This article has been accepted for inclusion in a future issue of this journal.

Content is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.

IEEE SYSTEMS JOURNAL

Control Methods and Objectives for Electronically

Coupled Distributed Energy Resources in
Microgrids: A Review
Bilal M. Eid, Student Member, IEEE, Nasrudin Abd Rahim, Senior Member, IEEE,
Jeyraj Selvaraj, and Ahmad H. El Khateb, Member, IEEE

AbstractIncreased penetration of distributed energy resources into conventional power systems increases control challenges. These can be suitably met by microgrids. This paper
examines the architecture of microgrids and reviews their classifications and the literatures discussing their control objectives
during islanded mode. It finds the use of microgrids enhancing the
conventional power systems grid smartness. It also summarizes
microgrid control objectives and their most common problems and
solutions.
Index TermsDistributed energy resources (DERs), droop
method, electronically coupled, load sharing (LS), microgrid control, power converters.

I. I NTRODUCTION

HE POSSIBILITY of increased blackouts in power systems can be due to both economical and physical reasons,
e.g., 1) increased demand for power that had to be transferred
over long distances, resulting in huge amounts of lost power;
2) continual load growth unparalleled by sufficient investment
into power generation and transmission systems; and 3) extreme
swings from one day to the next in power flow dispatch, making
conventional offline planning useless. These push power systems to their physical limits, with a possibility of compromising
grid reliability. A distributed energy resource (DER) is one
solution that can reduce the electrical and physical distances
between the load and the generator, improve reactive power
to enhance grid voltage profile and power quality, remove
bottlenecks from distribution and transmission lines, reduce
transmission and distribution losses, make better use of waste
heat, postpone the necessity to establish new transmission lines
Manuscript received July 16, 2013; revised November 4, 2013; accepted
December 16, 2013. This work was supported by the Secretariat of the
University of Malayas High Impact Research through the Campus Network
Smartgrid for Energy Security under Project UM.C/HIR/MOHE/ENG/32.
B. M. Eid is with the University of Malaya Power Energy Dedicated
Advanced Centre (UMPEDAC), Wisma R&D, University of Malaya, Kuala
Lumpur 59990, Malaysia, and also with the Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603, Malaysia (e-mail:
b.garadh@gmail.com).
N. A. Rahim is with the University of Malaya Power Energy Dedicated
Advanced Centre (UMPEDAC), Wisma R&D, University of Malaya, Kuala
Lumpur 59990, Malaysia and also with the Department of Electrical and
Computer Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, King Abdulaziz University,
Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia.
J. Selvaraj and A. H. El Khateb are with the University of Malaya Power
Energy Dedicated Advanced Centre (UMPEDAC), Wisma R&D, University of
Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 59990, Malaysia.
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/JSYST.2013.2296075

and huge power generation plants, and keep carbon emission

levels low [1], [2][5].
The challenges to having multiple DERs include the following: 1) the current control strategy (CCS) is unable to
function during islanded mode because there is no dominant
source of energy [6][8]. 2) Multiple DERs have multiple
power generation characteristics and capacities; therefore, the
microgrid needs rapid regulation more in islanded mode than in
grid-connected mode [6]. 3) An increased presence of DERs,
particularly in a distribution network (whether medium or low
voltage), may cause problems such as voltage rise and unstable
network voltage and frequency (either during operation of
the DERs or upon their sudden tripping) [6], [9][11]. Such
problems can be solved by microgrids, whose many features
include the following:
1) integrating DERs without interrupting public-grid operation, i.e., a lot of DERs can be installed without reforming
or rewiring the distribution system [2], [12], [13];
2) enabling power systems to observe and control faults
more effectively and to reduce the damage caused by a
DER outage, by continually feeding critical loads [4],
[11], [14];
3) allowing load shedding and automated switching through
control algorithms, to shorten outage and power restoration time, and keeping the faulted section of the distribution line isolated until utility crews locate the fault
location [4], [14], [15];
4) allowing to run in either (grid-connected or islanded)
mode, according to the economy or a planned disconnection, or to restore the public-grid power quality when it
falls below certain standards [12], [16][18];
5) improving system reliability and flexibility, through the
many options of DERs [2], [13], [19][22];
6) using DERs waste heat to improve generation efficiency
[2], [6], [13], [20], [23][25].
The microgrid paradigm is that a group of microsources and
loads, with some form of energy storage, operate as a controllable system, providing heat and power to local communities
[7], [12]. The Consortium for Electric Reliability Technology
Solutions (CERTS) [13] showed that clustered DERs, storage
systems, and loads can operate in either grid-connected or
islanded mode. Factors affecting the choice of the required
control and operation strategies of a microgrid include the
following: power-quality restrictions; DER type and depth

1932-8184 2014 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.

This article has been accepted for inclusion in a future issue of this journal. Content is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.
2

IEEE SYSTEMS JOURNAL

Fig. 2.

Classification of microgrids based on power type (ac or dc).

Fig. 3.

Two-stage conversion systems for PV.

Fig. 1. Basic architecture of a microgrid.

of penetration; single-phase load, which is more common in

microgrids; high presence of uncontrolled sources, such as
wind and photovoltaic (PV) units; short- and long-term energy
storage devices, which affect control and operation; priority
for critical load; load characteristics; and load market-sharing
requirements. Thus, significantly different control in the microgrid is required [7], [13], [26], [27].
This paper reviews the classification and control technique
and objectives of electronically coupled DERs in microgrids.
Section II illustrates the microgrid configuration, whereas
Section III presents the classification types. Section IV examines the control objectives, techniques, and strategies; Sections VVII discuss the control functions of microgrids; and
Section VIII summarizes the control problems and their solutions. Section IX concludes the paper.

2)

3)

II. C ONFIGURATION OF A M ICROGRID

Fig. 1 shows a basic microgrid architecture. The electrical
system consists of three radial feeders that connect to the main
grid through a separation device called the point of common
coupling (PCC). A microgrid central controller (MGCC) is the
main controller of the DERs. It is responsible for stabilizing
the active and reactive powers dispatched from each DER
and also the voltage and frequency at the PCC. The circuit
breaker installed at each feeder startpoint provides the critical
feeders (which contain the DERs and the critical loads) with
the capability to supply the loads separately from the main
grid. The loads and DERs have local controllers (LCs) that
control the production and storage units and some of the local
loads. In a centralized operation, they receive set points from
the MGCC, whereas in a decentralized operation, they make
decisions locally [6], [27], [28].

4)

5)
III. C LASSIFICATION OF M ICROGRIDS
Microgrids can be classified in many ways as follows.
1) In terms of power type (whether ac or dc) [27], Fig. 2
illustrates the following microgrid power types: dc

microgrid [29], high-frequency ac microgrid [30], [31]

(which is used to solve power-quality problems caused by
the presence of lots of energy conversion devices and to
reduce the impact of fluctuations in renewable energy in
the microgrid), line-frequency ac (LFAC) microgrid (the
most researched since the concept of microgrid was formulated [27]), and hybrid dc- and ac-coupled microgrids.
In terms of the application used for [21], they can be
classified into three categories subject to their application:
a) utility microgrids (a district of the city operates as a
microgrid), b) commercial and industrial microgrids, and
c) isolated microgrids.
In terms of system structure, they can be classified into
two structures, depending on the number of power processing stages: a) single-stage power-conversion systems
[27], [32], [33] and b) two-stage power-conversion systems [24], [34][36] (which is the most common configuration for all electronically coupled DER). Two-stage
conversion systems have two converters, i.e., one on the
PV side, which is used to extract the maximum power
from the PV, and another is connected to the grid side and
controlled to follow grid requirements (refer to Fig. 3).
In terms of supervisory control, they can be either centralized or decentralized [27]; in centralized control, the
central controller in the microgrid sends the required set
points to the LC through a two-way communication link,
but the technique has low reliability and is redundant
[37]; the decentralized technique is a multiagent system,
providing flexibility to the system and communication
between two agents through a communication language
such as Java-Jade [27], [38], [39].
In terms of the DERs connection to the microgrid, i.e.,
either electronically coupled (converters are used) or
conventional rotating distributed generators [7], [27].
Microgrids may also be single- or three-phase systems
or connected to low- or medium-voltage distribution
networks [40]; their mode of operation is either islanded

