% is ‘more usual. For straightaway transmission of 1000 mi (1600 km) de trans. mission would prove more economical than ac, Another method of making very long ac power lines operate stably has ‘been proposed: it is to make the line electrically somewhat longer than one. half wavelength.°**$-? Tt will then behave as if it were a half-vavelength shorter than it is, If the actual distance is less than one-half wavelength, the electrical length may be artificially increased in either of two ways: (a) by adding lumped LC sections at the ends or (b) by connecting shunt capacitors at intervals along the line. A de transmission link in itself has no stability problem. Two separate ac systems interconnected only by-a de line do not operate in synchronism, even if theit nominal frequencies are equal, and they can operaie at different nominal frequencies, for example, onc at $O and the other at 60 Hz. Each of the separate ac systcms may have its own internal stability problems, The sustained interruption of the power on the de line constitutes @ mild threat to28 GENERAL ASPECTS OF DC TRANSMISSION stability equal to that caused by loss of a large Toad in the sending-end system and to loss of a generator in the receiving system. Alternating-current systems are designed so as to be stable under such mild shocks Ifthe two ac systems are interconnected by one or more ac lines in addition to ade line of comparable rating, sudden and sustained interruption to the power on the de line may result in a loss of synchronism between the two ac systems. Therefore parallel operation of one de line and one or more ac lines is inadvisable unless the ac lines are strong enough to withstand the loss of the dc tine. Tf, however, there are two or more de lines in parallel with one or more ac lines, the de lines can be so arranged that if one of them is lost, the other de line or lines assumes its load. In such a case, there is no great stability problema, In this regard each pole of a bipolar line may be considered a separate line. Circuit Breakers Alternating-current circuit breakers take advantage of the current zeros that occur twice per cycle. They are designed to increase the breakdown strength of the arc path bebween contacts so rapidly that the are.does not restrike. Direct-current circuit breakers do not have this natural advantage and therefore have to force the current to zero. So far no successful de circuit breaker has been built for the high voltages and high currents used in de transmission. In simple two-terminal dc transmission, such as all projects in operation to date have been, the lack of de circuit breakers has not been felt, because faults on the de line or in the converters are cleared by using the control grids of the converter valves to block the direct current temporarily, Experi- fence with ac transmission, however, has shown that most lines that initially operate radially later became incorporated into an ac network, The lack of a de circuit breaker is a handicap to the tapping or networking of de lines. Reasonable proposals have been made for the operation of a three- or four~ terminal line in which a faulted line section can be switched out by running the voltage of the whole system to zero, opening switches to isolate the faulted section, and then raising the voltage back to normal. The time of the whole sequence of events would be approximately equal to that now required for rapid reclosure of ac circuit breakers. Nevertheless, the lack of v de circuit breakers must be regarded as a present limitation of Hv de transmission. It is likely that such circuit breakers will be developed. * Some development work is described in Section 7-7. 1-3 LIMITATIONS AND ADVANTAGES OF AC AND DC TRANSMISSION 29 Short-Cireuit Current The interconnection of ac systems through an ac line raises the short- circuit currents, sometimes to an extent that exceeds the interrupting capability of existing circuit breakers and requires their replacement by more capable breakers. The interconnection of ac systems by a de link, however, does not increase short-circuit currents of the ac systems nearly so much, for the de fine contributes no current to an ac short circuit beyond its rated current. On the other hand, the proper operation of a de line terminal requires that the short-circuit power of the ac system at the point of installation be several (now at least five) times the rated power of the de line, and sometimes this requirement dictates increase of the ac short-circuit power by the provision of synchronous condensers or additional ac connections, ‘The current in a short circuit on the de line, after a momentary transient due toa discharge of the shunt capacitance of the line, is limited by automatic grid control to twice rated current. Nor do faults on the de line draw excessive currents from the ac systems, Power per Conductor and per Circuit [Let us assume that an ac line and a de ine using the same conductors and sulators are built. How does the power per conductor compare on the two lines? Assume that in each case the current is limited by temperature rise. Then the direct current equals the rms alternating current. ‘Assume alo that the insulators withstand the same crest voltage to gtound in each case, Then the direct voltage is /2 times the rms alternating voltage. ‘The de power per conductor is Pam Vale © ‘and the ae power per conductor is Pa = Vols cosd a0) where [, and J, are the curents per conductor, V, and V, the conductor-to- ground voltages, and cos ¢ the power factor. The ratio is Veta Pe Veda te Pz Velacosh Vy I, cos cosh Taking cos = 0.943, pulp, = 1.5. ‘Now compare a three-phase, three-conductor ac line with 2 bipolar two- ay30 GENERAL ASPECTS OF DC TRANSMISSION conductor de line. The power capabilities of the respective circuits are Pym De Pa 3Pe and the ratio is Pe Pe 3 Pe Both lines can carry the same power. The de line, however, is cheaper, having two conductors instead of three, Consequently an overhead line requires only # as many insulators, and the towers are simpler, cheaper, ‘and narrower. A narrower right of way could be used. Both lines have the same power loss per conductor. The percentage loss of the de line is only two-thirds that of the ac line If the basis of comparison is equal percentage loss, the power of the three-phase ac line is decreased to 2/3 that of the two-conductor de line. Tf cables are used instead of overhead linc, the permissible working stress (voltage per unit thickness of insulation) is higher for direct current than for alternating current, and, in addition, the power factor for direct current is unity and, for alternating current, considerably lower than that assumed above, Both changes further favor direct current over alternating current by increasing the ratio of de power to ac power per conductor. The resulting ratio might be from 5 to 10. Because the power limit of overhead ac lines is.often determined by factors other than conductor heating, the ratio of de power per conductor to ac power per conductor may be as high as 4, Ground Return ‘A two-conductor bipolar de line is more reliable than a three-conductor ac line, because, in the event of a fault on one conductor, the other conductor ‘can continue to operate with ground return during the period required for repairing the fault. The operation of an ac line with ground return is not feasible on account of the high impedance of such a circuit and the telephone interference caused by such operation. Further information on de ground return is given in Chapter 9. ‘A monopolar de line with earth return is still simpler than a three-phase ac line and is equally reliable. It is especially suitable to submarine cable, A Tine ‘cait be built in stages with monopolar operation initially, later changed to bipolar operation with doubling of the power rating. 1-5 LIMITATIONS AND ADVANTAGES OF AC AND DC TRANSMISSION 31 ‘Terminal Equipment ‘The converters required at both ends of a de transmission link have proved to be reliablz but expensive. They also constitute a bottle neck to the power ‘transmissible, for the valves have but little overload capability. Other terminal equipment on either ac or dc lines may limit the voltage or current, hence the power; for example, the voltage and continuous current rating of circuit breakers and the seal-off voltage of lightning arresters. ‘Harmonics ‘The converters used with a de line produce harmonic voltages and currents ‘on both ac and de sides. These harmonics, especially in the extensive ac net- ‘works, may cause interference with audio-frequency telephone lines. Filters are required on the ac side of each converter for diminishing the magnitude of harmonies in the ac networks, These increase the cost of the converter stations. Fortunately the capacitors used in the filters also supply part of the reactive power requited by the converters. The cost of the filters and of the additional reactive power supply should be regarded as a part of the cost of ‘ade line terminal. Control of Tie-Line Power ‘The power flow on tie lines interconnecting different areas under different ownerships must be controlled in conformity with contractual obligations. In addition, the frequency of the whole system, or the frequencies of the parts connected asynchronously, must be controlled. ‘The control system is alittle simpler if the tie lines operate on de than if on ac, but the difference is not important. This subject is discussed in Volume 2. Generating Units Some hydroelectric generating stations connected to a load center through long ac lines have generators with abnormally low transient reactance or abnormally high moment of inertia specified in order to raise the stability limit, These features raise the cost of the generators and would not be required if de transmission were used, for there would be no stability problem with direct current, In addition, if such @ station were connected to an ac system only through dc lines, the speed of the prime movers could be allowed to vary with the load or the head of water, perhaps giving a cheaper or a more cflicient prime mover, and the nominal frequency of the generator, no longer confined to 50 or 60 Hz, could be chosen for best economy. Perhaps also, in32 GENERAL ASPECTS OF DC TRANSMISSION such a station, less harmonic filtering would be required. (The Volgograd hydroelectric plant has no filters.) Altogether, the generating plant could be designed for best cconomy. To date, however, no such plant has been built 146 SUMMARY OF ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF HY DC ‘TRANSMISSION Advantages Greater power per conductor. Simpler line construction. Ground return can be used. ence each conductor can be operated as an independent circuit ‘No charging current. No skin effect. Cables cat be worked at a higher voltage gradient. Line power factor is always unity; line does not require reactive compensation. Less corona loss and radio interference, especially in foul weather, for a certain conductor diameter and rms voltage. Synchronous operation is not required. Hence distance is not limited by stability. May interconnect ac systems of different frequencies. Loy short-circuit current on de line. Does not contribute to short-circuit current of ac system, Tie-line power is easily controlled. Disadvantages Converters are expensive. Converters require much reactive power. Converters generate harmonics, requiring filters. Converters have litle overload capability. Lack of Hv de circuit breakers hampers multiterminal or network operation, 3.7 PRINCIPAL APPLICATIONS OF DC TRANSMISSION ‘The foregoing discussion of the advantages and shortcomings of HV de transmission indicates the following applications: 1, For cables crossing bodies of water wider than 20 mi (32 km). 1-8 EcoNoMIc FAcToRS 33 2. For interconnecting ac systems having different frequencies or where asynchronous operation is desired. 3. For transmitting large amounts of power over long distances by over head lines. 4, In congested urban areas or elsewhere where it is difficult to acquire tight of way for overhead lines and where the lengths involved make ac cables, impractical. '5. And, of course, combinations of these factors occurring in the same Project Six of the first seven commercial installations, beginning with Gotland, involve submarine cables, All but the frst two of these include great lengths of overhead line in addition to cables. In the English Channel crossing and in the Konti-Skan scheme asynchronous operation was preferred because of the simpleity and economy of control, Some installations of converters similar to those used for nv de transmission have been installed for frequency conversion with no de line. Tn the United States and the U.SS.R, the principal interest in av de transmission is for long overhead lines. In Britain there is much interest in de transmission by underground cable through metropolitan areas, especially London. TThe first such scheme is Kingsnorth. It is likely that such applications will be considered in large cities in the United States in the future, 18 ECONOMIC FACTORS ‘The cost per unit length of a dc line is lower than that of an ac line of the same power capability and comparable reliability, but the cost of the terminal equipment of a de line is much more than that of an ac line. If we plot the cost of transmitting a certain amount of power by one method or the other as a function of the distance over which itis transmitted, the resulting graph is similar to Figure 9. The vertical intercept of each curve is the cost of the terminal equipment alone. The slope of each curve is the cost per unit length of the line and of that accessory cquipment which varies with the length. ‘Thocurve for ac transmission intersects that for detransmission at an abscissa called the break-even distance. Ifthe transmission distance is shorter than the break-even distance, ac transmission is cheaper than do; if longer, de is cheaper than ac. Estimates of the break-even distance of overhead fines, published in the technical literature, range from S00 km (310 mi) to 1500 km (930 mi). Such great variation can be explained, at least in part, by a simple modificati34 GENERAL ASPECTS OF DC TRANSMISSION 000 og eo ToO0 Distance (m) Fig. 9. Comparative costs of ac and de overhead Lines versus distance. of Figure 9, shown in Figure 10. Here the cost of each line is assumed to vary over a certain range, + 5% for the ac line and 10% for the de line. The true cost of each is assumed to bo within the cfosshatched area. (Greater variation is assumed for the cost of de transmission than for that of ac because there has been less experience with de than with 2c.) Itis now apparent ‘that even such small variations in estimated costs make the estimated break- ‘even distance vary over a range of 2 or 3 0 1 For cables the break-even distance is, of course, much shorter than for overhead lines, lying between 15 and 30 mi (24 and 48 km) for submarine cables and, pethaps, twice as far for underground cables. ‘The ordinate in Figures 9 and 10 might be cither capital cost or annual of Peers —- ° 200 1S co ‘00 000 Distance (ri) ig, 10, EMect of variation of costs on break-even distance. 1-9 THE FUTURE OF DC TRANSMISSION 35, cost; it might be for a given amount of power or per megawatt. In any case the curves would have the same form, In view of the relative novelty of uv de transmission, there is a prospect for a greater decrease in the unit cost of de line terminals with increasing experience and volume of production than in the cost of ac equipment. The result would be to decrease the breakeven distance. ‘An economic comparison between ac and de transmission made by an international working party of C.1.G.R.E and based on 1965 costs showed average break-even distances of 1000 km (600 mi) for transmitting 1080 or 2160 MW on two overhead circuits and 77 km (48 mi) for transmitting 1080 MW on two shunt-compensated underground cable circuits. An assumed future 20% reduction in de terminal costs reduced the break-even distance to 830 km (S15 mi) for the overhead lines and to 64 km (40 mi) for the under- round cables. Inthe great majority of de transmission schemes already built, other factors than the costs assumed in such comparisions play a significant role. ‘These other factors are Jong water crossings, frequency conversion, and the advantage of asynchronous ties between large ac systems. 119 THE FUTURE OF DC TRANSMISSION® ‘The increasing size and load density of metropolitan areas create problems of right of way for Hy overhead lines. The increased public demand for the better appearance of electric lines and for the preservation of the natural environment is putting pressure on the electric power companies for placing transmission and distribution lines underground, out of sight, even where the load density is not high. De cables are cheaper and more compact than ac cables for the same power and are not so limited in the feasible distance of transmission. As Greber discerningly points out," the basic problem of ac transmission is that of inductive and capacitive reactance; the basic problem of de transmission is switching. It is the series inductive reactance of long overhead ac lines that causes the synchronous stability limit. Tt is the shunt capacitive reactance of long ac cables that overloads them with charging current. On long overhead lines, the presence of both kinds of reactance causes excessive variation of voltage with load, : Series and shunt compensation of reactance are used on Tong ac lines, but they add to the cost and complexity of such lines. Reactive compensation is ‘not required on a dc line itself, but only on the ac side of the converters. This fact gives an advantage to Tong dc fines over long. ac lines. If cheaper and36 GENERAL ASPECTS OF DC TRANSMISSION simpler means of compensation were developed, however, the economic balance between ac and de transmission would be shifted in favor of ac. ‘The switching problem on dc lines lies not only in the need for de circuit breakers but also in the converters, which are essentially a group of synchronously controlled switches. If cheaper, simpler, and more reliable switches (perhaps, solid-state devices) were developed, not only would de networks be feasible, but also the converters would be cheaper than they are now and more free from misoperations, such as arcbacks. Improved switches ‘would make the control of the reactive power of converters possible, per- ritting it to flow in or out of the converter, or neither, as desired. In addition, de transformers would be possible. They could operate on either’ of two principles. One kind would be analogous to the vibrator power supplies now used with battery-operated radios, but, of course, at a much greater power level and with the vibrator replaced by a new kind of switch. The other kind ‘would rapidly switch capacitors so as to be charged! in parallel and discharged in series for voltage step-up or, vice versa, for step-down. Thus the development of superior switches could give great impetus to de transmission. Other impending developments could alter the picture in favor of direct current. The new methods of power generation—thermoelecttic, magneto~ hydrodynamic, and by fuel cell—inherently generate direct current. There is some possibility that direct conversion from nuclear energy to HV direct current might be developed.