This article has been accepted for inclusion in a future issue of this journal. Content is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.
EID et al.: CONTROL METHODS AND OBJECTIVES FOR ELECTRONICALLY COUPLED DERS IN MICROGRIDS

or grid-connected; each mode has its own operation requirements and requires a distinct control strategy [26].
On the basis of these classifications and relating to the
reviewed papers, research is shown to have focused on LFAC,
industrial and commercial applications, two-stage powerconversion microgrids, three-phase systems, and electronically
coupled DERs.
IV. M ICROGRID C ONTROL M ETHODS AND O BJECTIVES
Control of a microgrid during islanded mode is particularly
critical [7], [27], [41]. The next part of this paper examines the
system control used for the islanded operation (e.g., voltage
regulation (VR), frequency regulation (FR), and load-sharing
(LS) optimization). Since there is no synchronous machine in
most microgrids to achieve demand and supply balancing, the
inverters should be responsible for balancing. The use of a
voltage-source inverter (VSI) to provide a reference for voltage
and frequency enables microgrids to operate in islanded mode
[42], [43].
Many papers have discussed the term grid-forming [7],
[26], [27], [41], and others have used islanded operation
mode to mean the same definition. The grid-forming mode
is used to regulate voltage and frequency and to achieve LS
in microgrids, when the system operates in islanded mode [7],
[27], [41]. The control strategies, layer interconnections, and
functions are discussed in the following.
A. Control Strategies
There are two main control strategies proposed for microgrids during islanded mode: a) single-master operation (SMO)
and b) multimaster operation (MMO) [42], [44]. Both use a
VSI to provide a reference for voltage and frequency [43],
and a convenient secondary load-frequency control must be
considered to maintain the frequency between the specified
limits and to run the DER economically [17], [42], [45].
SMO [42], [44]: This approach has one inverter acting as
VSI (the master) and others as followers (the slaves). When
the main power supply is lost, the slaves take voltage reference
from the master and operate in the P Q mode. The LCs receive
set points from the MGCC to maintain generation of active and
reactive powers at the specified values. The part within the thick
dashed lines in Fig. 4 illustrates the SMO scheme.
MMO [42], [44]: Fig. 4 also illustrates MMO approach, in
which several inverters act as VSI (the master). The VSI can
be connected to storage devices or to DERs. Other inverters
with P Q control may also coexist. The generation profile can
be modified by the MGCC, which can define new set points for
the LCs.
B. Wire and Nonwire Interconnections
Instantaneous LS in microgrids is achieved through two main
control schemes. The control schemes are classified according
to their control-wire interconnections [27], [46].
One of the two schemes is the active LS technique, which
has parallel-connected microgrid converters, including master
slave (MS) [47][58], centralized LS [59], [60], average LS

Fig. 4. MMO control, with SMO inside the dashed lines.

(ALS) [61][68], current limitation control [69], and circular

chain control (3C) [69], [70]. These control schemes critically
need intercommunication lines, which can decrease system
reliability and expandability, although they enable good VR and
accurate current sharing [71], [72].
The other control scheme for parallel inverters is based
mainly on a droop method [7], [16], [26], [41], [57], [73]
[109]. This technique adjusts the output voltage and frequency
in functions of active power (P ) and reactive power (Q)
delivered by the inverter. The droop method uses only local
power measurements; hence, better reliability and flexibility is
achieved in the physical location of the units [71], [103], [110].
C. Control Layers
The microgrid control system has to ensure that all the control functions are accomplished (e.g., supply of electrical and/or
thermal energy, continuous feeding of the critical loads, energymarket participation, autoreconnection after failure, etc.). The
control objectives can be achieved through either centralized or
decentralized control and through three control layers, as shown
in Fig. 5. Some authors [6], [39] call the supervisory control
architecture a multiagent controller. The control levels are the
following [6], [7], [27], [58], [72], [104], [110], [111]:
1) distribution network operator (DNO) and market operator
(MO);
2) MGCC;
3) LC, which can be either the source controller or the
microload controller.
The DNO is necessary when there is more than one microgrid in the distribution system. In addition, for the market
environment of a specific area, one MO or more is responsible
for market management of the microgrid. Both the DNO and
the MO are part of the main grid; they do not belong to the
microgrid. The second level is the MGCC, which is the main
integrator of the DER clusters in a microgrid. It is responsible
in stabilizing the voltage and frequency at the PCC and also
responsible for the active and reactive powers dispatched from
each DER [26], [58]. The LCs are the lower layer of control
(sometimes called peer-to-peer, as in [6]). They control the
DERs and some of the local load and seek to balance active and
reactive powers. They have a certain intelligence level and, thus,
can make decisions locally in a decentralized operation model

This article has been accepted for inclusion in a future issue of this journal. Content is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.
4

IEEE SYSTEMS JOURNAL

Fig. 6. (a) Voltage set point to remove the circulating reactive current.
(b) VQD controller.

Fig. 5. General architecture of a hierarchical microgrid control system (multiagent controller).

(whereas in a centralized model, the LCs receive set points

from the MGCC) [7], [111][113]. In [114], the intelligent
node (iNode) and intelligent socket (iSocket) performed the
same tasks as the MGCC and LC, respectively, whereas [58]
proposed four control layers, adding a layer called the mainstation layer before the DNO layer. Fig. 5 shows the DNO,
MGCC, and LC control layers.
D. Control Function
Published works on microgrids have been mostly about the
control functions and strategies [8], [42], [56], [115]. The next
part of this paper reviews the techniques and strategies for control of DER converters in a microgrid system. The two modes
of operation for microgrids are equally important; however, the
islanded mode is emphasized because it is particularly more
challenging than the grid-connected mode [107]. Microgrid
grid-forming mode (islanded mode) is discussed next, demonstrating the control techniques and objectives.
V. VOLTAGE S TABILITY
Terms relating to voltage stability include voltage quality,
VR, voltage distortion, and voltage profile. Voltage stability in
a microgrid is about keeping the voltage amplitude stable at a
level required by the system. A voltage controller at each DER
unit provides local stability. Without local voltage control, systems with high penetrations of DER might experience voltage
and/or reactive power oscillations [2], [13]. Voltage stability
in islanded mode has been much studied [2], [5][7], [13],
[16], [20][22], [27], [41], [42], [44], [56], [58], [104], [106],
[107], [110], [116][123]. The concept of voltage control can
be expanded to include voltage balancing between the three
phases [119].
A. Factors Affecting Voltage Stability
1) Control is more complicated in low-voltage distribution
networks because of their resistive nature, which may

cause coupling between the active power and the voltage

(instead of the frequency) [106].
2) Load characteristics can affect microgrid performance in,
e.g., voltage stability and transient stability [27].
3) There are reactive currents circulating between the DERs.
The problem is prominent in a microgrid because the
impedance between the DERs is not large enough to
prevent the circulating current. A possible solution is the
use of a voltage-versus-reactive-power controller, which
should reduce the set point of the local voltage, at capacitive reactive power, and should increase it, at inductive
reactive power (see Fig. 6) [2], [13], [20], [27], [122],
[124]. The PV generator can be used as a synchronous
generator to compensate the reactive power through the
inverter [125], [126].
4) Distance between the loads and the DERs [13], because
line impedance varies with it, causes an unbalanced flow
of reactive power [96], [123].
The techniques and strategies of microgrid voltage control
reported in the aforementioned papers are discussed next.
B. Control Techniques and Strategies
Nested Control Loops: The term refers to two control loops
[22], [56], [119]: inner and outer. The inner loop is placed
around the inductor and the VSI to form a controlled current
source (current control loop), whereas the outer loop is a
voltage control loop, which works on the voltage error, setting
the required current for the inner loop. The voltage control
loop aims to provide better tracking of slow changes in the
output-voltage reference signal and to minimize the outputvoltage errors caused by load output current disturbances [40],
[56], [119].
MGCC: As mentioned in Section III, there are three control
layers in microgrids, and the MGCC is the second layer, which
is responsible for keeping the voltage at the PCC between the
specific limits [4], [6], [7], [23], [26], [27], [42], [44], [111].
V /f Inverter Control: This is not a new control technique.
It has been used [58] to illustrate that, during islanded mode,
voltage and frequency are controlled by the DER converter.
Voltage Control Loop: Despite this terms frequent use [35],
[41], [56], [104], [107], [108], [110], [116], [117], [119], [127],
it represents neither a control technique nor strategy but only
describes the controller that controls voltage.