** Cryogenic superconducting cables might ‘transmit direct current long distances at low voltage and high current with no voltage drop and no power loss except that required to remove from the ‘able the heat that leaked into it from its surroundings.*® Superconducting de generators and motors are being developed.™* ‘The future of de transmission looks bright. BIBLIOGRAPHY AL Goneral 1. Power Transmission by Direct Current, by Ya. M. Chervoneakis, Moscow, 1948, ltansated from the Russian by N. Kener and published for the National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C., by tho lsrael Program for Scientife Translation, Torasaler, 1963. Elementary and out-of date, + Refrigerate cables, either superconducting of resistive, are being actively i for ac underground transmission as wel a for de." fn inherent advantage in such cables stigated Direct curren, however has amnuocraray — 37 Direct Current, a magazine published by Direct Current, Ltd. (asubsidiaryof Garraway Ltd), Londoa, rom June 1952 to February 1967, quarterly, except from March 1961 to October 1963, when it was monthly. New series published by Pergamon, Oxford, ‘besinning in April 1969, with editorial ofice at Manchester University, Department ‘of Blecrical Engineering and Electronics. Nauchno-lesledovaelskit Institut Postoyannove oka, Azvestiya (Proceedings of the Direct Current Research Institute), Leningrad. Vol. 1 is deted 1957. Approximately ‘ene volume per year has been published since then. Contains articles on both ac and de transmission, in Russian Cited hereinafter as NEP.T. “D.C. Power Transmission,” «series of six articles published in Hlee. Jour. (London), Vols. 163 and 166 (1959-1960. art I,“ Historica! Development,” by E. Openshaw Taylor, pp. 1227-1231, Dec. 4, 1959, Part If, “Basic Principles," by B. Openshaw Taylor, pp. 22-21, Jan. 1, 1960. Part IIf, “Rectiers and Inverters,” by R. Feinberg, pp. 294-299, Jan. 23, 1960. Part IV, “Transmission Circuits,” by A. L. Williams, pp. 619-626, Mar. 4, 1960. Part V, “Operation and Control,” by Guanar Eagstrom, pp. 1048-1055, Apr. 8, 1960. ‘Part VI,“Planning and Economics,” by J. L. Egginton, pp. 1271-1280, May 6, 1960, 5. High Voltage Direct Current Power Transmission, by Colin Aésmson and N. G. Hingozani, Gorraway, London, 1960, xvi + 284 pp. High Voltage Direct Current Concertors and Systems, edited by B. J. Cory, Mac- donald, London, 1965, xii + 269 pp. Conference on High Voltage D.C. Transmission, held at Manchester, Sept, 19-23, 1966, LEE, Conference Publication 22, London, 2 pars. Part 1, Contributions, 454 pp, Part 2, Discussions, 143 pp. History “Constant Current D.C, Transmission,” by C. H. Willis, B.D, Bedford, and F, R, Elder, Elec. Fng., Vol. 54, pp. 102-108, January 1935, Disc, pp. 227-329 (March), 1447-449 (April), and 882883 (Augus). “Power Transmission by Direct Current: Apparatus Used in 3000-ko 15,000-volt, 200-amp Pamp-back Test,” by B.D. Bedford, F, R. Elder, and D. H. Willis, Gen. Elec, Rep., Vol. 39, pp. 220-224, May 1936, Tests preceding the Mechanicvlle- Schenectady experimental de transmission. “D.C, Transmission In France,” Elec. World, Vol. 106, No. 19, pp. 1341-1342, May 9, 1936, On 275-mi, 125-KV, 20-MW line from Moutiers to Lyon. “The First Power Transmission at $0 KV D.C. with Mutators” (in French), by P, Kl and J. J. Flix, Elecriié, Vol. 23, No. 58-59, pp. 237-240, July-August 1939, Baden-Zurich transmission, “The D.C. Power Transmission at the Swiss National Exhibition” (in German), by E. Kern, Bul. de Associaton Sulse des Elecriciens, Vol. 30, No. 17, pp. 481-482, ‘Aug. 18, 1939. “H.V.D.C. Transmission,” by F. Busemann, Elec, Tines, Val. 111, Nos, 2881,2883, 2885, pp. 36-40, 98-101, 169-170, Jan, 9 and 23, Feb 6 1947. Experience in Germany daring World Wer It including Charlottenburg: Moabit experimental 110-kV de transmission and Elbe-Berlin projec. English translation from German report.38 10, 2, 1 M4 15. n 18. GENERAL ASPECTS OF DC TRANSMISSION “D.C, Power Transmission Developments by the Siemens-Schuckert Concern in Germany,” by F. Busemann, BE. & ARA,, Report Z/167, Nov-24, 1947, 20 pp. em AL abow. “Origin ofthe 440 kV D.C. HLY. Transmission Line Flbe-Reelin™ (in German), by IR. Troger, ETZ, Vol. 8, pp. 261-272, August 1948. “Experience of High-Voltage Direct Curreot Transmission” (ia Russian), by A. M. Nekrasov and M, R. Sonin, Elek, Stansi, Vel. 26, No. 7, pp. 26-82, July 1985. “Kashira-Moscow experimental cable transmission. ““HLY.D.C. Transmission System"*(in Russian), by V. P, Pimenovand M.R. Sonin, Elektrichesvo, No. 1, pp. 98-99, 1955. KashiracMoscow link. “fosttute’s Activities in the Field of High-Voltage Direct Current Transmission of Energy" (ia Russian) by V.B-Pimenov, N.LLP-T., Vol. 1, pp. 7-20, 1987. Wark of of the Insitute of DC Transmission, “ Results ofthe Operation ofthe Experimental Industrial Direct Curtent Transmission Line, KashirseMoscow” (ia Russian), by M.R. Sonin, N.LLP.T. Vol. 2, pp. 5-21, 1957, Report of operating problems, December 1950 to May 1956. “The Work of the Direct Current Institute," by V, P. Pimenov, Direct Current, Vol. 3, No. 6, pp. 185-191, September 1957. Translated from N.LLP.T., Vol. 1 DC Transmission: An American Viewpoint," by G. D. Breuer, M. M. Morack, LW. Morton, and C. A. Woodrow, LEE. Trans., Vol. 78, Part 3A, pp. 504-512, ‘August 1959, Biss, pp. 512-515. Includes information on Mechenicville Schenectady Tink “ work Done inthe Soviet Union on High-Voltage Long-Distance D-C Power Trans- mission,” by A. M. Nekrasoy and A. V. Posse, A.LE.E, Trans. Vol. 78 Part 3A, pp. 315-521, August 1959. Disc, pp. 821-522. Kashira- Moscow experimental tans- Iission, development work and plans for the Stalingrad-Donbass line. “D.C, Power Transmission,” Part I of item AA above. “The History of D.C, Transmission,” in Direet Current: Part I, Vol. 6 pp. 260-263, December 1961. Part If, Vol. 7, pp. 60-63, March 1962. Part I, Vol. 7, pp. 228-231 and 250, September 1962. Part IV, Vol. 8, p. 2-§ and 21, Janvary 1983. Part V, Vol. 8, pp. 88-93 and 115, April 1963. Includes a bibliography of 160 entries. “Development of High Voltage D.C. Transmission st Siemens Schuckertwerke ‘up to 1945” Gin German), by M. Bosch and O, Schiele, Siemens Zeitschrift, Vol. 40, pp. 672-681, September 1966. Comparison Betwoen AC and DC Transmission “Comparison of Transazission Costs for High-Voltage AC and DC Power Trans- mission in Japan,” by Sadao Saeki, Appendix II to “Report on the Work of the Study Committee No, 0; D.C. Transmission at EALV:,” C.LG.R.E., 1956, Paper 507. Comparison of Transmission Cosis for High Voltage A.C. and D.C. Systems” (presented in the name of Study Committee No. 10, D.C. Transmission Lines at ELV), by F. J, Lane, Bo G. Rathsman, U. Lamm, and K.8, Smedselt, CLO.RE 1956, Paper No. 417, 25 pp. BIBLIOGRAPHY 39 Comparison of Direct and Alternating Current for High-Voltage Electric Power Trans- mission, Edison Plectrc Intitae Publication No. 62-901, 1962. “High-Voltage DC Transmission," Advisory Committee Report No. 20, published ‘on pp. 289-313 of Narional Power Survey, a eport by the Federal Power Commission, part TI, “Advisory Reports,” US. Government Printing Office, Washington, ‘October 1964. “Cost of Electrical Energy Transmission by AC and DC Extra High Voltage,” ‘Advisory Committee Report No. 16, pp. 189-203, loc. cit High Capacity D.C. Transmission in the USSR." by A. Beckovski, N. Choupra- ov, T. lzailevich, A. Kolpakova, and 8. Rokotyan, LE.E, Conference Publication 2, HVDC. Transmission, Manchester, Sept. 19-23, 1966, Part 2, Raper No. 94, pp. 126-129, Also in Direct Current, Vol. !1, pp. 148-148, November 1966. “A Techical and Economic Comparison between A.C. and D.C. Transmission,” by W, Casson, CLG.RE., 1968, Report 42/43-01, 42 pp. ‘Special Problems of AC Transmission “On Normal Working Conditions of Compensated Lines with Half-Wave Chara teristics” (in Russian), by A.A. Wolf and O. V. Shcherbachev, Blektrichesteo, No. 1, pp. 57-60, 1940. Charging Current Limitations in Operation of High-voltage Cable Lines,” by C. 8. Schiffeen and W. C. Marble, A.LE.E. Trans, Vol. 15, Part 3, pp. 803-812, October 1956, Dise, pp. 813-817. “Long Cable Linos—Alternating Current with Reactor Compensation for Direct Current,” by J. J. Dougherty and C. 8, Schifteen, ALE. Trans, Vol. 81, Part 3, ‘pp. 169178, Yuno 1962. Dise., pp. 179-182. “EHY AC Transmission Line Compensation,” Advisory Committee Report No. 14, ‘prepared by # subcommittee of the Transmission and Trtereonnestion Speciah Tech: rial Committe, July 1963, published on pp. 141-172 of National Power Survey, ‘4 report by the Federal Power Commission, Past Il, “Advisory Reports,” US. Government Printing Offic, Washington, October 1964 ““Hal-Wavelength Power Transmission Lines,” by F. J. Hubert and M. R. Gent, LE.E.E, Spectrum, Vol. 2, pp. 87-92, Januiry 1965. Also in LEE. Trans. o PA. &5., Vel. 84, pp. 965-974, October 1965. “Analysis of Naturel Half Wave-Length Power ‘Transmission Lines,” by F. S. Prabhalcare, K, Parthasarathy, and #1. N. Ramachandra Rao, IEEE. Trans. on B.A. dS, Vol. 88, pp. 1787-1794, December 1969. Dise., p. 1794. “Performance of Tuned Half-Wave-Length Poster Transmission Lines,” by authors ‘of ast tem, ibid, pp. 1795-1800. Diss, pp. 1800-1802. ature Prospects for DC Transmission “Foreword,” by Max Hoyaus, Direct Current, Vol.2, pp. 133-134, September 1958. ‘an ‘Atomic Battery’: Disest Conversion from Atomic Radiation to Electrical Engerey,” ibid, pp. 135-137, “Applications of Superconductvity to the Generation and Distribution of Electric Power” by Richard McFee, Elec. Eng., Vol. 81, pp. 122-129, February 1962. Superconductors, heat insulation, transformers, cables, generators and motors, fuse, circuit breakers, rectifiers, and refrigeration40 10, nL 2 8. 4 is. GENERAL ASPECTS OF DC TRANSMISSION “uture Developments in HLV.D.C,"” letter to the editor of Direct Current from Henry Greber, published in Vol. 9, inside front cover, August 1964. “Superconducting DC Generaiors and Motors,” by David L. Atherton, LE.F.E, ‘Spectrum, Nol. 1, pp. 67-11, Devember 1964, “Survey of MHD Research,” intcodaced by M. W. Thring, Direct Curent, Vo. 10, No. 1, pp. 40-89, February 1965, Survey of research in Britain, Australia, United States; France, Japan, Switzerland, Sweden, and Poland on magnetohydrodynamics. “Future Possibilities of H.V.D.C..” by J. H. M. Sykes, Chapter 10 of Cory, Ret. AG above, 196. “Superconducting Power Transmission May Be a Reality Within Ten Years,” by ‘D. Atherton, Elee. News and Engg. (Don Mills, Ontario), Vol. 74, No. Il, pp. 32-85, ‘November 1965, “Prospect of Fropioying Conductors at Low Temperature in Power Cables anc in Power Tansformers," by K. J. R. Wilkinson, LEE, Proc., Vol. 113, No.9, pp. 1500— 1321, Sepiomber 1966, Dise., Vol. 114, No. 12, pp. 1892-1858, Dovember 1967. Entimate of power saved if the conductor in a TOMVA, 275KV ac cable were, flternatively, nisbium at 4°K, skuminum at 20°K, or beryliom at 77°K. Summary of this paper and of discassion of iia Ele. Times, Vol. 151, No. $, pp. 165-170, Feb. 2, 1967, under the ttle, "Prospect for Low Temperature Transmission.” “Superconducting Lines forthe Transmission of Large Amounts of Flectrical Power over Great Distances,” by R. L. Garwin and J. Matisoo, LEE. Proc. Vol $5, No. 4, pp. 538-545, April 1967. Preliminary design of 1000-km, 100-GW, 200:KV, 500:KA, de line with NbsSn conductors refrigerated to 4°K. Superconducting Power Cables,” by D. R. Edwards and R. J. Slaughter, Elec. ‘Times, Vol. 152, No. 5, pp. 166-169, Aug. 3, 1967. Includes summary of historical evelopment. “Design for 2750 MVA Superconducting Power Cable,” by EC. Rogersand D.R. Edwards, Elec. Reo, Vol. 181, No. 10, pp. 348-351, Sept. 8, 1967. Study made by BICC. for CEG.B, on design of three-phase, 334V, 13-KA, superconducting ‘able, Conductors of 0.0025-cm niobium foil on 0.25em aluminum tubing, vacuum diojectric, and liquid helium coolant. “Cryogenic Power Transmission,” by S. H. Minnich and G. R, Fox, Cryogenics, ‘VoL.5, No- 3, pp. 165-176, June 1969, Based on studies by General Electric Company for Edison Elecsi Institute and Tonnessee Valley Authority. Considers both resi five cryogenic cable with stranded eluminum conductors in liquid nitrogen or hydrogen and superconducting cable with nichiom-coated tubes in liquid helium, specially for three-phase ac. “Low Temperatures and Electric Power,” by B. 5. Maddock, W. T. Norris, D. A. ‘Swift and M. T. Taylor, Cryozenis, Vol. 8, No.4, pp. 291-297, August 1969. Report On a conference organized by the LEE, and beld in London on March 24-26, 196. {Eiacluded papers on electric power systems, refrigeration, conductor materials, dilee- tics, generators and motors, transformer, cables, energy storage, and transportation. “reach Develop Modular HVDC Thytistor Valve,” Elec. Res, Vol. 185, No. 22, ‘pp. 190-791, Nov. 28, 969, News item on research at C.G.E.’s Marcoussis Laboratory, tihich includes work on low-temperature cables. “Economics of Underground Transmission with Cryogenic Cables" by Peter Grancau, LEE, Trane. on P.A. & S., Vol. 89, pp. 1-7, January 1970. Disc, Pp- 4-16. The cryogenic ac transmission lines, cooled, respectively, by liquid nitrogen, 16. KR pmuiocraPHy 41 hydrogen, and helium, are compared with one another and with conventional pipe- ‘ype cable. The nitrogon-cooled cable is found to be the most economical “Beonomic Assessment of a Liquid-Nitrogen-Cooled Cable,” by 8. B. Afshartous, Peter Graneau, and John Jeanmonod, LEE. Trans. on P.A. & S., Vol. §9, DP. 8-13, January 1970, Disc, pp. 14-16. Cable of tubular aluminum conductors cooled internally by iquid nitrogen and supported by dielectric spacers in high-voltage vacuum Insulation Bibliographies “Direct Current Bibliography," Direct Current, Vol. 1, pp. 50-52, September 1952, Covers years 1943 to 1952, Vol. I, p. 97, March 1953, covers rest of 1952. ‘An Amotated Bibliography of High Voltage Dirgct Current Transmssion, 1932-1962, Compiled by Erie Bromberg, J.EE.E. Paper CP 63-388, January 1963. Also in D-C Transmission, Publication $-185, pp. 76-214, LEEE., June 1963, ‘An Annotated Bibliography of High Voltage Direct Current Transmission, 1963-1963, Complied by Eric Bromberg, LE.EE. Publication 31 $ 60, i+ 113 pp. LEBE., New York, 1967. High Voltage Direet Current Tronsmission: An Annotated Billagraphy, 1966-68, com= piled by Val 8, Lava, published by the Library, Bonneville Power Administration, Portland, Oregon, December 1968, ii + 90 pp. Gotland Link “The High Voltage D.C. Power Transmission from the Swedish Mainland to the ‘Swedish Island of Gotland,” by Ake Rusck, B. G. Rathsman, and U, Glimsted, CLGRE, Report 406, 1950, “D.C. Transmission from Swedish Mainland to Island of Gotland, ty A. Rusck, B.G. Ratheman, and U. Glimstedt, Enginer, Vol. 190, No. 4931, pp. 92-95, July 28, 1950, “High-Voltage D.C, Power Transmission—Pioneer Projec,” by U. Lamm, ASEA Journal, Vol. 23, No. 12, pp. 472-114, December 1980. Submarine Cable Project Will Operate at 100 kV D.C.,” by B.G. Rathsman, Eleciric Light ancl Power, Vol. 28, No. 8, pp. 108-109, August 1951. “Gotland HLV.D.C. Link: Preseat Progress" by B. G. Rathsman and U. Lamm, Direct Current, Vol 1, po. 2-6, June 1952, “Gotland D.C. Link: Layout of Plant,” by 1. Lidén, Sy Sviden and . Uhimann, Direct Current, Vol, 2, pp. 2-7, Jane, and pp. 34-39, September 1954 “The Fist High Voltage D.C. Transmission wigh Static Converters: Sooe Notes on, the Development,” by U. Lamm, ASEA Journal, Vol. 27, No. 10, pp. 139-140, ‘October 1954, * The Gotland D.C. Link: The Layout of the Plant" by I. Lidén ‘and F. Unimann, pp. 141-154, “The D.C, Transmission to Gotland: Initial Experience,” by S. Ekefalk, ASEA Journal, No. 10, pp. 123-126, 1956. nglish Channel Link The Possibilities of a Crose-Channel Power Link between the British and French42. GENERAL ASPECTS OF DC TRANSMISSION Supply Systems,” by D. P. Sayers, M, E, Laborde, and F. J. Lane, LEE. Proe., Val. 10}, Past 1, pp. 284-291, September 1954, Disc. pp. 297-308, 12, “English Channel: Channel Cabie." by JH M. Sykes, Engineer (London), Vol. 202, No. 5253, pp. 433-424, Sept. 28, 1956. ‘The Design of the D.C. Connection across the English Channel,” by L. Lidén, [ASEA Jounal, Vol. 36, No. 6, pp. 70-74, 1958. 4. "The High Voltege D.C, Transmission Scheme across the English Channel,” by 1. Lidén, ASEA Journal, Vol. 38, No. 7-8, pp. 124-126, 1960. 5, “The Cross-Channel Cable: A Preliminary Survey,” by the editor, Direct Current, Vol. 6, No. 4, pp. 97-109, Jly 1961. 6 “D.C. Channel Link: Lydd Operational,” Elee. Mines, Vol. 140, No, 23, pp. 45-848, Dec. 7, 1961. 7, “Anglo-French Power Link,” Frgineer, Vol 212, pp. 950-953, Dec. 8, 1961 8. “Cross Channel Power Link,” Blee, Ree. (London), Vol. 1, no. 23, pp. 907-912, Dee. 8, 1961 9. “Some Problems in Connection with the Commissioning of the Lydd Converter Station,” by 1, C8uros and G. S. HE, Jarrett, Direet Current, Vo. 7, No. 5, pp. + 121, May 1962 10, “Operational Prformance of the Direct Current Cross Chan Link,” by J. Maaval J. Clade, L. Cratos, and G. S. H, Jarrett, CLO.RE, 1964, Paper No. 417, 11 pp. land folded chart. 11, * Some Design Aspects of the Crose-Channel Power Link,” by L-A. Harris, Chapter 8 of Cory, Ref. A6, 1965 12, “The Performance of the Lydd Convertor of the Cross Channel Connection,” by G_S-H, Tarvelt and L. Csuros, LE.E, Conference Publication 22, H.7-D.C. Trans- mission, bald at Manchester on Sept. 19-23, 1966, Part 1, Paper No. 2, pp. 17-20 and folded sheet, 13, “Special Operational Tests on the Cross Channel Connection,” by J. Cladé, RM H Middleton, and ©. Ublmann, ibid, Paper No. 3, pp. 21-25. Transient conditions, such fas starting, blocking, emergency power reversal and ac faults 14,“ Secvice Experience withthe Anglo-French D.C. Cross Channel Cable,” by P, Four- eade and C. C. Barnes, tid, Paper No. 4, pp. 25-29. 