This article has been accepted for inclusion in a future issue of this journal. Content is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.
EID et al.: CONTROL METHODS AND OBJECTIVES FOR ELECTRONICALLY COUPLED DERS IN MICROGRIDS

VQD Controller: The voltage-versus-reactive-power droop

(VQD) control strategy is one of the most famous and important
strategies used to control voltage during islanded mode [2],
[13], [20], [23], [27], [42], [104], [110], [122]. It mainly ensures
that the circulating reactive current between the sources does
not exceed the DER ratings. A droop controller for voltage
versus reactive power is thus required, increasing the local
voltage set point when the DER generates inductive reactive
power (conversely, the set point reduces when Q becomes
capacitive) [2], [20] (see Fig. 6).
Current-Controlled MC: One of the purposes of the currentcontrolled matrix converter (MC) [120] is to regulate voltage at
the load terminals. It must thus feed a specific amount of current
to the load, and therefore controls the load current, keeping the
terminal voltage at the desired level.
VPD: Unlike the VQD controller, the voltage power droop
(VPD) technique shows that microgrid voltage depends on
active power balancing and not on reactive power [116], [117].
Reference [117] suggests a control scheme that allows a single voltage source converter (VSC) to operate in an intentional islanding mode but not parallel with other VSCs in
the same islanded microgrid. This is a problem overcome by
VPD/frequency-reactive power boost (FQB) controllers [116]
that allow control of multiple VSCs in the same microgrid.
In all the control schemes that use voltage power or VPD,
proportionalintegral controllers are essential to many of them
[16], [44], [94], [96], [104], [116], [117], [120], [128], [129].
C. Voltage Stability Results Comparison
Performance evaluations of the voltage stability in the aforementioned papers are assessed by computer simulation. In
[120], the current-controlled MC is used to regulate the PCC
voltage. A sudden load is switched on then off during 0.06 s,
a 0.05-p.u. voltage drop occurs when the load connected, and
a 0.04-p.u. voltage rises when the load disconnected. The
proposed controller gets the voltage back to the desired value
within 30 ms. In [107], a unified control strategy is used, which
benefits from both the droop method and the active feedback
compensation. During islanded mode, a three-phase-to-ground
fault strikes one of the buses for 0.1 s, and after 0.5 s, a singlephase-to-ground fault strikes the same bus, for 0.1 s. Both
faults have an impedance of 1.0 m. During the three-phase-toground fault, the bus voltage was almost zero. Then, after the
fault cleared, the controller gets the voltage back to the desired
voltage within 0.05 s. At the single-phase-to-ground fault, the
voltage is distorted due to the unbalanced nature of this fault.
Furthermore, the voltage became zero at the phase where the
fault occurs; then, after the fault cleared, the controller gets
the voltage back to the desired value within 0.07 s. In [110],
a hierarchical control approach is simulated, where the primary
control regulates the voltage on each DER terminal. There are
three DERs supplying the microgrid during islanded mode.
When one of the DERs disconnected from the microgrid, the
voltage dropped 0.031 p.u. and then returned to the desired
value within 0.5 s. After that, another DER is disconnected,
causing a 0.11-p.u. voltage drop, which is recovered by the
controller within 1 s.

VI. F REQUENCY
In islanded mode, the DERs have to control the microgrid
frequency cooperatively and synchronously with each other.
Since there is no dominant source during islanded mode, frequency control and synchronization is a challenge [6][8], [40].
In a conventional power system, synchronous machines play a
main role in achieving synchronization and frequency stability,
i.e., a role that microgrid inverters must now assume [42],
[44]. The line frequency range should not exceed the preset
values. The minimum and maximum ranges of the frequency
[16] are 4851 Hz and 59.360.5 Hz, for 50-Hz and 60-Hz
grids, respectively. Microgrid frequency has been much studied
[2], [3], [6][8], [11][14], [16], [20], [23], [25], [26], [40]
[42], [44], [58], [94], [103], [105], [107], [109], [110], [116],
[120], with the general aim of overcoming the frequency instability caused by the factors listed below.
A. Factors Affecting Frequency Stability
1) Battery voltage exceeding the preset value through overcharging affects demand and supply balancing, causing
frequency disturbance at the PCC [16], [43].
2) Variation in load or generation affects line frequency
because the demand has to be the same as the supply
instantaneously [12], [25], [109].
3) Unintentional islanding may cause frequency deviation
because some imported or exported power will be lost
suddenly [26].
The aforementioned papers used various techniques and strategies for microgrid frequency control.
B. Control Techniques and Strategies
FPD: Real power versus system frequency is the most famous and popular technique [2], [6][8], [13], [16], [20], [23],
[40], [41], [44], [58], [94], [103], [106], [107], [109], [110].
It uses microgrid frequency to balance system-generated active
power. It is proven to be robust and seamlessly adapts to power
system variations. The relation between frequency and real
power of each DER can be expressed as
f1 = fo Ku (P1 Po )

(1)

where Ku is the droop constant of unit output power control

mode, f1 and P1 are respectively the new frequency and the
DER output power, and fo and Po are the initial operation
points. When the load increases, the DER output power also
increases, associating with frequency reduction, as shown in
(1). Fig. 7 shows the frequency-versus-active-power droop
(FPD) characteristic. There are two DERs (a and b), operating
at f . When the power shares of any DER increase for any
reasons (e.g., intentional or unintentional islanding or a demand
hike), the new operating points for power become Pa1 and Pb1
instead of Pao and Pbo . The frequency thus sags to a new value
f1 , which is below the lower limit. Consequently, then, a new
operating line for each unit forms to return the system to the
preset frequency values.
Current-Controlled MC: One of the tasks of this controller
[120] is to keep the frequency constant. To do so, the MC

This article has been accepted for inclusion in a future issue of this journal. Content is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.
6

IEEE SYSTEMS JOURNAL

TABLE I
T YPICAL L INE -I MPEDANCE VALUES

Fig. 7. FPD characteristics.

feeds the load a specific amount of current, i.e., current control

forces the MC current to follow the reference value, keeping the
frequency constant within the source rating.
FQB Controller: This is the proposed technique, in which
the frequency depends on the reactive power (whereas power
balancing determines microgrid voltage) and which is in stark
contrast with a conventional power system. Because there is no
generator with rotational inertia in microgrids, the PCC capacitor dynamics have to control the relation between frequency
and reactive power [9], [26], [116], [117].
C. Frequency Results Comparison
Many results have been established in the aforementioned
papers to keep the microgrid frequency stable. In [120], the
current-controlled MC is used to keep the frequency constant
at 50 Hz. Although there is a sudden load switching on then
off, the simulation shows that the controller keeps the frequency
stable. In [107], a unified control strategy is used, which benefits from both the droop method and the active feedback compensation. During islanded mode, a three-phase-to-ground fault
strikes one of the buses for 0.1 s, and after 0.5 s, a single-phaseto-ground fault strikes the same bus, for 0.1 s. Both faults have
an impedance of 1.0 m. After the three-phase-to-ground fault
cleared, the controller gets the frequency back to the desired
value within 0.025 s. After the single-phase-to-ground fault
cleared, the controller gets the frequency back to the desired
value within 0.05 s. In [12], the microgrid frequency is 50 Hz.
After a 100-kW load is switched on during islanded mode,
the frequency dropped to 49.5 Hz; thereafter, the frequency
regulator reacts immediately and brings the frequency back to
50 Hz, within 2 s.

[130], and they have shown that the main PMS considerations
are the following:
1) minimizing system power loss during LS;
2) considering the many limits of each DER, including type,
generation cost, maintenance interval, and environmental
impact;
3) maintaining power quality, including keeping the harmonic distortion low and maintaining the voltage profile;
4) restoring voltage/frequency during and after transients;
5) improving the dynamic response;
6) maintaining system operation within the stability margin.
Among the three levels of control in microgrids, the secondary control (MGCC) is responsible for LS [6], [104], [110],
[114], [119]. Because the voltage source presents low output
impedance, an accurate synchronization system is extremely
necessary to operate many VSCs in parallel. LS among a cluster
of VSCs, operating in islanded mode, in a microgrid is a
function of the value of their output impedance [41].
A. Factors Affecting LS Accuracy
1) The resistive nature (low X/R ratio) of distribution
networks affects accuracy of LS [27], [42], [44], [96],
[103], [105], [131]. Table I shows the line R/X ratios
for different line voltages [132].
2) Variation of the output impedance [27], [95], [96], [103],
[130].
3) Variation of the inverter filter parameters may affect
power sharing if the voltage is not controlled by the
MGCC [119].
4) Harmonic current (which should be taken into account
when sharing nonlinear loads, to balance active and reactive power) [96], [110].
5) The distance between the DERs in a microgrid can
change the inverter output and line impedance, affecting
LS [96].
Many literatures propose controlling the power sharing without any wire connection between the DERs.