1. Volgogead-Donbass Link 1. “D.C. Transmission from Sialingrad Hydro-cectrie Station to Donbass" (in Rus sian), by V.P-Pimenoy, A.V, Pose, A. M. Reider, S.8, Roketisn, and V. E. Turesk ‘Fiektricheskie Stantli, No. 11, 1956, pp. 12-18. 2. “Transmission of Direct Current at High Voltage according to Present-Day Concepts ‘and the Prospects for Theit Application in the USSR.” Ga Russist), by N. M. Mel'gunov, NLP. Vol. 1, pp. 21-38, 1957. 43, “The Transmission System Stalingrad Hydro electric Station, Donbass”(in Russitn), by ES. Grois, M.L. Zelikin, V.E, Turetskii,and , A. Man’kin, Blokiickesto, Vol 7, No. 9, pp. 1-10 September 1957. “Design Features of Stalingrad-Donbass 800 kV D.C. Line,” by F. 1. Butaev, E, S- Gren EK. Levies, EA. Man'kin, A. V. Posse, A. A. Sakoviteh, ond V. E. Juretaki, Direct Current, Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 59-66, September 1958. amuiccrarny 43 5, “800 kV D.C, Transmission System Stalingrad-Donbass,” by E: 8. Groiss, A. V. Posse, and V. E. Toure, CLC.RE., 1960, Paper No. 414, 17 pp. 6. “800 kv D.C. Transmission Systom Stalingrad-Dontass,” by E.S. Grois, A. V. Posse, and V.E. Tarelskii, Engineer, Vol. 210, No, 3450, pp. 66-68, July 8, 1960, Based on CLG.RE, paper. 1. “Some Problems ofthe Operation of the D.C. Transmission Line, Stalingrad Hydro- clecite Station to Dontass” (in Russian), by'N.M. Mef'gunov and V. M. Kviatkovskii, Elekirichestco, No. 3, 1961, pp. 1-17. 8. “The Initial Operating Stage of the Voleograd-Donbass D.C. Transmissi ES. Grois, NILP.T:, No. 9, pp. 5-28, 1962 9, “Initia! Period of Operation of the D.C. Transmission Line between Volgograd and Donbass,” by N. Chuprekov, A. Milutin, A. Posse, and Y. Shashmurin, LE.E. Conference Publication No, 22, H.V.D.C. Transmision, Manchester, Sept. 19-23, 1966, Patt 2, Panes No. 93, pp: 120-125. Algo in Direct Current, Vol. 11, No. 4, pp. 142-145 and 148, November 1966. 10. “Operation ofthe Control and Protection System of the Volgograd-Donbas Link,” by K. Gusakorsky, A. Posse, and A. Reider, LEE. Conference Publication No. 22, ‘id, Part 2, Paper No. 95, pp. 130-135. 11. “Operating Experieoce of the Volgograd-Donbass D.C. Transmission Line and Its Applications to Extra High Voltage D.C. High Capacity Transmission," by A. M. Borkowski, F.1. Butaev, ES. Grols, A. V. Posse, S. S. Rokotyan, and P.-E, Saudler, CLGRE, Report 43.67, 1968, 7 pp. by J. New Zealand Link 1. “Report on the Possibilities of Inlerconnecting the Islands of New Zealand,” by FJ. Lane, Direet Current, Vol. 5, pp. 12-24, June 1960, 2. “The HLV.D.C. Interconnection between the Islands of New Zealand,” Direct Current, Vol. 7, pp. 32-38, February 1962. ‘The following séries of papers (ems 3 to 17) was published in New Zealand Engineering, the journal of the N.Z, Institution of Engineers, Wellington, 1965 to 1966: 3, “Beonomie Aspects ofthe Inter island Transmission Sehieme,” editorial by E. B. M., Vol. 20, No. 6, p. 211, Sune 1965. 4. “ASigaifcant Achievement,” by P, W. Blakely, Vol.20, No. 7, pp. 255-256, July 1965. 5. “Main Generating and Electrical Equipment of Benmore Power Station,” by H.C. Hitchcock, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 3-13, January 1965. (6 “A Direct Current Transmission Line: The Design and Construction of the 600 MW, 500 kV de. Line Between Benmore and Haywards.” by T. A. J. Dickens, Vol20, No. 4, pp. 121-129, April 1965, \ 1, “The Besnoro Land Electrode,” by D. G. Dell, Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 165-175, May r “The North Island Sea Electrode,” by D. G. Dell, Vol:20, No. 6, pp. 1965, 9. “General Layout ofthe Haywards Terminal,” by R. J. Fyfe, Vol. 20, No, 8, pp. 303- 310, August 1965. 10. “Outdoor Direct Current Equipment at the Haywards Terminal," by J. Noble, ‘Vol, 20, No. 9, 345-354, September 1965, 13-222, June44 GENERAL ASPECTS OF DC TRANSMISSION 11, “Valves, Valve House, and Indoor Equipment atthe Converter Stations,” by M. A. Louden, Vol. 20, No. 10, pp. 383-402, October 1965. 12, “Layout of the Direct Current Switehyards,” by D. G. Young, Vol. 20, No. 11, pp. 472-418, November 1965. 13, Hlarmonie Phomenena,” by G, H, Robinson, Vol.21,No. pp. 16-29, January 1966, 14, “Synchronous Condenser Installation at Haywards Substation,” by L.S. Y. Goek, Vel. 21, No. 1, pp. 29-35, January 1966. 15, “Power Line Currier Communications,” by F. R. Swan, Vel. 21, No. 2, pp. 45-55, February 1966 16. “Commissioning and Early Operating Experience,” by H.R. Guna, Vol 21, No. 3, pp. 93-101, March 1966. 17. “The +250 KV dc. Submarine Power-Cable Interconnection,” by A. L. Williams, E. L, Davey, and J. N. Gibson, Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 145-160, April 1966. Also published in LEE. Proc., Vol. 113, No. 1, pp. 121-133, January 1966, 18. “The New Zealand 500 kV Tligh-Voltage Direet-Current Project,” by P. W. Blakely, Amer. Power Conf. Proc., Vol. 28, pp. 830-859, Aprit 1966. ‘The following papers are from LEE. Conference Publication 22, Conference on High Voltage D.C. Transmission, Sept. 19-23, 1966, Manchester, Patt 1: 19. “Commissioning. and Early Opecating Experience with the New Zealand HVDC Inter-bland Transmission Scheme,” by HL. R. Gunn, Paper No. 5, pp. 30-38 20, “Benmore Power Station: Special Features for H.V:D.C. Transmission,” by H. itcheock, Paper No. 19, pp. 10-103. 21, “The Synchronous Condenser Installation at Haywards Substation forthe Benmore- Haywards H.V.D.C, Transmission Scheme,” by L. S. ¥. Gock, Paper No. 52, pp. 265-267, ‘Communications (Power Line Carrier Systems) pp. 306-311. “The Cook Strait 250-KV Cables,” by E. L. Davey, Paper No. 64 pp. 312-314, “A Direct Current Transmission Line: The Design and Construction of the 600 MW, 500 LV D.C. Line Between Benmore and Haywards,” by T, A. J, Dickens, Peper No. 72, pp. 343-346, 25, “Some Features of Now Zesland’s Interisland H.V.D.C, Transmission,” by R. J. Fyfe, M. A. Louden, J. Noble, and D. G, Young, Paper No, 78, pp. 375-38. 26, “The Benmore Land Electrodes for the Benmore-Haywards H.Y.D.C. Transmission Scheme,” by D. G. Dell, Paper No. £2, pp. 15-418, "The Nort Island Sea Electrode forthe Benmore-Haywards H.V.D.C. Transmission Scheme,” by D. G. Dell, Paper No. 85, pp. 427-430. 28, “Experience with Harmonies—New Zealand HLV.D.C. Transmission Scheme,” by G_HI. Robinson, Paper No. 89, pp. 442-444. 29, “Operational Experience of the Benmore-Haywardls HVDC Transmission Scheme,” by MT. O'BHen, CLER-E, report 14.03, 1970, 11 pp. " by F, R, Snan, Paper No. 63, RB 2m, K.Kontlskan Link 1. “The Conti-Skan HYDC Projed,.” by G. von Geijr, 8, Smedselt, and L, Ablgren, LEE, Conference Paper CP 63-1056, January 196. | BIBLIOGRAPHY 45 2, “The KontisSkan Project," by G. von Geller, Direet Current. Val. 8, pp. 149-51, June 1963, 3. "The Konti-Skan HLV-D.. Project," by G. von Geljer, 8. Smedefelt, L. Ahlgten, and E, Andersen, C1.G.R-E, 1964, Paper No, 408, 45 pp. Divect Current, Vol. 10, pp. 10-12, February 1965. Unsigned news article, 5. “Operational Performance and Service Experience with the KontiSkan and Gotland HDC. Projets,” by S, Smedsfet, L. Ablgten, and V. Mets, LEE. Conference Publication 22, H.V.D.C. Transmission, beld at Manchester, Sept. 19-23, 1966, Part 1, Paper No. 1, pp. 11-16 1. Sardinia Link ‘Unsigned news articles: 1. Direct Current, Vol, 10, No. 1, pp. 13-14, February 1968 2. Ele. Engineer (Australia), Vol. 44, No. 6, p. 25, Juno 1967, 3, Elec Times, Vol. 151, pp. 257-258, Feb, 16, 1967 4, Elec, World, Vol. 167, p. 21, Mar. 27, 1967. 5. Trans. and Dist, Vol. 19, No.4, p. 32, Apeil 1967 6, Elec, News and Engg. (Don Mis, Ont), Vol. 76, No. 4, p. 28, April 1967. 7. ©The Sardinian-tallan Mainland H.V.D.C. Interconnection,” by M. Natale, F. J, Lane, and T. E. Calverley, LE.E. Conference Proe. 22, H.V.D.C. Transmission, held ‘at Manchester on Sept. 19-23, 1966 Part I, Paper No. 7, pp. 42-49. 8. “Testing and Operating Experience on the Serdini-ttalian Mainland D.C. Link,” by Y¥. Cialiela, P. Gratarola, A, Tasehini, C.J. B. Martin, ené D. B, Willis, CLG.RE., 1968, Paper 43.09, 21 pp. ‘Vancouver Istand Link (Beidsh Colombia) Unsigned nows articles: Direct Current, Vol. 10, No.1, p. 7, Febroaty 1965. ASEA Journal, Vol. 38, No. 10-12, pp. 165-165, 1965. Elec. News and Enga. (Don Mills, Ontario), Vol. 16, No. 6, pp. 56-57, June 1961 Else, World, Vol, 170, No.4, p. 18, July 22, 1968, ‘The Engineer, Vol. 25, No. SETI, p. 161, Aug. 2, 1968, “D.C. “First Provides Power forthe Future,” by P. J, Croft, British Columbia Hydro land Power Aithority, Progress, Suramer 1961, pp. 8-10 7. Major Features of the Vancounver [land 3:260kV HVDC Submarine Link,” by . M. Els and W. Chin, Amer. Power Cot. Pro, Nol. 30, pp. 1017-103, Apt I 8. Vancouver Island HYDC Transmission," by Gordon H. Dunn and Lars A. Berg stim, ASEA Journal, Vol. 42, No.2-3, pp. 29-31, 1969, N. Pacific Northwest Southwest Intertie 1, "Task Forwe Backs 4375 kV D.C. for BPA-Califomnia Tie,” Elee. World, Vol. 156, No. 26, pp. 34-36, Dee. 25, 1961.46 GENERAL. ASPECTS OF DG TRANSMISSION 2, “Layout Arrangements for EHV D-C Transmission Terminals,” by E. M. Hunter and W. E. Matson, Amer, Power Conf. Proe., Vol. 28, pp. 860-867, April 1966. Califo terminal at The Dalles, Oregon. 3. “Design of the Colio-Sylmar 800-EV DC Line (BPA Section)” by R. F. Stevens, LEE. Conf, Publication 22, H.Y-D.C. Transmission, Manchester, Sept. 19-23, 1966, Part i, Paper No. 74, pp. 354-358, Also LEE. Trans, on P.A, & S., Vol. 86,N0. 7, pp. 916-920, July, 1967, Diss, pp. 921-922. 4. The Celilo (The Dalles) Convertor Station for the Pacific H.V.D.C. Inertie.” by G.D. Breuer, E, M. Hunter, P, G. Engstrim, and R, F, Stevens, sbi, Paper No. 80, pp. 394-402. ‘Technology and Economics of EHV D.C. with Application to PNW-PSW Inert,” by R.J. Mather and E. F, Weitzel, Bonneville Power Administration report, presented at the symposium of the Assa. of Amer, Railroads, Deaver, Nov. 15-16, 1966, “The Paifie Northwest-Paciic Southwest Intertie,” by BV. Lindseth, Civil Engo.. Val. 36, No. 12, pp. 46-47, December 1966. 7. “Long Distance Transmission of H.V.D.C. in Western U.S.A.” (in German), by H. Domme!, SEV. Bul, (Switzerland), Vol. $8, pp. 60-68, Jan 21, 1967 8, “Reclamation’s Mead Substation,” by N. B. Beniett, Sr, Power Engg. Vol. 72, [No.1, pp. 22-35, January 1968, Southern terminal of second de intertie near Hoover Dain. 9. “Some Design Considerations of the Celilo-Sylmar 800 KV D-C Line (Los Angeles Department of Water and Power Section)" by L. L. Burnside and W. M. Mahones, Western Water & Power Syriposlum Proc, Los Angeles, Apr. 8-2, 1968, pp. D28-33, 10, 800 kV DC Transmission Lines of the Bonneville Power Administration,” by 8. A. ‘Annesitand, E. J. Harrington, M.N. Marjerrison, and R. F. Stevens, Western Water & Power Symposium Proc, Los Angeles, Apr. 8-9, 1968, pp. D35-52 11, “Final Design Criteria Established for E-H.V. D.C. Transmission Line and Terminal Faelltos," by J, L. Mulloy and Edward York, 3, Amer. Power Conf. Proc., Vol. 30, pp. 1035-1044, Chicago, April 1968. 0, Kingsnorth Link Unsigned news articles: Engineering, Vol. 201, p. 484, Mar. 11, 1966. Bee, Re., Vol. 178, No. 10, pp. 378-379, Mar. 1, 1966. Elec, World, Vol. 168, No. 15, pp. 19-20, Apr. 11, 1986, Direct Current, Vol. 11, : 53, May 1966, Englth Electr Jou, Vol.21, No.3, pp. 2-3, May-Sune 1966. lee, Times, Vol. 49, No. 10, pp. 361-362, Mar. 10, 1966. lec. Times, Vol. 150, p. 419, Sept. 29. 1966. “Kingsnorth-London D.C. Transmission Interoonnector,” by W. Casson, LEE. Conference Publication 22, High Voltage DC Transmission, Manchester, Sept. 19-23, 1966, Past 1, Paper No. 9, pp. 56-57. 9, “The Kingsnorth, Reddington, Willesden D.C. Link” by T, E. Calverley, F. Last, A. Gavrilovig, and C. W. Mott, CLG.RE., Report 43-04, 1968, 14 pp. erecta aad oe rR L ‘Yamada, Appendis I to “Report on the Work of the Study Commitice No. 10: D. pipuiocraPHY 47 [Nelson River, Manitoba ‘The 4.480 KV Direct Current Transmission System for the Nelson River Project,” by L.A. Bateraa, LS. Butler, and RW. Haywood, C/.G.R.E, Report 43-02, 1966, 9 pp. “The Nelton River Transmission Systom,”" by E, M. Seott, Trans, Canadian Elec. Asin, Vol. 6, Part 2, Paper No. 67-SP 131, Mar. 21,1967, 16 pp. “The Selection of 480k HVDC Transmission for the Nelson River,” by E. M. Scott, American Power Conference Proc, Vol. 29, pp. 966-977, Chicago, April 1967. Absitacted in Ble, Ret., Vol. 180, pp. 711-712, May 12, 1967. "Why 4:450-kV H.V.D.C. Was Selected for the Nelson River Transmission Medium, bby E. M, Scott, Elec. News and Engg, Vol. 6, No. 6, pp. 50-85, Sune 1967 “Boglish Electric Wine Nelson River Contract,” Hlee. Reo. (London), Vol. 181, No.7, p. 229, Aug. 18, 1967. “The -£450V Ditect Current Transmission System for the Nelson River Project." by L. A. Bateman, R. W. Haywood, and L. S. Buller, CLG.RE., Report 43-02, 1968, 9 pp. “Manitoba's Kettle Simmers Yesr "Round," Engg. News Record, Vol. 181, No. 7, pp. 34-36, 4, Aug. 15, 1967 “Nelson River D.C. Transmission Project,” by L. A. Bateman, R. W. Haywood, and RF, Brooks, LEEE. Trans. on P.A. & S., Vol. 88, pp. 688-693, May 1969. Disc, Dp. 693-694, Also in LEE. Publ. 68 CS7-PWR, October 1968, ‘Miscellancous Projects ‘The Exploitations of Yugoslav Water Resources and the Possibility of Using HVDC, Transmission,” by HT. von Bertele, Direct Curren, Vol. 2, No. 5, pp. 107~ 103, June 1955, “The Present Status of High-Voltage D.C. Power Transmission in Japan,” by Naohs ‘Transmission at EHLY.,” C.LO.RLE., 1956, Paper No. 407, pp. 2-7. “Eleetrio Power Transmission by HLV.D.C. Submarine Cebles across the Adriatic Sea from Yugoslavia to Southern Italy.” by M. Visentini, A. Asta, and P.Trimani, CLG.RE., Report 210, 1958, Vol. 2, 22 pp. ‘The Introduction of H.V.D.C. Transmission into 2 Predominantly A.C. Network,” bby W. Casson, F. H. Last, and K. W. Huddart, Elec, Re, Vol. 178, No. 8, pp. 290- 295, Feb. 25, 1966. "The Economics of D.C. Transmission Applied to an Interconnected System,” by W. Casson, F. H. Last, and K. W. Huddart, LE.E, Conf. Publiation 22, #.¥.D.C. ‘Transmission, Manchester, Sept. 19-23, 1965, Parti, Peper No. 13, pp. 75-83, Rein- forcement of an ac system with de Tinks which do not increase required circut-breaker {interrupting ratios. “High Capacity D.C. Transmission inthe U.S.8.R.,” by A. Berkovsky, N. Choupra- koy, T. lzallevieh, A. Kolpakova, and S. Rokotjan, iid, Part 2, Paper No. 94, pp. 126-128, “Introductory Lecture,” by F. J. Lane, #bid, Patt 2, pp. 7-25. Deseribos proposed ttansmission of 4500 MW by -£500-KV de from Churchill Falls, Labrador, o Boston and New York, US.A.. by the Atlantic route, comprising 1575 miles of land line and 92 miles of submarine cable.48 1. GENERAL ASPECTS OF DC TRANSMISSION Scale ea gee widest cece Fa Ee or eee eee ae se gar Mas Be A a tet Dm Sey sae i eee woe : tence att pate tone SR ee ener ‘Studies ofthe DC Alternative for Power Transfer fr ow tl ECO UA PSUS erat te See ea fa ee aiged et hotter a 2 Converter Circuits It was indicated in Chapter 1 that the best kind of valve for use in the converters for iy de transmission is the mercury-are valve with control grid, In this chapter we examine various ways in which groups of such valves and transformers can be connected to form a converter, and we determine’ which Of several possible circuits is best for HY de transmission, 21 VALVE CHARACTERISTIC The symbol for a controlled mercury-are valve is shown in Figure 1a, Symbols for uncontrolled and controlled valves of any type (mercury-are of solid-state) are shown in Figures 16 and c, respectively, Votage > Current currant Redes cathode a epee Votoge Wt at, Envelope ae “Aree a=} Contvel grid o ‘ourent ‘cathode iinaree Contr i or gate) ‘Corent co fo o @ Fig. 1. (@) Symbol for mercary-are valve with control grid; (b) symbol for any uncoa- tolled valve; (@) symbol for any controlled vale; (d) idealized valve characters 4950 CONVERTER CIRCUITS ‘A valve normally conducts in only one direction, from anode to cathode; and while it is conducting there is a small drop of voltage across it. Such current and voltage are in the forward direction and are taken as positive. ‘The forward voltage drop in a mercury-are valve is in the range of 20 to 50 V, the higher values (40 to 50 V) pertaining to nv valves. Barring abnormal operation (arcbacks), the valve can sustain a comparatively high voltage i the negative or inverse direction without conducting, except for a negligible leakage current (milliamperes). ‘The rated current for valves for nv de may be hundreds or thousands of amperes, and the rated peak inverse voltage, 50 to 150 kV. In comparison, the inverse leakage current and the forward voltage drop are negligible. Hence the idealized voltage-current characteristic of a diode, shown by the solid heavy line in Figure 1d, is adequate. It consists of two half-axes 1, Positive (forward) current at zero voltage 2. Negative (inverse) voltage at zero current Ina valve having a controf grid at a sufficiently negative voltage with respect to the cathode, the current is prevented from starting, although the anode may be positive, The valve may then operate on the branch shown 28 ‘broken heavy line in Figure td In this chapter, valves are assumed to have no control grids, from which it follows that the converters operate only as rectifiers with no ignition delay. This mode of operation affords a comparison of the various converter circuits that is valid also for rectifier and inverter operation with grid control. Tt follows from the characteristics of uncontrolled valves that (1) if the cathodes of sovoral valves are connected together, the common potential of these cathodes is equal to that of the most positive anode, and (2) if the anodes of several valves aze connected together, the common potential of these anodes is equal to that of the most negative cathode. 22 PROPERTIES OF CONVERTER CIRCUITS For each cireuit considered, we find the wave forms of the voltages and currents and their magnitudes in terms of the direct voltage V, and direct ‘current ,. From these data we find the required volt-ampere ratings of valves and transformers in terms of the de power Py = Vala. ‘The volt-ampere rating of @ valve is taken as the product of its average current and its peak inverse voltage (PIV), and the rating of a transformer ‘winding is the product of its rms voltage and rms current. 2-4 SINGLE-PHASE CONVERTERS SI 23 ASSUMPTIONS In addition to idealizing the valves, we idealize the ac source, the transformer, and the de sink (load), as follows: The ac source has no impedance and delivers constant voltage of sinu- soidat wave form and constant frequency. If polyphase, it delivers balanced voltages. ‘The transformers have no leakage impedance nor exciting admittance. ‘The do load has infinite inductance, ftom which it follows that the direct ‘current is constant, that is free from ripple. This assumption is justified by the fact that nv de converters have large de smoothing reactors (about 1H), and it is reasonably accurate for converters having six or more pulses per cycle, as those used for iv de transmission have, although it is a poor assumption for single-phase converters. Although the current is assumed free fcom tipple, the direct voliage on the valve side of the smoothing reactor has ripple. The de load is shown on our circuit diagrams as a reacto series with an EME of constant voltage, which is equal to the average value of the ripply voltage on the valve side of the reactor. 24 SINGLE-PHASE CONVERTERS. Halfewave Rectifier This is the simplest rectifier, having only one valve (Figure 2). The current is inherently intermittent, and therefore the circuit cannot be analyzed in Tt ig. 2. Halfsvave rectifier circuit accordance with the assumption of steady current, although allother converter circuits can be and are so analyzed. Both direct current and direct voltage pulsate at the same frequency as the alternating voltage. If a transformer is placed between the ac source and the valve, as is usually necessary for obtain ing the desired magnitude of direct voltage, the direct current passes through the secondary winding of the transformer, and its sar may be sufficient to saturate the iron core and make the primary current excessive. The circuit is useful only for very smal! amounts of power. Se ee Cee Cee ee eee eee ee ee eee eee eee Eee eee eee eee eee eee ee eee52 CONVERTER CIRCUITS Full-wave Rectifier ‘This has two valves and one transformer with center-tapped secondary winding (Figure 3), The wave forms are shown in Figure 4. In Figure 4a, the Tine-to-neutral secondary voltages e, and és, having a phase difference of one-half period (180°) are plotted. The anode voltages of valves 1 and 2 with respect to neutral point N are equal to e, and ¢,, respectively. The common cathode voltage of both valves, being equal to the higher of the anode voltages, consists of the positive half waves of e; and e,. This curve, redrawn in Figure 1b, represents also the instantaneous direct voltage v4 on the valve side of the smoothing reactor. The average direct voltage Vis also shown. ‘The difference v4 - V,, which appears across the reactor, is represented by the vertical shading in Figure 1b. Its average value is zero, corresponding to ‘equal positive and negative areas between the curve and the horizontal line. "When valve 2 is conducting, the full secondary voltage e, — es appears across valve 1; when valve 1 is conducting, ¢, ~ € appears across valve 2. Figure 4e shows the voltage o, across valve 1. The valve currents, which are also the currents in the halves of the secondary winding, are shown in Figure 4d. They are rectangular pulses of height 1, and length 180°. The mmr of the entire secondary winding is porportional to i ~ iy and has an average value off zero; in other words, there is no de component of maf, hence no tendency to saturate the core. The primary wor must oppose the secondary somF (Ti, =i, —1,) so thet the primary current J, has the form shown in Figure 4e. ‘Now let us compute the numerical values of the various cireuit quantities. ‘The filtered direct voltage Vis the average value of, and the latter con sists of the positive halves of sine waves having crest value E,, and frequency fHoj2n, Led 0 2B in 0) 28m 06316, (1) =1s1V, @ -ST1V,, and its frequency is 2f, where ‘The peak-to-peak ripple is En is the frequency of the ac source. The peak inverse valve voltage is 2£, = 3.142. ‘The transformer voltages are sinusoidal by assumption. The voltage across each half of the secondary winding has crest value B,, and rms value 0.7078, = 1.111P,. The primary voltage has crest value 7E,, and rms value 0.077, = LAMITV,, where T's the transformer turns ratio. ‘The crest value of current in each valve and in cach half of the secondary ae rat pet EE jn ve y je ty" Tn tnt 2 Di ig. 3. Single-phase ful-wave rectifier circuit. @ \ “ft oy @ 1 le ; 1 |e jaca ; be 4 L i L | _ [arr o : _ att Pra 4 Wave forms ofthe cist of Figure 3: @) tmnsfomer secondary voltae ¢ snd 6: (0 voiced and fires re voltages my and; (0) weage sro ae 1 ‘0,3 (d) valve currents or secondary currents is and iz; (e) primary current jy. 754 CONVERTER CIRCUITS winding is [,, the average value is 12, and the rms value is \/(I,)?/2 = 0.707%. The primary current is -+1/T during onc half of the cycle and I,{T during the other half; its rms value is 1y ‘The aggregate volt-ampere rating of the valves is 2 x 3.142V, x 0.500% = 3.182P,. ‘The Volt-ampere rating of the whole secondary winding is 2 x 1111V, x 0.7071, = 1.571P,; that of the primary winding is | 11TV, x [T= V-1N1Py. ‘The foregoing values are listed in Table 1 (page 66) for comparison with other converter circuits. Bridge Rectifier If the two valves in Figure 3 were reversed, so that the anodes instead of the cathodes were at a common potential, nothing would be changed except the direction of the direct current and voltage. Note, further, that the same transformer could feed two pairs of valves, one pair connected as in Figure 3 and the other pair reversed, as just discussed, Each pair of valves could feed a separate load with a common return to neutral point N; in other words, the rectifier would now be feeding a three-wire de wire system. If the currents on the positive and negative sides were equal, the neutral conductor and the center tap on the transformer secondary winding would no longer be needed, The result of such omission is the single-phase bridge rectifier, shown in Figure 5. It is also known as @ tyo-way circuit Fig. 5. Single-phase bridge n 2-4 SINGLE-PHASE CONVERTERS 55 ‘The number of valves, the direct voltage Vs, and the de power P, of the full-wave rectifier have been doubled, but the PLV. of each valve is unchanged. Two valves (I and 1’) conduct in series for one-half cycle, then the other two (2 and 2) in the next half cycle, The valve and load currents are unchanged, The transformer primary current is doubled. The transformer secondary currents now have the same wave form as the primary current, and thus the required secondary volt-ampere rating is equal to that of the primary, being less than doubled. ‘The wave forms are shown in Table 1 Although the bridge cireuit may appear more complicated than the full- Wave circuit because it has four valves instead of two, the secondary winding is used more effectively, and the P.LV. of each valve has been halved for a given de output voltage. The former feature is important in high-power sure 6, and numerical values are given in 4 aon, ane le @ ~ wt te Fig, 6. Wave forms of the citeult of Figure 5: (@) primary and secondary voltages o, and 0,:(6) unfiltered and filtered direct voltages ay and V5 (€) voltage across valve 1, (@ valve currents j, and i33 (@) primary and secondary curvents jp and i. \56 CONVERTER CIRCUITS converters, and the latter in high-voltage ones, where the valve P.LV. may be a limiting factor. 28 THREE-PHASE CONVERTERS Large amounts of power are taken from a three-phase circuit in preference to a single-phase circuit. Besides, in polyphase converters, the ripple in direct voltage is smaller in magnitude and higher in frequency than in single- phase converters and therefore easicr to filter. The same is true of harmonics ‘on the ae side, but this is not shown until Chapter 8. ‘Three-phase One-way Rectifier ‘This is the simplest three-phase converter circuit (Figure 7). It is not practical as shown, because the direct current in the secondary windings 39 ko ig. 7. Three-phase one-way rectifier circuit saturates the transformer cores, This may be avoided by replacing the Y connection by the zig-zag connection, in which the de MMs of the two secondary windings on the same core cancel out. The circuit as shown, however, is useful a step in explaining several other connections, and therefore it is analyzed as it stands. ‘The three secondary voltages ¢,, ¢, ¢ form a balanced three-phase set, as shown in Figure 8a, and the anode voltages with respect to neutral point N are equal to the corresponding secondary voltages. The common cathode voltage », coincides with the upper envelope of this set of voltages, as shown by the heavy line. The average direct voltage Vis given by 2:5 THREE-PHASE CONVERTERS 57 [Poon Yous)" S.om 0) Ro f whence Eq = 1.209%, @) ‘The peak-to-peak ripple is Fell = 068 60°) = 0 with ripple frequency 3f, XK XA 1 rt a | [Te 3 | Eee eee (ee @ sf:7f.2[3][.2 —— beat eet Le Mar b 7 T 8 Wave fo in thc of gue 7.) senda voit nd ee voles ta reddit 7; okge nse) nae Sarena aks wasiomer onsen ontenes Oceana tion of valve curr current et erernreadianiers f vals rrents; (¢) one primary winding. Mt ies eh58 CONVERTER CIRCUITS “The wave form of voltage across valve 1, shown in Figure 8a and b, consists of three segments, each lasting one-third eyele or 120°. In one segment, while the valve is conducting, the valve voltage is zero; in the other two segments, Mile the valve is nonconducting, it has an inverse voltage equal to one ofthe Tmne-to-ine voltages, first €,,, then ¢,,. In Figure 8a it is shown by the height df the vertical shading; in Figure 8b it is redrawn from a horizontal axis, The PLY. is J 3Eg = V3 x 1.209, = 2.094V oO ‘The transformer secondary voltage has orest value Z, and rms value Eqi V2 = 1.2094 X 0.107 = 0.855% 4. ‘exch valve conducts during the one-third cycle when the associated cecondary yolage isthe highest one. The wave of valve currents a rectangular Fake of height Zand length 120° Figure). Iss average va is [3 and its ims value is [,/-V/3 = 0.377ly. The transformer secondary current is the same ashe valve current. The primary current (Figare 8e)difers from the second- fny current in having no de component; that is, its average value i zero, Is rns value is NIC - 0 pinay, SET AM at, ow ‘Three-phase Two-way, or Three-phase Bridge Reetifier “This is known in Europe as the Graetz circuit (Figure 9). In the circuit in Figure 7 if the three valves are reversed, the circuit operates as before except that the directions of direct current and direct voltage are reversed. The same transformer secondary windings may feed two groups of three valves cach, sine group connected as in Figure 7, the other connected similarly except for fovewal ofthe valves. Each group may feed a separate de load, the two loads Constituting a three-wire load with its neutral point connected to the trans- Former neutral. Now, ifthe two loads have equal currents, the neutral con: Guotor carries no current and may be omitted. Since the neutral point of the 2-5 THREE-PHASE CONVERTERS — 59 cel Fig. 9 Three-phase two-way, three-phase bridge, or Graotz rector creat. transformer windings is no longer necessary, those winding in’ instead of in it desied. The ¥ connection is shown ia igure The relation between the three-phase single-way and two-way ciouits Figures T and 9) slike that between the single-phase single-way and two-wa cireits (Figures 3 and 5). Again, for a given alternating vohage, the direct, voltage and power are doubled, but the P.LV. is not altered. In terms of V, it is halved and becomes 1.0477. This makes the circuit advantageous if high det vlage end high power ar euied sta er advantages appear in the transformer bank, There i carrent in te Winding, and the es curen is I than tre that of the Single-vay connection, giving more eliient use ofthe windings. The wave forms are shown in Figure 10. The transformer secondary line-to- neutral voltages are shown in Figure 10a, These are also the voltages of th anodes of the lower group of valves and ofthe eathodes ofthe upper eroup, all with respect fo nena pont N. The common cathode voltage of the lower group of valves is the upper envelope of the transformer voltages, as it - was for the single-way circuit in Figure 7. The common anode voltage of the upper group of valves is the lower envelope. The difference in ordinates 'etween the upper and lower envelopes i the intantaneos direct voltage vg on the valve side of the smoothing reactor. This is replotted in Fi 105 as the envelope of the line-torline volta dross wave Tis tate cores ges. The vollage across valve 1 is Tt is immediately to be noted that th i ¢ tipple of the direct volt Bau fei ttf henry connie, ad th mage fie ripple is smaller. The reason is thet the scallops of the Lowe: oe p envel shifted one-sixth eycle from those of the upper envelope. spree60 coNveRTER CIRCUITS @ o @ @ » —- [oe a aE fH o em eee oom eae Fig. 10, Wave forms of the circuit of Figure 9: (@) secondary line-to-neutral voltages ey «s, &¢ and, in heavy lines, unitered voltages of positive and negative de poles with respect te transformer neutral’ point; (6) secondary line-to-line voltages aod, in heavy line, unfiltered direct poleto-pole voltage 14; (¢) secondary line-toine voltages and, in lower heavy line, voltage v4 across valve 1; (@) condensed representation of valve currents; (© transfommer secondary current i,=fi—ig; (J) primary altemating. line current t= GOT. The average direct voltage V, is given by ~t ws sf ‘cos 00 s(n) ea ay whence the P.LV. is Vib 2 v= 10877, a 2.6 PULSE NUMBER 61 The peak-to-peak tipple is (10083093 By =0134% LOMTY, = 0.140%, (13) ‘The rms line-to-neutral secondary voltage is = 0.707 x ae o.4n8r,. ‘The load current is always carried by two valves in series, one fom the "upper half bridge and one from the lower. Each valve conducts for one-third cycle, as in the one-way circuit, Commutation in one group, however, is staggered with respect to commutation intheother group; considering both groups, ‘commutation occurs every one-sixth eycle (60). In Figure 9, as wel as in the diagrams of other converter circuits, the valves are numbered in the order in which they fire (begin to conduct). Commutation occurs from valve 1 to valve 3, then from 2 to 4, from 3 to 5, from 4 to 6, from $ to I, and from 6 to2. The current wave forms are shown in condensed fashion in Figure 10d. The current in each phase of the Y-connected secondary windings is the difference of the currents of two valves, the numbers of which differ by 3; for example, i, = i, ~ i, (Figure 10e). Its rms value is [,./2/3 = 0.8167,. ‘The aggregate valve rating is 6 x L.O47Y, x 1/3 = 2.004P,, ‘The aggregate volt-ampere rating of the transformer secondary windings is 3 x 0.428V, x 0.8161, = 1.047P,. The rating of the primary windings is the same as that of the secondaries. If the secondary windings are connected in 4 instead of Y, the wave shape of current is different (Figure 10f), and its rms value is 1/-/3 times that of current in the Y. The primary line currents have the same wave shape as secondary Y currents if the transformer connection is YY or AA, and the same wave shape as secondary A currents if the transformer connection is AY or YA. 26 PULSE NUMBER ‘The pulse number of a converter is the number of pulsations (cycles of ripple) of the direct voltage per cycle of alternating voltage. The circuits so far considered in this chapter have the following pulse numbers: Circuit Pulse Number p Single-phase half-wave 1 ‘Single-phase full-wave 2 Single-phase bridge 2 ‘Three-phase one-way 3 6 ‘Three-phase two-way or bridge62 CONVERTER CIRCUITS tis shown in Chapter 8, on harmonies, that the orders of harmonics in the dict voltage are given by pq, where q is an integer, and that the orders of harmonics in the alternating current are pq + 1. The higher the pulse number, therefore, the higher the lowest frequencies of harmonics. As we have seen in the analyses of the foregoing circuits, the higher the pulse number, the lover the peak-to-peak amplitude of the ripple. The higher the frequency and the ower the amplitude of a harmonic, the easier to eliminate it substantially by filtering. The higher the pulse number of a converter, the better from the standpoint of harmonics. This advantage, however, may be offset by the jncteased complexity of transformer connections. 24 ADDITIONAL SIX-PULSE CONVERTER CIRCUITS We have seen that the three-phase two-way circuit may be derived by combining two one-way circuits in @ particular way, There are at least two ther ways in which two three-phase one-way circuits ean be combined to form six-pulse circuits. Cascade of Two Three-phase Rectifiers ‘This connection is shown in Figure 11 [As ia the three-phase bridge circuit, the two three-phase groups of valves are in series on the dc side, but they are not adjacent, and each group has & common cathode connection instead of one group having a coramon cathode connection and the other a common anode connection, as the bridge cireait has (Figure 9). The transformer secondary windings are connected in double Y with 180° phase difference between one Y and the other. This transformer Zonnection is more complicated than that used with the three-phase bridge Girouit, and the secondary windings must have a greater aggregate voll~ fimpere rating. This circuit has no advantage over the bridge unless it is ‘feud to use valves having one mereury-pool cathode in an envelope (steel ‘tank or glass tube) with three anodes. Parallel Connections with Interphase Transformer “The two three-phase groups of valves are again fed by double-Y-connected secondary windings, but the two groups are in parallel on the do sido instead fin series (Figure 12). They cannot be paralleled directly, because the threc~ pulse ripple of one group is staggered with respect tothe ripple ofthe other Proup Instead, one de pole of one group is connected diretly tothe lke pole Sf the other group and to one pole of the de line. The opposite poles are abe 26h Fig. 12, ¥-Y-interphase rectifier cieuit; 1. interphase transformer, Fig. 11, Cascade of two three;phase one-way rectors, 4 34, I | 5,64 CONVERTER CIRCUITS connected to opposite ends of an autotransformer whose center tap is connected to the other pole of the decline, The autotransformer is called an inter~ hase transformer. is usually connected to the neutral points of the Y's and to the negative pole of the de ine so as to permit the use of a single-cathode six-anode valve. The instantaneous voltage of the center tap is, of course, equal to the average of the instantaneous voltages of the two ends of the ‘winding. Consequently, the instantaneous direct line voltage is the average of the voltages of the two three-phase groups and has a six-pulse ripple. ‘This connection has the same disadvantages as the preceding one and, in ‘addition, requires the interphase transformer and gives a lower direct voltage. tis not suitable for uv de work. ‘Six-phase Diametrical Connection ‘This appears similar to the preceding connection. With the interphase transformer omitted and the neutral points of the two Y's solidly connected, the transformer secondary windings form a six-phase star connection (Figure 13). This can be made up from one center-tapped winding per core instead of two separate windings per core. Now, however, each valve con~ ducts for one-sixth of a cycle instead of one-third cycle, as in the three preceding connections. Consequently, the transformer utilization is poorer. ‘A valve having one pool cathode and six anodes in one envelope can be used. Fig. 13, Sixcphase diametsical rectifier circuit, 2-8 CHOICE OF BEST CIRCUIT 65 Cascade of Three Single-phase Full-wave Rectifiers At first sight it appears that this circuit (Figure 14) might gi is circuit (Figure 14) might give a higher direct voltage for a given P.LLV. on the valves than either the bridge circuit or the cascade of two three-phase rectifiers, but it does not. Moreover, the transformer utilization is poor. 4 A ‘ I sé he t ti 5 > ree ig. 14, Cascade of three single-phase full-wave rectfior. 