VII. LS Q AND P
An essential criterion a power management system (PMS)
considers is the LS among DERs, to minimize system power
losses [8]. LS ensures that each DER supplies its preset proportion at the steady state [109]. It becomes more complicated
in microgrids since there are multiple DERs; more attention
is needed during islanded mode. Many have studied power
sharing [2], [6][8], [11], [16], [20], [22], [25][27], [40][42],
[44], [56], [57], [76], [96], [103][110], [114], [116], [119],

B. Control Techniques and Strategies

Droop Control Method: The droop control method is based
on the well-known correlation between the active power flows
with the frequency and the reactive power with the voltage.
The relation shows that, when active power increases through
load increase, the frequency will decrease; the opposite happens
when load decreases. The droop method allows DERs to share
active power automatically by measuring the local variables,

This article has been accepted for inclusion in a future issue of this journal. Content is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.
EID et al.: CONTROL METHODS AND OBJECTIVES FOR ELECTRONICALLY COUPLED DERS IN MICROGRIDS

ensuring system reliability and flexibility [7], [26], [75], [96],

[103], [104], [106], [109], [116], [130].
Many droop control schemes have been proposed for linear
LS [72], [75], [77], [84], [133][135]. There are, however,
still only a few controllers for sharing nonlinear loads [77],
[84]. In [77], the proposed controller achieved LS by adjusting
the output-voltage bandwidth with the distortion components
present. This way, the harmonic voltage components were
drooped, encouraging the DERs to share the current harmonics.
In another way [84], to produce a proportional droop in the
corresponding harmonic voltage term, every single term of the
harmonic current was used.
Despite the many advantages of the droop method, its drawbacks limit its applications. Its accurate power sharing affects
frequency and voltage, it has slow transient response (as it
requires low-pass filters), its sharing of harmonic current is unbalanced, and it is highly affected by inverter output impedance
and line impedance [71], [88], [103], [110]. The drawbacks are
overcome as follows.
Improvements to the Conventional Droop Method: Because
dependence on the droop method increased in microgrids,
research produced the following solutions.
1) Virtual output impedance is widely used to achieve
accurate LS in microgrids [41], [72], [96], [100], [103],
[104], [108], [110], [130], [136]. It emulates lossless resistors of reactors to fix the output impedance of the units,
eliminating the effect of the output and line impedances
on LS and improving the steady-state and transient responses of the parallel-connected inverters. Other, virtual
reactors and resistors [18], [137] have been included into
the droop method, with the additional purpose of sharing
the harmonic-current content properly [110].
2) D d droop characteristic presents droop characteristics between the different frequency components of the
controlled signal (the ac voltage) and the active power,
the reactive power, and the distorted power (D) [27],
[72], [138][140] The use of VQD is avoided and the
line-impedance effect eliminated. D d droop can also
compensate the distorted powers that result from nonlinear and unbalanced loads. d is the drooping frequency
component caused by the distorted power.
3) Proper design of the output impedance; this can reduce
the impact caused by changes in the line impedance
[95], [103]. Although the inverter output impedance can
be designed well, the line impedance is still unknown,
causing unbalanced flow of reactive power [77].
4) Injection of high-frequency signals: unbalanced flow of
reactive power in the system can be solved by injecting
high-frequency signals into the power lines [72]. Such an
injection, however, limits the power rating of the DER
units and increases voltage distortion at their outputs [27],
[72], [96].
5) A central voltage controller regulates the voltage profile, preventing the system from being affected by both
variations in the inverter filter parameters, or voltage
controller gains neither the steady-state voltage control
nor the power sharing [119].

Fig. 8. Equivalent circuit of distribution network.

Fig. 9. Distribution network, in phasor.

Fig. 10. Resistive impedance curves for (a) voltage versus active power and
(b) frequency versus reactive power.
TABLE II
D ROOP M ETHOD S TRATEGY D EPENDING ON O UTPUT I MPEDANCE

6) Overcoming the problem of high R/X ratio: the resistivity of the low-voltage networks makes precise LS
unachievable [42], [44], [105], [108], [131]. In terms of
voltage harmonic mitigation, handling of short circuits,
and effectiveness of frequency and voltage control, the
approach proposed in [96] and [108] is superior than
existing methods because it takes into account the R-toX distribution-line ratio.
7) Sharing of harmonic current, as proposed in [96] and
[110] prevents power from circulating during sharing of
nonlinear loads. The harmonic currents are considered, so
that the active and reactive powers can be balanced more
accurately than they are in the conventional droop method.
8) Soft-start operation is necessary to avoid the initial current peak and to create a seamless hot-swap operation [72].
9) Load voltage control is a new LS strategy used, instead
of a conventional load-frequency-based power dispatching scheme, when a system uses a fixed frequency [109].
The output voltage of each DER is adjusted to keep the
load voltage stable. It makes for a simple and effective
system.
FPD/VQD Control: VPD/FQB control has been reported in
many papers [2], [7], [13], [20], [25], [26], [40], [104], [106],
[109], [110], [116]. Figs. 6 and 7 illustrate the VQD controller
and the FPD characteristic, respectively. The droop method uses

This article has been accepted for inclusion in a future issue of this journal. Content is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.
8

IEEE SYSTEMS JOURNAL

TABLE III
SUMMARY OF M ICROGRID C ONTROL O BJECTIVES , P ROBLEMS , AND S OLUTIONS

the conventional power flow; (2) and (3) are derived in Fig. 8,
as in [41] and [104]; this is achieved with the two important
assumptions explained as follows:
P =

VA VB
VA
cos
cos( + A B )
Z
Z

(2)

VA VB
VA
sin
sin( + A B )
Z
Z
= A B .

Q=

(3)
(4)

Assumption I: In medium- and high-voltage systems, the

inductive components of the line impedance are very high

This article has been accepted for inclusion in a future issue of this journal. Content is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.
EID et al.: CONTROL METHODS AND OBJECTIVES FOR ELECTRONICALLY COUPLED DERS IN MICROGRIDS

TABLE III
(Continued.) S UMMARY OF M ICROGRID C ONTROL O BJECTIVES , P ROBLEMS , AND S OLUTIONS

compared with the resistive components [132]; hence, the resistance can be neglected and the system considered as having
pure inductive output impedance (R = 0, Z = X, and =
90 ). The active and reactive powers are thus
VA VB
sin
X
VB 2
VA VB
cos
Q=
X
X
P =

(5)
(6)

where is the phase of the output impedance, and is the phase

angle between the inverter output and the Microgrid voltages.
The large filter inductor of the inverter justifies the assumption. The line impedance, however, is mainly resistive in lowvoltage networks, invalidating the assumption. An additional
output inductor, creating an LCL output filter, can solve this.
Another solution is by programming a virtual output impedance
into the control loop in Section VII (in improvements to the
conventional droop method).
Assumption II: The angle is small; hence, sin almost
equals and cos 1. Consequently
VA V B

X
VB (VA VB )
Q=
X
P =

(7)
(8)

where P and Q are the active and reactive powers, respectively,

and VA and VB are the voltages in buses A and B, respectively.
Fig. 9 shows a simplified system, in a phasor diagram.
VPD/FQB Controller: Low-voltage microgrids are known
to be resistive. If this is considered, a better control can be
achieved. The distance between the DERs makes wire interconnections difficult; hence, droop control is used. In the
VPD/FQB controller, there is a direct relation between voltage
and active power and between frequency and reactive power
[16], [103], [116]. Fig. 10(a) shows that, when power increases,
voltage reduces; hence, to get the voltage in any operating
time, the power variation (nP ) is subtracted from the voltage
at no load (E ). Fig. 10(b) relates the reactive power with
frequency. The reactive power ranges from positive Qmax at the

inductive load to Qmax at the capacitive load. The controller

can measure the frequency by adding the frequency at no load
( ) plus the change in reactive power (mQ).
Table II summarizes the equations used for the droop
method, for different output impedances (inductive and resistive) [96].
C. LS Results Comparison
In [107], two DERs are simulated to feed the load during
islanded mode. A three-phase-to-ground fault strikes one of
the buses for a 0.1 s, and after 0.5 s, a single-phase-to-ground
fault strikes the same bus, also for 0.1 s. Both faults have an
impedance of 1.0 m. The proposed unified controller reverts
the active and reactive power to their predisturbance values
once the faults are cleared. In [130], two cases are simulated,
i.e., pure resistive and resistiveinductive load, to investigate
the proper shear between two DERs during islanded mode. The
simulation shows that, after the compensation is started, the two
DERs properly shared the active and reactive power. In [104],
after the two DERs disconnected from the grid, both of them
shared the overall load. Then, when one of the DERs disconnected, the other supplied all the power to the microgrid with a
proper transient response, as well as the fine power regulation
of the system. In [22], after transiting to islanded mode, the
two DERs shared the increased active power demand proportionately, while the reactive power sharing is slightly disproportional because the presence of the line impedance between
the two DERs. In [110], three DERs produced microgrid power
during islanded mode. The DERs switched off one by one,
keeping only one DER supplying the whole microgrid load. The
controller ensured smooth active power sharing during DER
disconnections.
VIII. S UMMARY
As this paper illustrates, there are three microgrid control
functions: VR, FR, and LS. Table III summarizes the problems
of microgrid control and their solutions.

This article has been accepted for inclusion in a future issue of this journal. Content is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.
10

IEEE SYSTEMS JOURNAL

IX. C ONCLUSION
The microgrids have many attractive features that make its
research promising and boost its competitiveness in penetrating
renewable energy. Microgrid architecture and classifications
have been reviewed here, along with the control techniques
and strategies for islanded operation mode. Challenges to
microgrids during this mode include maintaining the voltage
amplitude and frequency, and optimal power sharing which
ensures minimum power losses, high power quality hence low
harmonic distortion, and operating the DERs on their preset
values after any disturbance occurs. A robustly controlled microgrid ensures seamless import/export of active and reactive
powers by the main grid and continuous supply of the critical
load during islanded mode. These lead to a flexible and smart
power system.

[17]

[18]
[19]

[20]
[21]
[22]
[23]

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

[24]

The authors would like to thank the University of Malaya

Power Energy Dedicated Advanced Centre (UMPEDAC),
where this work was carried out.

[25]

R EFERENCES

[26]

[1] R. K. Khosrow and Moslehi, Vision for a self-healing power grid, ABB
Review, pp. 2125, 2006.
[2] P. Piagi and R. H. Lasseter, Autonomous control of microgrids, in
Proc. IEEE Power Eng. Soc. Gen. Meet., 2006, pp. 18.
[3] C. Sontidpanya, G. Radman, and R. Craven, An island detection demonstration on a laboratory sized power grid (LabGrid), in Proc. IEEE
Southeastcon, 2011, pp. 158163.
[4] M. Shamshiri, G. Chin Kim, and T. Chee Wei, A review of recent
development in smart grid and micro-grid laboratories, in Proc. IEEE
Int. PEDCO, Melaka, Malaysia, 2012, pp. 367372.
[5] V. Knazkins, Stability of power systems with large amounts of distributed generation, Ph.D. dissertation, KTH, Stockholm, Sweden,
2004.
[6] M. Mao, C. Liuchen, and M. Ding, Integration and intelligent control
of micro-grids with multi-energy generations: A review, in Proc. IEEE
ICSET, 2008, pp. 777780.
[7] F. Katiraei, R. Iravani, N. Hatziargyriou, and A. Dimeas, Microgrids
management, IEEE Power Energy Mag., vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 5465,
May 2008.
[8] F. Katiraei and M. R. Iravani, Power management strategies for a microgrid with multiple distributed generation units, IEEE Trans. Power
Syst., vol. 21, no. 4, pp. 18211831, Nov. 2006.
[9] P. M. Carvalho, P. F. Correia, and L. Ferreira, Distributed reactive power
generation control for voltage rise mitigation in distribution networks,
IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 766772, May 2008.
[10] C. Masters, Voltage rise: The big issue when connecting embedded
generation to long 11 kV overhead lines, Power Eng. J., vol. 16, no. 1,
pp. 512, Feb. 2002.
[11] N. D. Hatziargyriou and A. P. Sakis Meliopoulos, Distributed energy
sources: Technical challenges, in Proc. IEEE Power Eng. Soc. Winter
Meet., 2002, vol. 2, pp. 10171022.
[12] Y. Duan, Y. Gong, Q. Li, and H. Wang, Modelling and simulation
of the microsources within a microgrid, in Proc. ICEMS, 2008,
pp. 26672671.
[13] R. H. Lasseter, Smart distribution: Coupled microgrids, Proc. IEEE,
vol. 99, no. 6, pp. 10741082, Jun. 2011.
[14] J. Lopes, N. Hatziargyriou, J. Mutale, P. Djapic, and N. Jenkins, Integrating distributed generation into electric power systems: A review of
drivers, challenges and opportunities, Electr. Power Syst. Res., vol. 77,
no. 9, pp. 11891203, Jul. 2007.
[15] N. R. Canada, Self-healing grid project, Natl. Res. Canada, Calgary,
AB, Canada, 2012.
[16] E. Serban and H. Serban, A control strategy for a distributed power generation microgrid application with voltage- and current-controlled source

[27]
[28]
[29]
[30]

[31]
[32]
[33]
[34]

[35]

[36]
[37]
[38]
[39]
[40]

converter, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 25, no. 12, pp. 29812992,
Dec. 2010.
R. M. Kamel, A. Chaouachi, and K. Nagasaka, Enhancement of microgrid performance during islanding mode using storage batteries and new
fuzzy logic pitch angle controller, Energy Convers. Manage., vol. 52,
no. 5, pp. 22042216, May 2011.
O. Alsayegh, S. Alhajraf, and H. Albusairi, Grid-connected renewable
energy source systems: Challenges and proposed management schemes,
Energy Convers. Manage., vol. 51, no. 8, pp. 16901693, Aug. 2010.
M. Silva, H. Morais, and Z. Vale, An integrated approach for distributed
energy resource short-term scheduling in smart grids considering realistic power system simulation, Energy Convers. Manage., vol. 64,
pp. 273288, Dec. 2012.
R. H. Lasseter and P. Piagi, Control and design of microgrid components, Univ. Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA, PSERC Publication 06,
2006, vol. 3.
J. Driesen and F. Katiraei, Design for distributed energy resources,
IEEE Power Energy Mag., vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 3040, May/Jun. 2008.
L. Yunwei, D. M. Vilathgamuwa, and L. Poh Chiang, Design, analysis,
and real-time testing of a controller for multibus microgrid system,
IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 11951204, Sep. 2004.
B. Kroposki, R. Lasseter, T. Ise, S. Morozumi, S. Papatlianassiou, and
N. Hatziargyriou, Making microgrids work, IEEE Power Energy Mag.,
vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 4053, May/Jun. 2008.
F. Blaabjerg, Z. Chen, and S. B. Kjaer, Power electronics as efficient
interface in dispersed power generation systems, IEEE Trans. Power
Electron., vol. 19, no. 5, pp. 11841194, Sep. 2004.
S. J. Ahn, J. W. Park, I. Y. Chung, S. I. Moon, S. H. Kang, and S. R. Nam,
Power-sharing method of multiple distributed generators considering
control modes and configurations of a microgrid, IEEE Trans. Power
Del., vol. 25, no. 3, pp. 20072016, Jul. 2010.
T. S. Ustun, C. Ozansoy, and A. Zayegh, Recent developments in microgrids and example cases around the worldA review, Renew. Sustain.
Energy Rev., vol. 15, no. 8, pp. 40304041, Oct. 2011.
Z. Chen, A review of power electronics based microgrids, J. Power
Electron., vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 181192, Jan. 2012.
H. Jiayi, J. Chuanwen, and X. Rong, A review on distributed energy
resources and MicroGrid, Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., vol. 12, no. 9,
pp. 24722483, Dec. 2008.
X. Xu and X. Zha, Overview of the researches on distributed generation
and microgrid, in Proc. IPEC, 2007, pp. 966971.
S. Chakraborty, M. D. Weiss, and M. G. Simes, Distributed intelligent energy management system for a single-phase high-frequency
AC microgrid, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 54, no. 1, pp. 97109,
Feb. 2007.
L. Xiaofei, A. Xin, and W. Yonggang, Study of single-phase HFAC
microgrid based on Matlab/Simulink, in Proc. 4th Int. Conf. DRPT,
2011, pp. 11041108.
S. B. Kjaer, J. K. Pedersen, and F. Blaabjerg, A review of single-phase
grid-connected inverters for photovoltaic modules, IEEE Trans. Ind.
Appl., vol. 41, no. 5, pp. 12921306, Sep./Oct. 2005.
N. A. Rahim and A. M. Omar, Three-phase single-stage high-voltage
DC converter, Proc. Inst. Elect. Eng.Gen., Transmiss. Distrib.,
vol. 149, no. 5, pp. 505509, Sep. 2002.
S. Ponnaluri, G. O. Linhofer, J. K. Steinke, and P. K. Steimer, Comparison of single and two stage topologies for interface of BESS or fuel cell
system using the ABB standard power electronics building blocks, in
Proc. Eur. Conf. Power Electron. Appl., 2005, pp. 19.
Y. J. Song, S. K. Chung, and P. N. Enjeti, A current-fed HF
link direct DC/AC converter with active harmonic filter for fuel cell
power systems, in Conf. Rec. IEEE 39th IAS Annu. Meeting, 2004,
pp. 123128.
S. Inoue and H. Akagi, A bi-directional isolated DC/DC converter as
a core circuit of the next-generation medium-voltage power conversion
system, in Proc. 37th IEEE PESC, 2006, pp. 17.
A. G. Tsikalakis and N. D. Hatziargyriou, Centralized control for optimizing microgrids operation, in Proc. IEEE Power Energy Soc. Gen.
Meet., 2011, pp. 18.
A. D. N. Hatziargyriou, S. Hatzivasiliadis, J. Jimeno, and J. Oyarzabal,
DB3: Decentralized control concepts, EU More Microgrid, Sch. Elect.
Comput. Eng., Greece, 2008.
A. L. Dimeas and N. D. Hatziargyriou, Operation of a multiagent
system for microgrid control, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 20, no. 3,
pp. 14471455, Aug. 2005.
F. Z. Peng, Y. W. Li, and L. M. Tolbert, Control and protection of power
electronics interfaced distributed generation systems in a customerdriven microgrid, in Proc. IEEE PES Gen. Meet., 2009, pp. 18.