28 CHOICE OF BEST CIRCUIT FOR HV DIRECT-CURRENT CONVERTERS A comparison of the nine different converter circuits discussed above is presented in Table 1. Cireuits 4 to 8 are six-pulse circuits having six valves each and a three-phase ac supply. Let us confine our attention to these, because the advantages of three-phase ac circuits and a high pulse number for high-power converters are apparent. Study of Table 1 and the circuit diagrams reveals that the best converter circuit for uv de transmission is the three-phase bridge. It has the following advantagesCascade of 2-36 1.000%, 033% osi6% 0.03644 O24V, O2147Vs o214¥, 2.0947 1.047Ps Loar, of 31g Bridges Py | 1.0001, 0.500%. 0.707h 0.140. 1047y, stove 0370V. 3.2Py ASTIP, 6 Diam- Cascade 1.000% 06TH 0.408%, 0.140%. 2.098¥. o00T¥, O.0V, 2.098P. 1.283, 1.814, YY le 0.5001, osTh, 0.2891. o.140¥, 20947, O8ss7¥, 0855V. 2098. 1.047, 1aBIP, of2-36 — terphase Cascade 1.0007, 0.3334. o.40¥. Loa, O48 TV. 0428 he 2.096P. 10479, Lasley ost. 30 Bridge 1.000% 0333h 0.1407, LosTy oa28rh, 0.428%. 2004P, 1047P. L047. ost6h. 1000/7 10007 OATLLIT O816LIT O8I6LIT 0408/7 OSTILIT 1.000K/T 08167 ‘Comparison of Converter Circults 36 One. — 1.0001, 0.333% ostt 0.605. 2.09471 O8SS7¥. 08ssy, 2.094? 1.209, 1481, Table 1, 16 Bridge 1.00014 0.5001. 1.0001, 1sTIV. AST, AMITY tik Lal, Lane. 3.142P, wave 3.142P, LAITY, LILY LLLP 1STIPe 19 Fall. g 0.5001, ool. 3.142P, ‘Secondary Primary Voltages: Each secondary Volt-amperes secondary Primary ‘Deripple, peak to peak 1.5714 Transformer, rms Valve, pea inverse ‘Transformer, rms ‘All valves ‘Transformer, primary ‘Transformer, Js, Va, ané Pyare the current, voltage, and power of the de line, “Based on average current and peak inverse voltage, Ciceuit Number Name of Circuit Figure number ‘Number of valves Pulse number 2-9 TWELVE-PULSE CASCADE 67 1, For a given direct voltage, the P.ILV. of the valves is only half that of any of the other six-pulse circuits except 5 and 8, in which itis equal. Conse quently for a given P.LLV., the direct voltage is twice that of some other circuits, 2. Fora given power throughput, the volt-ampere rating of the transformer secondary winding is less than that in any other circuit, 3. The volt-ampere rating of the transformer primary windings is equal to ot less than that of the other circuits 4, The transformer connections are the simplest. Double or center-tapped secondary windings are not required, This simpleity is important for obtaining a sturdy and reliable design for operation at very high voltages having superposed high-frequency transient voltages caused by commutation. S. The secondary windings may be connected either in Y or in A. The advantages of this will appear in Section 2-9. 6. Tho aggregate volt-amipere rating of the valves is lower than that of circuit 8 and equal to that of the rest. 7. A very important property of the bridge circuit is that arcbacks* can be suppressed by grid control and a bypass valve. Arcback is a random phcno- ‘menon that is unlikely to occur in more than one valve at the same time. Thus, * although grid control is ineffective in the valve with the arcback, it may reasonably be expected that in all other valves of the same bridge such control will be effective and may be used to prevent any of these valves from reigniting after the current in them has once become zero. In the bridge connection there are two valves in series across the de line and two in series opposition across each pair of ac terminals. If all valves but the maloperating one are blocked by grid control, that one has no circuit through which current can be furnished to it. This is in contrast to the sixephase star and Y-Y-interphase connections, in which there is a path through the ae source, the maloperating, valve, and the de load. Because of these advantages, the bridge circuit is universally used for high- power HY ac-de converters. 2.9 TWELVE-PULSE CASCADE OF TWO BRIDGES In this connection (Figure 15), the de ports (pairs of terminals) of two bridges are in series, doubling the direct voltages, and the ae ports are in parellel, doubling the alternating current. If the transformer bank of one bridge is connected YY and that of the other, YA, the pulsations of direct * An arcback is a malfunctioning in which a valve condvets in the reverse direction. See (Chapter 6 fora diseussion of its causes and suppression,68 CONVERTER CIRCUITS 3d he Fig. 15, Twelvecpulse cascade of two three-phase bridges. voltage in one bridge are staggered with respect to the other, giving a 12-pulse ‘converter. Under balanced conditions, the twelfth harmonic is the lowest one in the direct voltage, and the eleventh and thirteenth are the lowest pair in the altornating current. ‘The two bridges could be fed from one three-winding transformer bank instead of from two two-winding banks, For increasing the direct voltage further, more bridges can be added, preferably in pairs, but the pulse number is seldom, if ever, made greater than 12, because the complexity of the transformer connections is believed to offset the advantage of a higher pulse number. PROBLEMS, Prove that the average voltage across the smoothing reactor is zero if the reactor has no resistance. 2. Prove that the half-wave rectifier in Figure 2 can conduct only inter- mittently. 3, Analyze the half-wave rectifier circuit in Figure 2, finding the wave shapes and the average und rms values of the current and the sev- cral voltages as functions of E,/V 1. 8B 10. u. 2 13, 14, 15. 16. 17. 18, 9. PROBLEMS — 69 Analyze a half-wave rectifier circuit like that in Figure 2 except that it has a resistance-inductance load with no counter-EMf. Find wave shapes ‘and average and rms valucs of the current and. the several voltages as functions of wCR, Find the magnitudes of the harmonies, in terms of J, in the secondary currents of a single-phase full-wave rectifier (Figures 3 and 4d) 1d the magnitudes of the harmonic currents, in terms of Ty, in the secondary current of a single-phase bridge rectifier (Figures $ and 6e). Calculate the aggregate volt-ampere rating of zig-zag-connected secon- ‘dary windings if used instead of Y-connected windings in the three- phase one-way circuit in Figure 7. Analyze a three-phase one-way rectifier like that in Figure 7 except that the transformer is connected A primary,zig-zag secondary. Find wave shapes and crest, average, and rms values. Find the magnitudes of the harmonic currents, in terms of J,, in the secondary current of a three-phase one-way rectifier (Figures 7 and 8c). Find the wave shape and the magnitudes of the harmonic currents, in terms of Z,, in the primary line cutrent of a three-phase one-way rectifier (Figures 7 and 8). Find the magnitudes of the harmonic currents, in terms of Jy, in the secondary current of a three-phase two-way rectifier (Figures 9 and 106). Calculate the rms value of the primary line current in Figure 9, in terms of Za, from the wave shape in Figure 10f. Find ‘the magnitudes of harmonics in the primary line currents of a three-phase two-way rectifier having a A-Y-connected transformer by two methods: (1) analysis of the wave form of the primary line current and (2) adding the harmonics of two phases of the A-connected primary winding displaced from one another by one-sixth of the fundamental period. ‘Analyze the cascade circuit in Figure 11. Analyze the double-Y-interphase circuit in Figure 12. Analyze the six-phase diametrical connection in Figure 13. Analyze the cascade circuit in Figure 14, Derive the wave shape of the voltage actoss the interphase transformer in the double-Y connection. Which isthe principal harmonic component of this voltage? Consider the frequency of the ac line to be the funda mental. Which of the six-pulse circuits considered in this chapter permit the use ‘of a common-envelope common-cathode six-anode valve?70 coNvanrER CIRCUITS Draw the cireuit diagram and the wave shapes, and find the peak, rms, and average ‘voltages and currents and the aggregate volt-amperes ‘of each set of transformer windings of converters described as follows: 20, Four-phase star, one-way, four valves. 21, Two-phase, center-tapped, one-way, with interphase transformer. 22, Four-phase, two-way, eight valves. 23. Cascade of two single-phase full-wave converters, fed from a two-phase line, BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. High Voltage Direct Current Power Transmission, by Colin Adamson and N. G. Hingorani, Chapter 2, “Type of Converter Circuits and Valve Connections.” 2. Power Transmission by Direct Current, by Ya. M, Chervonenkis, 1948, translated from Russian to Enatish by the Israc! Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem, 1963, Chapter TV, “High-Voltage Rectifier Cireuts,” pp. 32-44. 3. “D.C. Power Transmission,” Part II, “Basic Principles,” by E. Openshaw Taylor, lec. Jour, (London), Vol. 164, pp. 25-26, Jan. 1, 1960. 4, Rectifir Circuits: Theory and Design, by Johannes Schaefer, Wiley, New York, 1965. 5. High Voltage Direct Current Convertors and Systems, edited by B, J. Cory, Mactonald, London, 1965. Chapter 2, “H.V.D.C. Transmission Circuits," by B. J. Cory, pp. 1421 3 Analysis of the Bridge Converter In Chapter 2 several converter circuits, including the three-phase bridge, were analyzed under the assumptions of no grid control and no overlap; and the superiority of the three-phase bridge circuit for use in av de power transmission was shown In the present chapter a better analysis of the bridge circuit is made in which grid control and overlap are accounted for. ‘The aisumption made in Chapter 2 regarding the ac source must be modified thus: 1, Power source (or sink) consisting of balanced sinusoidal Ewrs of constant, voltage and frequency in series with equal lossless inductances. ‘The inductance, which really is chiefly the leakage inductanco of the transformers, is the cause of the overlap. The other assumptions made in Chapter 2 are retained. They are: 2. Constant ripple-free direct current. 3. Valves which have no forward resistance and infinite inverse resistance. 4, Ignition of valves at equal intervals of one-sixth cycle (60°). Figure 1 shows the bridge circuit with the notation adopted. The instantaneous Tine-to-neutral evs of the source are taken as c= Ey COS (wt + 60°) (ta) i €08 (cot — 60°) (i) a COS (cot ~ 180°) ae) corresponding to the horizontal projections of the rotating vectors shown in Figure 2 and to the waves shown in Figure 3, ‘The corresponding line-to-ine mars are ~ c= y/3 E608 (wt +30") Qa) V3 B, 008 (ot — 90°) (26) (3 Fy 08 (ot + 150 @) n2 ANALYSIS OF THE BRIDGE CONVERTER lyse TO——$ 5. ig. 1. Bridge converter schematic circuit for analysis. The valves are aumbered in their firing order, ig. 2, Source-2Mr vectors at ¢ 0 ‘The circuit in Figure 1, viewed in the light of assumptions 1 and 2, contains a three-phase voltage source and de source. In our analysis of this circuit, the effects of the two sources are superposed. Superposition is valid in a linear circuit, A circuit with valves is piecewise linear. That is, with a certain set of valves conducting, it is a linear circuit; with another set of valves conducting, it is a different linear circuit. At the instant when any valve begins or ceases conducting, the circuit changes. The solutions of two con- are pieved together at the instants of change so as to satisfy conditions of continuity, which, in this case, are the continuity of the current in the de source, because of the smoothing reactor L,, and of the currents in the ac source, because of the inductance L, in each phase. ig. 3. Waves of instantaneous Firs of ae source: Hine to neutral, ey, 4, line to line, ay Bs Cs Continuity of the currents is obtained in our solution of the circuits by ‘making the final values of currents for one form of the circuit determine the ‘corresponding initial values of currents for the next consecutive form of the circuit. 34. ANALYSIS WITH GRID CONTROL BUT NO OVERLAP. ‘The number of conducting valves may be two, three, or four according to the overlap (see Figure 4). For each of these numbers, there are six sets of ‘conducting valves, each limited to consecutive valve numbers. Let us first analyze those cases in which only two valves conduct simultaneously (Figure 4a), Each set consists of a valve of the upper row (Figure 1) and one of the ower row. The transfer of current from one valve to another in the same row is ealled commutation. If no more than two valves ever conduct, commutation must occur instantly, that is, without overlap: Such commutation is im- possible if the ac source has any inductance, The case, therefore, must be ‘regarded as a limiting one, which is approached if the product 1, becomes very small, Figure 5 shows the circuit in Figure 1, with nonconducting valves omitted, when only valves I and 2 are conducting. The current source causes a steady current J, in the series circuit n2N1pn, producing no voltage drops because ‘dijat 0. The alternating-voltage source sets up open-circuit voltages but no currents, because the application of superposition requires that current7 ANALYSIS OF THE BRIDGE CONVERTER Oe a wae (SZ 7 7 usw [2 R Ae (unc CO ea a a ee © w= 0 = este CO ee oe ee Pe Fig. 4 Efect of overlap angle von the numer of vale conducting simultaneously sources be opened while other sources are acting. We obtain, for the instantaneous currents and voltages in Figure 1 or 5, I Ga) is te=0 0) F,, 008 (ot + 60°) G0) 5 = ey = By, C08 (cat — 60°) Gd) = E,, 008 (ot — 180°) Be) em eae = V3 Ey cos (01 +30) Gf) vp ary (39) tna = V3 Eq Sin ot GA) = 0, = V3 B, cos (wt — 150°) (Bi) 6 =e = V3 Eq 605 (wt + 150") ew ‘The condition of this circuit endures for only one-sixth cycle (60°) at a time and is followed by one in which valves 2 and 3 conduct; then valves 3 and 4, then 4 and 5, then Sand 6, then 6 and 1, and so back to 1 and 2. See Figure 4a. 3-1 ANALYSIS WITH ORID CONTROL BUT NO OVERLAP 75 = te ie te 1 Es P Y ° T He Nt Ae A a Val tle > gui Ny | 2 ip Oy - ig. 5. Bridge converter with valves | and 2 conducting. Equations for these other intervals may be found from Eqs. (3) by appropriate changes of subscripts and phase angles. It was shown in Chapter 2 that an uncontrolled vaive ignites (begins to conduct) as soon as the voltage across it becomes positive. If valves 1 and 2 8 a8 soon as ey becomes greater than 4; that is, at point R, Figure 3. This instant is taken as @¢ = 0. At the same instant, under present assumptions, valve 1 is extinguished (ceases to conchict). Valves having control grids can be made to delay ignition but not to advance it. The delay angle is denoted by « and corresponds to a time delay of lo sec. If delayed this long, valve 3 ignites when ot =a; valve 4, when ot = «+ 60; valve 5, when ot = «+ 120°; and so on, The delay « cannot exceed 180°; for example, point 7, 180° after R in Figure 3, marks the end of the range over which valve 3 can ignite, for only in this range is ey greater than eg. ‘The ignition delay affects both the factor, as will now be shown, ‘The instantaneous direct voltage vj across tho bridge on the valve side of the de reactoris composed of 60° arcs of thealternatingline-to-line voltages, as shown by the vertical lines of the shaded area do in Figure 3 for the petiod in which valves 1 and 3.conduct with «= 0, or as shown in a different way in Figure 6a. The average direct voltage V, is found by integrating the instantaneous voltages over such a period or any 60° petiod, For «= 0(no delay) and with cot called 0, it is Yan 3ty=2 f potted | Azg cos +20) a0 irect voltage and the ac displacement yuna a 2A neo a09] =35 ik, win, [sin 30° — sin (— 309) 2sin 20° 65 Ey @Insta hen ale 3 encanto reser x Wa RPVTV" BWW MN AN ig, 6, Instantaneous direct voltage (shown by heavy Tine) of bridge converter with Tanition delay angle « but no overap, 3+] ANALYSIS WITH GRID CONTROL BUT NO OVERLAP 77 where F,, is the crest value of line-to-neutral alternating voltage. In terms of rms line-to-neutral and line-to-line voltages (Ezy and Ey, respectively), 34E wy ENE = 1352u. co) Vag is usually called the ideal no-load direct voltage. For delay angle a, both fimits of integration are simply increased by a, as shown in Figure 66 to g, giving Y= vo 008 (6 +30") dB = Vag sin (0 +30") a cn = Vaulsin ( 430°) — sin (« —30°)] Vio(2 sin 30°) cos a = Vio cos « © ‘Thus we see that one effect of delayed ignition is to reduce tho average direct voltage by the factor cos a. Inasmuch as 1 can range from 0 to almost 180°, cos a.can range from 1 to ~ 1, and V can range from V9 to — Vag. Since the current /, cannot reverse because of the unidirectional property of the valves, negative voltage V, in conjunction with positive current f, represents reversed poner flow; that is, conversion from de power to ac power instead of from ac to de, In other words, it represents