This article has been accepted for inclusion in a future issue of this journal. Content is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.
EID et al.: CONTROL METHODS AND OBJECTIVES FOR ELECTRONICALLY COUPLED DERS IN MICROGRIDS

[41] J. Rocabert, A. Luna, F. Blaabjerg, and P. Rodriguez, Control of power

converters in AC microgrids, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 27,
no. 11, pp. 47344749, Nov. 2012.
[42] J. A. P. Lopes, C. L. Moreira, and A. G. Madureira, Defining control
strategies for MicroGrids islanded operation, IEEE Trans. Power Syst.,
vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 916924, May 2006.
[43] D. Georgakis, S. Papathanassiou, N. Hatziargyriou, A. Engler, and
C. Hardt, Operation of a prototype microgrid system based on microsources quipped with fast-acting power electronics interfaces, in Proc.
IEEE 35th Annu. PESC/IEEE Power Electron. Spec. Conf., 2004, vol. 4,
pp. 25212526.
[44] C. Moreira, F. Resende, and J. A. P. Lopes, Using low voltage microgrids for service restoration, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 22, no. 1,
pp. 395403, Feb. 2007.
[45] A. Madureira, C. Moreira, and J. P. Lopes, Secondary load frequency control for microgrids in islanded operation, in Proc. ICREPQ,
Crdoba, Spain, 2005, pp. 15.
[46] J. Gurrero, L. G. De Vicuna, and J. Uceda, Uninterruptible power
supply systems provide protection, IEEE Ind. Electron. Mag., vol. 1,
no. 1, pp. 2838, Spring 2007.
[47] J. Holtz, W. Lotzkat, and K.-H. Werner, A high-power multitransistorinverter uninterruptable power supply system, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 278285, Jul. 1988.
[48] J. Holtz and K.-H. Werner, Multi-inverter UPS system with redundant
load sharing control, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 37, no. 6, pp. 506
513, Dec. 1990.
[49] H. Van Der Broeck and U. Boeke, A simple method for parallel operation of inverters, in Proc. 20th INTELEC, 1998, pp. 143150.
[50] C. Lee, S. Kim, C. Kim, S. Hong, J. Yoo, S. Kim, C. Kim, H. Woo, and
H. Sun, Parallel UPS with a instantaneous current sharing control, in
Proc. 24th Annu. Conf. IEEE IECON, 1998, pp. 568573.
[51] Y. Pei, G. Jiang, X. Yang, and Z. Wang, Auto-master-slave control technique of parallel inverters in distributed AC power systems and UPS, in
Proc. IEEE 35th Annu. PESC, 2004, pp. 20502053.
[52] W.-C. Lee, T.-K. Lee, S.-H. Lee, K.-H. Kim, D.-S. Hyun, and I.-Y. Suh,
A master and slave control strategy for parallel operation of three-phase
UPS systems with different ratings, in Proc. 19th Annu. IEEE APEC,
2004, pp. 456462.
[53] J.-F. Chen and C.-L. Chu, Combination voltage-controlled and currentcontrolled PWM inverters for UPS parallel operation, IEEE Trans.
Power Electron., vol. 10, no. 5, pp. 547558, Sep. 1995.
[54] S. Tamai and M. Kinoshita, Parallel operation of digital controlled UPS
system, in Proc. IEEE IECON/IECON, 1991, pp. 326331.
[55] Y. J. Cheng and E. K. K. Sng, A novel communication strategy for
decentralized control of paralleled multi-inverter systems, IEEE Trans.
Power Electron., vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 148156, Jan. 2006.
[56] T. C. Green and M. Prodanovi, Control of inverter-based micro-grids,
Elect. Power Syst. Res., vol. 77, no. 9, pp. 12041213, Jul. 2007.
[57] S. K. Mazumder, M. Tahir, and K. Acharya, Masterslave currentsharing control of a parallel DCDC converter system over an RF
communication interface, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 55, no. 1,
pp. 5966, Jan. 2008.
[58] Z. Bo, Z. Xuesong, and C. Jian, Integrated microgrid laboratory
system, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 27, no. 4, pp. 21752185,
Nov. 2012.
[59] T. Iwade, S. Komiyama, Y. Tanimura, M. Yamanaka, M. Sakane, and
K. Hirachi, A novel small-scale UPS using a parallel redundant operation system, in Proc. 25th INTELEC, 2003, pp. 480484.
[60] A. P. Martins, A. S. Carvalho, and A. Araujo, Design and implementation of a current controller for the parallel operation of standard UPSs,
in Proc. IEEE 21st IECON/IECON, 1995, pp. 584589.
[61] X. Sun, Y.-S. Lee, and D. Xu, Modeling, analysis, and implementation
of parallel multi-inverter systems with instantaneous average-currentsharing scheme, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 844
856, May 2003.
[62] Y.-K. Chen, T.-F. Wu, Y.-E. Wu, and C.-P. Ku, A current-sharing control strategy for paralleled multi-inverter systems using microprocessorbased robust control, in Proc. IEEE TENCON, 2001, pp. 647653.
[63] Y.-K. Chen, Y.-E. Wu, T.-F. Wu, and C.-P. Ku, ACSS for paralleled
multi-inverter systems with DSP-based robust controls, IEEE Trans.
Aerosp. Electron. Syst., vol. 39, no. 3, pp. 10021015, Jul. 2003.
[64] X. Sun, L.-K. Wong, Y.-S. Lee, and D. Xu, Design and analysis of an
optimal controller for parallel multi-inverter systems, IEEE Trans. Circ.
Syst. II, Exp. Briefs, vol. 53, no. 1, pp. 5661, Jan. 2006.
[65] Z. He, Y. Xing, and Y. Hu, Low cost compound current sharing control
for inverters in parallel operation, in Proc. IEEE 35th Annu. PESC/IEEE
Power Electron. Spec. Conf., 2004, pp. 222227.

11

[66] H.-M. Hsieh, T.-F. Wu, Y.-E. Wu, and H.-S. Nien, A compensation
strategy for parallel inverters to achieve precise weighting current distribution, in Conf. Rec. IEEE 14th IAS Annu. Meeting, 2005, pp. 954960.
[67] H. Oshima, Y. Miyazaya, and A. Hirata, Parallel redundant UPS
with instantaneous PWM control, in Proc. 13th INTELEC, 1991,
pp. 436442.
[68] J. Tan, H. Lin, J. Zhang, and J. Ying, A novel load sharing control technique for paralleled inverters, in Proc. IEEE 34th Annu. PESC/IEEE
Power Electron. Spec. Conf., 2003, pp. 14321437.
[69] S. Chiang, C. Lin, and C. Yen, Current limitation control technique
for parallel operation of UPS inverters, in Proc. IEEE 35th Annu.
PESC/IEEE Power Electron. Spec. Conf., 2004, pp. 19221926.
[70] T.-F. Wu, Y.-K. Chen, and Y.-H. Huang, 3C strategy for inverters in
parallel operation achieving an equal current distribution, IEEE Trans.
Ind. Electron., vol. 47, no. 2, pp. 273281, Apr. 2000.
[71] J. M. Guerrero, L. Hang, and J. Uceda, Control of distributed uninterruptible power supply systems, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 55,
no. 8, pp. 28452859, Aug. 2008.
[72] A. Tuladhar, H. Jin, T. Unger, and K. Mauch, Control of parallel
inverters in distributed AC power systems with consideration of line
impedance effect, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 36, no. 1, pp. 131138,
Jan/Feb. 2000.
[73] L. Mihalache, Paralleling control technique with no intercommunication signals for resonant controller-based inverters, in Conf. Rec. IEEE
38th IAS Annu. Meeting, 2003, pp. 18821889.
[74] M. Chandorkar, D. Divan, Y. Hu, and B. Banerjee, Novel architectures
and control for distributed UPS systems, in Proc. 9th Annu. APEC,
1994, pp. 683689.
[75] M. C. Chandorkar, D. M. Divan, and R. Adapa, Control of parallel
connected inverters in standalone ac supply systems, IEEE Trans. Ind.
Appl., vol. 29, no. 1, pp. 136143, Jan./Feb. 1993.
[76] M. Chandorkar and D. Divan, Decentralized operation of distributed
UPS systems, in Proc. Int. Conf. Power Electron., Drives, Energy Syst.
Ind. Growth, 1996, pp. 565571.
[77] A. Tuladhar, H. Jin, T. Unger, and K. Mauch, Parallel operation of
single phase inverter modules with no control interconnections, in Proc.
12th Annu. APEC, 1997, pp. 94100.
[78] F. Zanxuan and Q. Wenlong, A current share method for parallel singlephase DC/AC inverter without control interconnection, in Proc. 4th Int.
IPEMC Conf., 2004, pp. 953955.
[79] X. Chen, Y. Kang, and J. Chen, Operation, control technique of parallel
connected high power three-phase inverters, in Proc. 4th Int. IPEMC
Conf., 2004, pp. 956959.
[80] M. Xie, Y. Li, K. Cai, P. Wang, and X. Sheng, A novel controller for
parallel operation of inverters based on decomposing of output current,
in Conf. Rec. IEEE 14th IAS Annu. Meeting, 2005, pp. 16711676.
[81] Y. Byun, T. Koo, K. Joe, E. Kim, J. Seo, and D. Kim, Parallel operation
of three-phase UPS inverters by wireless load sharing control, in Proc.
22nd INTELEC, 2000, pp. 526532.
[82] A. Daneshpooy, Dead-beat control of parallel connected UPS, in Proc.
17th Annu. IEEE APEC, 2002, pp. 580583.
[83] C. Mak and L. Bolster, Bus-tie synchronization and load share technique in a ring bus system with multiple power inverters, in Proc. 20th
Annu. IEEE APEC, 2005, pp. 871874.
[84] U. Borup, F. Blaabjerg, and P. N. Enjeti, Sharing of nonlinear load
in parallel-connected three-phase converters, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl.,
vol. 37, no. 6, pp. 18171823, Nov./Dec. 2001.
[85] S. Chiang and J. Chang, Parallel operation of series-connected PWM
voltage regulators without control interconnection, in Proc. Inst. Elect.
Eng.Elect. Power Appl., 2001, pp. 141147.
[86] L. Chen, L. Xiao, C. Gong, and Y. Yan, Circulating currents characteristics analysis and the control strategy of parallel system based on double
close-loop controlled VSI, in Proc. IEEE 35th Annu. PESC/IEEE Power
Electron. Spec. Conf., 2004, pp. 47914797.
[87] E. A. A. Coelho, P. C. Cortizo, and P. F. D. Garcia, Small-signal stability for parallel-connected inverters in stand-alone AC supply systems,
IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 38, no. 2, pp. 533542, Mar./Apr. 2002.
[88] E. Coelho, P. Cortizo, and P. Garcia, Small signal stability for single
phase inverter connected to stiff AC system, in Conf. Rec. IEEE 34th
IAS Annu. Meeting, 1999, pp. 21802187.
[89] J. Guerrero, L. G. de Vicua, J. Miret, J. Matas, and J. Cruz, Output
impedance performance for parallel operation of UPS inverters using
wireless and average current-sharing controllers, in Proc. IEEE 35th
Annu. PESC/IEEE Power Electron. Spec. Conf., 2004, pp. 24822488.
[90] L. Xinchun, F. Feng, D. Shanxu, K. Yong, and C. Jian, Modeling and
stability analysis for two paralleled UPS with no control interconnection, in Proc. IEEE IEMDC, 2003, pp. 17721776.

This article has been accepted for inclusion in a future issue of this journal. Content is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.
12

[91] L. Xinchun, F. Feng, D. Shanxu, K. Yong, and C. Jian, The droop

characteristic decoupling control of parallel connected UPS with no
control interconnection, in Proc. IEEE IEMDC, 2003, pp. 17771780.
[92] E. Sato, A. Kawamura, and R. Fujii, Theoretical and experimental
verification of independent control for parallel-connected multi-UPSs,
in Proc. 25th INTELEC, 2003, pp. 485492.
[93] Y. Sun, W. Qu, and B. Liang, An advanced synchronization and currentsharing method for paralleled DC/AC inverters without interconnection,
in Proc. 8th ICEMS, 2005, pp. 10131016.
[94] J. M. Guerrero, L. G. de Vicua, J. Matas, M. Castilla, and J. Miret, A
wireless controller to enhance dynamic performance of parallel inverters
in distributed generation systems, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 19,
no. 5, pp. 12051213, Sep. 2004.
[95] J. M. Guerrero, L. GarciadeVicuna, J. Matas, M. Castilla, and J. Miret,
Output impedance design of parallel-connected UPS inverters with
wireless load-sharing control, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 52, no. 4,
pp. 11261135, Aug. 2005.
[96] J. M. Guerrero, J. Matas, L. G. De Vicuna, N. Berbel, and J. Sosa,
Wireless-control strategy for parallel operation of distributed generation
inverters, in Proc. IEEE ISIE, 2005, pp. 845850.
[97] Y. Ito and O. Iyama, Parallel redundant operation of UPS with robust
current minor loop, in Proc. Power Convers. Conf., Nagaoka, Japan,
1997, pp. 489494.
[98] K. Wallace and G. Mantov, Wireless load sharing of single phase telecom inverters, in Proc. 21st INTELEC, 1999, pp. 17.
[99] H.-P. Glauser, M. Keller, A. Pluss, M. Schwab, and R. Scherwey, New
inverter module with digital control for parallel operation, in Proc. 3rd
Int. TELESCON, 2000, pp. 265269.
[100] S. Chiang, C. Yen, and K. Chang, A multimodule parallelable seriesconnected PWM voltage regulator, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 48,
no. 3, pp. 506516, Jun. 2001.
[101] T. Skjellnes, A. Skjellnes, and L. E. Norum, Load sharing for parallel inverters without communication, in Proc. NORPIE, Stockholm,
Sweden, 2002, pp. 14.
[102] H. Hanaoka, M. Nagai, and M. Yanagisawa, Development of a novel
parallel redundant UPS, in Proc. 25th INTELEC, 2003, pp. 493498.
[103] J. M. Guerrero, J. Matas, L. G. de Vicua, M. Castilla, and J. Miret,
Decentralized control for parallel operation of distributed generation
inverters using resistive output impedance, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron.,
vol. 54, no. 2, pp. 9941004, Apr. 2007.
[104] J. M. Guerrero, J. C. Vasquez, J. Matas, M. Castilla, and L. G. de Vicuna,
Control strategy for flexible microgrid based on parallel line-interactive
UPS systems, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 56, no. 3, pp. 726736,
Mar. 2009.
[105] E. Barklund, N. Pogaku, M. Prodanovic, C. Hernandez-Aramburo, and
T. C. Green, Energy management in autonomous microgrid using
stability-constrained droop control of inverters, IEEE Trans. Power
Electron., vol. 23, no. 5, pp. 23462352, Sep. 2008.
[106] N. Pogaku, M. Prodanovic, and T. C. Green, Modeling, analysis and
testing of autonomous operation of an inverter-based microgrid, IEEE
Trans. Power Electron., vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 613625, Mar. 2007.
[107] M. B. Delghavi and A. Yazdani, A unified control strategy for electronically interfaced distributed energy resources, IEEE Trans. Power Del.,
vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 803812, Apr. 2012.
[108] K. De Brabandere, B. Bolsens, J. Van den Keybus, A. Woyte, J. Driesen,
and R. Belmans, A voltage and frequency droop control method for parallel inverters, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 1107
1115, Jul. 2007.
[109] Z. Zhang, X. Huang, J. Jiang, and B. Wu, A load-sharing control scheme
for a microgrid with a fixed frequency inverter, Electr. Power Syst. Res.,
vol. 80, no. 3, pp. 311317, Mar. 2010.
[110] J. M. Guerrero, J. C. Vasquez, J. Matas, L. G. de Vicua, and M. Castilla,
Hierarchical control of droop-controlled AC and DC microgridsA
general approach toward standardization, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron.,
vol. 58, no. 1, pp. 158172, Jan. 2011.
[111] N. D. Hatziargyriou, A. Dimeas, A. G. Tsikalakis, J. A. P. Lopes,
G. Karniotakis, and J. Oyarzabal, Management of microgrids in market
environment, in Proc. Int. Conf. Future Power Syst., 2005, pp. 17.
[112] R. H. Lasseter and P. Piagi, Control of small distributed energy resources, U.S. Patent 7 116 010 B2, 2006.
[113] A. Engler and N. Soultanis, Droop control in LV-grids, in Proc. Int.
Conf. Future Power Syst., 2005, pp. 16.
[114] A. Colet-Subirachs, A. Ruiz-Alvarez, O. Gomis-Bellmunt,
F. Alvarez-Cuevas-Figuerola, and A. Sudria-Andreu, Centralized
and distributed active and reactive power control of a utility connected
microgrid using IEC61850, IEEE Syst. J., vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 5867,
Mar. 2012.