inversion as opposed to rectification. Obviously a converter cannot invert unless it has grid control. Figure 6 shows the waves of direct voltage on the valve side of the de reactor for various delay angles. It is noteworthy that the ripple and hence ‘the harmonies in the direct voltage increase with delay up to 90° and then decrease from 90 to 180°, With losses in the converter neglected, the ac power must equal the de power; that is, BE hrs 008 $ = Vela = LV g 608 U) where Jy, is the rms value of the fundamental-frequency component of alternating line current, The ine current has the wave shape shown in Figure 7a, consisting of positive and negative rectangular pulses of height I, and width 2x/3 rad. This shape is independent of « as long as thete is no overlap. By Fourier analysis the crest value of the fundamental component of this wave is. 5 o = = : Vif 2f 110086 abt = 21 sin | mt lor = 2 jn "ia = 214060) ENS ye lily ®78 ANALYSIS OF THE BRIDGE CONVERTER @an0 t Ey axiae Coe — + Tat y Fa anise [oo 6 ot Fig, 7. Relation between ignition delay and phase displacement. ‘The rms value of the fundamental current is ti = 72 = 0.780 * Substitution into Eq. (7) of fy; = 0.780L, and Vay = 2.34E py yields 05 ¢p = cos o (10) Sel ANALYSIS WITH GRID CONTROL BUT NO OVERLAP 79 in which cos $ is the displacement factor or vector power factor and ¢ is the angle by which the fundamental line current lags the line-to-neutral source voltage. From Eqs. (7) and (9) we see that the converter operates as a sort of transformer having a fixed current ratio but a voltage ratio that varies with the ignition delay imposed by grid control, With no ignition delay, the rectangular pulses of alternating line current are centered on the half sine waves of line-to-neutral voltage, as shown in Figure 7a, and the fundamental sine wave of current is in phase with that voltage wave. Ignition delay o shifts the current wave and its fundamental component by angle g =a, as shown in Figure 7b, c, d, e, and f. Thus the converter—rectfir or inverter—draws reactive power Q from the ac system, See the vector power diagram in Figure 8. The rectifier is said to take lagging current from the ac system, and the inverter is said either to take lagging current or to deliver leading current to the ac system, ‘The signs of active and reactive power in a rectifier are like those in an induction motor, and, in an inverter, they are like those in an induction generator. The analogy between the inverter and the induction generator may be extended a step further: both ‘work best in parallel with synchronous machines, but both may be made to work with shunt capacitors instead. A converter having valves with normal control eireuitry can work only in the upper half of the complex power plane (Figure 8), because ignition can be delayed but not advanced from its uncontrolled position, Imagine a con verter in which the valves are replaced by synchronously-controlled switches, the closing times of which can be shifted in either the lagging or the leading direction. By operating with the switches closing on negative instead of Inverter Rectifier Invert witn Recta with forced commutation forced eomnuation Fig. 8. Power vectors of converter,80 ANALYSIS OF THE BRIDGE CONVERTER positive 2 the converter could be made to deliver instead of to consume reactive power. In other words, such a converter could operate in any quadrant in Figure 8. 32 ANALYSIS WITH GRID CONTROL AND WITH OVERLAP LESS THAN 60" Instantaneous Currents and Voltages Because the ac source, especially the transformer, has inductance, the currents in it can vary only at a finite rate, and therefore the transfer of ‘current from one phase to another requires a finite time, called the commutation time or overlap time, wien, where w is the overlap angle. In normal operation it is less than 60°: typical full-load values are from 20 to 25°. As iilustcated in Figure 4b or ¢, during commutation thee values conduct simal- taneously, but between commutations only two valves conduct. Since a new ‘commutation begins every 60° and lasts for angle w, the angular interval when two valves conduct is 60° — u. The sequence of conducting valves is 12, 123, 23, 234, 34, 345, 45, 456, 56, S61, 61, 612. If w= 60°, as shown in Figure 4d, 4 new commutation begins at the same moment that an old one ends, so that some set of three valves is always conducting. This is a special limiting case, as ig also that for u = 0. The valve sequence is 123, 234, 345, 456, 561, 612. 160° 60°, Ea, (72) replaces Eq. (19), Instantaneous Currents and Voltages ‘Second Subinterval (Valves 1, 2, 3 Conducting) tof os (a — 30°) + $008(6 + 30°) -¢ cos. | 93) (74) 3-3. ANALYSIS WITH OVERLAP GREATER THAN 60° 97 =k Infseste-209 + 4006 430) cosa] sy igmigmig=0 (76) By = 0, = 03 =0 a 04 = Vs = 5 = —04= 15e, = gy Bene ) 0, =, =e, = —Ey cos ot (0) ‘Third Subinterval (Valves 1, 2, 3, 4 Conducting) 4, = [,— Tald 008 (# — 30°)+4 008 (5 + 30°) — cos (wt + 30°) (81) By analogy with i, in the first subinterval, with oot decreased by 60°, ig = Ty — Ia{008 (2 ~ 30°) — £08 (ot ~ 907) 2) = From Eq. (71), i, = Hy = Tal 00s (& — 30°) + 4.008 (5 + 30°) ~ cos (ot + 30°} (83) By analogy with /; in the first subinterval, with wt decreased by 60°, 4 = I,sloos (2 — 30°) — cos (wt — 90°)] co) =0 5) 1 — ig = Ty — fslfeos (@ — 30°) + $05 (5 + 30°) — cos (ot — 30°)} (86) By = 0p =O = y= Og ra = 0 =0 6? Subsequent Subintervals. The equations may be obtained from those for the same number of conducting valves by appropriate changes of subscripts and phase angles. The results are shown in Tables 3 and 4. The wave forms are plotted in Figure 15 for a = 45° and u= 75°. Average Direet Current and Voltage Average current is given by Eq. (72). Average voltage is found by averaging the instantaneous voltage over a 60° interval comprising a subinterval in which itis zero and one in which it is an arc of a sinusoid of amplitude 1.5E,. Let the latter subinterval be the second one used in the discussion of commutation. In it the instantaneousToot ~ ) 500 — oe ~»)509)%4 = 0 ote ~ 9) 800 — (06 + 950044 Cot — =) 400 7 =r Tone = 059 G9) — Gor + 9)8 Goe — money's {oie 4) 09 leoie 900 GEA) — ore — 9509 ~ (oe —a)s00 Gost ~ 0 509 — (oF 9300 F+ CoE — cost — 6809 ies) — Gor +9) 509 $+ Gos [0%2 — 0) 800 — (ot — =) 05}¢7 = 0s 509 — Gog + @)900 + (oe #) 800 Fr = zr [ae 0) 99 en) — Cort 25094 + Cot — 2) 503 (G06 ~ 0) $00 — Gog toe tes ca oa oe la s00 eA) — Gor + 9809 + Coe ~ P)s0aIy =F ve anes, a Tath ant I-17 0 0 s- 4-8 " s-1 0 ° u-O-4% Ina oO y-1 0-7 0 008 +2 a-7 vad a oat 0 oo @ 19's O81 NO n- TON+H WOON-T WHT 0 06 ON 19'S 'y MED 1 - 1-1 7 1 I-17 0 0 0 os ute H N-H-% 9 'I-¥ Xo oH M-1 H~T 0 0 ose Oar . o-" 80 . 1 b-1 0 0 see 098 Tate OT a- o 4 a 4-1 a-1 0 sree ort una " a~ ° ° q 1 a-t o vez e "-9 a one 0 ° ° a o-1 at veer ote 1 ¥ vo oo ° voOON wt ect 9-8 Ps 7 * 7 4 ” SF %] Buponpaes m= sOAeA, Buponpun soaqvA no pue oat, Afo}EMIONTY) 09 UR soprID deLOKO MEM DEANE asp seyd-oany, UY syuRIM snooMEVMASUT “E OIG, — See eee EE Peertor 3-3. ANALYSIS WITH OVERLAP GREATER THAN 60° 5°: (a) valve and phase currents; (8) alternating lineo-neutral voltage, Fig. 15. Jostantancous currents and voltages. of three-phase bridge converter. with ea 48° and u ‘phase a; (=) direct positive and negative voltages with respect to neutral point of ac source; (4) direct voltage between poles (broken line) and voltage across valve 2 (oid line). 008 + ¢ 0 0 0 © 60 6 © 6 6 9 9 6 £49 rete "eg0- 19 SO SO FHT ETO ST OTD sore+e o 0 0 © 0 06 6 6 96 © 6 0 249% one + togt= 9 fagg= fg0- ETT TST O19 ost e 0 0 0 06 6 6 6 0 9 6 6 0 19% ower? vagtt vagy 78 0 0 0 I= tag AI 9S wee o 09 0 6 6 6 9 6 0 0 9G 0 9% i costhe vegi- "8 g0- WS0- TO FT SET SFE SH wre 8 0 6 60 06 6 6 6 90 9 6 96 0 s¥E% z ware = weert aso- 9 SEO ET T= HT ET @ @ 0 0 0 0 6 6 6 8 8 9 0 0 vee a+” cst ag EO AO ML LT ET 9-2 ao @ « @ "© —@ % %@ — ¥a Smonpuos = @ SONA ‘Gunonpuo. soareA aoa pos 20m, AeITUIAY) hg worp 20249 JERE HPA JAa.wED aspNG ose SaMLL UY SAREHOA SHOOUENENSUT y OIEL102 ANALYSIS OF THE BRIDGE CONVERTER voltage is, by Ea. (78), 4 = 1.5E,,c0s 8. The average voltage over 60° (n/3 rad) is 3 x V3 ics SE ,c0s0d0 = Fa cos(d sy oof 0 i Vgleos (a — 30°) + 0s (5 + 30°)] 4 Vag(C0s o! + 008 6') (88) ‘with o’ and 8’ as in Eg, (72). Equation (88) for u > 60° is analogous to Eq. (21) for u< 60°. Direct Voltage as a Function of Direct Current for Constant Ignition Angle By elimination of co. & between Eqs, (72) and (88), we get ze 3 Zz @) In the first per-unit system, this becomes 7 Vy = 3 cos (a = 30°) — 1.5%; (90) where ¥j= ViVi and T= Talla. In the second system, Vi = 9/3 Vig 008 (x — 30°) — 1.5K" 1% on where Vi = ValVaom Vio = VeolViom U4 = lilly and X", is the perunit ‘commutating reactance ‘based on the rating of the converter transformer, Comparison of Eq. (60) with Eq. (26) and of Eq. (91) with Eq. (33) shows that the equivalent commutating resistance for u > 60° is three times that for 1 < 60. ‘Minimam Ignition. Angle If the overlap is greater than 60°, ignition of a valve in one half bridge ‘ust bogin while the preceding commutation is still under way in the other half bridge (Figure 4e), putting a line-to-line short cizcuit on the ac source. For example, valve 3 must fire while valves 2 and 6 are still commutating and Putting a short circuit on phases b and c, The anode of valve 3 ist potential 2y = (¢ + e)/2 = —e,/2, and its cathode is at potential v, = ¢,. See Figure 16. ‘Valve 3 cannot ignite until its anode potential becomes a little greater than its cathode potential, that is, until vy >, which, for balanced alternating 3-4 COMPLETE CHARACEERISTICS OF RECTIFIER 103, Fig. 16, For explaining thatthe miniowum ignition delay angle is 30° i the overlap angie is 60° or greater. voltages, occurs first at point B, where wt = 30°. If it were not for the short circuit, % would be es and ignition would occur at point A, where ot = 0. Hence’ the minimum ignition delay angle is 30°. This delay occurs spon- taneously even with no grid control. ‘The same phenomenon may be seen in the voltage v, actoss valve 2 in Figure 15d. This voltage becomes positive at at = —30°, which for valve 2 corresponds to « = 30°. 34 COMPLETE CHARACTERISTICS OF RECTIFIER A three-phase bridge rectifier with no grid control operates successively in three different modes as the direct current is increased from zero to the short- circuit current Jy: First mode ‘Alternately two and threo valves conducting, « u ittereases from 0 to 60°, 1 inereases from 0 to 0.500. Vi decreases linearly froma 1 to 0.750,104 ANALYSIS OF THE BRIDGE CONVERTER Second mode ‘Three valves conducting. «a increases from 0 to 30°. u= 60". Ty increases from 0.500 to 0.866. V7 decreases on a curve from 0.750 to 0.433. + Third mode ‘Alternately three and four valves conducting. « increases from 60° to 120°, Ty inereases from 0,866 to 1.158. V7; decreases linearly from 0.433 to 0. A rectifier with grid control set for a = do, where a is between 0 and 30°, has three modes similar to those of the uncontrolled rectificr: First mode ‘Alternately two and three valves conducting. 1 1 increases from 0 to 60°. ‘Second mode ‘Three valves conducting. 1 increases from a to 30°. 1= 60", Third mode ‘Alternately three and four valves conducting. a= 30, increases from 60° to 120°, For 2 > 30°, the second mode disappears, and transition is made from the first mode directly to the third, with a = a. ‘The spontancous increase of a in the second mode is sometimes called auto phase control. The incoming valve cannot ignite until the polarity of the voltage across it is reversed by the completion of commutation in the other half bridge. The situation is similar to that already described in Section 3-3, page 102, for u > 60°, The direct current and voltage at transition points between modes can be calculated by means of the equations already given for 1, and V,as functions ofc and 8. The relations will be clarified by study of the first chart described in Chapter 4, Normally the rectifier operates in the first mode. The other modes occur =| 3:5 inveRsION 105 from overloads, de short circuits, or low alternating voltage. Such abnormal operation may be studied conveniently in the laboratory by using an exag- erated value of commutating reactance, 35 INVERSION General Because the valves conduct in only one direction, the current in a converter cannot be reversed, and power reversal can be obtained only by the reversal of the average direct voltage V,. The voltage then opposes the current, as in a de motor, and is called a countervoltage. In Section 3-1 it was shown that, if there is no overlap, V, reverses at a= 90%; that is, rectification occurs for 0 90" (1104) 7-0 (1108) “These laws can be verified by a study of Figure 21 inthe light of the following considerations. The ignition and extinction advance angles are measured ‘back from the instant of reversal of the commutating voltage. For the commutation that results in the extinction of the arc in the valve across which the voltage is graphed in the figure, this instant is marked O, and the extinction angle 7 for this valve is indicated; however, the ignition of the incoming valve of the same commutation is indistinguishable in the graph. The ignition and extinction in the next commutation (occurring in the other half bridge) occur 60° later, at the front and tail of the dent D. Hence its front is 60° — 6 after (or f — 60° before) the reference point O, and its tail is 60° ~ y after the reference point, The sine wave forming the upper limit of the dent leads the ‘main wave by 30°. 3.6 SERIES AND PARALLEL ARRANGEMENTS OF VALVES, ANODES, OR BRIDGES: The current and voltage required for high-power long-distance transmission are beyond the ratings of single valves and must therefore be raised by parallel or series connections. ‘The current can be increased by using the following: 1, Valves in parallel in each bridge arm 2. Two or more anodes in parallel for each tank and cathode 3, Bridges in parallel 4, Some combination of these means ‘The voltage can be increased by connecting: 1, Valves in series in each bridge arm 2. Bridges in series 3, Both ‘Anodes in parallel have an advantage over valves in parallel in that the former scheme reduces the duplication of tanks, cathodes, iguition and excitation anodes, etc., and saves space. Voltage grading and control grids fare repeated on each anode assembly. ASEA valves have two, four, or six 346 SERIES AND PARALLEL ARRANGEMENTS — 113 anodes. Either scheme requires a current divider for forcing equal division of the current among the several parallel paths. Otherwise, the first anode to bogin conduction would limit the voltage of the remaining anodes to the are drop, which is insufficient to ignite ares to those anodes. A precaution usually taken with multianode valves is to delay ignition by ‘a minimum angle of about 5 to 7°, so that there is a definite and adequate voltage from each anode to the cathodle just before ignition. This increases the probability that all anodes ignite simultaneously as soon as the control grids are made positive. This can be done with little effect on the average direct voltage, which varies as cosa; the voltage across the valve just before ignition varies as sin 2; for example, with valves having peak inverse voltages of 100 KY, by changing a from 0 to 7°, the firing voltage is changed from the ‘bare minimum (about 2 KY) to 100 sin 7° = 12.3.KV, and the no-load direct voltage is decreased from 95,5 kV to 95.5 cos 7° = 94.8 kV, or only by 01%, ‘The current divider, shown in Figure 22 for a four-anode valve, consists of four current transformers of ratio 1 : 4, It also increases the certainty of all anodes firing. If one anode firesfirst, the high rate of change of current in the primary windings of the transformers for the other anodes induces a high enough voltage in their open-circuited secondary windings to strike ares almost immediately on those anodes also. i Cureet transformers; ratio Lt fe 4 odes Fig. 22. Current divider for four anodes in paral114 ANALYSIS OF THE BRIDGE CONVERTER ‘The transformers and the resistors across their secondary windings maintain almost equal currents in the several anodes, At first glance, the use of transformers of direct current appears strange. It must be remembered, however, that the current in cach valve (except the bypass valve, to be dix cussed in Section 6-2, page 199) is a train of pulses having both ac and de components. Transformation of the ac components, together with the clamp- ing effect of the unilateral conduction of each anode, suffices to divide the de components also. ‘The resistors further aid in maintaining equal current division by increasing the voltage on the anodes carrying less than their share of the total current and decreasing the voltage on the anodes carrying more than their share. On the assumption that cach secondary winding in Figure 22 always carries one fourth of the primary current, if each anode likewise carries one-fourth, there are no currents in the resistors, If the anodes carry unequal currents, the surplus or deficit of each anode current with respect to the normal current flows through the resistor in the same or opposite direction, respectively, introducing equalizing voltages into the anode circuits ‘By making the resistors nonlinear they perform the additional function of limiting the voltage across each transformer winding, This voltage is adequate in amount and duration for ignition at the minimum delay angle, The product of voltage and duration equals the change of core flux and js limited by saturation. If the voltage were not limited, it would be much higher and shorter at large ignition delays (near 90°), and the transformer insulation ‘would have to withstand the higher voltage. The nonlinear resistors limit the voltage at large delays, giving pulse of magnitude and duration not too 4ifferent from that at ‘minimum ignition angle and avoiding the need for ‘excessive insulation.* ‘The need for bridges in parallel has not yet developed in nv de transmission, ‘Two bridges could be connected through an interphase transformer in the manner shown in Figure 12 in Chapter 2 for parallel connection of two half bridges. The two bridges would probably be fed through transformers con~ nected for a 30° phase difference between one bridge and the other so as to sive 12-pulse operation of the converter. ‘Valves in series as opposed to bridges in series have the advantages of fever and larger transformers or transformer windings. However, they have the following disadvantages: No reduction in harmonies More valve auxiliaries at more different insulation levels with respect to ground ‘Uneven voltage distribution across the valves as a result of stray capacitances * Soe Ref. 20, pp, 192-193, 3-7 uxTmRIGE conveRteRS — 115 With respect to misoperations of valves, which are discussed in Chapter 6, series connections greatly decrease the probability of arcbacks and fire- throughs but increase the probability of misires. ‘The unequal division of voltage across valves in series requires further explanation, Each valve, because of the size of its tank and the number ofits ausiliariesat tank potential, has a much greater capacitanceto ground than to the adjacent valves in a series chain. The result, as is well known in the case of strings of insulators, is to give more voltage across the elements remote from ground than across those near ground, In the case of valves, the voltage of concern is that during the nonconducting period. Capacitive voltage dividers can be used to achieve equal voltage division, but they contribute more energy to the parasitic high-frequency oscillations that occur at the abrupt changes in voltage (see Figure 20). The addition of resistors to the voltage dividers damps such oscillations but gives a small additional loss. The predominant present practice is to use single valves with multiple anodes and to connect bridges in series. Several manufacturers, however, are trying to develop single-anode valves of high rated current, 37 MULTIBRIDGE CONVERTERS Jn the present state of the art, two or more bridges in series on the de side are usually needed for obtaining as high a direct voltage as required for economical transmission, ‘The extension of converter theory to converters having B bridges in series ‘on the de side requires consideration of (a) harmonies, (b) relations between ac and de quantities, and (c) the effect of mutual commutating reactance on inverter operation. Harmonies ‘Asa rule, multibridge converters have an even number of bridges arranged in pairs, one bridge of each pair being supplied with three-phase voltages displaced by 30° from those supplied to the other bridge. As already illustrated in Chapter 2, this arrangement gives a 12-pulse converter instead of a 6-pulse one, and certain harmonies (fifth, seventh, seventeenth, nineteenth, on the ac side and sixth, eighteenth, ... on the de side) theoretically are liminated and practically arc greatly reduced, The two sets of three-phase voltages with 30° phase displacement can be obtained from two banks of transformers, one connected YY and the other, YA, or from one three ‘winding bank connected YY.116 ANALYSIS OF THE BRIDGE CONVERTER “Higher pulse numbers can be obtained in converters having more than two bridges. For example, an 18-pulse 3-bridge converter and a 24-pulse 4-bridge converter are possible, The transformer connections required, however, are ‘more complex than those for 12-pulse converters, and most HV de engineers think that it is more practical to build 2 12-pulse converter provided with additional filter capability than to reduce harmonics by use of a pulse number hhigher than 12, Harmonics are discussed further in Chapter 8. ‘Modification of the Relations between AC and DC Quantities In nv de multibridge converters, the bridges are in series on the de side and in parallel on the ac side, Therefore, for a given direct current and alternating voltage, the alternating current and the direct voltage are multiplied not only by the transformer ratio T but also by the number of bridges B, and 50 is the power on both sides. Accordingly, Eqs. (39) and (42) for ordinary units of measure become 0.780BTF, amperes aun and .35BTE 1, 008¢ volts aia) Stil, of course, Py=P, watts (us) ‘The equations in per-unit quantities—eos. (47), (48), (43)—are unchanged but must be interpreted with respect to new bases that are for the whole ‘converter instead of for one bridge. ‘The equivalent commutating resistance in ohms of a B-bridge converter is Btimes the value for one bridge, but the per-unit value of this resistance is the same for B bridges as for one bridge and gives the same per-unit voltage drop RLLV 00 ‘Modified Equivalent Cireuit Now seems to be a good time to modify the equivalent circuits of the rectifier and the inverter (Figures 13 and 18) so as to include the transformer ratio and the number of bridges and to combine these circuits with that of the de line, thus forming an equivalent cireuit of an entire two-terminal de link in the steady state. Figure 23 is such a circuit. Subscripts r and j signify rectifier and inverter, respectively, and a and d signify ac and de, The transformer symbols represent ideal transformers with 3-7 wuntmeipGe CONVERTERS 117 nee, rissa Nee tht one Re Pen th Pinte cyt a J |e, Va i Ve van L. Vo * fe Val a de ge ee fe ve fe ‘ig. 23, Equivalent circuit for steady state in two-terminal de link, neither leakage impedance nor exciting admittance: the effect of leakage reactance in producing drop of direct voltage is accounted for by the equiva- ent commutating resistance. The de line is represented by its resistance only, capacitance and inductance being neglected, Effect of Mutual Reactance on Inverter Operation Overlap Less than 30°, Consider a two-bridge 12-pulse converter. An equi valent positive-sequence circuit of the ac network viewed from the two sets of valve-side transformer terminals is the three-branched statin Figure 24. All Xen Xe ig. 24, Equivalent ster circuit of the ac Br. 2) and a common voltege source E. between two converter bridges (Br. 1, its branches ate predominantly inductive and are assumed to be entirely s0. an ideal transformer having a 30° phase shift, If the two bridges are fed by separate transformer banks having equal voltage ratios and equal leakage reactances, the two branches of the equivalent circuit adjacent to the bridges are equal, and a single equivalent nur E is adequate. The third branch has a reactance X;, due to the reactance of the ac system beyond the transformers, Itis the effect of this branch which we investigate, Eee eee eee ee ee118 ANALYSIS OF THE BRIDGE CONVERTER In a 12-pulse converter supplied with balanced three-phase voltages, a commutation begins every twelfth of a cycle (30°), alternately in one bridge and the other. The commutations cause line-to-line short circuits at the ac terminals of the respective bridges. Because of the mutual reactance, a commutation in one bridge causes some distortion of the voltages of the other bridee. ‘In Figure 2Sa equilateral triangle abe is a phasor diagram of the source : $ @ Bridge 1 Bridge 2 a é ee 4 @ © Fig. 2, Distortion of triangles of line-to-tine voltages on bridges 1 and 2 due to com= mutations (a), () on phase ab of bridge 1, (9, (#) on phase be of bridge 2. ers, which are assumed to be constant and balanced. When no commutation is occurring, the alternating voltages Vi, actoss bridge I are the same as those of the source because constant current produces no inductive drop. The voltages Vz across bridge 2 are likewise balanced, but because of the different transformer connection they are advanced 30° with respect to the voltages of bridge 1; they are shown as a, 6, cin Figure 25b. ‘Now assume a commutation to occur in bridge 1, placing a short circuit on phases a and b and collapsing the voltage ab to zero. The voltages on bridge 1 are then a’6¥c in Figure 25a. At star point Mf of the equivalent circuit, the voltages are deformed to a lesser extent than at the bridge 1 terminals, being 3-7 MULTHMRIDGE CONVERTERS 119 represented by triangle a°b"e, whose vertex a” lies between @ and a’ and vertex b” lies between b and b’. The ratio of vertical lengths in the phasor diagram depends on the ratio of reactances thus: aa" _ bb" Xn zg (ata) = z ais) ‘At the terminals of bridge 2 the voltages Vpg would be the same as those at if both transformers were connected alike. The effect ofthe actual transformer connections is to distort triangle abe in Figure 256 to a’6'e’. In both parts a and 6 of the figure the effect of the commutation is to shrink all vertical distances proportionally while horizontal distances are unchanged. ‘A commutation short-citcuiting phase bc of bridge 2 shrinks the hoti- zontal components of all voltage vectors, as shown in parts ¢ and d in Figure 25, while leaving vertical components unchanged, Commutations on othet pphases shrink the components of the veetors parallel to other axes, there being in all six such axes spaced 30° apart, as are successive commutations. The next six commutations of one eycle use the same six axes again, As a result of the mutual reactance, commuitations in one bridge cause dents in the voltage waves of the other bridge in addition to the dents caused by its own commutations, The voltage wave of most concern is that of voltage actoss a valve of an inverter (Figure 26), Particular attention is called idge inverter, showing additional dents DD’ and D” due 10 common reactance. “y= 15°, a= 15%, = 20" to the additional dent D’ that occurs 30° sooner after the extinction of the are than does dent D, whose effect on commutation margin was discussed in Section 3-5, page 110. ‘The effect of dent Dis shown in Figure 27. If B < 30°, as shown in Figure 2a, then D’ does not reduce the commutation margin; that is ¢= 7. If,120 ANALYSIS OF THE BRIDGE CONVERTER yas pars) | 3 uaz peas / ®— ot aye Fig. 27, Decrease of commutation margin angle {of inverter due to additional dent D’ however, B > 30°, as in Figure 27, then ’ encroaches on the commutation margin and { 60°), which places a three- phase short circuit on the valve-side transformer terminals, as described in Section 33, In the present case there are at the same time two line-to-line short circuits on different transformer banks (or different sets of windings of the same bank). These short circuits are on terminals at which the open-circuit voltages differ in phase by 30°. The triangle of line-to-line voltages of each bridge collapses to a steaight line, which is an altitude of the equilateral opea- circuit triangle. If Xq =0, hence k = 0—Eq, (114)—the voltage line (vector) of one bridge is 30° from that of the other. As k increases, these vectors shorten, and their phase difference decreases. At k = 0.42 the magnitude has decreased from 1.50Eyy to 1.32Er, and the phase difference, from 30 t017°, At k=, the two line-to-line short circuits become equivalent to a three- phase short circuit, and all voltages on the valve side of the transformers vanish. The circuit analysis for finding these and other voltages is straight- forward but laborious and is not presented here. Double overlap in a 12-pulse converter with mutual reactance between bridges has several objectionable effects, including a more rapid drop in direct voltage and the likelihood of commutation failure. Double overlap is not likely to occur in normal operation, for the overlap at rated voltage and current generally is less than 30°, say, 20 to 25"; however, it can occur at small overloads or at small undervoltages. For overlaps between 30 and 60° two circuit conditions occur alternately. In one, a commutation is in progress in one bridge; and, in the other, com mutations are in progress in both bridges, as just described. The number of conducting valves in the two bridges is alternately five and six. With u = 60°, there are always commutations in both bridges at the same time, and six valves are conducting. With u between 60 and 90°, there are alternately six and seven valves conducting, When seven are conducting, there is double overlap in one bridge and single overlap in the other.122 ANALYSIS OF THE BRIDGE CONVERTER With w between 90 and 120°, alternately seven and eight valves conduct. When eight conduct, there are double overlaps in both bridges. ‘Complete analysis of all these conditions is lengthy and not of much practical interest. Such analyses have been made by Shekhtman'? and Freris2* Elimination of Mutual Reactance The objectionable effects of mutual reactance in a I2-pulse two-bridge converter, especially the effect in decreasing the commutation margin of the inverter, must be elimineted; and this implies the elimination or compensa tion of the mutual reactance itself, There are two methods by which this ean be done. Fitters, The mentioned objectionable effects arc duc to the influence of commutations occurring in one bridge on the wave shapes of the alternating voltages appearing on the other bridge. The wave shapes are changed in six short ares per cycle, each lasting less than one-sinth of a eycle. If the differ ences between voltage wave shapes of such converters with and without ‘mutual reactance were analyzed into a Fourier series, it would be found that the differences consisted principally of certain harmonic frequencies. Harmonic filters (Chapter 8) are necessary in most converters and are usually installed on the network side of the transformers. The effect of the filters is to make the ac bus Voltage substantially sinusoidal. The commutating inductance, which can be defined as the inductance between the valves and the nearest point in the ac network where the voltages are substantially sinusoidal, is then the leakage inductance of the converter transformers. If separate transformer banks are provided for each bridge, there is no mutual commutating reactance between bridges. The system reactance beyond the bus is still common to the several bridges as regards fundamental-frequency voltage drop. However, a8 currents of higher harmonic frequencies are effectively short-circuited by the filters and do not enter the ac network except in amounts that are negligible for the present discussion, commutation in one bridge does not alter the voltage wave forms in other bridges. “The fundamental-frequency voltage drop in the ac network is calculated by ‘ordinary phasor methods, not by converter theory. Since the filter appears as fa shunt capacitance at fundamental frequency, the “drop” may actually be ‘arise if the reactive current furnished by the filter exceeds that consumed by the converter. The ideal no-load direct voltage Vio is proportional to the alternating voltage of the bus. The drop (or rise) of direct terminal voltage with respect to Vig is calculated by converter theory: Vz = Vie cos a — Rules of Vip cos) — Rly. For a given alternating voltage at the converter, this independent of the power factor. PROBLEMS — 123 Compensation of Mutual Reactance. Another method,® used at the Gotland inverter station, is to connect a set of center-tapped reactors as shown for ‘one phase in Figure 28. When commutation occurs in one bridge, the érop in voltage in that bridge caused thereby, induces, through the mutual reactance between halves of the reactor winding, a voltage rise in the other bridge that compensates for the drop in X,.. For exact compensation, the mutual reactance Xj, between halves of the reactor should, be equal to the system reactance X,,. Since the self-reactances X, are proportional to the squares of their number of turns and the mutual reactance X,, to the product of the umber of turns of the halves, if the same ux links all turns, X, 2 Yq, each being one-fourth of the reactance of the entire reactor. The net mutual reactance vecomes Xy— Xj, and the net selfreactance (commutating reactance) becomes Xq+ X,+ Xp, which is greater by X, than the self reactance without the reactor. This increase may be offset by reducing the Teakage reactance Xp of each converter transformer. Since the system reactance X,, may vary, depending on the lines, transformers, and generators in service, it is advisable to make X7, equal to the greatest value of X,,.. With smaller values of X,,, there is some excess of compensation, and the sign of the additional voltage dents is reversed, which is not harmful. This condition, which corresponds fo a negative value of k, has been analyzed by Freris?4 vy 3 Fes 3 Hf Xue vale Xi seus x iy sector >i]2 Xr v5 Fig. 28, Tapped reactor for compensating the coupling between valve groups due to poWwer-system reactance iy. %, is selzeactance of each half of reactor winding and X, ‘mutual reactance botwoon the halves; X; is leakage reactance of each transformer bank. PROBLEMS Draw curves of instantaneous voltage across a valve as functions of on for u=Q and %=0 to 180° in increments of 30° (seven curves altogether).124 10. ul 12, 13. 14, 15, 16, 17 18. 19, 24. ANALYSIS OP THE BRIDGE CONVERTER Draw the wave shape of current in one phase of delta-connected transformer secondary windings feeding a bridge rectifier circuit with negligible overlap, and calculate the effective value of the current. ‘What orders of harmonics are present in the direct voltage of a six-pulse converter’ In the alternating current? Find the amplitude of the Ath harmonic of the direct voltage of @ six- pulse converter with ignition angle « and no overlap. Express it as fraction of Vio. Find the amplitude of the Ath harmonic of the alternating current of a six-pulse converter with ignition angle a and no overlap. Express it in terms of the direct current, ‘What is the rms value of all the harmonies combined, excluding the fundamental, of the alternating current of a converter in terms of the direct current if the latter is free ftom ripple and if the overlap angle is very small? Draw curves of wave forms of valve current and voltage of three- phase two-way rectifier with a = 15°, u= 60°, Draw curves of current through a valve and voltage across the same valve as functions of ext for «= 0 and w= 30°. ‘Do Problem 8 with «= 15° and w= 30°, ‘Do Problem 8 with «= 30° and w= 30°, ‘Do Problem 8 with a = 45° and w= 15°. Do Problem 8 with a = 120° and w= 15°, Do Problem 8 with a = 120° and w= 30°, Do Problem 8 with a = 135° and w= 30°. Do Problem 8 with a = 135° and w= 15°, Draw curves of one cycle of instantaneous line-to-neutral and line-to- line voltages atthe terminals of a Y-connected secondary winding of the converter transformer feeding one bridge, with a = 30° and u = 10°. Same as Problem 16 except a= 15° and w= 30°. Same as Problem 16 except a = 30° and u = 30°, Same as Problem 16 excpet « = 45° and w= 15°, Same as Problem 16 except «= 30° and u = 60° ‘Compute the rms vaiue of the line-to-neutral voltage on the ae side of the bridge (Figure 1c). ‘Draw the voltage and current wave forms of a six-phase, one-way iametrical rectifier for a = 15°, w= 23. 25, 26. 2. 29. 30. 31. 32, 33. 