IEEE SYSTEMS JOURNAL

[115] B. Eid, Microgird system with multi distributed energy resources using
Matalb/Simulink, in Proc. PECS, 2012, pp. 194196.
[116] C. K. Sao and P. W. Lehn, Control and power management of converter
fed microgrids, IEEE Trans. Power Syst., vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 10881098,
Aug. 2008.
[117] C. K. Sao and P. W. Lehn, Intentional islanded operation of converter fed microgrids, in Proc. IEEE Power Eng. Soc. Gen. Meet., 2006,
pp. 16.
[118] F. Katiraei, M. R. Iravani, and P. Lehn, Micro-grid autonomous operation during and subsequent to islanding process, IEEE Trans. Power
Del., vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 248257, Jan. 2005.
[119] M. Prodanovic and T. C. Green, High-quality power generation through
distributed control of a power park microgrid, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 53, no. 5, pp. 14711482, Oct. 2006.
[120] M. I. Marei, A unified control strategy based on phase angle estimation
for matrix converter interface system, IEEE Syst. J., vol. 6, no. 2,
pp. 278286, Jun. 2012.
[121] A. K. Srivastava, A. A. Kumar, and N. N. Schulz, Impact of distributed
generations with energy storage devices on the electric grid, IEEE Syst.
J., vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 110117, Mar. 2012.
[122] N. C. Hien, N. Mithulananthan, and R. Bansal, Location and sizing
of distributed generation units for loadabilty enhancement in primary
feeder, IEEE Syst. J., vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 797806, 2013.
[123] M. M. Aman, G. B. Jasmon, H. Mokhlis, and A. H. A. Bakar, Optimal
placement and sizing of a DG based on a new power stability index and
line losses, Int. J. Elect. Power Energy Syst., vol. 43, no. 1, pp. 1296
1304, Dec. 2012.
[124] R. H. Lasseter, Microgrids, in Proc. IEEE Power Eng. Soc. Winter
Meet., 2002, pp. 305308.
[125] S. A. Azmi, G. P. Adam, K. H. Ahmed, S. J. Finney, and B. W. Williams,
Grid interfacing of multimegawatt photovoltaic inverters, IEEE Trans.
Power Electron., vol. 28, no. 6, pp. 27702784, Jun. 2013.
[126] K. Turitsyn, P. Sulc, S. Backhaus, and M. Chertkov, Options for control
of reactive power by distributed photovoltaic generators, Proc. IEEE,
vol. 99, no. 6, pp. 10631073, Jun. 2011.
[127] H. Kim, T. Yu, and S. Choi, Indirect current control algorithm for utility interactive inverters in distributed generation systems, IEEE Trans.
Power Electron., vol. 23, no. 3, pp. 13421347, May 2008.
[128] J. M. Guerrero, P. C. Loh, T.-L. Lee, and M. Chandorkar, Advanced
control architectures for intelligent microgridsPart II: Power quality,
energy storage, and AC/DC microgrids, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron.,
vol. 60, no. 4, pp. 12631270, Apr. 2012.
[129] A. H. El Khateb, N. A. Rahim, and J. Selvaraj, Novel uk-Buck MPPT
battery charger for standalone PV-inverter applications, Int. Rev. Elect.
Eng. (IREE), vol. 7, no. 2, pp. 37493758, Apr. 2012.
[130] M. Savaghebi, A. Jalilian, J. C. Vasquez, and J. M. Guerrero, Autonomous voltage unbalance compensation in an islanded droopcontrolled microgrid, IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 60, no. 4,
pp. 13901402, Apr. 2013.
[131] N. Pogaku, Analysis, control and testing of inverter-based distributed
generation in standalone and grid-connected applications, Ph.D. dissertation, Imperial College, London, U.K., 2006.
[132] A. Engler, Applicability of droops in low voltage grids, Int. J. Distrib.
Energy Res., vol. 1, pp. 315, 2005.
[133] C.-C. Hua, K.-A. Liao, and J.-R. Lin, Parallel operation of inverters
for distributed photovoltaic power supply system, in Proc. IEEE 33rd
Annu. PESC/IEEE Power Electron. Spec. Conf., 2002, pp. 19791983.
[134] S. Barsali, M. Ceraolo, P. Pelacchi, and D. Poli, Control techniques of
dispersed generators to improve the continuity of electricity supply, in
Proc. IEEE Power Eng. Soc. Winter Meet., 2002, pp. 789794.
[135] I.-Y. Chung, S.-W. Park, H.-J. Kim, S.-I. Moon, B.-M. Han, J.-E. Kim,
and J.-H. Choi, Operating strategy and control scheme of premium
power supply interconnected with electric power systems, IEEE Trans.
Power Del., vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 22812288, Jul. 2005.
[136] A. Engler, Control of parallel operating battery inverters, in Proc.
Photovoltaic Hybrid Power Syst. Conf., 2000, pp. 14.
[137] H. Kakigano, Y. Miura, T. Ise, and R. Uchida, DC micro-grid for
super high quality distributionSystem configuration and control of
distributed generations and energy storage devices, in Proc. 37th
IEEE PESC/IEEE Power Electron. Spec. Conf., 2006, pp. 17.
[138] M. N. Marwali, J.-W. Jung, and A. Keyhani, Control of distributed
generation systemsPart II: Load sharing control, IEEE Trans. Power
Electron., vol. 19, no. 6, pp. 15511561, Nov. 2004.
[139] P.-T. Cheng, C.-A. Chen, T.-L. Lee, and S.-Y. Kuo, A cooperative
imbalance compensation method for distributed-generation interface
converters, IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl., vol. 45, no. 2, pp. 805815,
Mar./Apr. 2009.

This article has been accepted for inclusion in a future issue of this journal. Content is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.
EID et al.: CONTROL METHODS AND OBJECTIVES FOR ELECTRONICALLY COUPLED DERS IN MICROGRIDS

[140] T.-L. Lee and P.-T. Cheng, Design of a new cooperative harmonic filtering strategy for distributed generation interface converters in an islanding
network, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 22, no. 5, pp. 19191927,
Sep. 2007.
[141] R. A. Walling and N. W. Miller, Distributed generation islanding
Implications on power system dynamic performance, in Proc. IEEE
Power Eng. Soc. Summer Meet., 2002, vol. 1, pp. 9296.
[142] J. A. Laghari, H. Mokhlis, A. B. H. Abu Bakar, M. Karimi, and
A. Shahriari, An intelligent under frequency load shedding scheme
for islanded distribution network, in Proc. IEEE Int. PEDCO, Melaka,
Malaysia, 2012, pp. 4045.
[143] M. Karimi, H. Mohamad, H. Mokhlis, and A. H. A. Bakar, UnderFrequency Load Shedding scheme for islanded distribution network connected with mini hydro, Int. J. Elect. Power Energy Syst., vol. 42, no. 1,
pp. 127138, Nov. 2012.
[144] D. De and V. Ramanarayanan, Decentralized parallel operation of inverters sharing unbalanced and nonlinear loads, IEEE Trans. Power
Electron., vol. 25, no. 12, pp. 30153025, Dec. 2010.
[145] J. Matas, M. Castilla, L. G. de Vicua, J. Miret, and J. C. Vasquez, Virtual impedance loop for droop-controlled single-phase parallel inverters
using a second-order general-integrator scheme, IEEE Trans. Power
Electron., vol. 25, no. 12, pp. 29933002, Dec. 2010.
[146] A. El Khateb, N. A. Rahim, J. Selvaraj, and M. N. Uddin, Maximum power point tracking of single-ended primary-inductor converter
employing a novel optimisation technique for proportional-integralderivative controller, IET Power Electron., vol. 6, no. 6, pp. 11111121,
Jul. 2013.

Bilal M. Eid (S11) received the B.Sc. degree from

Sanaa University, Sanaa, Yemen, in 2008 and the
M.Sc. degree in electrical energy and power systems in 2011 from the University of Malaya, Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia, where he is currently working
toward the Ph.D. degree in the field of microgrids
and renewable energy integration at the Faculty of
Engineering.
Since 2011, he has been a Research Assistant
with the Power Energy Dedicated Advanced Centre (UMPEDAC), University of Malaya. His main
research interests include microgrids, smart grids, power conversion systems,
renewable energy, photovoltaic inverters, and dcdc converters.

13

Nasrudin Abd Rahim (M89SM08) was born in

Johor, Malaysia, in 1960. He received the B.Sc.
(Hons.) and M.Sc. degrees from the University of
Strathclyde, Glasgow, U.K., in 1985 and 1988, respectively, and the Ph.D. degree from Heriot-Watt
University, Edinburgh, U.K., in 1995.
He is currently a Professor with the University of
Malaya, where he is the Director of the Power Energy Dedicated Advanced Centre (UMPEDAC) and
the Chairman of the University of Malaya Advanced
Engineering and Technology Research Cluster. His
research interests include power electronics, real-time control systems, electrical drives, and renewable energy systems.
Prof. Rahim is a Fellow of the Academy of Sciences Malaysia and the
Institution of Engineering and Technology, U.K. He is a Chartered Engineer.

Jeyraj Selvaraj received the B.Eng.(Hons.) degree

from Multimedia University, Cyberjaya, Malaysia,
in 2002, the M.Sc. degree in power electronics and drives jointly from the University of
Birmingham, Birmingham, U.K., and the University
of Nottingham, Nottingham, U.K., in 2004, and the
Ph.D. degree from the University of Malaya, Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia, in 2009.
He is currently with the Power Energy Dedicated Advanced Centre (UMPEDAC), University of
Malaya.
His research interests include single- and three-phase multilevel inverters,
digital current-control techniques, photovoltaic inverters, and dcdc converters.

Ahmad H. El Khateb (M10) received the B.Sc. and

M.Sc. degrees from the Islamic University of Gaza,
Gaza, Palestine, in 2005 and 2007, respectively, and
the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the
University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, in
2013.
He was a Lecturer with the Department of Electrical Engineering, Islamic University of Gaza, and he
had spills with Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt,
and the University College of Applied Sciences,
Gaza, Palestine. He is currently with the Power
Energy Dedicated Advanced Centre (UMPEDAC), University of Malaya. His
main research interests include power electronics, digital control, dc-to-dc
converters, photovoltaic power generation, and grid integration.
Dr. Ahmad is a Reviewer for IEEE T RANSACTIONS, IET T RANSACTIONS,
and several conferences.