34, 35, PROBLEMS 125, Derive equations for the average direct voltage and current of six- phase, one-way diametrical rectifier as functions of the ac source voltage, commutating reactance, ignition delay angle, and extinction angle. Confine to overlap less than 60°. : ‘Show that, in a three-phase bridge rectifier operating with no delay and ‘with 60° overlap, the direct current is half ofthe crest value of the line- torline short-circuit current on the valve side of the transformer bank. Find the maximum permissible commutating reactance, in per unit based on transformer rating, to allow commutation to be completed in an overlap angle of 60° at rated direct voltage and 1.5 times rated direct current, Find the ratio of the KVA rating of the transformer bank for a three phase, two-way converter to the rated dc power in KW if a = 15° and ,' =0.15 pu based on the transformer’s rating, Prove that the two expressions for tan in Eq. (54) are equivalent. Draw curves as specified in Problem 30 but for a= 30", w (Gouble overlap). Plot pu direct current 1; versus pu direct voltage Vj from open circuit to short circuit (a) for a = 0, (B) for a = 30°, (c) for x = 60", Draw curves of (a) instantaneous voltage of each de pole of the bridge with respect to transformer neutral, () the six valve currents, (c) one transformer secondary current, Y connection, and (d) voltage across cone valve for « = 15°, u = 60° (auto phase contro). Find the values of 4,1, and P/ of an uncontrolled rectifier at the point of meximum power. Plot a graph of reactive power versus active power on the ac side of an inverter operating at 2 constant extinction angle y = 15°. Use per-unit values with base power Vol, Terminate the curve at «= 60°. Plot 7 versus f for constant { = 15°. Draw curves as specified in Problem 30 except for 7 =35°, f = 115° (inverter with double overlap). Show that, if there are stray capacitances C, between each pair of valves and C, from each valve to ground, the division of voltage between valves is unequal, Derive expressions for the fraction of the total voltage across each of two, three, and four valves in series, and compute the numerical values for C=3C,. Find numerical values of the capacitances of a voltage divider that equalizes the voltages across four valves to within 5%, 1°126 36. 37. 38. ANALYSIS OF THE BRIDGE CONVERTER In the current divider in Figure 22, find the voltage across the nonconducting anodes with respect to the common cathode (a) when the whole current flows in one anode and (6) when it is equally divided among two or (c) three anodes. Draw curves of one eycle of instantaneous line-to-neutral voltage of one phase and of instantaneous line-to-line voltage of one phase at the terminals of a Y-connected secondary winding of the converter transformer feeding one bridge of a two-bridge 12-pulse converter with coupling coefficient = 0.422 between bridges. Take «= 30° and un 10", In a certain ae power system under light-load conditions, the reactive power produced by the shunt capacitance of the HY ac transmission Iines exceeds that consumed by the seties inductances of the lines and ‘transformers and leads to undesirably high voltage at and near a rectifier station. The situation is further aggravated when the rectifier also is operating at light load, because then the reactive power consumed by the rectifier is less than that produced by its ac harmonic filters. One method proposed for improving these conditions is to make the rectifier ‘consume additional reactive power by controlling it to operate at larger ignition delay angle than its normal value of 15° but subject to the imitation that neither the peak inverse voltage of the valves nor the greatest voltage jump across a valve should exceed thoir respective values at rectifier operation at rated alternating voltage, rated direct current and voltage, and normal ignition delay. Under these conditions the overlap angle is 25°, Compute and plot the additional reactive power consumption of the converter (in per unit of rated power) as a function of per-unit direct current. BIBLIOGRAPHY “The Current and Voltage Conditions in Large Reetfers” (a German), by W. Dillenbach and E, Gerecke, Archi fir Elektrotechnik, Vol. 14 pp. 171-248, 1924, Princtples of Mercury-dre Rectifiers and Theit Cireuis, by D. C. Prince and F. B. Voutes, MeGrass-Hill, New York, 1927. “The Current and Voltage Relations in the Graetz Taree Phase Rectifier Citeuit” Gin German), by K. Maier, EM, Vol. §8, pp. 577-S81, Dee. 8, 1935. “Three-Phase Rectiler Circuits.” by A. J. Mastin, Electronics, Vol. 9, pp. 28-31, ‘December 1936, Comment by Pallenbach on p. 80 of Ref. 12. “The Theory ofthe Control Problem of H.V.D.C. Transmission with Rectifiers and Jeverters in Bridge Circuit," by F. Buseman, Technical Report, reference Z/T74, BE, & ALRA. London, Mar. 2, 148. 1 2, 13. 4 4s. 16 0. 8 ws. 24. 2 2 pintioorarny 127 ‘The Transmission of Power by High Voluge Direct Current (in Geeman), by Karl Baudisch, Springer, Berlin, 1950, pp. 116-122. Extended Regulation Curves for 6-Phase Double-Way an Double-Wye Rectifiers," by £.K. Dorlort, 4.L55E. Trans, Vol. 72, Patt I, pp. 192-198, May 1953. Dis. pp. 198-202, "The Operation of Several Phase-Displaced Inverters on the Same Receiving Net- work,” by E, Uhlmann, Direer Current, Vol. 1, pp. 106-110, June 1953. Additional ‘dentin voltage aczoss valve due to common fetclance decreases the commutation margin, “Influence of A-C. Regctanoe on Voltage Regulation of Phase Rectifiers," by RL. Witzke J. V. Kresser, and J. K, Dillard, ALEE. Trans, Vol. 72, Part bpp. 244252, July 1953. Disc, p. 252 “The Relations of Currents and Voltages in the Rectifer Connected in the Gractz ‘Thee-Phase Bridge" (in Ialian), by Walter Dallenbach, L'Elertroreenica, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp. 133-143, March 1957. Recommendations for Mercuryoare Concerters, International Flectrotechneal Com- rission, Geneva, Switzerland, Publication No. 84, Ist ed., 1987, Definitions, symbols, “The Curtent and Voltage Conditions in the Gractz Three-Phase Rectifier Bridge ‘Circut,” by Walter Dallenbech, Direct Current Vol. 4, pp. 72-80, December 1958. “Operating Modes and External Characteristics of « Twelve-Pulse Cascade-Bridge Converter Circuit” (in Russian), by M. G. Shekhtman, NLLP-T. Vol. 5, pp. 23-68, 1960. “Bridge Rectfer and Inverter Parameters," Chapter 3. of High Voltage Direct Current Power Transmission, by Colin Adamson and N. G, Hingorani, Gaeraway, London, 1960, “Curent and Yoltage Conditlans from No Load to Short Circuit in Three-Phase Bridge Circuits,” by F. Hoetters, Direet Current, Vol. 5, pp. 112-121, 132, March 1961 “The Universal Characteristic ofthe Taree-Phase Bridge Converter” by L, L. Frets, Direct Current, Vol. 6, pp. 198-201, October 1961 ““Reactance Drop in Mereury-arc Power Rectificr,” by O. E, Maines, Direct Current ‘Yo. 7, pp. 182-184, July 1962. Schaltungslere der Stromvichtertehnik (Convertor Circuit Theory, in German), by ‘Th, Wasserrab, Springer, 1962, 466 pp. Especially pp. 241-256. “An Analysis of Use Three-Phase Bridge Converter,” by L. L. Fretis, Direct Current, Vol 8, pp. 6-11, 19, Jasuary 1963. Discussion by J. R. G, Schofield, p. 136, May. High Voltage Direct Current Concerters and Systems edited by B,J. ary, MacDonald, London, 1965, Chapter 4, “Analysis of Bridge Convertor Operation,” by L.L, Frers Also part of Chapter 8. “Analysis of a Hybrid Bridge Rectifier,” by L.L., Frris, Direct Current, Vol. 11, pp, 22.33, February 1966. Bridge with throo controlled valves and three uncontrlled diodes. “Voltage Regulation in 3-Phase Bridge Rectifier Connection from No Lead to Short Circuit,” by J. A. Budek and A. HL Marchant, Direet Current, Vel. 11, pp. 38-41, February 1966, Experimental check. “Series Connection of Mercury Are Valve,” by G. E. Gardner, J. H, Holliday, and D, J. Johnson, LE.E, Conference Publication No.2, High Veltage D.C. Transmission, Manchester, Sept, 19-23, 1966, Pat J, Paper No. 43, pp. 211-24,128 2, 2s. ANALYSIS OF THE BRIDGE CONVERTER “Effects of Interaction among Groups in a Mulil-group A.C.-D.C. Convertor,” by LL, Fretis, LEE. Proc., Vol. 114, No. 7, p. 965-973, July 1967, “Single-phase Bridge Converter with a New Control and a Cosresponding Thee ‘Phase Converter: Part I, Operational Features,” by N.G. Hingorani, Direct Curent (new series), Vol. 1, NO. 1, pp. 25-30, April 1969; “Pact I, Method of Control.” by N. G. Hingorani and Philip Chadwick, id., pp. 31-35. Disc., No. 3, p. 124, February 1970, “The Performance of a Convertor with Anode Resctance,” by L. L. Fret, LEE-E, Trans. on P.A. & S., Vol. 88, pp. 1537-1544, October 156. 4 Converter Charts ‘Two different charts are described, both of which show relations among direct voltage Vz and current J,, the three converter angles a, 5, and u, and the ac quantities, including active power P, reactive power Q, apparent power S, displacement factor cos g, and alternating current I, . ‘The first of these charts has rectangular coordinates x, y proportional to direct current and voltage J, and V. The second one has rectangular coordin- ‘tes proportional to active and reactive powers P and Q. Both charts are based on the assumptions made in Chapter 3, and both use, for gencrality, the first system of dimensionless or per-unit variables described there, Rectifier and inverter operation are represented by different regions of the charts. 41 CHART 1 WITH RECTANGULAR COORDINATES OF DIRECT CURRENT AND VOLTAGE, ‘The horizontal coordinate xis chosen as the ratio ofthe direct current to the crest value of symmetrical alternating current in a line-to-line short circuit: poy XE Palle Ta” Vip ~ 5E, i It can range from zero to 2/+/3, its value during a shott circuit on the de terminals Teeannot revere, ‘The vertical coordinate y is the ratio of the direct voltage under general conditions to its value with no load and no delay of ignition: Vay Va ¥_*" Vig 2 Note that both coordinates vary inversely as the alternating voltage referred to the valve side of the transformers, ‘The upper half plane, with positive /, and V,, represents rectification, The lower half plane, with positive Z, and negative Vg, represents inversion. 129 ’130 CONVERTER CHARTS Overlap Angle Less than 60° (0 Su S 60") Loci of Constant « and 8. Coordinates x and y are related to the ignition delay angle « and extinction angle 6, as shown in Eqs. (19) and (21) in Chapter 3; thus x= cos 4 C055 @ 2y =c0s a + cosd o whence, by addition and subtraction, x4 2y=2eo80 Wx +29 = 2e0s5 i Rearrangement gives ya cosa—dx © pacosd tix © Equation (5) represents the locus of constant ignition angle a in the xy plane. It's a straight line of slope ~4, intercepting the y axis at cos « and the x axis at 20s 2. There is « family of such parallel lines, one for each value of a (Figure 1). Similarly, Eq. (6) gives the locus of constant extinction angle 5 in tho same plane. It is a straight line of slope +4, y intercept cos, and x intercept —2.c0s 6, Again, there is a family of such iines, all parallel (Figure 2). The values of « and 6 may range from 0 to 180°. Since B = x ~ a, the loci of constant « are also loci of constant f, although the numerical values of and f differ from one another on the same locus. Similar remarks apply to and 5. For inverter operation, # and y are commonly used instead of a and 4 Loci of Constant u. Tae overlap angle u is given by und-0 @ ‘The simplest way to draw a locus of constant w is to note that it is a curve passing through the points of intersection of constant lines and constant 5 lines for which a and 6 differ by a constant angle (Figure 3). The range of ‘on the part of the chart now under discussion is from 0 to 60°, The locus of w=0 is the vertical axis. The loci for other values of u appear elliptical A proof that they arc indeed ellipses follows. We begin with the trigonometic identities 6085 + 005 a = 2.c08 4(5 +a) cos H(6 — a) ® 085 ~ cos a= 2sin (8 + 2) sin 46 — a) o), Let Shana ao) Mig. 1. Loci of constant ignition angle @ in the J, Vj plane for ue, 41 cHaRT 1 Fig.2, Loviofconstanteatinetion angle 5 in the Ji, Vi plane for wee" Substitution of Eqs. (3), (4), (7), and (10) into Eqs. (8) and (9) yields 2y-=2 0084 cos’ 2 Aw x= 2sin5 sin Solutioin for cos 4/2 and sin 2/2 gives y 982 cos ull Substitution of these expressions into the identity gives in? + cos? sin? 5 + cos? 5 2 a 3 It ay a (3)132 CONVERTER CHARTS Fig. 3, Loci of constant overiap angle wi 0-0) i which is the standard equation of an ellipse with center at the origin, horizontal half axis a, and vertical half axis 6, In the present case, This has the form a=2sin> — b=cos5 «as 41 carr 133 Overlap Angle Greater than 60° (60° < u < 120°) For this range of overlap we have from Eqs. (72) and (88) in Chapter 3, instead of Eqs. (3) and (4), the following: 3x = 008 (@— 30°) ~ cos (5 + 30°) a9) (ay = cos (# ~ 30°) + cos (5 + 30°) ay By introduction of the following new variables, V3x=x 4-30? =a! Yo 643028" v3 ‘we obtain equations having the form of Eqs. (3) and (4): 2 = cosa — 0083" (is) 2y' = cosa’ + cos 8’ as) Let us also introduce, by analogy with Ea. (7), +30") — 30) =5 0+ =v +H? (20) Derivations like those of Egs. (8), (6), and (13) yield ¥ = 008 of — 3x" en ¥ = 0083" + 4x! @ vy py (sii) +(@ra) The new (primed) variables are now replaced by the old (unprimed) ones, Bquations (21) and (22) become 3 3 y= V3 00s («— 30°) * ey ya V3 cos 6 + 30") + (25) ‘These represent straight lines, as before, but with different intercepts and with slopes three times as great. Figure 4 shows the lines for « = 30° in bot ranges of u. The lines for « = 30° and 5 = 150° are shown in Figure 3. They, with the elliptical are for. = 60°, form the’ boundaries of the region of Ne ee oa y GRAENERIEMEeueneesl.«... «......,.--134 CONVERTER CHARTS wy 35 Ga tis 1s 20 Fig. 4. Broken fine for «30° formed by segments of two straight lines having the following propesties: Rangeofu intercept intereept Slope o 60° Eq, (43) is used instead of (44) and with a similar rearrangement. The loci of constant w are still circles, and their centers are still at 0 +,u/2. The radius of cach is given by }sin (u-+ 60°), and the valid aro extends from central angle u— 30° at ¢ = 30° to 210° — w at a= 150° — 1, ‘The loci for «= 0 and w= 120° are single points, the former at the origin and the latter at 0 +.jn/3. Loci of Constant Ignition and Extinction Angles, Let us consider first the locus of « = 0. For a =0, Bq. (46) becomes P’+jQ! +55 4m as) ‘This equation, as v increases, represents the curve generated by a point on the circumference of a circle of radius 4 rolling up the right-hand side of the imaginary axis, that is, a eycloid. A cusp of the cycloid occurs at the origin when w= 0. The next cusp would occur at 0 +j2/2 when u = 180°. The only valid are for the three-phase bridge converter, however, corresponds to that for u from 0 to 60", The loci for other constant values of « are eycloids of the same size, shape, and orientation as that for a = 0 but shifted both horizontally and vertically S0 that the cusp that was at the origin for # = 0 follows a cycloid like that fora= 0 but rotated a half turn around the origin, Every cyeloid of the familyi 42 cmarr2 143 ‘This method of constructing the loci of constant x and those of constant 6 142 converter carts asses through the origin, which is the point corresponding tou = 0 on all of them. Petters ‘ ‘The most practical way of constructing these loc seems to be the following, i aes oe & 60" as wel as to w < 6 First daw the circles of constant u, and on them mark the point for a = O and 0 it Figure 9. A part of the chart is drawn to a the equally spaced points for other values of a, using constait increments af 'erger scale in Figure 10, @. The loci of constant & may thon be drawn by connecting, by a smooth curve, points for the same value of « but different values of 1. Each such point, representing certain values of « and w, also represents a value of 3 =< +-u that may be marked on each point. The loci of constant 5 are then drawn by connecting all points forthe same value of 5. The paits of locifor a = a, and5 = n— a, (or y = a,) are mirror images with respect to the imaginary axis. Hence the loci of constant 3 are also arcs of cycloids, 10 Reactive power (per unt) Q” T az as ae Aetve power (oer uni) Pe Fig. 10, Part of Chart 2, enlarged, Loci of Constant Diteet Current and Voltage ‘These may be plotted from either approximate or exact equations, sch cael Approximate Relations, Pers cet eutrent Hn agproxh voles fy © Per-unk fondamontal apparent power 3" and eens Folate APpreximately equal to displacement factor cov Meee toe or calant diet current based onan approximate maton ane tne Tosi of constant alternating current and constant aprasece ower, circular oL__1___ “os $95 ‘Aetve power (per una) PY Fig. 8. Converter Chart loci of constant conierter angles in P’, plane,144 CONVERTER CHARTS ares having radius 1 and their center at the origin. These loci can be drawn with a compass. The loci of constant direct voltage, based on an approximate relation, are straight lines through the origin, having stope tan é, where = cos” V;, These lines can be drawn with a straightedge. The two sets of loci together constitute a polar-coordinate grid (Figure 7). Loci Based on Exact Relations. Loci of this form arc related to those of constant % and constant 5 by the following equations Ti = 08 a — cos 5 (49) 2V4 = cos a +008 5 (50) ot T T T T 1 teversion 7 § Roetcaton r SeaCtene, 4 \e- ~8/ - & ab § J ks 6 ab ee nn 4 gr 3 1: 7 le be 3 i t LX 4 Lo oso pitt uM x 4 [ RNG: J a4 . Poy “Gs 3s 0 atv power (pe unt) Fig. 11. Converter Chart 2—loci of constant P,Q plane. rect voltage V2 and direct current Ij in 42 cuant2 145 whence cosa = Vi +41) (sb cosd = Vy— Hy (82) ‘The exact loci of constant /j and constant V4 can be constructed as follows: Values of Zy and Vj are selected, and corresponding values of w and 5 are caleulated by Eqs. (51) and (52), and u by 5 — a. Values of P’ + jQ' are then caleulated by Eq. (44) or (45), depending on whether w is less than or greater ‘than 60°. Finally, lines are drawn connecting points of equal Z and other lines connecting points of equal V2. The former are approximately, but not exactly, concentric circles; the latter are approximately, but not exactly, straight, radial lines. See Figure 11. 8 leniton angie 7 € ‘extinction ange-7 2, 730 % Overap ance w, de ‘Mg. 12, Exror in reactive power calculated by the approximate method.

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